[JPRT 112-40, Volume II] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office] 112th Congress } { S. Prt. 2d Session } JOINT COMMITTEE PRINT { 112-40 _______________________________________________________________________ COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES FOR 2009 VOLUME II EUROPE AND EURASIA, NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA ---------- R E P O R T SUBMITTED TO THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS US SENATE AND THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS US HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES BY THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE IN ACCORDANCE WITH SECTIONS 116(d) AND 502B(b) OF THE FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT OF 1961, AS AMENDED [GRAPHIC(S) NOT AVAILABLE IN TIFF FORMAT] OCTOBER 2012 Printed for the use of the Committee on Foreign Relations of the U.S. Senate and Foreign Affairs of the U.S. House of Representatives respectively COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES FOR 2009 VOLUME II: EUROPE AND EURASIA, NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA 112th Congress } { S. Prt. 2d Session } JOINT COMMITTEE PRINT { 112-40 _______________________________________________________________________ COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES FOR 2009 VOLUME II EUROPE AND EURASIA, NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA __________ R E P O R T SUBMITTED TO THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS US SENATE AND THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS US HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES BY THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE IN ACCORDANCE WITH SECTIONS 116(d) AND 502B(b) OF THE FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT OF 1961, AS AMENDED [GRAPHIC(S) NOT AVAILABLE IN TIFF FORMAT] OCTOBER 2012 Printed for the use of the Committee on Foreign Relations of the U.S. Senate and Foreign Affairs of the U.S. House of Representatives respectively ----- U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 75-842 PDF WASHINGTON : 2012 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800 Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001 One Hundred Tenth Congress, Second Session COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS HOWARD L. BERMAN, California, Chairman GARY L. ACKERMAN, New York ILEANA ROS-LEHTINEN, Florida ENI F.H. FALEOMAVAEGA, American CHRISTOPHER H. SMITH, New Jersey Samoa DAN BURTON, Indiana DONALD M. PAYNE, New Jersey ELTON GALLEGLY, California BRAD SHERMAN, California DANA ROHRABACHER, California ELIOT L. ENGEL, New York DONALD A. MANZULLO, Illinois BILL DELAHUNT, Massachusetts EDWARD R. ROYCE, California GREGORY W. MEEKS, New York RON PAUL, Texas DIANE E. WATSON, California JEFF FLAKE, Arizona RUSS CARNAHAN, Missouri MIKE PENCE, Indiana ALBIO SIRES, New Jersey JOE WILSON, South Carolina GERALD E. CONNOLLY, Virginia JOHN BOOZMAN, Arkansas MICHAEL E. MCMAHON, New York J. GRESHAM BARRETT, South Carolina JOHN S. TANNER, Tennessee CONNIE MACK, Florida GENE GREEN, Texas JEFF FORTENBERRY, Nebraska LYNN WOOLSEY, California MICHAEL T. MCCAUL, Texas SHEILA JACKSON LEE, Texas TED POE, Texas BARBARA LEE, California BOB INGLIS, South Carolina SHELLEY BERKLEY, Nevada GUS BILIRAKIS, Florida JOSEPH CROWLEY, New York MIKE ROSS, Arkansas BRAD MILLER, North Carolina DAVID SCOTT, Georgia JIM COSTA, California KEITH ELLISON, Minnesota GABRIELLE GIFFORDS, Arizona RON KLEIN, Florida Richard J. Kessler, Staff Director Yleem D.S. Poblete, Republican Staff Director COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS JOHN F. KERRY, Massachusetts, Chairman CHRISTOPHER J. DODD, Connecticut RICHARD G. LUGAR, Indiana RUSSELL D. FEINGOLD, Wisconsin BOB CORKER, Tennessee BARBARA BOXER, California JOHNNY ISAKSON, Georgia ROBERT MENENDEZ, New Jersey JAMES E. RISCH, Idaho BENJAMIN L. CARDIN, Maryland JIM DeMINT, South Carolina ROBERT P. CASEY, Jr., Pennsylvania JOHN BARRASSO, Wyoming JIM WEBB, Virginia ROGER F. WICKER, Mississippi JEANNE SHAHEEN, New Hampshire JAMES M. INHOFE, Oklahoma EDWARD E. KAUFMAN, Delaware KIRSTEN E. GILLIBRAND, New York David McKean, Staff Director Kenneth A. Myers, Jr., Republican Staff Director (ii) C O N T E N T S ---------- Page Letter of Transmittal............................................ vii Preface.......................................................... ix Overview and Acknowledgments..................................... xi Introduction..................................................... xv Volume I Africa........................................................... 1 Angola....................................................... 1 Benin........................................................ 17 Botswana..................................................... 28 Burkina Faso................................................. 39 Burundi...................................................... 50 Cameroon..................................................... 67 Cape Verde................................................... 88 Central African Republic..................................... 93 Chad......................................................... 117 Comoros...................................................... 133 Congo, Democratic Republic of the............................ 139 Congo, Republic of the....................................... 183 Cote d'Ivoire................................................ 193 Djibouti..................................................... 210 Equatorial Guinea............................................ 219 Eritrea...................................................... 234 Ethiopia..................................................... 248 Gabon........................................................ 276 Gambia, The.................................................. 285 Ghana........................................................ 297 Guinea....................................................... 312 Guinea-Bissau................................................ 329 Kenya........................................................ 338 Lesotho...................................................... 361 Liberia...................................................... 373 Madagascar................................................... 384 Malawi....................................................... 399 Mali......................................................... 411 Mauritania................................................... 422 Mauritius.................................................... 436 Mozambique................................................... 444 Namibia...................................................... 457 Niger........................................................ 470 Nigeria...................................................... 490 Rwanda....................................................... 519 Sao Tome and Principe........................................ 538 Senegal...................................................... 543 Seychelles................................................... 558 Sierra Leone................................................. 565 Somalia...................................................... 581 South Africa................................................. 605 Sudan........................................................ 626 Swaziland.................................................... 648 Tanzania..................................................... 663 Togo......................................................... 684 Uganda....................................................... 694 Zambia....................................................... 718 Zimbabwe..................................................... 733 East Asia and the Pacific........................................ 773 Australia.................................................... 773 Brunei Darussalam............................................ 784 Burma........................................................ 792 Cambodia..................................................... 814 China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)................. 837 Taiwan....................................................... 905 Fiji......................................................... 915 Indonesia.................................................... 929 Japan........................................................ 951 Kiribati..................................................... 963 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of....................... 968 Korea, Republic of........................................... 980 Laos......................................................... 992 Malaysia..................................................... 1004 Marshall Islands............................................. 1031 Micronesia, Federated States of.............................. 1036 Mongolia..................................................... 1042 Nauru........................................................ 1053 New Zealand.................................................. 1057 Palau........................................................ 1065 Papua New Guinea............................................. 1070 Philippines.................................................. 1079 Samoa........................................................ 1099 Singapore.................................................... 1106 Solomon Islands.............................................. 1121 Thailand..................................................... 1128 Timor-Leste.................................................. 1159 Tonga........................................................ 1168 Tuvalu....................................................... 1175 Vanuatu...................................................... 1180 Vietnam...................................................... 1187 Volume II Europe and Eurasia............................................... 1213 Albania...................................................... 1213 Andorra...................................................... 1225 Armenia...................................................... 1229 Austria...................................................... 1265 Azerbaijan................................................... 1275 Belarus...................................................... 1300 Belgium...................................................... 1327 Bosnia and Herzegovina....................................... 1337 Bulgaria..................................................... 1353 Croatia...................................................... 1368 Cyprus....................................................... 1386 Czech Republic............................................... 1415 Denmark...................................................... 1429 Estonia...................................................... 1437 Finland...................................................... 1443 France....................................................... 1453 Georgia...................................................... 1464 Germany...................................................... 1515 Greece....................................................... 1529 Hungary...................................................... 1553 Iceland...................................................... 1569 Ireland...................................................... 1577 Italy........................................................ 1584 Kosovo....................................................... 1597 Latvia....................................................... 1622 Liechtenstein................................................ 1634 Lithuania.................................................... 1640 Luxembourg................................................... 1652 Macedonia.................................................... 1657 Malta........................................................ 1673 Moldova...................................................... 1681 Monaco....................................................... 1711 Montenegro................................................... 1715 Netherlands.................................................. 1736 Norway....................................................... 1747 Poland....................................................... 1755 Portugal..................................................... 1773 Romania...................................................... 1781 Russia....................................................... 1805 San Marino................................................... 1865 Serbia....................................................... 1868 Slovakia..................................................... 1894 Slovenia..................................................... 1911 Spain........................................................ 1919 Sweden....................................................... 1932 Switzerland.................................................. 1943 Turkey....................................................... 1954 Ukraine...................................................... 1984 United Kingdom............................................... 2014 Near East and North Africa....................................... 2029 Algeria...................................................... 2029 Bahrain...................................................... 2047 Egypt........................................................ 2059 Iran......................................................... 2080 Iraq......................................................... 2113 Israel and the Occupied Territories.......................... 2146 Jordan....................................................... 2196 Kuwait....................................................... 2217 Lebanon...................................................... 2230 Libya........................................................ 2248 Morocco and Western Sahara................................... 2262 Oman......................................................... 2286 Qatar........................................................ 2294 Saudi Arabia................................................. 2308 Syria........................................................ 2331 Tunisia...................................................... 2360 United Arab Emirates......................................... 2381 Yemen........................................................ 2393 Volume III South and Central Asia........................................... 2417 Afghanistan.................................................. 2417 Bangladesh................................................... 2444 Bhutan....................................................... 2467 India........................................................ 2477 Kazakhstan................................................... 2508 Kyrgyz Republic.............................................. 2529 Maldives..................................................... 2546 Nepal........................................................ 2556 Pakistan..................................................... 2573 Sri Lanka.................................................... 2604 Tajikistan................................................... 2621 Turkmenistan................................................. 2637 Uzbekistan................................................... 2651 Western Hemisphere............................................... 2675 Antigua and Barbuda.......................................... 2675 Argentina.................................................... 2680 Bahamas, The................................................. 2694 Barbados..................................................... 2704 Belize....................................................... 2710 Bolivia...................................................... 2718 Brazil....................................................... 2731 Canada....................................................... 2753 Chile........................................................ 2765 Colombia..................................................... 2776 Costa Rica................................................... 2800 Cuba......................................................... 2812 Dominica..................................................... 2828 Dominican Republic........................................... 2834 Ecuador...................................................... 2851 El Salvador.................................................. 2868 Grenada...................................................... 2881 Guatemala.................................................... 2886 Guyana....................................................... 2907 Haiti........................................................ 2917 Honduras..................................................... 2929 Jamaica...................................................... 2951 Mexico....................................................... 2963 Nicaragua.................................................... 2983 Panama....................................................... 3002 Paraguay..................................................... 3015 Peru......................................................... 3028 Saint Kitts and Nevis........................................ 3043 Saint Lucia.................................................. 3048 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines............................. 3054 Suriname..................................................... 3060 Trinidad and Tobago.......................................... 3070 Uruguay...................................................... 3078 Venezuela.................................................... 3086 Appendixes Appendix A: Notes on Preparation of Report................... 3107 Appendix B: Reporting on Worker Rights....................... 3115 Appendix C: Selected International Human Rights Conventions.. 3117 Appendix D: Description of International Human Rights Conventions in Appendix C.................................. 3133 Appendix E: FY 2009 Foreign Assistance Actuals............... 3135 Appendix F: United Nations General Assembly's Third Committee Country Resolution Votes 2009.............................. 3157 Appendix G: United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights..................................................... 3169 ? LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ---------- Department of State, Washington, DC, April 10, 2010. Hon. John F. Kerry, Chairman, Committee on Foreign Relations. Dear Mr. Chairman: On behalf of the Secretary of State, I am transmitting to you the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2009, prepared in compliance with sections 116(d)(1) and 502B(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended, and section 505(c) of the Trade Act of 1974, as amended. We hope this report is helpful. Please let us know if we can provide any further information. Sincerely, David J. Kramer, Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Enclosure. (vii) PREFACE ---------- The idea of human rights begins with a fundamental commitment to the dignity that is the birthright of every man, woman and child. Progress in advancing human rights begins with the facts. And for the last 34 years, the United States has produced the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, providing the most comprehensive record available of the condition of human rights around the world. These reports are an essential tool-for activists who courageously struggle to protect rights in communities around the world; for journalists and scholars who document rights violations and who report on the work of those who champion the vulnerable; and for governments, including our own, as they work to craft strategies to encourage protection of the human rights of more individuals in more places. The principle that each person possesses equal moral value is a simple, self-evident truth; but securing a world in which all can exercise the rights that are naturally theirs is an immense practical challenge. To craft effective human rights policy, we need good assessments of the situation on the ground in the places we want to make a difference. We need a sophisticated, strategic understanding of how democratic governance and economic development can each contribute to creating an environment in which human rights are secured. We need to recognize that rights-protecting democracy and rights- respecting development reinforce each other. And we need the right tools and the right partners to implement our policies. Human rights are timeless, but our efforts to protect them must be grounded in the here-and-now. We find ourselves in a moment when an increasing number of governments are imposing new and crippling restrictions on the nongovernmental organizations working to protect rights and enhance accountability. New technologies have proven useful both to oppressors and to those who struggle to expose the failures and cowardice of those oppressors. And global challenges of our time-like food security and climate change; pandemic disease; economic crises; and violent extremism-impact the enjoyment of human rights today, and shape the global political context in which we must advance human rights over the long term. Human rights are universal, but their experience is local. This is why we are committed to hold everyone to the same standard, including ourselves. And this is why we remember that human rights begin, as Eleanor Roosevelt said, ``in small places close to home.'' When we work to secure human rights, we are working to protect the experiences that make life meaningful, to preserve each person's ability to fulfill his or her God-given potential. The potential within every person to learn, discover and embrace the world around them; the potential to join freely with others to shape their communities and their societies so that every person can find fulfillment and self-sufficiency; the potential to share life's beauties and tragedies, laughter and tears with the people they love. The reports released today are a record of where we are. They provide a fact-base that will inform the United States's diplomatic, economic and strategic policies toward other countries in the coming year. These reports are not intended to prescribe such policies, but they provide essential data points for everyone in the U.S. Government working on them. I view the these reports not as ends in themselves, but as an important tool in the development of practical and effective human rights strategy by the United States Government. That is a process to which I am deeply committed. The timeless principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are a North Star guiding us toward the world we want to inhabit: a just world where, as President Obama has put it, peace rests on the ``inherent rights and dignity of every individual.'' With the facts in hand, and the goals clear in our hearts and heads, we recommit ourselves to continue the hard work of making human rights a human reality. Hillary Rodham Clinton, Secretary of State. OVERVIEW AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ---------- Why the Reports Are Prepared This report is submitted to the Congress by the Department of State in compliance with Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA), as amended. The law provides that the Secretary of State shall transmit to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Senate by February 25 ``a full and complete report regarding the status of internationally recognized human rights, within the meaning of subsection (A) in countries that receive assistance under this part, and (B) in all other foreign countries which are members of the United Nations and which are not otherwise the subject of a human rights report under this Act.'' We have also included reports on several countries that do not fall into the categories established by these statutes and thus are not covered by the congressional requirement. In the early 1970s the United States formalized its responsibility to speak out on behalf of international human rights standards. In 1976 Congress enacted legislation creating a Coordinator of Human Rights in the Department of State, a position later upgraded to Assistant Secretary. Legislation also requires that U.S. foreign and trade policy take into account countries' human rights and worker rights performance and that country reports be submitted to the Congress on an annual basis. How the Reports Are Prepared The Department of State prepared this report using information from U.S. embassies and consulates abroad, foreign government officials, nongovernmental and international organizations, and published reports. The initial drafts of the individual country reports were prepared by U.S. diplomatic missions abroad, drawing on information they gathered throughout the year from a variety of sources, including government officials, jurists, the armed forces, journalists, human rights monitors, academics, and labor activists. This information gathering can be hazardous, and U.S. Foreign Service personnel regularly go to great lengths, under trying and sometimes dangerous conditions, to investigate reports of human rights abuse, monitor elections, and come to the aid of individuals at risk, such as political dissidents and human rights defenders whose rights are threatened by their governments. Once the initial drafts of the individual country reports were completed, the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, in cooperation with other Department of State offices, worked to corroborate, analyze, and edit the reports, drawing on their own sources of information. These sources included reports provided by U.S. and other human rights groups, foreign government officials, representatives from the United Nations and other international and regional organizations and institutions, experts from academia, and the media. Bureau officers also consulted experts on worker rights, refugee issues, military and police topics, women's issues, and legal matters. The guiding principle was to ensure that all information was assessed objectively, thoroughly, and fairly. The reports in this volume will be used as a resource for shaping policy, conducting diplomacy, and making assistance, training, and other resource allocations. They also will serve as a basis for the U.S. Government's cooperation with private groups to promote the observance of internationally recognized human rights. The Country Reports on Human Rights Practices cover internationally recognized civil, political and worker rights, as set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These rights include freedom from torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, from prolonged detention without charges, from disappearance or clandestine detention, and from other flagrant violations of the right to life, liberty and the security of the person. Universal human rights seek to incorporate respect for human dignity into the processes of government and law. All persons have the right to nationality, the inalienable right to change their government by peaceful means and to enjoy basic freedoms, such as freedom of expression, association, assembly, movement, and religion, without discrimination on the basis of race, religion, national origin, or sex. The right to join a free trade union is a necessary condition of a free society and economy. Thus the reports assess key internationally recognized worker rights, including the right of association, the right to organize and bargain collectively, the prohibition of forced or compulsory labor, the status of child labor practices, the minimum age for employment of children, and acceptable work conditions. Within the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, the editorial staff of the Country Reports Team consists of: Editor in Chief Stephen Eisenbraun; Office Directors: Carlos Garcia, Douglas Kramer, and Kay Mayfield; Senior Editors: Jonathan Bemis, Douglas B. Dearborn, Daniel Dolan, Jerome L. Hoganson, Patricia Meeks Schnell, Julie Turner, and Rachel Waldstein; Editors: Naim Ahmed, Joseph Barghout, Kate Berglund, Sarah Beringer, Marissa Brescia, Sarah Buckley-Moore, Liliana Caparo Ariza, Laura Carey, Elise Carlson-Rainer, Delaram Cavey, Sharon Cooke, Susan Corke, Stuart Crampton, Kathleen Crowley, Frank Crump, Tu Dang, Mollie Davis, Huseyin Dogan, Will Dokurno, Mort Dworken, Amy Feagles, Joan Garner, Solange Garvey, Jeffrey Glassman, Blake Greene, Edward Grulich, Patrick Harvey, Victor Huser, Jill Hutchings, Stan Ifshin, David T. Jones, Simone Joseph, Mancharee Junk, Douglas Kramer, Sarah Labowitz, Jessica Lieberman, Gregory Maggio, Stacey May, John McKane, David Mikosz, Mia Mitchell, Stephen Moody, Sarah Morgan, Perlita Muiruri, Sandra Murphy, Daniel L. Nadel, Catherine Newling, Anand Prakash, Drue Preissman, Gabriela Ramirez, Lea Rivera, Peter Sawchyn, Wendy Silverman, Catherine Snyder, Erin Spitzer, Rachel Spring, Michael Suttles, Leslie Taylor, James Todd, Kathy Unlu, David Wagner, Nicole Wilett, Karen Yoo; Contributing Editor: Lynne Davidson; Editorial Assistants: Cory Andrews, Carol Finerty, Ronya D. Foy, Lauren Gandillot, Yelipza Gutierrez, Wen Hsu, Raymond Lu, Stephanie Martone, James McDonald, Matthew Miller, Amanda Pourciau, Sabrina Ragaller,and Helaena White; and Technical Assistant Eunice Johnson. INTRODUCTION TO THE 2009 COUNTRY REPORTS ---------- 2009 was a year of contrasts. It was a year in which ethnic, racial, and religious tensions led to violent conflicts and serious human rights violations and fueled or exacerbated more than 30 wars or internal armed conflicts. At the same time, it was a year in which the United States and other governments devoted greater attention to finding ways to acknowledge and combat these underlying tensions through showing leadership in advancing respect for universal human rights, promoting tolerance, combating violent extremism, and pursuing peaceful solutions to long-standing conflicts in the Middle East and elsewhere. As President Obama said in his June speech at Cairo University, we should be defined not by our differences but rather by our common humanity, and we should find ways to work in partnership with other nations so that all people achieve justice and prosperity. 2009 also was a year in which more people gained greater access than ever before to more information about human rights through the Internet, cell phones, and other forms of connective technologies. Yet at the same time it was a year in which governments spent more time, money, and attention finding regulatory and technical means to curtail freedom of expression on the Internet and the flow of critical information and to infringe on the personal privacy rights of those who used these rapidly evolving technologies. Today, all governments grapple with the difficult questions of what are appropriate policies and practices in response to legitimate national security concerns and how to strike the balance between respecting human rights and fundamental freedoms and ensuring the safety of their citizens. That said, during the past year, many governments applied overly broad interpretations of terrorism and emergency powers as a basis for limiting the rights of detainees and curtailing other basic human rights and humanitarian law protections. They did so even as the international community continued to make tangible progress in isolating and weakening the leadership in violent extremist and terrorist groups such as al-Qa'ida. This report explores these and other trends and developments and provides a specific, detailed picture of human rights conditions in 194 countries around the world. The U.S. Government has compiled these reports for the past 34 years pursuant to a requirement placed on the U.S. executive by law in part to help the U.S. Congress inform its work in assessing requests for U.S. foreign military and economic assistance, as well as to set trade policies and U.S. participation in the multilateral development banks and other financial institutions. The reason for publishing this report is to develop a full, factual record that can help U.S. policymakers to make intelligent and well-informed policy decisions. It has also been increasingly used by policymakers abroad and has become a core reference document for governments, intergovernmental organizations, and concerned citizens throughout the world. Many have questioned the reason the U.S. Government compiles this report, rather than the United Nations or some other intergovernmental body. One answer is that we believe it is imperative for countries, including our own, to ensure that respect for human rights is an integral component of foreign policy. These reports provide an overview of the human rights situation around the world as a means to raise awareness about human rights conditions, in particular as these conditions impact the well-being of women, children, racial minorities, trafficking victims, members of indigenous groups and ethnic communities, persons with disabilities, sexual minorities, and members of other vulnerable groups. Also, we provide these reports as a form of comprehensive review and analysis. While some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) do extensive and excellent reporting on some countries, none cover the world as we do. And while we have encouraged more detailed and comprehensive reporting from the UN and other intergovernmental bodies, thus far these organizations have not met this need. Because of this unmet need, the U.S. Congress has mandated this report. Even as we continue this reporting exercise, we encourage the UN to take up this type of thorough and comprehensive reporting, and we stand ready to work with them to meet the challenge. We will continue to press for enhanced UN reporting, for example through the UN Human Rights Council as part of its review of its own operations in 2011. Some critics, in the United States and elsewhere, also have challenged our practice of reviewing every other country's human rights record but not our own. In fact, the U.S. Government reports on and assesses our own human rights record in many other fora pursuant to our treaty obligations (e.g., we file reports on our implementation of the two Optional Protocols to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, and the Convention Against Torture). We are reviewing our reporting, consistent with President Obama and Secretary Clinton's pledge that we will apply a single universal human rights standard to all, including ourselves. Later this year, the U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report, for the first time, will rank the United States as it does foreign governments by applying the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons set forth in the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 as amended. And in the fall the U.S. Government will appear before the United Nations Human Rights Council for the first Universal Periodic Review of our domestic human rights situation. These country reports are written to provide an accurate, factual record of human rights conditions around the world, not to examine U.S. policy responses or options or to assess diplomatic alternatives. Yet in a broader sense these reports are a part of the Obama Administration's overall approach to human rights and an essential component of that effort. As outlined above, the administration's approach, as articulated by President Obama and Secretary Clinton, is guided by broad principles, the first of which is a commitment to universal human rights. In preparing this report, we have endeavored to hold all governments accountable to uphold universal human rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and to their human rights treaty obligations. As Secretary Clinton stated in December, all governments, including our own, must ``adhere to obligations under international law: among them not to torture, arbitrarily detain and persecute dissenters, or engage in political killings. Our government and the international community must consider the pretentions of those who deny or abdicate their responsibilities and hold violators to account.'' The first step in that process is to tell the truth and to identify specific instances where such violations are occurring and where governments are failing to take responsibility for holding violators accountable. A second element of our approach is a principled and pragmatic engagement with other countries on these issues. This means that we will pursue steps that are most likely to make human rights a human reality. This principled pragmatism starts with an honest assessment of human rights conditions and whether violations are the result of deliberate government repression, governmental unwillingness or inability to confront the problems, or a combination of all three. As Secretary Clinton has said, ``With China, Russia, and others, we are engaging on issues of mutual interest while also engaging societal actors in the same countries who are working to advance human rights and democracy. The assumption that we must either pursue human rights or our `national interests' is wrong. The assumption that only coercion and isolation are effective tools for advancing democratic change is also wrong.'' These reports provide an essential, factual predicate upon which we can shape current and future polices. A third element is our belief that although foreign governments and global civil society cannot impose change from outside, we can and should encourage and provide support to members of local civil society and other peaceful change agents within each country. As part of such efforts, these reports can and often do amplify these voices, by making reference to their findings, publicly reinforcing their concerns, and by widely disseminating this information to opinion makers, both internationally and within affected countries. A fourth element of our approach is to keep a wide focus where rights are at stake and to adopt a broad approach to democracy and human rights. As Secretary Clinton stated, ``Democracy means not only elections to choose leaders, but also active citizens and a free press and an independent judiciary and transparent and responsive institutions that are accountable to all citizens and protect their rights equally and fairly.'' President Obama has also highlighted the crucial linkages between development, democracy, and human rights, noting the centrality of issues such as corruption to the realization of basic rights. Consistent with that approach, these reports cover a wide range of topics and trends, providing a detailed and comprehensive picture of human rights and democracy in each country. The fifth and final element of our approach has been to pursue progress on these issues through multilateral processes and institutions. As President Obama has acknowledged, we live in an increasingly interdependent and multipolar world, and to achieve our international goals, we need to collaborate with other governments and international actors. That is the reason we have joined the UN Human Rights Council, have actively supported human rights initiatives in the General Assembly, and have more thoroughly engaged in regional bodies like the Organization of American States and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in promoting democracy and human rights. In preparing these reports, we relied on information collected by officials in U.S. embassies around the world and on information from other governments and multilateral organizations. We also solicited and relied on useful information from nongovernmental human rights groups, both those operating internationally and those that work at a national level. We also collected information from academics, lawyers, trade unions, religious leaders, and the media. While we benefited from these many inputs, the U.S. Government alone bears responsibility for the content of these reports. The preparation of these reports involves a major commitment of time and energy by hundreds of people, and includes a lengthy process of fact-checking and editing to ensure high standards of accuracy and objectivity. The Year in Review In 2009, governments across the globe continued to commit serious violations of human rights. As we survey the world, there still are an alarming number of reports of torture, extrajudicial killings, and other violations of universal human rights. Often these violations relating to the integrity of the person are in countries where conflicts are occurring. These violent attacks are a central concern wherever they take place. In a significant number of countries, governments have imposed new and often draconian restrictions on NGOs. Since 2008, no fewer than 25 governments have imposed new restrictions on the ability of these organizations to register, to operate freely, or to receive foreign funding, adversely impacting freedom of association. In many countries, human rights defenders are singled out for particularly harsh treatment, and in the most egregious cases, they are imprisoned or even attacked or killed in reaction to their advocacy. These restrictions and repressive measures are part of a larger pattern of governmental efforts to control dissenting or critical voices. This pattern also extends to the media and to new forms of electronic communications through the Internet and other new technologies. Restrictions on freedom of expression, including on members of the media, are increasing and becoming more severe. In many cases, such restrictions are applied subtly by autocrats aiming to avoid attention from human rights groups and donor countries, such as through the threat of criminal penalties and administrative or economic obstacles, rather than through violence or imprisonment; the end result is still a chilling effect on freedom of expression. A third trend we observed is the continuing and escalating discrimination and persecution of members of vulnerable groups--often racial, religious, or ethnic minorities, but also women, members of indigenous communities, children, persons with disabilities, and other vulnerable groups that lack the political power in their societies to defend their own interests. These key trends are discussed in the subsequent sections, illustrated by thumbnail sketches of selected countries (ordered alphabetically) that were chosen for notable developments--positive, negative, or mixed--chronicled during calendar year 2009. For more comprehensive, detailed information, the individual country reports themselves should be consulted. Specific Human Rights Trends HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES IN COUNTRIES IN CONFLICT In many countries where conflicts were raging during the year, noncombatant civilians faced human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law. In many of these conflict zones, insurgents, terrorist organizations, paramilitary forces, and government security forces used murder, rape, and inhumane tactics to assert control over territory, silence opponents, and coerce the cooperation of civilian communities in conflict zones. Throughout the world, thousands of men, women, and children died or were mistreated not only in conflicts, but also in campaigns to intimidate civilian populations. The security situation in Afghanistan deteriorated significantly because of increased insurgent attacks, with civilians bearing the brunt of the violence. Armed conflict spread to almost one-third of the country, hindering the government's ability to govern effectively, extend its influence, and provide services, especially in rural areas. As a result of the insurgency, 1,448 Afghan military personnel, 1,954 government employees, and 2,412 civilians were killed. Approximately five million of the 15 million registered voters participated in the August elections that were marked by serious allegations of widespread fraud, insufficient conditions for participation by women, and a concerted effort by the Taliban to disrupt the voting. Nevertheless, more polling stations opened than in previous elections, the media and public debated political alternatives, and the election followed the constitutional process. The government in Burma continued its egregious human rights violations and abuses during the year, including increased military attacks in ethnic minority regions, such as in the Karen and Shan state. In August, government soldiers attacked the Kokang cease-fire group, the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, which the government claimed was launched in order to shut down narcotics and arms factories. Tens of thousands of civilians reportedly fled across the border to China as a result of the fighting. Government soldiers destroyed several villages in Shan territory, and some media estimates suggested the army razed up to 500 homes in Kokang territory. The regime continued to rule by decree and was not bound by any constitutional provisions guaranteeing any fundamental freedoms. The regime continued to commit other serious abuses, including extrajudicial killings, custodial deaths, disappearances, rape, torture, forcible relocation of persons, the use of forced labor, and conscription of child soldiers. The government detained civic activists indefinitely and without charges. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), conflict in mineral-rich parts of the east, including counterinsurgency operations by government security forces, resulted in the killing of more than 1,000 civilians; the displacement of hundreds of thousands whose government did not adequately protect or assist them; the rapes of tens of thousands of women, children, and men; the burning of hundreds of homes; the unlawful recruitment or use of thousands of children as soldiers by the DRC military and various armed groups; and abductions of numerous persons for forced labor and sexual exploitation, both domestically and internationally. Despite substantial improvements in the general security situation in Iraq, human rights abuses continued. There were reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings in connection with the ongoing conflict, and insurgent and terrorist bombings, executions, and killings continued to affect all regions and sectors of society. Due to the continuing conflict, violence against the media was common, and media workers reported that they engaged in self- censorship. Although the government publicly called for tolerance and acceptance for all religious minorities and took steps to increase security at places of worship, frequent attacks by insurgent and extremist groups on places of worship and religious leaders, as well as sectarian violence, hampered the ability of individuals to practice their religion freely. In response to a sharp increase in the number and frequency of rocket attacks from Gaza against civilians in Israel shortly prior to and following the expiration of Hamas's agreed period of ``calm'' on December 19, 2008, the Israeli Defense Forces launched Operation Cast Lead on December 27, which consisted initially of airstrikes targeted against Hamas security installations, personnel, and other facilities in the Gaza Strip, and later ground operations. Hostilities between Israeli forces and Hamas fighters continued through January 18, and the Israeli withdrawal of troops was completed on January 21. Human rights organizations estimated that close to 1,400 Palestinians died, including more than 1,000 civilians, and that more than 5,000 were wounded. According to Israeli government figures, Palestinian deaths totaled 1,166, including 295 noncombatant deaths. There were 13 Israelis killed, including three civilians. In the West Bank, the Israel Defense Forces relaxed restrictions at several checkpoints during the year that had constituted significant barriers to the movement of Palestinians, yet remaining barriers limited Palestinian access to places of worship, employment, agricultural lands, schools, hospitals, and the conduct of journalism and NGO activities. In Gaza, which remained under the control of Hamas, there were reports of corruption, abuse of prisoners, and failure to provide fair trials to those accused. Hamas also strictly restricted the freedom of expression, religion, and movement of Gaza residents, and promoted gender discrimination against women. Killings by Hamas-controlled security forces remained a problem. There were reports of torture by Gaza Hamas Executive Force and victims were not only security detainees but also included persons associated with the Fatah political party and those held on suspicion of ``collaboration'' with Israel. Hamas authorities in Gaza often interfered arbitrarily with personal privacy, family, and home. National police, army, and other security forces in Nigeria committed extrajudicial killings and used lethal and excessive force to apprehend criminals and suspects. Violence in the form of killings, kidnappings, and forced disappearances; mass rape; and displacement of civilians attributed to both government and nongovernment actors continued in the Niger Delta, despite the formation of the Joint Task Force in 2003 that sought to restore stability to the region. Reports of incidents attributed to militant groups in the Niger Delta decreased upon the president's offer of amnesty, although violence remained pervasive in the south. Between July 26 and July 29, police and militant members of Boko Haram, an extremist Islamic group, clashed violently in four northern states, resulting in the displacement of approximately 4,000 people and more than 700 deaths, although this figure is not definitive because quick burials in mass graves precluded an accurate count. Sect leader Muhammad Yusuf; Yusuf's father-in-law, Baba Mohammed; and suspected Boko Haram founder Buji Fai reportedly were killed while in custody of the security forces. Although Pakistan's civilian authorities took some positive steps, significant human rights challenges remain. Major problems included extrajudicial killings, torture, and disappearances. Militant attacks in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) killed 825 civilians; security operations to repel the militants from Malakand Division and parts of the FATA displaced almost three million persons at the peak of the crisis (although by year's end, approximately 1.66 million had returned to their home areas). The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, the New York Times, and several local publications reported that security forces allegedly committed 300 to 400 extrajudicial killings during counterinsurgency operations in NWFP and Swat. There were widespread accusations that insurgents conducted terror- and revenge killings to intimidate local populations and law enforcement officials. Sectarian violence killed approximately 1,125 persons, and more than 76 suicide bombings killed 1,037 persons. The situation in the North Caucasus region of Russia worsened as the government fought insurgents, Islamist militants, and criminal forces. Local government and insurgent forces in the region reportedly engaged in killings, torture, abuse, violence, politically motivated abductions, and other brutal or humiliating treatment. In Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan, the number of extrajudicial killings increased markedly, as did the number of attacks on law enforcement personnel (in actions involving insurgents, 342 members of law enforcement were killed and 680 were injured.) Some authorities in the North Caucasus acted with impunity and appeared to act independently of the federal government, in some cases, allegedly targeting families of suspected insurgents for reprisal and engaging in kidnapping, torture, and extrajudicial punishment. Before the 33-year conflict in Sri Lanka came to an end in May, government security forces, progovernment paramilitary groups, and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) used excessive force and committed abuses against civilians. Several hundred thousand ethnic Tamil civilians were not allowed freedom of movement by the LTTE from LTTE-controlled areas Artillery shelling and mortar fire by both sides occurred close to and among civilian encampments, resulting in thousands of civilian deaths during the last months of the conflict. From January to May, the LTTE dramatically increased its forced recruitment of child soldiers. Although the number of children recruited and killed in fighting is unknown, the government reported 527 ex-LTTE child soldiers in custody several months after the end of the war. The confinement in camps of nearly 300,000 persons displaced by the end of the conflict called into question the government's postconflict commitment to human rights, although the government began to make significant progress on the treatment of internally displaced persons and other human rights improvements toward the end of 2009, in the run up to the January 2010 presidential election. Conflict and human rights abuses in the Darfur region of Sudan continued despite the 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement between the government and a faction of the Sudan Liberation Movement/ Army. Government-sponsored forces bombed villages, killed civilians, and supported Chadian rebel groups. Women and children continued to experience gender-based violence. Since the conflict in Darfur began in 2003, nearly 2.7 million civilians have been internally displaced, approximately 253,000 have sought refuge in eastern Chad, and more than 300,000 have died. Tensions also persisted between the north and south over the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Interethnic conflict and violence perpetrated by the Lord's Resistance Army in southern Sudan resulted in the deaths of approximately 2,500 and the displacement of 359,000 persons during the year. RESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION, ASSEMBLY, AND ASSOCIATION (INCLUDING NGOS) Many governments continued to exert control over information that came into and was produced within their countries. This was accomplished by hindering the ability to organize in public, online, or through use of new technologies; by restricting the dissemination of information on the Internet, radio, or television or through print media; and constructing legal barriers that made it difficult for NGOs to establish themselves. According to the National Endowment for Democracy, 26 laws in 25 countries have been introduced or adopted since January 2008 that impede civil society. In Belarus, the government's human rights record remained very poor. Civil liberties, including freedoms of expression, assembly, association, and religion, continued to be restricted. The government limited distribution of independent print and broadcast media outlets. Authorities used unreasonable force and intimidation to discourage participation in demonstrations and to disperse peaceful protesters. NGOs, opposition activists, and political parties were subjected to persistent harassment, fines, and prosecution, and several leading NGOs were again denied registration, forcing them to operate under threat of criminal prosecution. Following a few positive steps taken by authorities in 2008, the absence of reform during 2009 was disappointing. The government of China increased its efforts to monitor Internet use, control content, restrict information, block access to foreign and domestic Web sites, encourage self- censorship, and punish those who violated regulations. The government employed thousands of persons at the national, provincial, and local levels to monitor electronic communications. In January the government began an ``anti- vulgarity'' campaign that resulted that same month in the closure of 1,250 Web sites and the deletion of more than 3.2 million items of information. The government at times blocked access to selected sites operated by major foreign news outlets, health organizations, foreign governments, educational institutions, and social networking sites, as well as search engines, that allow rapid communication or organization of users. During the year, particularly around sensitive events such as the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen crackdown, authorities maintained tight control over Internet news and information. The government also automatically censored e-mail and Web chats based on an ever-changing list of sensitive key words. Despite official monitoring and censorship, dissidents and political activists continued to use the Internet to advocate and call attention to political causes such as prisoner advocacy, political reform, ethnic discrimination, corruption, and foreign policy concerns. Independent media in Colombia were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction, and all privately owned radio and television stations broadcast freely. However, members of illegal armed groups intimidated, threatened, kidnapped, or killed journalists, which, according to national and international NGOs, caused many to practice self-censorship and others, 171 to be specific, received protection from the government. The official Administrative Department of Security monitored journalists, trade unionists, the political opposition, and human rights organizations and activists-- physically, as well as their phone and email communications and personal and financial data. According to some NGOs, the government allegedly detained arbitrarily hundreds of persons, particularly social leaders, labor activists, and human rights defenders (HRDs), although a key NGO reported that such detentions in 2009 were half the 2008 level. HRDs were also persecuted and accused of supporting terrorism in an effort to discredit their work. Prominent NGOs reported that eight human rights activists and 39 trade unionists were killed during the year. However, the government also worked to protect thousands of union members, human rights activists, and other such groups. Authorities in Cuba interfered with privacy and engaged in pervasive monitoring of private communications. There was no ability to change the government. There were also severe limitations on freedom of expression and no authorized press apart from official media; denial of peaceful assembly and association; restrictions on freedom of religion; and refusal to recognize domestic human rights groups or independent journalists or to permit them to function legally. The law allows for punishment of any unauthorized assembly of more than three persons, including those for private religious services in private homes. The law also provides for imprisonment for vaguely defined crimes such as ``dangerousness'' and ``peaceful sedition.'' The government did not grant permission to any antigovernment demonstrators or approve any public meeting by a human rights group. Authorities held numerous opposition leaders pursuant to sentences ranging up to 25 years for peaceful political activities and detained activists for short periods to prevent them from attending meetings, demonstrations, or ceremonies. Although unauthorized, the organization Damas de Blanco (Ladies in White) generally was allowed to assemble and walk to church each Sunday demanding freedom for their imprisoned family members. However, the organization reported that its activities beyond the traditional weekly marches to church were disrupted on several occasions during the year. In addition, a prominent blogger and her colleague were detained and beaten while en route to a peaceful protest. Human rights activists also reported frequent government monitoring and disruption of cell phone and landline services prior to planned events or key anniversaries related to human rights. Authorities have never approved the establishment of a human rights group; however, a number of professional associations operated as NGOs without legal recognition. The government's poor human rights record degenerated during the year, particularly after the disputed June presidential elections. Freedom of expression and association and lack of due process continued to be problems within Iran, and the government severely limited individuals' right to change their government peacefully through free and fair elections. Following the June 13 announcement of President Ahmadi-Nejad's reelection, hundreds of thousands of citizens took to the streets to protest. Police and the paramilitary Basij violently suppressed demonstrations. The official death count was 37, although opposition groups report the number may have reached 70. By August, authorities had detained at least 4,000 individuals, and arrests continued throughout the year. A massive show trial involving many of the more prominent detainees was undertaken in September. On June 20, according to eyewitnesses, Basij militia killed Neda Agha-Soltan in Tehran. The video of her death appeared on YouTube and became a symbol of the opposition movement. Ahead of the June presidential election, on the actual day of election, and during the December 27 Ashura protests, when authorities detained 1,000 individuals and at least eight persons were killed in street clashes, the government blocked access to Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites. After the June election, there was a major drop in bandwidth, which experts posited the government caused to prevent activists involved in the protests from accessing the Internet and uploading large video files. The government continued to restrict freedom of religion severely, particularly against Baha'is and, increasingly, Christians. The government of North Korea continued to subject citizens to rigid controls over many aspects of their lives, specifically denying citizens freedoms of expression, assembly, and association. Reports by defectors and NGOs of extrajudicial killings, disappearances, and arbitrary detention, including of political prisoners, continued to paint a grim picture of life there. The government sought to control virtually all information: there were no independent media, Internet access was limited to high-ranking officials and other elites, and academic freedom was repressed. Domestic media censorship continued to be strictly enforced and no deviation from the official government line was tolerated. Similarly, the government prohibited all but the political elite from listening to foreign media broadcasts, and violators were subject to severe punishment. There was no genuine freedom of religion. Reports continued that religious believers, their families, and even their descendents were imprisoned, tortured, or simply relegated to a lower status. Indoctrination was carried out systematically through the mass media, schools, and worker and neighborhood associations and continued to involve mass marches, rallies, and staged performances, sometimes including hundreds of thousands of persons. Government actions weakened freedom of expression and media independence within Russia by directing the editorial policies of government-owned media outlets, pressuring major independent outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassing and intimidating some journalists into practicing self-censorship. During the year, unknown persons killed a number of human rights activists and eight journalists, including prominent journalist and human rights activist Natalia Estemirova, who spent more than 10 years documenting cases of killings, torture, and disappearances that she linked to the Chechen authorities. President Medvedev stated it was ``obvious'' that the killings were connected to Estemirova's work and ordered an immediate investigation to find the perpetrators, but there have been no arrests or prosecutions in this case. The government increasingly attempted to restrict media freedom to cover sensitive issues such as the conduct of federal forces in Chechnya, human rights abuses, and criticism of some government leaders. Likewise, many observers noted a selective pattern of officials encouraging government-friendly rallies while attempting to prevent politically sensitive demonstrations. The government also attempted to restrict the activities of some NGOs, making it difficult for some to continue operations. Upon hearing criticism of the 2006 NGO law at a meeting with the Presidential Council on Human Rights, President Medvedev called existing regulations a ``burden'' and announced that some regulations would be eased. None of the amendments to the law applied to foreign NGOs. Government officials in Venezuela, including the president, used government-controlled media outlets to accuse private media owners and reporters of fomenting antigovernment destabilization campaigns and coup attempts. Senior federal and state government leaders also actively harassed privately owned and opposition-oriented television stations, media outlets, and journalists throughout the year, using administrative sanctions, fines, and threats of closure to prevent or respond to any perceived criticism of the government. The government's harassment of Globovision, the largest private television network, included raiding the home of the company's president and publicly calling for the company's closure. At year's end, 32 radio stations and two television stations had been closed, and 29 other radio stations remained under threat of closure. One domestic media watchdog reported that 191 journalists either were attacked or had their individual rights violated during the year. NGOs expressed concern over official political discrimination against, and the firing of, state employees whose views differed from those of the government. Private groups also alleged that the government was pursuing 45 persons as ``political objectives'' using various legal and administrative means. The Organization of American States's Inter-American Commission on Human Rights recently noted ``a troubling trend of punishments, intimidation, and attacks on individuals in reprisal for expressing their dissent with official policy.'' The human rights record of the government of Vietnam remained problematic. The government increased its suppression of dissent, arresting and convicting several political activists. Several editors and reporters from prominent newspapers were fired for reporting on official corruption and outside blogging on political topics. Bloggers were detained and arrested under vague national security provisions for criticizing the government and were prohibited from posting material the government saw as sensitive or critical. The government also monitored e-mail and regulated or suppressed Internet content, such as Facebook and other Web sites operated by overseas Vietnamese political groups. The government utilized or tolerated the use of force to resolve disputes with a Buddhist order in Lam Dong and Catholic groups with unresolved property claims. Workers were not free to organize independent unions, and independent labor activists faced arrest and harassment. The government of Uzbekistan tightly controlled the media and did not permit the publication of views critical of the government. Government security officials regularly gave publishers articles and letters to publish under fictitious bylines, as well as explicit instructions about the types of stories permitted for publication. In July, a court convicted independent journalist Dilmurod Sayid to 12 and one-half years in prison on charges of extortion and bribery soon after he published articles regarding the corruption of local government officials. The government requires all NGOs and religious organizations to register in order to operate, and the activities of international human rights NGOs are severely restricted because the government suspects them of participating in an international ``information war'' against the country. Any religious service conducted by an unregistered religious organization is illegal, and police frequently broke up the meetings of unregistered groups, generally held in private homes. Reportedly, in some regions, universities and schools closed to send students to work in cotton fields; students who refused were expelled or threatened with expulsion. DISCRIMINATION AND HARASSMENT OF VULNERABLE GROUPS Members of vulnerable groups--racial, ethnic and religious minorities; the disabled; women and children; migrant workers; and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals--often were marginalized and targets of societal and/or government- sanctioned abuse. China continued to exert tight control over activities and peoples that the government perceived as a threat to the Chinese Communist Party. For example, public interest lawyers who took on cases deemed sensitive by the government increasingly were harassed or disbarred, and their law firms often were closed. The government also increased repression of Tibetans and Uighurs. The government tightened controls on Uighurs expressing peaceful dissent and on independent Muslim religious leaders, often citing counterterrorism as the reason for taking action. Following the July riots that broke out in Urumqi, the provincial capital of XUAR, officials cracked down on religious extremism, ``splittism,'' and terrorism in an attempt to maintain public order. In the aftermath of the violence, Uighurs were sentenced to long prison terms and in some cases were executed, without due process, on charges of separatism. At year's end, Urumqi remained under a heavy police presence and most Internet and international phone communication remained cut off. In the Tibetan areas of China, the government's human rights record remained poor as authorities committed extrajudicial killings, torture, arbitrary arrests, and extrajudicial detentions. Authorities sentenced Tibetans for alleged support of Tibetan independence, regardless of whether their activities involved violence. The preservation and development of Tibet's unique religious, cultural, and linguistic heritage also remained a concern. The government of Egypt failed to respect the freedom of association and restricted freedom of expression, and its respect for freedom of religion remained very poor. Sectarian attacks on Coptic Christians mounted during the year. The government failed to redress laws and government practices that discriminate against Christians. The government sponsored ``reconciliation sessions'' following sectarian attacks, which generally prevented the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes against Copts and precluded their recourse to the judicial system for restitution. This practice contributed to a climate of impunity and may have encouraged further assaults. Members of non-Muslim religious minorities that the government officially recognized generally worshipped without harassment; however, Christians and members of the Baha'i faith, which the government does not recognize, faced personal and collective discrimination in many areas. In a step forward, the government promulgated procedures for members of unrecognized religions, including the Baha'i faith, to obtain national identification documents and reportedly issued 17 such documents and 70 birth certificates to Baha'i during the year. As a growing number of people cross borders to find work, migrant workers have become particularly vulnerable to exploitation and discrimination. In Malaysia, foreign workers were subject to exploitative conditions and generally did not have access to the system of labor adjudication. However, the government investigated complaints of abuses, attempted to inform workers of their rights, encouraged workers to come forward with their complaints, and warned employers to end abuses. The law did not effectively prevent employers from holding employees' passports, and it was common practice for employers to do so. Some domestic workers alleged that their employers subjected them to inhuman living conditions, withheld their salaries, confiscated their travel documents, and physically assaulted them. Violence against women, violations of the rights of children, and discrimination on the basis of gender, religion, sect, and ethnicity were common in many countries in the Middle East region. In Saudi Arabia, for example, Muslim religious practices that conflict with the government's interpretation of Sunni Islam are discriminated against and public religious expression by non-Muslims is prohibited. Human rights activists reported more progress in women's rights than in other areas, and the government made efforts to integrate women into mainstream society, for example, through the founding of the Kingdom's first coeducational university in September. However, discrimination against women was a significant problem, demonstrated by the lack of women's autonomy, freedom of movement, and economic independence; discriminatory practices surrounding divorce and child custody; the absence of a law criminalizing violence against women; and difficulties preventing women from escaping abusive environments. There are no laws specifically prohibiting domestic violence. Under the country's interpretation of Shari'a (Islamic law), rape is a punishable criminal offense with a wide range of penalties from flogging to execution. Statistics on incidents of rape were not available, but press reports and observers indicated rape against women and boys was a serious problem. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Uganda faced arbitrary legal restrictions. It is illegal to engage in homosexual acts, based on a 1950 legal provision from the colonial era criminalizing ``carnal acts against the order of nature'' and prescribing a penalty of life imprisonment. No persons have been charged under the law. The September introduction in parliament of a bill providing the death penalty for ``aggravated homosexuality'' and for homosexual ``serial offenders'' resulted in increased harassment and intimidation of LGBT persons during the year; the proposed legislation also provides for a fine and three years' imprisonment for persons who fail to report acts of homosexual conduct to authorities within 24 hours. Public resentment of homosexual conduct sparked significant public debate during the year, and the government took a strong position against such conduct despite a December 2008 ruling by the High Court that constitutional rights apply to all persons, regardless of sexual orientation. The local NGO Sexual Minorities Uganda protested alleged police harassment of several members for their vocal stand against sexual discrimination. Traditional and new forms of anti-Semitism continued to arise, and a spike in such activity followed the Gaza conflict in the winter of 2008-2009. Often despite official efforts to combat the problem, societal anti-Semitism persisted across Europe, South America, and beyond and manifested itself in classic forms (including physical attacks on Jewish individuals, synagogue bombings, cemetery desecrations; the theft of the ``Arbeit Macht Frei'' sign from the Auschwitz Death Camp; and accusations of blood libel, dual loyalty, and undue influence of Jews on government policy and media.) New forms of anti-Semitism took the form of criticism of Zionism or Israeli policy that crossed the line into demonizing all Jews, and, in some cases, translated into violence against Jewish individuals in general. Instead of combating anti-Semitism, some governments fueled it, most notably Iran's President Ahmadi-Nejad. Anti-Semitic propaganda, including Holocaust denial, was circulated widely by satellite television, radio, and the Internet. A television show in Egypt that was widely aired throughout the region did not deny the Holocaust, but instead glorified it, praising the slaughter and humiliation of Jews and calling for future Holocausts. In several countries with generally strong records of respecting human rights, there were nevertheless some notable examples of members of vulnerable groups facing discrimination and harassment. Discrimination against Muslims in Europe has been an increasing concern. A recent case that received international attention was the passage on November 29 in Switzerland of a constitutional amendment banning the construction of minarets. A provision in the Swiss constitution enables direct citizen involvement. The amendment passed with 57.5 percent of the vote despite opposition from both parliament and the Federal Council and public statements by many of the country's leaders describing such a ban as contradicting basic values in the country's constitution and violating its international obligations. Proponents of the initiative to ban minarets contended the construction of minarets symbolized a religious and political claim to power. In the wake of the economic downturn, there have been a number of killings and incidents of violence against Roma, including in Italy, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic. Roma are the largest and most vulnerable minority in Europe; they suffer racial profiling, violence, and discrimination. There were also reports of mistreatment of Romani suspects by police officers during arrest and while in custody. Roma faced high levels of poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy, as well as widespread discrimination in education, employment, and housing. EUROPE AND EURASIA ---------- ALBANIA The Republic of Albania is a parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 3.6 million. The constitution vests legislative authority in the unicameral People's Assembly (parliament), which elects both the prime minister and the president. The prime minister heads the government, while the presidency has limited executive power. On June 28, the country held parliamentary elections, which the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) described as marking progress over past elections, but not fully realizing international standards. While ODIHR found that the elections met most of the country's democratic commitments, observers noted problems, including misuse of government resources by both sides for campaign purposes, shortcomings in training and preparations for vote counting, and evidence of proxy voting, media bias, and pressure on public sector employees to participate in campaign events. The opposition Socialist Party (SP) boycotted parliament after September, calling for an investigation into alleged electoral fraud. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that police severely beat and mistreated suspects during interrogation and detention. Police corruption and impunity persisted. Government corruption remained a serious and unresolved problem. Discrimination against women, children, homosexual persons, and minorities were problems. Trafficking in persons also remained a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. The killings of two political figures--Socialist Party member of parliament Fatmir Xhindi and a Christian Democrat leader, Alex Keka--were under investigation and remained unresolved at year's end. Investigations continued into allegations that, during the 1999 Kosovo conflict, traffickers kidnapped civilians from Kosovo and brought them to the country, where some were killed and their organs sold. In April the EU Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo announced that it had begun a preliminary investigation into the allegations. In August Council of Europe special rapporteur Dick Marty led a mission to Serbia and Albania to further investigate. Marty's report to the Council of Europe remained pending at year's end. During the year there were continuing reports of societal killings, including both generational ``blood feud'' and revenge killings. Such killings sometimes involved criminal gangs. According to the Interior Ministry, there was one blood feud-related killing during the year, which was a decrease from previous years. According to NGOs approximately 120 families were effectively imprisoned in their homes from fear of blood feud reprisals; half of these families were located in Shkoder. The Court of Serious Crimes tried blood feud cases. The law punishes premeditated murder, when committed for revenge or a blood feud, with 20 years' or life imprisonment. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. At year's end, the trial was ongoing of Arben Sefgjini, who previously served as the head of the National Intelligence Service (SHISH), and three of his former SHISH colleagues, Budion Mece, Avni Kolladashi, and Ilir Kumbaro, for the 1995 kidnapping and torture of Remzi Hoxha and two other citizens. Hoxha's fate remained unknown. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions; however, police and prison guards sometimes beat and abused suspects and detainees. On January 21, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on the June 2008 visit by a CPT delegation to a number of the country's prisons and detention centers. The CPT reported credible allegations of physical mistreatment; abuse mostly occurred during police questioning, including severe beatings incorporating blows to the feet and to the palms and backs of the hands with objects such as a baton. The most serious allegations received by the delegation involved the police stations in Korca, Pogradec, and Elbasan. However, in contrast with CPT visits in 2005 and 2006, the majority of persons interviewed by the delegation stated they had been treated correctly while in police custody. The Albanian Helsinki Committee (AHC) and the Albanian Human Rights Group (AHRG) reported that police sometimes used excessive force or inhuman treatment. In 2008 the AHC reported that it received 91 complaints of mistreatment by police. The majority of these complaints concerned unjustified stops by police, detention past legal deadlines, failure to make citizens aware of their rights when detained, and poor conditions of detention centers. According to the AHRG, police more often mistreated suspects at the time of arrest or initial detention. Roma, Balkan Egyptians, and persons engaging in homosexual conduct were particularly vulnerable to police abuse. As in past years, the police sometimes used threats and violence to extract confessions. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--The Ministry of Justice operated all detention facilities; however, the Ministry of Interior oversaw police detention facilities, which housed detainees for up to 48 hours after their arrest. After 48 hours, arrestees were placed under Ministry of Justice supervision. In its January 21 report on conditions of detention in the country, the CPT delegation noted that, with the exception of provision of food, hardly any progress had been made at the time of its June 2008 visit to improve physical conditions of detention in police detention facilities. In particular it found that detention conditions at the Police Directorate General in Tirana were ``totally unacceptable.'' It found all cells to be very small, in a poor state of repair and hygiene, and to have little or no access to natural light and fresh air. There were also reports of prison overcrowding. To alleviate overcrowding, the government opened five new prisons during the year and in April passed a probation law that allows those convicted of minor crimes to be released on a probationary basis. Nearly 80 former inmates participated in this program. In its January 21 report, the CPT delegation noted that some cells in the unit for female prisoners at Prison No. 313 in Tirana were severely overcrowded, with up to four prisoners held in a cell measuring seven square meters (75 square feet). This was the only facility in the country for female pretrial detainees. In November, the government signed a memorandum with a local NGO to increase the size of the facility. The government allowed local and international human rights groups, the media, and others to monitor prison conditions. The law provides for an ombudsman to implement the National Mechanism for Torture Prevention. The ombudsman received complaints of abuses by the government and has the authority to monitor judicial proceedings and inspect detention and prison facilities; the ombudsman can initiate cases in which a victim is unwilling or unable to come forward. Although the ombudsman lacked the power to enforce decisions, he acted as a monitor for human rights violations. The most common cases included citizen complaints of police and military abuse of power, lack of enforcement of court judgments in civil cases, wrongful dismissal, and land disputes. As a result of the June 2008 finding by the ombudsman that inmates at Burrel prison suffered substantial psychological and physical abuse, the Ministry of Justice conducted more training for prison staff and alleviated overcrowding. During the year the ombudsman did not receive any complaints regarding Burrel prison. During the year the ombudsman found that minors were being held together with adults at the Korca prison and Durres predetention facilities. Specifically, he found that 14- to 18-year-olds were being together. The ombudsman recommended that this practice cease; implementation was in process at year's end. During the year, 186 prison guards and officials had disciplinary proceedings initiated against them for misconduct. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention; however, there were some reports that police occasionally arbitrarily arrested and detained persons. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Local police units report to the Ministry of Interior and were the main force responsible for internal security. Notwithstanding police officer recruitment reforms and other standardization by the Ministry of Interior, the overall performance of law enforcement remained weak. Unprofessional behavior and corruption, compounded by low salaries, remained major impediments to the development of an effective civilian police force. During the year the ombudsman processed and completed 151 of 169 complaints against the police mainly on arrest and detention issues; the ombudsman resolved 63 in favor of the complaining citizen. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The constitution requires that authorities inform detained persons immediately of the charges against them and of their rights. Police must immediately inform the prosecutor of an arrest. The prosecutor may release the suspect or petition the court within 48 hours to hold the individual further. The court must decide within 48 hours whether to place a suspect in detention, require bail, prohibit travel, or require the defendant to report regularly to the police. In practice prosecutors requested and courts routinely ordered detention. Courts must provide indigent defendants with free legal counsel. Police often failed to inform defendants of this right. The AHC and several NGOs offered free legal advice and advocacy services to indigent persons. The law requires completion of most pretrial investigations within three months; however, a prosecutor may extend this period to two years or longer. The law provides that the maximum pretrial detention should not exceed three years; there were no reports during the year that this limit was violated. However, lengthy pretrial detentions often occurred due to delayed investigations, defense mistakes, or the failure of defense counsel to appear. Limited material resources, lack of space, poor court calendar management, and insufficient staff prevented the court system from adjudicating cases in a timely fashion. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, political pressure, intimidation, widespread corruption, and limited resources sometimes prevented the judiciary from functioning independently and efficiently. The judicial system is composed of district courts, the serious crimes court, military courts, and appellate courts. There is a High Court that hears appeals from the appellate courts, and a Constitutional Court that reviews cases involving constitutional interpretation and conflicts between branches of government and cases of individuals alleging denial of due process. The High Council of Justice has authority to appoint, discipline, and dismiss district and appeals court judges. The council consists of the president, the justice minister, the head of the High Court, nine judges selected by the National Judicial Conference, and three members selected by the parliament. Judges may appeal their dismissal to the High Court. On February 16, the Constitutional Court suspended and referred to the Council of Europe's Venice Commission for further review the controversial ``lustration'' law, which allows the dismissal from office of a wide range of officials who participated in ``political processes'' while serving in higher-level positions under the Communist government. Adjudication of these cases was to be addressed by an extrajudicial commission appointed by the government-controlled parliament. The law appeared aimed at achieving the government's partisan political ends. In October the Venice Commission ruled that the lustration law, as written, does not comply with the country's constitution. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights issued a judgment against the country for violation of Article 6 (right to a fair trial) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial with defendants presumed innocent until convicted. The court system does not provide for jury trials. Prosecutors and defense lawyers present cases to a judge or panel of judges, and defendants have the right to access all evidence that prosecutors present to the judges. Defendants have the right to appeal. The law mandates an alternative sentencing system for juveniles. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees; however, former political prisoners under the Communist government complained that they had either not received the compensation due them under the law or that payments were coming too slowly. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is a functional civil law system where citizens have access to redress; however, it was susceptible to corruption, inefficiency, and political tampering. The Bailiff's Office is responsible for enforcing civil judgments. The law allows private bailiffs to enforce judgments, facilitating both private and public entities to help enforce rulings. However, the law was not enforced during the year. Property Restitution.--The laws governing restitution or compensation for private and religious property confiscated during the Communist era are complex, and a large number of cases involving conflicting claims by new owners and the state, on one side, and former owners on the other remained unresolved. In September 2008 the European Parliament released a briefing paper on property restitution in the country which noted that the first round of judgments of the European Court of Human Rights had found ``serious deficiencies'' in the administrative and judicial system of the country with respect to property restitution and compensation of former owners. Other problems identified in the paper included the government's slowness in setting up restitution administrative structures in the Property Restitution and Compensation Agency at both the central and regional department level and the domination of the restitution process by informal and corrupt transactions. During the year the government provided 1.2 billion lek ($12 million) in compensation to former owners of private property. As in previous years, the government did not provide restitution or compensation to religious organizations for religious properties and objects that the former Communist government confiscated or damaged. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press. While the government generally respected these rights, there were reports that the government and businesses exerted covert pressure on the media. While the media were active and largely unrestrained, there were serious problems with the misuse of the media for political purposes. These problems worsened during and after the election campaign, with most media outlets showing clear bias towards the two largest political parties and public media outlets showing a distinct bias toward the ruling Democratic Party. Individuals could generally criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, although there were some exceptions. The public Albanian Radio and Television operated a national television channel and a national radio station and, by law, receives 50 percent of its budget from the government. The station remained under strict government control in its editorial line. At times political pressure and lack of funding constrained the independent print media. There were cases of direct and indirect government pressure on the media, including direct threats against journalists. Journalists reported that they practiced extensive self-censorship. The investigative role of the media continued to increase. A popular investigative satirical show, Fiks Fare, led to dismissals and criminal cases against corrupt public officials, including a minister accused of sexual misconduct. On January 6, a court suspended the Ministry of Interior-ordered eviction in December 2008 of Tema, a newspaper that had been critical of the ruling party, purportedly on ``national security'' grounds. The court ordered that the newspaper be allowed to continue publishing until the legal process was completed. However, in defiance of that ruling, the government continued to deny newspaper staff members access to the printing press or newspaper offices as of year's end. In the spring, the Council of Ministers modified its 2006 decision to break its 20-year lease of space to Top Channel, a private television station that was sometimes critical of the government, and order the station to vacate the state-owned office building in which it was located. The council agreed to allow Top Channel to move to another state-owned property. On September 14, the Ministry of Economy notified Top Channel that it had to vacate premises at the so-called ``Ekspozita,'' where some of its activities were conducted, due to privatization procedures, thus terminating Top Channel's lease contract. The ministry stated that it had alerted the station during the previous two years to the privatization, a claim the station rejected as untrue. The station alleged that these actions were reprisals for its editorial line. On September 15, a ministry spokesperson stated that the lease had ceased to exist after the privatization of the building. Several court hearings after the station filed a lawsuit contesting the government's decision were postponed during the year. The case was ongoing at year's end. The law punishes libel with a prison sentence of up to two years and a fine. During the year there were no libel suits against reporters. However, two media outlets, Vision Plus and Shekulli, filed libel suits against the prime minister in December for prejudicial public statements made against them in parliament. Court hearings were ongoing at year's end. Politicization of the media remained a concern that worsened during the election campaign. For the first time, political parties sent tapes of campaign footage for the stations' use to replace the stations' own coverage of campaign events. Publishers and newspaper owners continued to direct news stories to serve their political and economic interests and sometimes blocked stories that ran counter to those interests. There was minimal transparency in the financing of the media. Various forms of media intimidation continued. Journalists continued to complain that publishers and editors censored their work, either directly or indirectly in response to political and commercial pressures. Many journalists complained that their lack of employment contracts frequently hindered their ability to report objectively. On November 2, an outspoken government critic, journalist Mero Baze, owner of the Tema newspaper and host of a talk show on Vision Plus, was assaulted outside a nightclub in Tirana. Witnesses stated that he was assaulted by Rezart Taci, a prominent businessman and close government associate, and his bodyguards for Baze's reporting on alleged corruption in the privatization of ARMO, the country's state- owned oil refinery, which the government had earlier sold to Taci. At year's end, police were investigating the incident and the accused businessman and two of his bodyguards were free on bail awaiting trial. Political parties, trade unions, and other groups published newspapers or magazines independent of government influence. An estimated 200 publications were available, including daily and weekly newspapers, magazines, newsletters, and pamphlets. According to official data, the country had 64 private television stations and 44 private radio stations, but the actual number was reportedly higher. While stations generally operated free of direct government influence, most owners believed that the content of their broadcasts could influence government action toward their other businesses. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Access to the Internet increased exponentially during the year, but remained limited, particularly outside major urban areas. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 15 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet; however, there were other reports that usage could be as high as 30 percent. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. The law provides for the election of university rectors by faculty members and students. General elections took place in January 2008 at all public universities. There were claims that the election process was manipulated in the ballot counting process. There were also reports of pressure exerted on some students during the elections. Corruption in the education system was extensive. University officials reportedly required payments for students to gain admission. For a fee, professors were reputedly willing to write papers or complete assignments for students, who routinely skipped classes. Officials sometimes required bribes or sexual favors from students for them to matriculate or pass examinations. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The law requires organizers of gatherings in public places to notify police three days in advance; there were no reports that police arbitrarily denied such gatherings. On the eve of the June elections, however, the government used police to obstruct the opposition's preparations for its final campaign rally. The dispute was resolved only through international intercession. The law prohibits the formation of any political party or organization that is nontransparent or secretive; there were no reports that the government used this provision against any group during the year. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The predominant religious communities--Sunni Muslim, Bektashi Muslim, Orthodox, and Roman Catholic--enjoyed a greater degree of official recognition (for example, national holidays) and social status than some other religious groups. The government does not require registration or licensing of religious groups. The constitution calls for separate bilateral agreements to regulate relations between the government and religious communities. In October 2008 the government signed agreements with the Muslim, Orthodox, and Bektashi communities. The Catholic Church has had such an agreement with the government since 2002. VUSH, a Protestant umbrella organization, has asked to conclude a bilateral agreement. Among the advantages of having an agreement are official recognition of the community, prioritized property restitution, and tax exemptions. Government financial support and state-subsidized clergy salaries are to be implemented, based on a law on the financing of religious communities passed on June 5. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reportedly fewer than 100 Jews living in the country; there were no known functioning synagogues or community centers, and no reports of anti-Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Internal migrants must transfer their civil registration to their new community of residence to receive government services and must prove they are legally domiciled through property ownership, a property rental agreement, or utility bills. Many persons could not provide this proof and thus lacked access to essential services. Other citizens lacked formal registration in the communities in which they resided, particularly Roma and Balkan Egyptians. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Under the law requests for asylum must be made within 10 days of arrival on the country's soil, and the government must make the decision regarding granting asylum within 51 days of the initial request. The government actively cooperated with the UNHCR and the Refugee and Migrants Services Albania, which provided assistance to refugees. The government provided temporary protection to refugees and individuals who may not qualify as refugees and provided it to 99 persons during the year. In cooperation with international organizations, the government, through the EU's Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stabilization program, prescreened undocumented migrants at all border crossing points. Under the program, an NGO and government team assisted border police in identifying undocumented migrants who were potential victims of trafficking, asylum seekers, or economic migrants. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On June 28, the country held parliamentary elections. The official report of the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) election observation mission stated that the election met most OSCE commitments, but nevertheless ``did not fully realize the country's potential to adhere to the highest standards for democratic elections.'' While the elections took place in a highly polarized environment and media coverage was decidedly skewed in favor of the two largest parties, the Democratic Party (DP) and the SP, 34 parties campaigned freely throughout the country. ODIHR observers assessed voting positively in 92 per cent of voting centers visited but noted a number of procedural violations, such as proxy voting. Press coverage was heavily biased in favor of the government and the major opposition party, at the expense of smaller parties. There were numerous allegations, of which several were corroborated, of pressure to attend DP campaign events or to desist from opposition activities, often accompanied by threats of job loss. The government repeatedly used official events, including inaugurations of infrastructure projects, for campaign purposes. According to ODIHR, the government consistently misused state resources--vehicles, personnel, telecommunications, and duplicating equipment--to assist campaigning. The head of the SP also used official events in his capacity as mayor of Tirana to campaign for the SP, although less frequently. According to the new electoral code, only identification cards or passports could be used as identification for voting. The distribution of identification cards to allow citizens without passports to vote started in January and was largely completed in time for elections. A concerted effort by the international community led to an agreement to accelerate delivery and lower the cost of the cards. There were no major disputes over identification cards on election day. Of over 1.4 million applications for identification cards, all but 3,321 were processed before election day. Approximately 257,000 citizens without a passport did not apply. Due to administrative shortcomings, ODIHR observers assessed the vote count as bad or very bad in 22 of the 66 ballot-counting centers. Nevertheless, the ODIHR mission found no evidence of irregular counting or manipulation of results and no major irregularities at the centers. However, the opposition contested these apparently contradictory conclusions, and a small political party aired video footage seemingly showing vote counting irregularities in at least one polling station. Opposition demands for recounts were denied by the Central Election Committee on a party-line vote. The bipartisan Electoral College also generally denied recount requests. The postelection appeals process was conducted in a professional manner and appeared to be expedited, according to the ODIHR mission. The final declaration on the seat allocation and electoral results passed the CEC by a unanimous vote of both major parties. After the elections, the main opposition party, the SP, boycotted parliament and called for investigations into alleged electoral fraud and demanded the opening of the ballot boxes from the June 28 elections. The ruling DP declared that opening the ballot boxes would be illegal, arguing that the opposition had exhausted all legal appeal remedies provided for in the electoral code. The boycott was ongoing at year's end. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. Overall, women were poorly represented at the national and local levels of government, despite commitments by the major political parties to increase their representation. After the June 28 elections, there were 23 women in the 140-seat parliament, an increase from nine in the previous parliament. These included the speaker and one woman on the Council of Ministers. The law mandates that women fill 30 percent of appointed and elected positions, and the electoral code provides that 30 percent of candidates should be women. However, not all parties followed the electoral code, and many placed women's names in low spots on the ballot, virtually assuring that they would not win a seat in parliament under the country's regional proportional parliamentary system in which votes are allocated to candidates in order of their appearance on the ballot. Several members of the Greek minority served in the parliament and in the executive branch in ministerial and subministerial positions, including as the minister of labor. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, despite several arrests of high-level local and central government officials, government corruption remained a major obstacle to meaningful reform. World Bank governance indices for 2008 indicated that corruption was a serious problem. The government prosecuted corrupt officials and managed complaints regarding corrupt police through the ombudsman. During the year the government's anticorruption task force against organized crime continued to coordinate anticorruption activities. The task force, headed by the prime minister, included several ministers and heads of independent state-owned agencies, such as the public electricity company and representatives of the police and intelligence organizations. The law prohibits government ministers and their close family members from owning a company directly tied to their official responsibilities. Since its inception in 2003, the High Inspectorate for the Declaration and Audit of Assets (HIDAA) received assets declarations from 9,413 officials. During the year there were 424 new officials who declared their assets for the first time. HIDAA administers conflict of interest regulations and during the year fined 27 individuals for delaying their submissions and fined three for conflict of interest. During the year the Ministry of Interior reported that the state police investigated 1,610 cases related to corruption and financial crimes. Authorities arrested 2,049 persons. The government confiscated approximately 700 million lek ($7 million) in assets, of which 550 million lek ($5.5 million) was from money laundering; the remainder was in contraband goods and illegal products. According to the Ministry of Interior, police dismantled 24 organized criminal groups in 38 police operations. However, organized crime remained a serious problem. The Joint Investigative Unit to Fight Economic Crime and Corruption (JIU) investigated and prosecuted public corruption and other financial crimes, although its ability to investigate and prosecute corrupt judges, members of parliament, and other high officials was hampered by broad immunity from criminal prosecution granted by the constitution. The JIU was composed of the prosecutor general, the ministers of interior and finance, and the director of SHISH. The JIU used a team structure to concentrate capacity and foster communication necessary for effective investigations and prosecutions. The JIU received direct referrals from citizens. During the year the JIU prosecuted two former mayors of a commune near Tirana for a property fraud scheme. They were convicted of corruption, money laundering, and other charges along with three other officials and two citizens. The trial court imposed sentences ranging from three to six years in prison; however, the Court of Appeals subsequently reduced some of the charges and most of the sentences, cutting the longest sentence to three years. In a highly charged case involving restitution of property in the Kashar Commune, seven persons were convicted of corruption, money laundering, and other charges. This small commune, between Tirana and Durres, contains valuable land adjacent to the main highway. The seven agreed to a summary trial to reduce their sentences. The court imposed prison sentences ranging from three to six years on five former officials, including two former chairmen of the commune, and fines ranging from one million to six million lek ($10,000 to $60,000). Two commune citizens were convicted of money laundering and falsification of documents, with one of them receiving the heaviest sentence of the group--six years and eight months in prison. In a Ministry of Defense procurement fraud case, three of four defendants were convicted, including Shkelzen Madani, the resource management director. Madani, convicted of passive corruption and falsification of documents, was sentenced to two-and-a-half years in prison, a 1.8 million lek ($18,000) fine, and was prohibited from holding public office for one year. Madani, a close associate of former minister of defense Fatmir Mediu, and others received an estimated 2,000 euros ($2,860) in bribes for each ammunition import and export license that the Ministry of Defense issued to civilian entities. Two other defendants were convicted and sentenced to less than two years' imprisonment. In September the prosecution dismissed charges against former foreign minister Lulzim Basha, who was indicted for abuse of office in connection with the country's largest public works project, on technical grounds relating to his immunity as the new minister of interior. During the year the Supreme Court ruled that former minister of defense Fatmir Mediu was immune from prosecution in connection with the investigation of the 2008 explosion at a demilitarization warehouse in Gerdec that resulted in the deaths of 26 persons. Mediu's immunity, which had been revoked in 2008, was reinstated upon his reelection to parliament on June 28. As a result, the case was dismissed. As of year's end, there had been no request from the prosecutor general to lift Mediu's immunity. Citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media, have the right to obtain information about the activities of government bodies and persons who exercise official state functions; however, citizens often faced serious problems in obtaining information from public and government institutions. The law requires public officials to release all information and official documents with the exception of classified documents and state secrets. Most government ministries and agencies posted public information directly on their Web sites. However, businesses and citizens complained of a lack of transparency and the failure to publish regulations or legislation that should be basic public information. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials generally cooperated and responded to their views. A group of human rights NGOs collaborated to produce a human rights report on the country that was published in December. The government cooperated with international organizations, such as the UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration, and did not restrict their access. The human rights ombudsman has the authority to monitor judicial proceedings and inspect detention and prison facilities; the ombudsman can initiate cases in which a victim is unwilling or unable to come forward. Although the ombudsman lacked the power to enforce decisions, he acted as a monitor for human rights violations. The most common cases included citizen complaints of police and military abuse of power, lack of enforcement of court judgments in civil cases, wrongful dismissal, and land disputes. In many cases, the government took concrete steps to correct problems in response to the findings of the ombudsman. Cooperation improved between the Ministry of Interior and the ombudsman, and the government implemented some suggestions made by the ombudsman. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, ethnicity, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not effectively enforce these prohibitions, and discrimination against women, Balkan Egyptians, Roma, and homosexual persons persisted. Women.--The criminal code penalizes rape, including spousal rape; however, victims rarely reported spousal abuse, and officials did not prosecute spousal rape in practice. The concept of spousal rape was not well established, and authorities and the public often did not consider it a crime. The law imposes penalties for rape and assault depending on the age of the victim. For rape of an adult, the prison term is three to 10 years; for rape of an adolescent between the ages of 14 and 18, the term is five to 15 years and, for rape of a child under age 14, the sentence is seven to 15 years. Domestic violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a serious problem. During the year police reported 1,063 cases of domestic violence and the government pressed charges in 747 cases. The department of equal opportunities at the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunity covers women's issues, including domestic violence. The government did not fund specific programs to combat domestic violence or assist victims, although nonprofit organizations provided assistance. NGOs reported that an estimated eight domestic violence hotlines operated. The hotlines, serving mainly the northern part of the country, each received approximately 25 calls per month from women reporting some form of violence. NGOs operated four shelters for battered women in Tirana, Vlora, Elbasan, and Gjirokaster. NGOs noted an increase in reports of domestic violence, primarily due to increased awareness of services. In many communities, particularly those in the northeast, women were subjected to societal discrimination as a result of traditional social norms that considered women to be subordinate to men. The law prohibits prostitution; however, it remained a problem. The law prohibits sexual harassment; however, officials rarely enforced the law. In March the prime minister fired the minister of culture, youth, tourism, and sports, Ylli Pango, one hour after a popular television program broadcast a video taken by a hidden camera showing Pango requesting sexual favors from a young woman in exchange for a job in his ministry. An investigation of Pango terminated in December due to lack of evidence other than the video, which was deemed entrapment by prosecutors. Reproductive rights are respected by the government. Citizens have access to contraception. Under the law, health care is provided to all citizens; however, the quality of and access to care, including obstetric and postpartum care, was not satisfactory, especially in the remote rural areas. The law provides equal rights for men and women under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. Neither the law nor practice excluded women from any occupation; however, they were not well represented at the highest levels of their fields. The law mandates equal pay for equal work; however, the government and employers did not fully implement this provision. Children.--In general, parents must register their children in the same community where they registered. However, according to the Children's Rights Center of Albania (CRCA), children born to internal migrants frequently had no birth certificates or other legal documentation and, as a result, were unable to attend school. The law provides for nine years of free education and authorizes private schools. School attendance is mandatory through the ninth grade or until age 16, whichever comes first; however, in practice many children left school earlier than the law allowed to work with their families, particularly in rural areas. Parents had to purchase supplies, books, uniforms, and space heaters for some classrooms, which was prohibitively expensive for many families, particularly Roma and other minorities. Many families also cited these costs as a reason for not sending girls to school. According to 2007-08 Ministry of Education figures, public school secondary school enrollment (ages 15 to 18 years) for both boys and girls was 96.7 percent, primary school attendance (ages six to 14 years) was 99.1 percent, and the school dropout rate was 0.9 percent. In December the ministry announced a new program designed to decrease the dropout rate further by providing textbooks on a reimbursement basis for qualifying families and transportation to and from school. As in previous years, child abuse, including sexual abuse, occurred occasionally, although victims rarely reported it. Trafficking of girls for commercial sexual exploitation was a problem. Children were also trafficked to Greece and Kosovo and within the country for begging and other forms of child labor in both formal and informal sectors. Child marriage remained a problem in many Roma families and typically occurred when children were 13 or 14 years old. Displaced and street children remained a problem, particularly Romani children, who made up 90 percent of street children. Street children begged or did petty work; some migrated to neighboring countries, particularly during the summer. These children were at highest risk of internal trafficking and some became trafficking victims. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes and provides penalties for traffickers; however, individuals and organized crime syndicates trafficked persons, particularly women and children, from and within the country. The country was a source country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor, including forced begging and agricultural work. Victims were trafficked primarily to Greece, but also to Italy, Macedonia, Kosovo, Spain, France, the United Kingdom, and other West European countries as well as within the country. Trafficking in persons is punishable by law, with criminal penalties ranging from five to 15 years in prison for sex trafficking offenses and from four to 15 years for labor trafficking. Fines from 50,000 to four million lek ($500 to $40,000) accompany prison sentences in criminal cases. Civil remedies are also available. During the year the government increased its investigations and prosecutions for trafficking in persons offenses. By year's end, police referred 14 new trafficking cases to the General Prosecutor's Office, a decline from the previous year, when authorities investigated 20 persons on trafficking charges. The Prosecution Office for Serious Crimes has 24 cases under proceedings; seven of these were registered during the year. Authorities referred five cases to the Serious Crimes Court; the court prosecuted 31 persons, convicting 11 of trafficking. The court sentenced seven offenders to between 15 and 16 1/2 years in prison; it fined six offenders seven million lek ($70,000). In separate cases during the year, the Supreme Court reversed the convictions of three traffickers on several grounds, including the prohibition on the alleged victims--the convicted traffickers' wives-- testifying against them in court. The government continued its slow implementation of the national action plan to provide services to victims of trafficking. The government provided limited services to trafficking victims, operating a shelter near Tirana; however, it did not provide financial assistance to the four nongovernment shelters. The National Strategy on the Fight against Trafficking in Human Beings was the primary vehicle through which the government addressed trafficking. Through the strategy, the government offered training to 270 personnel and sponsored dozens of public awareness campaigns during the year to prevent trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities; however, employers, schools, health care providers, and providers of other state services sometimes discriminated against persons with disabilities. The law mandates that new public buildings be accessible to persons with disabilities, but the government only sporadically enforced the law. Widespread poverty, unregulated working conditions, and poor medical care posed significant problems for many persons with disabilities. During the year the ombudsman continued to inspect mental health institutions and found that physical conditions in facilities in Vlora and Shkoder were improved. However, the ombudsman also found these same facilities were understaffed and poorly supplied and that hygienic and sanitary conditions were unacceptable. The ombudsman, who conducted inspections in 2008 and 2009 in Elbasan, Shkoder, and Vlore, recommended a major legal, organizational, and budgetary review of the country's mental health care system. A special report on the status of mental health treatment was sent to parliament in June 2008; however, no action had been taken. The admission and release of patients at mental health institutions was a problem due to lack of sufficient financial resources to provide adequate psychiatric evaluations. The electoral code provides for wheelchair-accessible voting booths and special accommodations for blind persons to vote. According to ODIHR, more than 2,000 voters with disabilities who lacked a valid passport could not apply for a new identification card because application centers were difficult or impossible to access. Homebound voters also were not able to apply, as there were no mobile application workstations. After a slow start, ballots for the blind were available for the June 28 elections but were missing in some voting centers. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There were reports of societal discrimination. As visible minorities, members of the Romani and Balkan Egyptian communities suffered significant societal abuse and discrimination. The law permits official minority status for national groups and separately for ethnolinguistic groups. The government defined Greeks, Macedonians, and Montenegrins as national groups; Greeks constituted the largest of these. The law defined Aromanians (Vlachs) and Roma as ethnolinguistic minority groups. In October the Council of Ministers approved the National Action Plan for the Roma and Egyptian Involvement Decade for the 2010-15 period. The total budget for implementing the five-year plan was expected to be nearly 2.5 billion lek ($25 million). The ethnic Greek minority pursued grievances with the government regarding electoral zones, Greek-language education, property rights, and government documents. Minority leaders cited the government's unwillingness to recognize ethnic Greek towns outside Communist-era ``minority zones''; to utilize Greek in official documents and on public signs in ethnic Greek areas; to ascertain the size of the ethnic Greek population; or to include a higher number of ethnic Greeks in public administration. In April, Vasil Bollano, the ethnic Greek mayor of Himara was found guilty of abuse of office. He was sentenced to six months in prison, fined an estimated $5,000, and prohibited from holding public office for three years. The case was under appeal at year's end. The case originated in 2008, when Bollano was charged with destruction of government property after he ordered the removal of several new road signs in the Himara district because they were written in Albanian and English but not Greek. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There are no laws criminalizing sexual orientation, and the law does not differentiate between types of sexual relationships. There were few lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) organizations in the country, although their numbers and activities were starting to grow. The groups operated without interference from police or other state actors, largely because they generally were discrete. There were repeated reports that individuals were beaten, fired from their employment, or subjected to discrimination due to their sexual orientation. Often these cases went unreported. In June a man allegedly murdered his brother due to his sexual orientation. The murderer pled guilty and was sentenced to eight years in prison. In August four men were arrested in Durres for prostitution and engaging in public sexual activity. The men claimed police discriminated against them, since police officers often did not arrest female prostitutes and their clients when apprehended. Without an antidiscrimination law, societal discrimination based on sexual orientation was a constant. There were several informal reports of harassment, denial of service, and employment discrimination due to sexual orientation. For example, homosexual customers were sometimes denied service in bars and restaurants. There were reports of LGBT persons being harassed on the streets. They often did not report criminal or civil offenses committed against them from fear of economic and physical reprisals. LGBT persons are not a protected class under the law. NGOs claimed that police routinely harassed homosexual persons. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Workers have the right to form independent unions and they exercised this right in practice; however, the law prohibits members of the military and senior government officials from joining unions and requires that a trade union have at least 20 members to be registered. Approximately 15 percent of the workforce belonged to unions. The law provides the right to strike for all workers except civil servants, and workers exercised this right in practice. Civil servants do not have the right to strike; this applies to the uniformed military, police, indispensable medical and hospital personnel, persons providing air traffic control and prison services, and both essential and nonessential workers in water and electrical utilities. The law prohibits strikes that courts judge to be political. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Citizens in all fields of civilian employment have the constitutional right to organize and bargain collectively, and the law establishes procedures for the protection of workers' rights through collective bargaining agreements. However, labor unions operated from a weak position. In practice unions representing public sector employees negotiated directly with the government. Effective collective bargaining remained difficult, and agreements were hard to enforce. During the year the parliament adopted a law requiring workers' representative bodies in enterprises with 20 or more employees to inform workers of all issues affecting them and their companies. The law does not prohibit antiunion discrimination, and there were some reports of such occurrences. According to the Independent Trade Union of Textile, Garment, and Leather Workers, employers in the textile, garment, leather, and footwear sectors regarded trade unions as enemies. Reportedly, they threatened international relocation if workers unionized. In October the parliament passed a law that would sequester properties belonging to the country's trade unions. The International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine, and General Workers' Unions filed a lawsuit against this law. The law established economic zones and industrial parks, and the government subsequently approved six industrial parks for development. As of January, these parks were in development. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, women and children were trafficked for sexual exploitation and labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law criminalizes exploitation of children for labor or forced services; however, the government did not enforce the law effectively. According to a CRCA estimate released during the year, more than 50,000 children under 18 years of age worked either full or part time. The CRCA reported that the majority of child laborers worked as street or shop vendors, beggars, farmers or shepherds, drug runners, vehicle washers, textile factory workers, miners, or shoeshine boys. Research suggested that begging, whether forced or not, started at a young age--as early as four or five years--and was related to poverty and discrimination. Police generally ignored these practices. In January 2008 the criminal code was amended to include the exploitation of children for begging as a separate criminal offense. The law sets the minimum age of employment at 14 years and regulates the amount and type of labor that children under the age of 18 may perform. Children between the ages of 14 and 16 may work legally in part-time jobs during summer vacation; children between the ages of 16 and 18 can work throughout the year in certain specified jobs. The law provides that the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunity is responsible for enforcing minimum age requirements through the courts; however, there were no reports that enforcement took place. Labor inspectors generally only investigated the formal labor sector, whereas most child labor occurred in the informal sector. The majority that they inspected were shoe and textile factories. In March 2008 a massive explosion killed several illegally employed children at a munitions dump in the town of Gerdec. The explosion killed 26 persons and injured hundreds of others, some seriously. The government, together with several NGOs and international donors, had some specific programs aimed at preventing illegal child labor. During the year the Child Labor Unit at the Ministry of Labor continued implementing the second phase of its child labor monitoring initiative in the regions of Elbasan and Shkoder. As a result of those efforts, 315 children were withdrawn from various forms of employment and returned to school. In addition, the Ministry of Tourism established a code of conduct for preventing child sex tourism that was signed by 24 tourist agencies and hotels. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage since May was 18,000 lek ($180) per month. However, it was not sufficient to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. According to INSTAT, the average wage for government workers was 42,000 lek ($420) per month. The Albanian Institute of Statistics also reported that average monthly wages in the public sector had increased 16 percent from 2008. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunity has the responsibility for enforcing minimum wage compliance. The law establishes a 40-hour workweek; however, individual or collective agreements typically set the actual workweek. Many persons worked six days a week. The law requires payment of overtime and rest periods; however, employers did not always observe these provisions in practice. The government had no standards for a minimum number of rest periods per week, no limits on the maximum number of hours worked per week, and no regulations regarding premium pay for overtime; it did not prohibit excessive compulsory overtime. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunity is responsible for enforcing government occupational health and safety standards and regulations; however, enforcement was lacking overall. Workplace conditions were frequently very poor and in some cases dangerous. During the year the media reported a number of job-related deaths, particularly in the construction and mining industries. The chromium mines of Bulqiza continued to be among the most dangerous workplaces in the country, with at least 16 deaths reported from April 2007 to the end of the 2008. During the year miners at Bulqiza conducted a hunger strike to protest the poor working conditions; the miners suspended the strike to give the government time to draft proposals to improve work conditions and to pass a special miners' status bill. The government had not made a proposal by year's end. The law does not provide workers the right to remove themselves from hazardous situations without jeopardy to their employment. __________ ANDORRA The Principality of Andorra is a constitutional parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 84,500. Two princes--the president of France and the Spanish bishop of La Seu d'Urgell--serve with joint authority as heads of state, and a delegate represents each in the country. In April the country held free and fair multiparty elections for the 28 seats in the General Council of the Valleys, which selects the head of government. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The ombudsman reported prolonged pretrial detention and violence against women and children. The law does not protect the right of workers to form and join unions or unions' right to bargain collectively and to strike. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated or other disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police, the country's only security force. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption, and there were no reports of impunity involving police during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Warrants are required for arrest. Police may legally detain persons for 48 hours without charging them with a crime. The law allows detainees to have access to an attorney no later than 25 hours after arrest, and the government observes these legal provisions in practice. Persons charged with a crime can either choose their own lawyer or accept one designated by authorities. A system of bail exists. Cases of foreigners, who represented 75 percent of those arrested and awaiting trial, accounted for most of the lengthy detention cases, primarily because in most such cases two or even three countries might be involved. Pretrial detainees accounted for approximately 30 percent of the prison population. The ombudsman criticized the lengthy pretrial periods. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public, and defendants can request a jury. Defendants have the right to be present and consult with an attorney in a timely manner. If a defendant facing serious criminal charges cannot afford an attorney, the government must appoint a public attorney. Defendants and attorneys have access to government-held evidence in their cases. Defendants can confront or question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. The law extends the rights to all citizens with no exception. Defendants have the right to appeal. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The judiciary is independent and impartial in civil matters, and plaintiffs can bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. No administrative remedies are available for alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 70 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for the freedoms of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Under the constitution, the Roman Catholic Church and the state have a special relationship; one of the two constitutionally designated princes of the country is the bishop in the Spanish town of La Seu d'Urgell. The government pays the salaries of Catholic priests and religion teachers, who teach the Roman Catholic religion in the public schools as an optional course outside regular school hours. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of anti- Semitic acts against the approximately 100-person Jewish community. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution and law prohibit forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. The law does not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status. However, the government has from time to time cooperated with the UNHCR and other organizations in assisting refugees ``for humanitarian reasons.'' In practice, the country provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--General Council elections in April were considered free and fair. Individuals and parties could freely declare their candidacy and stand for election. There were nine women in the 28-seat General Council and two women in the six-seat cabinet. One of the five judges of the Supreme Court of Justice is a woman. Citizens are ethnically and linguistically homogeneous but represent only 36 percent of the total population. Only citizens have the right to vote and to hold official positions; consequently, there were no members of minorities in government. The population largely consists of immigrants from Spain, Portugal, and France. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. The chief of police is responsible for combating corruption. There were no reports of government corruption during the year. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government has permitted access in practice for citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The ombudsman enjoyed the government's cooperation and operated without government interference. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law declare all persons equal before the law and prohibit discrimination on grounds of birth, race, gender, origin, opinions, or any other personal or social condition; however, the law reserves a few rights and privileges exclusively to citizens. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape; rape is punishable by up to 15 years' imprisonment. Authorities enforced the law effectively. There is no specific law prohibiting domestic violence, although other laws may be applicable in such cases. Victims of domestic violence could request help from the Andorran International Women's Association (AIWA) and the Andorran Women's Association (AWA), but victims rarely filed a complaint with the police due to fear of reprisal. The two associations reported that some women complained about the treatment they received from police when they filed a complaint. The government did not have any shelter, but it operated a hotline and provided medical and psychological services to victims of domestic violence. The government and AIWA placed abused women and their children in the private apartments of persons who agreed to provide shelter to them. Caritas, a religious NGO, worked closely with the government and AIWA on social issues. According to the Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Family, there were 162 reports of physical abuse against women until the end of November, a 40-percent increase from 2008. Authorities prosecuted approximately 50 persons for violence against women. Prostitution is illegal and was not a problem. The law does not prohibit sexual harassment. According to an local women's rights organization, only two women formally reported sexual harassment cases to the police. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely the number of children they wish to have. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. The law prohibits discrimination against women privately or professionally; however, the AWA reported that there were some cases of women dismissed from employment due to pregnancy. Observers estimated that women earned 35 percent less than men for comparable work; this gap appeared to be decreasing slowly. The government is making efforts to combat pay discrimination in general, and it applied pay equality within the government. There are no limitations on women's participation in the labor market, and the government has encouraged them to participate in politics. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis); birth in the country's territory does not confer citizenship. Legal immigrants may obtain citizenship after 20 years of residence in the country. Children of residents may obtain citizenship after age 18 if they have resided virtually all of their life in the country. Dual nationality is not permitted. Violence against children persisted. According to data from November, 159 minors were treated for various forms of abuse. The country's general law against rape also covers statutory rape. Child pornography is illegal and carries a prison sentence of up to four years. The age of majority, 18 years, is also the age of consent. The penalty for statutory rape is the same as for rape in general: 15 years' imprisonment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for labor exploitation, and there were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the country. Trafficking for purposes of labor exploitation is punishable by up to five years' imprisonment and by fines of up to 180,000 euros (approximately $257,400). There is no law that specifically penalizes human trafficking for sexual exploitation, but such cases could be prosecuted as trafficking for labor exploitation. The government agencies responsible for dealing with trafficking are the Department of the Interior and the Department of Social Welfare. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services, and the government enforced it effectively. Nevertheless, societal discrimination against persons with disabilities existed on a small scale in the form of social and cultural barriers. Persons with disabilities also faced disadvantages in the labor market. The law mandates access to public buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced this provision. In December 2008 the government approved a decree that ordered ordinary schools to adapt infrastructure to the needs of children with disabilities. More than 100 children with disabilities are currently attending modified schools. An association for persons with disabilities operates in the principality. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--No lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender organizations exist in the principality, and no gay marches occurred during the year. On the basis of constitutional guarantees of the right to freedom of ideas, religion, and ideology, the government acts against any discrimination that may occur in the country. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. However, the government bars immigrants with HIV/AIDS. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution recognizes that workers have the right to form trade unions to defend their economic and social interests. In January the government approved a labor relations law to protect the right of unions to operate. National and international unions, however, criticized the law because it does not provide the right to strike. No strikes occurred during the year. Alternate dispute mechanisms such as mediation and arbitration exist. In practice the government lacked mechanisms to protect worker rights. Workers were reluctant to admit to union membership, fearing retaliation by their employers, and unions did not make their membership numbers public. However, on May 1 (Labor Day), the government permitted workers to conduct a peaceful demonstration calling on the government to approve a law allowing the right to strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law does not specifically provide for collective bargaining. Collective bargaining did not occur. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--Slavery or forced and compulsory labor is punishable by a maximum of 12 years' imprisonment. There were no reports that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits children under the age of 16 from working, except in limited circumstances when school is not in session. The labor inspection office in the Ministry of Social Welfare, Public Health, and Labor effectively enforced child labor regulations. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 7.60 euros (approximately $10.90) per hour and 915.20 euros (approximately $1,309) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family due to the high cost of living. The government sets the national minimum wage administratively and adjusts it twice a year. Wages increased at a slower rate than housing and lodging costs. The labor inspection office enforced the minimum wage effectively. The law limits the standard workweek to five eight-hour days. Workers may work up to two overtime hours per day or 15 hours per week, 50 hours per month, and 426 hours per year. The law provides for premium pay of time plus 25 percent the first four hours and time plus 50 percent the following four hours. There is a required rest period of 12 hours between working shifts. The labor inspection service sets occupational health and safety standards and had the authority to levy sanctions and fines against companies violating them. Although the law authorizes employees to refuse certain tasks if their employers do not provide the necessary level of protection, it does not provide workers the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment. During the year the labor inspection service received more than 200 complaints against companies for violating labor regulations. For the first time in years, accidents at work diminished; from January through November there were 4,043. __________ ARMENIA Armenia is a constitutional republic with a population of approximately 3.2 million. The constitution provides for an elected president and a unicameral legislature (the National Assembly). The country has a multiparty political system. The significantly flawed February 2008 presidential election and violent break-up of ensuing protests that resulted in 10 deaths continued to fuel a political crisis that remained largely unresolved during the year and resulted in numerous human rights abuses. In April 2008 Serzh Sargsian of the Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) was sworn in as president, replacing Robert Kocharian. In the National Assembly, the RPA continued to dominate the ruling coalition, which decreased from four parties to three on April 27, when the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutiun) resigned from the coalition citing differences over the conduct of foreign policy. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces, although some members of the security forces continued to commit human rights abuses with impunity while under the direction of civilian leadership. Authorities restricted the right of citizens to freely change their government in mayoral elections in Yerevan. During the year authorities subjected citizens, particularly those considered by the government to be political opponents, to arbitrary arrest, detention, and imprisonment for their political activities; lengthy pretrial detention also continued to be a problem. Authorities continued to use harassment and intrusive application of bureaucratic measures to intimidate and retaliate against political opponents. Authorities used force to disperse political demonstrations and constrain citizens seeking to publicize them. Police beat pretrial detainees and failed to provide due process in some cases. The National Security Service (NSS) and police acted with impunity in committing alleged human rights abuses. In spite of renovations and new construction, prison conditions remained cramped and unhealthy. Authorities denied citizens the right to a fair trial. News outlets, especially in the broadcast media, practiced a high degree of self-censorship, and authorities continued to restrict media pluralism, including through a moratorium on renewal of broadcasting licenses. There were multiple attacks against journalists, and the government rarely identified or prosecuted perpetrators. Authorities restricted freedom of assembly, rejecting numerous applications filed by political opponents to hold demonstrations at requested venues, and often prevented spontaneous assembly by citizens. Corruption remained widespread, and authorities did not make determined efforts to combat it. Authorities and laws restricted religious freedom. Violence against women and spousal abuse, trafficking in persons, and discrimination against persons with disabilities and homosexual individuals was also reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, a military officer was arrested for causing the September 2 death of a conscript soldier. During the year authorities opened two sets of criminal proceedings against eight police officers for criminal offenses allegedly committed during the March 2008 clashes between security forces, looters, and protesters disputing the February 2008 presidential election results. The clashes resulted in the deaths of eight civilians and two police officers. According to official information, on August 28-29, authorities opened criminal proceedings against four police officers who were accused of improperly using teargas against demonstrators in the March 2008 events. The four officers allegedly fired teargas grenades at demonstrators from dangerously close distances, resulting in the deaths of three civilians and the injury of three others. On January 23, Samvel Nikoyan, head of the ad hoc parliamentary commission investigating the March 2008 postelection violence, called on the government to open criminal proceedings against the four police officers for mishandling riot equipment that resulted in three deaths. On June 24, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) issued a resolution expressing concern about the lack of concrete results of the prosecutor general's investigation into the deaths and called for the investigation to be satisfactorily concluded without delay. Relatives of some of the persons killed in the clashes criticized the official investigation and the leniency of charges against the officers. At year's end the criminal proceedings were still in the investigation stage, and no police officer had been prosecuted for mishandling equipment. On September 16-17, approximately 16 months after its establishment, the ad hoc parliamentary commission released its findings on the March 2008 postelection events and 10 resulting deaths. The report stated that the commission was unable to shed more light onto the circumstances of the deaths and urged law enforcement authorities to do more to identify, track down, and prosecute individuals responsible for the deaths. Relatives of the civilian victims protested the commission's findings and demonstrated before the parliament for a full, objective accounting of the deaths. The report blamed authorities, the opposition, and the media alike for escalating the election-related tensions that preceded the clashes. The report criticized electronic media for biased coverage in the period prior to the election, which added to the public's distrust of authorities. But the report assigned most of the blame for the violent unrest on the opposition, accusing presidential candidate and former president Levon Ter-Petrossian of poisoning the preelection period by sowing ``hostility and intolerance'' and planting ``doubts about the legitimacy of the elections'' before the campaign began. It also stated that the postelection protests by Ter-Petrossian supporters destabilized the country and disrupted public order. The report failed to shed light onto the circumstances of the deaths of the 10 citizens killed in the clashes. The opposition reacted harshly to the report's findings, accusing authorities of using it to cover up their responsibility for the violence and fatalities that occurred. On December 21, while commending the commission for certain recommendations and analysis, the PACE Monitoring Committee lamented what it described as the commission's apparent aim ``to avoid too overtly discrediting the official version of events or too harshly criticizing the authorities on their handling of them,'' noting such self-censorship undermined the credibility of the inquiry. PACE also characterized the report for its ``one-sided, bordering on biased description of events'' leading to the March 1-2 violence and ``practically total lack of discussion and analysis of developments'' that followed the violence, ``such as the arrest and prosecution of a large number of opposition supporters.'' PACE also deemed unsatisfactory ``the lack of any concrete results from the inquiry into the 10 fatalities'' that occurred during the March 1-2 events. The government reported that, during the first 11 months of the year, there were 42 deaths registered in the army. Official statistics varied on the number of soldiers who died in noncombat conditions due to alleged abuse and mistreatment, with the Ministry of Defense reporting seven and the military prosecutor reporting two deaths in this manner during the first 11 months of the year. The two sources also reported different statistics on the number of suicides and ``induced suicides,'' with the Ministry of Defense reporting 11 suicides (two of which were ``induced'') and the military prosecutor reporting six (with two ``induced''). It was unclear whether violence or hazing played a role in any of the remaining causes of death, such as ``negligence'' or ``violations of breach of procedures of soldiers' relations.'' On September 2, Aram Mkrtchian, an 18-year-old conscript, died in a hospital from beatings by his battalion commander, Captain Andok Galstian, at a military post in the Vayots Dzor region. According to reports, Galstian severely beat Mkrtchian several times during the morning hours of August 28. The conscript was subsequently taken in grave condition to the military unit's first aid center and was hospitalized only several hours after losing consciousness. The media quoted Mkrtchian's cousin as stating that, after being beaten, Mkrtchian was left without aid for approximately four hours and that experts told the cousin that it would have been possible to save his life if he had been transported to the hospital in time. Forensics showed that Mkrtchian had multiple wounds over his entire body. Andok Galstian was arrested on charges of abuse of power causing grave consequences due to carelessness, punishable by three to eight years in prison. The deputy commander of the military unit, Major Mamikon Vardanian, was charged with insulting a soldier in the same criminal case, which continued at year's end. In June 2008 families of soldiers who died during military service between 2005 and 2008 issued a statement accusing authorities of systematically conducting false investigations into the deaths of soldiers and destroying or tampering with evidence in order to disguise homicides as accidents, suicides, or the results of sniper attacks. In June 2008 a trial began regarding the 2007 death of Tigran Ohanjanian, a soldier serving in the Karjaghbuir military unit in Vardenis. His death was officially attributed to accidental electrocution, and two fellow soldiers, Rustam Asatrian and Karen Tovmasian, were charged with negligence. The family believed, however, that Ohanjanian was killed. According to an August 26 report by the online Hetq news agency, an expert examination showed that the voltage in the military unit was not strong enough to kill. The trial continued at year's end and according to Ohanjanian's family was marred with numerous procedural violations aimed at concealing the true cause of their son's death and those responsible for it. On February 23, Captain Viktor Aslanyan was convicted and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment for inducing the 2007 suicide of Hovhannes Meltonian, who served under Aslanyan's command in the Koghb military unit in the Tavush region. On April 7, Avetis Avetisyan was convicted in connection with the May 2008 death of Narek Galstian, who was reportedly found dead in a gasoline tank operated by his military unit. Avetisyan was convicted of official forgery and breach of guarding or patrolling regulations and sentenced to a fine and one year of imprisonment. On August 9, an appeals court ruled that Avetisyan qualified for a general amnesty declared on June 19 and ordered his release. The concerns of the Galstian family, who maintained their son was murdered, remained unaddressed. On September 1, Henrikh Grigoryan was convicted and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment for the 2007 murder of Gegham Sergoyan, a soldier under his command. Grigoryan was also convicted of abuse of authority. Ethnic Armenian separatists, with Armenia's support, continued to control most of the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan and seven surrounding Azerbaijani territories. Land mines placed along the border with Azerbaijan and along the line of contact in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict continued to cause bodily harm. During the first 11 months of the year, government sources reported that three military personnel were killed and two injured by landmine explosions. There was one report of a civilian incurring injuries caused by land mines. According to official information, during the first 11 months of the year shootings along the militarized line of contact separating the sides as a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resulted in 26 casualties on the Armenian side, including the death of six military personnel and the wounding of 18 military personnel and two civilians. On the evening of February 3, Colonel Gevorg Mherian, a deputy chief of the national police, was shot and killed outside the entrance to his home in central Yerevan. A former presidential anticorruption adviser promoted into his new job by President Sargsian in July 2008, Mherian at the time of his death was reportedly still actively involved in high-level anticorruption efforts. On February 5, President Sargsian convened a meeting regarding the killing with the chief of police, the head of the National Security Service, the prosecutor general, and other law enforcement officials. He called Mherian's death an assault on the country's law enforcement system and alluded to Mherian's recent anticorruption activities as a possible factor in the crime. At year's end the killer had not been identified and the investigation continued. There were no developments reported in the cases of the 2007 killing of Albert Ghazarian, the chief prosecutor of the Lori region, or the 2007 attack on Gyumri mayor Vartan Ghukasian and his entourage that resulted in the deaths of three bodyguards and a driver. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--While the law prohibits such practices, they were regularly employed by members of the security forces. Witnesses continued to report that police beat citizens during arrest and interrogation while in detention. Human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported similar allegations; however, most cases of police mistreatment continued to go unreported because of fear of retribution. Human rights groups continued to report that many individuals transferred to prisons from police detention facilities alleged torture, abuse, or intimidation while in police custody and that the main purpose of the torture and physical abuse was to extort confessions. During 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments in which it found three violations by the country of the prohibition on cruel or degrading treatment under the European Convention on Human Rights. There were no updates in investigating the alleged torture of former deputy prosecutor Gagik Jhangirian and his brother Vardan during their February 2008 arrest and detention (see section 1, Political Prisoners and Detainees). Throughout the year numerous witnesses called to testify against opposition figures arrested in connection with the March 2008 presidential elections and ensuing violence reported to observers, the media, and courts that they had been tortured or intimidated by law enforcement bodies into providing false testimony against these figures. On May 6, Yasha Melkonian, a witness in the criminal case against then-member of parliament (MP) and opposition supporter Sasun Mikaelian, recanted at a court hearing his pretrial testimony against Mikaelian, stating that he had provided the written testimony under physical duress by investigators. Melkonian also stated that, before he was taken to the Prosecutor's Office, he was beaten by masked men at the Hrazdan police station and that the beating was overseen by Sergey Markosian, the head of Hrazdan police investigation department. On May 8, the Special Investigative Service (SIS) launched a criminal case into Melkonian's allegations; however, according to the Prosecutor Ggeneral's Office, Melkonian subsequently recanted his allegations, and the SIS case was dismissed. According to media reports, on May 19, Henrik Hartenian retracted his pretrial testimony in 2008 against Miasnik Malkhasian, a member of parliament and one of the seven well-known opposition leaders arrested after the March 2008 violence and charged with attempting to stage a coup and organizing mass riots accompanied by murder. Hartenian told a Yerevan court that he had provided the false testimony after he was beaten and detained by police. Hartenian reportedly stated that an investigator threatened his life if he did not provide the false testimony that police wanted. Hartenian also claimed that police in his home town of Ashtarak had recently harassed him and his family to ensure he did not retract his testimony. According to media reports, on May 19, Gagik Avdalian, another witness in the case against Miasnik Malkhasian, told a Yerevan court that he falsely incriminated Malkhasian after being severely beaten by masked men while in police custody in March 2008. Moments before he was due to testify, Avdalian claimed he was forcibly taken to the Inspectorate General of Criminal Investigations at the national police; Avdalian claimed that the head of the unit there, Colonel Hovannes Tamamian, promised to free his brother, who was imprisoned for a criminal offense, if he maintained his initial testimony against Malkhasian. Similar allegations of torture and degrading treatment by the authorities in order to coerce testimony against opposition figures, as well as subsequent harassment to ensure that they did not retract their initial testimony, were made by Mushegh Antonian, Rafael Balbabian, Aristakes Vardanian, and others. On May 29 the Prosecutor General's Office distributed a press release stating that five criminal cases had been opened in connection with allegations that law enforcement officers and others intimidated witnesses during the criminal trials of three then-members of parliament--Hakob Hakobian, Myasnik Malkhasian, and Sasun Mikaelian-- plus Grigor Voskerchian, Alexander Arzumanian, and Suren Sirunian. Four of the five cases were opened as a result of the allegations of mistreatment made by the witnesses, which included that of Yasha Melkonian (mentioned above). The fifth case was opened after some witnesses in cases against opposition figures reportedly approached law enforcement agencies and courts for protection after unidentified individuals allegedly pressured them to retract their initial testimony against opposition supporters. The opposition denied the claims directed against them. According to the Prosecutor General's Office, it dismissed the case of witness Gevorg Muradyan after determining there had been no wrongdoing by investigators. In the case of the witness Edik Khachatryan, the Prosecutor General's Office said Khachatryan recanted his allegations of abuse. The Prosecutor General's Office dropped the allegations of intimidation and abuse by witness Arsen Mkrtchian because of a lack of proof, and by Yasha Melkonian because he reportedly recanted the allegations. The Prosecutor General's Office did not provide information on other cases of witnesses who alleged that they had been coerced or threatened into providing false testimony against opposition members. On November 20, the SIS announced that it had charged the former police chief of Gyurmi with abuse of power ``accompanied by the use of violence'' for allegedly beating and illegally keeping a citizen in custody in July who had come to him with a complaint. The former police chief, Shirak Shahnazarian, was removed from his office in early November for unspecified reasons. In April 2008 Thomas Hammarberg, the Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights, published a report that expressed concern over police mistreatment of persons during detention, which appeared to be widespread and aimed at extracting confessions. On September 8, the Group of Public Observers--also known as the Civil Society Monitoring Board (CSMB)--released its annual report for 2008 on conditions inside the country's prisons. According to the report, while prisoner mistreatment reportedly has declined since 2001, violence including torture continued to be applied as punishment for noncompliance and escape attempts. The report singled out a particular trend of violence, largely unreported, that appeared to occur in connection with deployments of the Rapid Response Division (RRD) of the Justice Ministry's Penitentiary Department to penitentiaries. According to a CSMB report issued in December 2008, six of its members visited the Nubarashen prison and the Hospital for Convicts following reports of abuse of incarcerated opposition figures. During the visit, they learned that the RRD had carried out a search at the prison during which violent incidents towards inmates occurred in various cells, including degrading treatment, slapping, and insults. During a search of opposition figure Grigor Voskerchian's cell, Voskerchian was reportedly slapped and kicked when members of the RRD discovered his opposition political affiliation. According to the report, the main violence during the RRD's visit to Nubarashen prison occurred in cell 36 in building 3, where 13 convicts were being held. According to various sources, there was a clash during the search that resulted in injury to Zorik Arzumanian, the RRD's leader. Subsequently, RRD members allegedly assaulted all of the convicts in the cell for an extended period. The convicts sustained broken noses, lacerations, and bruises on their faces, heads, backs, legs, and arms. The CSMB concluded that the RRD members had gravely violated the principle of proportionate use of force and had abused their official position. In view of the length and scale of the operation, the CSMB considered the violence tantamount to torture. The CSMB filed an urgent report with the Ministry of Justice concerning the RRD visit to Nubarashen prison, which the ministry referred to the prosecutors for further investigation. The Ministry of Justice also opened an internal investigation into the matter. On January 9, based on its internal investigation, the Ministry of Justice reprimanded RRD Captain Artur Yeghiazarian for conduct unbecoming an officer for assaulting Grigor Voskerchian. According to the Ministry of Justice, on June 18 Artur Tonoyan, an inmate in cell 36 when the alleged RRD violence occurred, was convicted to five years in prison for using violence against a representative of authorities. In June the Helsinki Citizens Assembly of Vanadzor NGO (HCAV) released a report on incidents of police torture and violence inflicted on citizens in the Lori region from late 2008 through May. No criminal investigations were opened into any of the nine cases presented by HCAV of alleged illegal police actions, which included illegal deprivation of freedom, humiliating treatment, torture, psychological pressure, and threats. According to the HCAV report, on January 10 Suren Ayvazian and Harutyun Galstian, two minors, were taken to the Bazoum police department of Vanadzor without a stated reason. At the police station, police allegedly subjected Ayvazian to humiliating treatment, slapped him multiple times, and threatened to place him on an electric stove unless he provided false testimony about Galstian. Ayvazian stated that he witnessed police officers beating Galstian and another young man in a different room. Following the HCAV report, an internal investigation was opened which concluded that the reported events had not occurred; police also stated that the boys had denied the allegations. According to the same HCAV report, on February 9, Vanadzor resident Artur Vardumian was taken to a police station under suspicion of criminal activity and was reportedly beaten by several officers. His injuries were recorded in the Vanadzor prison registry after his transfer from the police station. The official response to the inquiry from HCAV was that Vardumian had inflicted the numerous injuries upon himself while hitting his head on a table and wall during his detention. On April 11, the office of the ombudsman reported a case of abuse that allegedly occurred on April 10 at the police station of the Arabkir community of Yerevan involving five detained individuals. The abuse included beatings, withholding of medical aid, illegal deprivation of liberty, humiliating treatment, and denial of food and sleep. The ombudsman's application to the SIS to conduct an inquiry into this case was not acted on by year's end. On April 16, the SIS terminated the investigation into the suspicious 2007 death in police custody of the restaurant owner Levon Gulian, citing lack of evidence that a crime had been committed. On December 2, a first instance court rejected the appeal of the family against the termination of the case, and the family took the case to the appeals court, where it was pending at year's end. The SIS, which took over the initial investigation from the Prosecutor General's Office in 2007, had previously closed the criminal case in March 2008, claiming that Gulian, an alleged witness to a homicide, fell to his death from a second-story police station window while trying to escape. Gulian's family and human rights activists stated at the time that the investigation was neither credible nor transparent and that Gulian had died as a result of police abuse. On May 12, the Paris-based International Federation of Human Rights released a joint statement with the human rights NGO Armenian Civil Society Institute that expressed deep concern about the yet-unsolved death of Gulian. There were no developments in the allegations of torture and abuse reported by Karen Dodoyan and Ashot Ghukasian, witnesses in the 2007 murder case of former Lori prosecutor Albert Ghazarian. There were also no further developments in the 2007 cases of alleged abuse of a detainee at Nubarashen prison nor of Artavazd Simonian. Customs within the military, the impunity of military commanders, corruption, and substandard living conditions in the armed forces continued to contribute to mistreatment and injuries in the armed force that were unrelated to military operations. Although no reliable statistics were available on military hazing, soldiers reported to human rights NGOs that the practice continued. The families of soldiers claimed that corrupt officials controlled military units. Human rights monitors and the ombudsman reported that soldiers were conscripted into army service despite having serious disqualifying health conditions. According to the military prosecutor, during the first 11 months of the year, 38 military personnel were convicted of hazing and related violations and 45 more cases were under trial. On May 27, the ombudsman released an ad hoc report on human rights violations in the military in 2008. The report singled out misconduct and hazing of conscripts by their commanding officers and fellow soldiers and a lack of accountability for such actions. The report also highlighted the failure to register hazing offenses committed in the armed forces. According to the report, only 15 to 20 percent of hazing incidents were officially registered. The report cited 171 cases of beatings and hazing over the first nine months of 2008, 38 of which were related to beatings of conscripts by commissioned officers. The report also discussed the arbitrary application of humiliating and degrading treatment to servicemen in the course of disciplinary actions and noted the continued recruitment of persons with preexisting health conditions that make them unfit for military service. On June 16, the Ministry of Defense announced that it had established a special task force to develop recommendations for improving disciplinary regulations that would bring the country into conformity with international standards. At year's end no recommendations had been made. In May 2008 Ashot Voskanian was drafted into the army despite a serious preexisting medical condition affecting his legs. According to reports, almost immediately after Voskanian began service, he required crutches and later underwent several surgeries due to the worsening condition of his legs. Voskanian's parents made numerous, unsuccessful attempts to exempt him from service. After numerous media reports and interventions by human rights activists, the minister of defense met with Voskanian on July 7, following which he was hospitalized once again, his future service depending on the final outcome of the treatment. According to official information Voskanian underwent a medical examination on October 8 and was found fit for noncombat service and returned to service. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--According to a September 8 report by the CSMB, the country made progress during the year to reform penitentiaries and detention centers and bring them into compliance with international human rights standards. Despite this progress, which came about mainly through the renovation of older facilities or the construction of newer ones, the group stated in its report that improvements in prison facilities and treatment of detainees were still needed. According to the report, shortcomings included continued overcrowding of cells, inadequate conditions for personal hygiene, insufficient heating, insufficient medical staff, exercise time that was lower than legally prescribed, and food quality that remained poor. The report singled out continuing violence against inmates by the RRD and found the decision-making process for early release of convicts to be subjective and controversial. On March 25, several human rights NGOs released a statement expressing concerns about the activities of the commission on early release. In particular the NGOs expressed their concern about the absence of strict criteria for the commission's decision making, the lack of an appeal mechanism, and the fact that most members of the commission were representatives of law enforcement structures. According to observers, most instances of abuse of prisoners and detainees by law enforcement authorities continued to occur in police stations, rather than in police detention facilities, which are subject to human rights monitoring. Corruption in prisons continued to be a problem, exacerbated by low salaries for prison administration employees, as well as poor and sometimes dangerous working conditions. In certain facilities prisoners bribed officials to obtain single occupancy cells and additional comforts. There were also unverified reports that authorities charged unofficial fees to family members and friends seeking to deliver meals to inmates. The NGO Helsinki Committee reported an account of a former prisoner at Nubarashen prison who claimed that the prison was ruled by a clandestine organized criminal system, with rampant corruption affecting the prisoners and involving the administration; secrecy, blackmail, gambling, torture, psychological pressure, intimidation, and inducing inmates to commit suicide were prevalent practices. The account alleged that bribes had to be paid for legally prescribed privileges, such as visits, telephone calls, and receipt of packages. The government generally permitted local NGOs and international rights groups, including the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), to monitor conditions in prisons. The ICRC was permitted to visit both prisons and pretrial detention centers and did so in accordance with its standard modalities. Authorities generally permitted CSMB personnel to visit prisons without giving advance notice. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, in practice authorities continued to arrest and detain criminal suspects without warrants. Authorities continued to arbitrarily detain individuals due to their opposition political affiliations or political activities. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police are responsible for internal security, while the NSS is responsible for national security, intelligence activities, and border control; the heads of both organizations are appointed by the president. The police and the NSS continued to lack training, resources, and established procedures to implement reforms or to prevent incidents of abuse. Prisoners reported that law enforcement bodies did little to investigate allegations of abuse. As a result, impunity remained a serious problem. Corruption remained a significant problem in the police and security forces. In spite of efforts to further reduce bribe-taking by traffic police, citizens continued to report being solicited to pay bribes to the police, although less than in previous years. There was no dedicated mechanism for investigating police abuse. By law citizens may sue police in court. According to official information, during the year the police conducted 32 internal investigations into citizens' complaints of police misconduct and brutality against detained or arrested persons, witnesses, or citizens. Twenty-eight of the cases were considered as not substantiated by proof; in two cases six police officers received a strict reprimand; and the remaining two cases were suspended until the SIS could review the case materials. During the year the SIS conducted 77 investigations into alleged crimes by police officers, with 16 of these related to official abuse of authority; 11 to exceeding of authority; 10 to bribe taking; 11 to inflicting bodily harm of various degrees; five to fraud; four to hooliganism; three to divulging the data of inquiry or investigation; two each to theft, illegal weapons possession, and improper safekeeping of weapons; and one each to murder, illegal entrepreneurship, tax evasion, negligence in keeping a weapon, illegal turnover of narcotics for the purpose of sale, illegal turnover of narcotics without the purpose of sale, giving a bribe, official forgery, official negligence, forcing testimony, and improper handling of weapons. By the end of the year, 33 of the 77 cases against 40 persons had been sent to court, 16 of the 77 cases were dropped, six were suspended, three combined with other ongoing criminal cases, four were sent to a different body, and 15 were ongoing. During the year the SIS investigated 24 cases against employees of various prisons, including 13 for distribution of illicit narcotics, three for inflicting bodily harm on civilians, two for exceeding official authority, two for abuse of official authority, and one each for providing improper medical aid, taking a bribe, official negligence and assisting a prison escape. Ten of these cases resulted in convictions. In 2007 the Prosecutor General's Office opened a criminal case for exceeding official authority against the deputy director of Vardashen prison, Gagik Hovhannisian, and two members of the prison administration, Arsen Grigorian and Levon Hovakimian, for abuse of power and using violence against an inmate. On January 12, Hovhannissian was convicted and sentenced to two years' imprisonment; Grigorian and Hovakimian were convicted and given two-year suspended sentences. By law detainees may file complaints prior to trial to address alleged abuses committed by authorities during criminal investigations; however, detainees must obtain permission from police or the Prosecutor's Office to obtain a forensic medical examination needed to substantiate a report of physical abuse. Human rights NGOs continued to report that authorities rarely granted such permission or granted it days later, when signs of abuse were no longer visible. The SIS was located in the building of the Prosecutor General's Office and headed by the former head of the prosecutor's investigative department and continued to function as the de facto investigative body of the Prosecutor General's Office, reversing the effects and purpose of earlier reforms to improve checks and balances in the judicial system. In March 2008 the national police, in cooperation with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), began a pilot project on community policing designed to facilitate cooperation between police and the public. The project, which was located in Yerevan's Arabkir District, continued during the year. In November 2008 the OSCE office in the country and the police signed a memorandum on cooperation and assistance in the areas of democratic policing, community policing, police education in accordance with international standards, and development of skills in maintaining public order. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Prosecutors and police investigators must obtain a warrant from a judge to detain an arrested suspect in excess of 72 hours. Judges rarely denied police requests for detention warrants. At times police arrested individuals and held them for up to 72 hours on the pretext that they were material witnesses to a crime (not suspects); observers contended that the police would avoid labeling them as suspects so that their subsequent rights as suspects/defendants would not be triggered. The law provides for a bail system; however, in practice most courts denied requests for bail, ordering instead either continued detention or release of defendants on their own recognizance pending trial. In the latter case, defendants were sometimes required to surrender their passports and to sign statements promising not to leave the country or, in some cases, city limits. The law requires police to inform detainees of their right to remain silent, to make a telephone call, and to be represented by an attorney from the moment of arrest, including by public defenders provided in the case of indigent detainees. In practice police did not always abide by the law. They often questioned and pressured detainees to confess prior to indictment and in the absence of counsel. Police sometimes restricted the access of family members and lawyers to detainees. The practice of detaining individuals as ``material witnesses'' before being designated as suspects resulted in the questioning of individuals without the benefit of a defense attorney. Local and international human rights groups reported procedural and other violations during the arrest and detention of persons during the year. On January 27, PACE issued a resolution in which it regretted that only limited progress had been made by authorities with regard to the release of persons deprived of their liberty in connection with the events of March 2008. Many of these individuals were detained on seemingly artificial or politically motivated charges. At the time, authorities justified the arrests as necessary to prevent attempts to initiate mass disorders and usurp power by extraconstitutional means. While the majority of these detainees were released without charge after several hours' detention, dozens of opposition supporters were detained for up to 16 months, through the end of June, either after being convicted of crimes or pending the conclusion of their trials. PACE noted that a significant number of prosecutions and convictions of opposition supporters were based solely on police testimony, without substantial corroborating evidence. On June 5, police detained and arrested Arshaluis Hakobian, a member of the local NGO Helsinki Association, for allegedly assaulting a police officer while being delivered a summons to appear in connection with the official complaint of electoral fraud that he filed as an accredited election observer during the May 31 Yerevan mayoral election. On October 16, November 20, and December 21, the judge postponed the court hearings on the case in response to the prosecution's requests for more time to conduct an investigation into the actions of the police officers who detained and arrested Hakobian. Hakobian stated that the police pressured him to sign the summons for him to appear in connection with his electoral fraud complaint and beat him on the way to and at the police station. Court hearings had yet to resume at year's end (see section 5). On July 5, police arrested the youth opposition activist Tigran Arakelian and charged him with ``hooliganism.'' Arakelian's arrest followed reported July 1 clashes between plainclothes police officers and youth activists from the opposition Armenian National Congress (ANC) in downtown Yerevan, where the latter were distributing leaflets announcing the holding of an ANC rally on July 2. Arakelian was held in pretrial detention until October 8, when authorities released him due to his worsening medical condition, which Arakelian alleged was the result of head injuries inflicted by police. On December 15, the criminal case against Arakelian and two other youth activists also charged in connection with the July 1 incident was dropped due to a lack of evidence (see section 2.b.). Lengthy pretrial or preventive detention remained a problem. In practice authorities generally respected the provision of the law stipulating that pretrial detention could not extend beyond 12 months. However, the law does not set any limits for detention of defendants once their case is sent to the court. Although the law requires a well- reasoned decision to justify grounds for an extension of custody, judges routinely prolonged custody on seemingly unclear grounds. According to official information, during the year the average prison population comprised 3,728 inmates, of which pretrial detainees totaled 422 persons, and 305 were detainees whose trials were in progress. In July 2008 the ombudsman published his observations on the government's practice of placing persons under detention and on extending the pretrial detention of persons arrested in connection with the March 1 events. The ombudsman found that authorities presented insufficient accounts of alleged crimes to the court, that judges did not--as required by law--substantiate their conclusions that a detainee posed a flight risk, and that judges failed to consider alternatives to detention, such as release on bond. The government declared a general amnesty on June 19 that resulted in the early release of 329 people, including 30 of the approximately 44 opposition supporters still in prison as of the date of the amnesty. Most individuals were released in June and July, after the amnesty, with the most prominent opposition supporters released after the conclusion of their trials. Individuals were ineligible for the amnesty while they were still under investigation, if the articles they were charged with could result in a sentencing not covered by the amnesty, had been charged or convicted of certain crimes, or sentenced to prison terms exceeding five years. Five of the persons who qualified for the amnesty included progovernment loyalists convicted of vote fraud during Yerevan's May 31 mayoral election, and one was a member of the ruling Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) who admitted shooting to death a fellow RPA member prior to the election but whose crime was downgraded to causing death by negligence and illegal weapon possession e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, courts remained regularly subject to political pressure from the executive branch, and judicial corruption was a serious problem. Following the abolishment of ``specialized courts'' in January, the court system was organized into basic trial courts, an administrative court, civil and criminal appellate courts, the Court of Cassation, and the Constitutional Court. The review courts are considered final courts for examination of a case's merits. The Court of Cassation has discretionary review authority as a highest judicial body over nonconstitutional matters. The 2008 judicial code assigned new roles to the Court of Cassation, including the provision of uniform application of law, its correct interpretation, and support in the development of legislation. The Constitutional Court rules on the constitutionality of legislation, provides its opinion on the constitutionality of signed international agreements prior to their ratification by the National Assembly, and rules on election-related questions. Citizens have the right to appeal to the Constitutional Court, with 283 persons lodging appeals during the year. The Council of Justice recommends candidates for judgeships, who are then appointed by the president, who continued to retain a highly influential role over judicial branch personnel. The council also nominates candidates for the chairmen of courts on all three levels and their chambers and subjects judges to disciplinary proceedings for misconduct. The president and the National Assembly each appoint two scholars to the council, and the General Assembly of Judges elects the remaining nine members by secret ballot. In 2007 the Constitutional Court ruled that sending back criminal cases for additional investigation by pretrial bodies was unconstitutional and voided the relevant provisions of the criminal procedure code. As a result, trials must end either by acquittal or guilty verdicts, effectively ending the practice of holding defendants indefinitely for ``additional investigation'' when underlying cases are weak. Despite the ruling, the National Assembly subsequently enacted a law in late 2007 allowing a trial judge to suspend a trial and apply to the Prosecutor General's Office for reconfirmation of the indictment protocol to include new aggravated charges. This statutory authority effectively undermined the presumption of innocence and potentially favored the prosecution in such trials. During 2008 the ECHR issued judgments in which it found four violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--The law generally requires that trials be public but permits exceptions, including when a trial's secrecy is in the interest of ``morals,'' national security, or for the ``protection of the private lives of the participants.'' Juries are not used. A single judge issues verdicts in courts of first instance (except for cases on crimes punishable by life imprisonment), and panels of judges preside in the higher courts. Defendants generally have the right, and are generally required, to be present at their trials. They have the right to counsel of their own choosing, and the government is required to provide them with defense counsel--public defender--upon request; however, this obligation was frequently not honored in regions outside of Yerevan, where there often were not enough defense lawyers. Reportedly, defendants would at times refuse their public defenders because of the perception that the public defenders colluded with prosecutors. Under the law, defendants may confront witnesses and present evidence, and they and their attorneys may examine the government's case in advance of the trial. In practice, however, defendants and their attorneys had very little ability to challenge government witnesses, particularly police officers. Under the law, police officers are prohibited from testifying at trial in their capacity as a police officer, unless they are testifying as a witness or victim in the case. Thus, official police reports detailing the evidence found at a crime scene or the confession of a defendant were routinely received as evidence without any in-court testimony from police. Defense lawyers had almost no capacity to challenge the findings of these official reports, which were generally considered by courts to be unimpeachable. Defendants, prosecutors, and the injured party have the right to appeal court rulings. Judges generally granted defendants' requests for additional time to prepare cases. The law provides for the presumption of innocence; in practice, however, this right was frequently violated. According to court statistics, the courts rendered only seven acquittals out of a total of 2,407 verdicts handed down during the year, for an acquittal rate of approximately 0.3 percent. There continued to be reports of prosecutors and police using confessions that were obtained through methods that some NGOs characterized as torture and inhuman treatment. Defense lawyers may present evidence of torture to overturn improperly obtained confessions; however, defendants, their attorneys, and NGOs often stated that judges and prosecutors refused to admit such evidence into court proceedings, even when the perpetrator could be identified. Courts at all levels did not give proper consideration to claims by defendants or witnesses that they had undergone torture in the course of the investigation. Judges often did not respond to such claims, gave them little credence, or rejected the claims outright and issued guilty verdicts in cases where witnesses had alleged torture. On December 10, the UN Development Program, in close collaboration with the Office of the Ombudsman, published the results of its research on the implementation by courts of the UN Convention against Torture. The research concluded that often, when there were objective indications that a party to the trial had been subjected to torture, the courts did not raise the issue for discussion. In rare instances, when it was officially recognized that evidence had been obtained as a result of an act of torture, evidence was still admitted. On January 19, a Yerevan court sentenced an 18-year-old soldier, Karen Hayrapetian, to one year in prison for perjury in retracting the incriminating testimony he gave in June 2008 against the opposition MP Myasnik Malkhasian and his driver Arman Shahinian. Malkhasian and Shahinian were arrested following the postelection violence in March 2008. Based on Hayapetian's original testimony, Shahinian was sentenced to 18 months in prison for allegedly assaulting a police officer during the clashes. The verdict was primarily based on a pretrial deposition by Hayrapetian, which he subsequently claimed police had tricked him into signing shortly before being drafted into the army in June 2008. The court trying Shahinian ignored Hayrapetian's claims and found Shahinian guilty based on the deposition. In October 2008 authorities began prosecuting Hayrapetian for perjury; Hayrapetian responded by disputing authorities' use of his false testimony, arguing he could not have witnessed the postelection violence because he was not in Yerevan the day the alleged assault took place, a claim backed by 20 of the residents of his village. According to local legal and human rights observers, the courts did not ensure equal rights for the defense and the prosecution. They cited as evidence the courts' continued refusals of defense motions, illicit editing of proceedings records in the criminal court, hindering the activities of journalists who were covering the trials, and general favor toward the prosecution. Diplomatic observers witnessed numerous cases in which convictions were rendered on the basis of highly questionable police evidence and testimony that was persuasively disavowed by the reputed witnesses in open court. According to local judicial observers, it was common for witnesses in criminal cases to disavow their prior statements to the police, either because witnesses feared retribution from the defendant or because their initial statements were made under police pressure. As this was common in criminal cases, the courts routinely relied on a witness's initial statement to find an accused person to be guilty. During the year many advocates complained that trials for criminal cases were a formality, with verdicts decided by judges before the trials started. Defense attorneys claimed that this put them in a difficult situation in which they were present at the trial but not able to defend their client. In protest, some defense attorneys left courtrooms to illustrate that the trial could go on without them. At year's end there were criminal cases pending against attorneys Artur Grigorian, Diana Grigorian, Ara Zakarian, and Mushegh Shushanian for showing disrespect towards the court by leaving during the proceedings. These four advocates were active in the defense of individuals detained in connection with the disputed March 2008 election and its aftermath. According to reports, a court official offered to close the cases, which were launched on September 3, without a formal acquittal, but the attorneys refused the offer. In response to such cases, the ombudsman in June responded to a request from the Chamber of Advocates (defense bar) by applying to the Constitutional Court to declare unconstitutional the statute on disrespectful treatment of a court, as it applies only to witnesses, victims, and defense attorneys but not to prosecutors. Some local judicial observers interpreted the investigation into the defense attorneys' actions as a punitive measure to control zealous defense advocates and make an example of them. In November 2008, in reaction to the prosecutions, approximately 20 lawyers came out publicly in defense of their colleagues and refused to provide civil or criminal legal services to judges, prosecutors, investigators, or members of their families. At year's end the criminal proceedings against the four defense attorneys were still underway, and the Constitutional Court had yet to rule on the constitutionality of the statute. In practice the vast majority of criminal cases that were sent to trial resulted in convictions. Observers reported this was because many judges felt it was their job to work with the prosecutors and return guilty verdicts. Furthermore, many judges feared they would face retribution should they return an acquittal on a sensitive case that was important to authorities. Notwithstanding that many weak cases resulted in convictions, the high conviction rate could also be attributed to police investigators weeding out weak cases and not sending them to court. On December 25, the ombudsman issued a public ad hoc report, ``Ensuring Right to a Fair Trial in the Republic of Armenia,'' that assessed the country's administration of justice. The report concluded that violations of the right to a fair trial were systematic and stemmed from the fact that courts continue to be influenced by, and side with, the prosecution of cases by the state. The ombudsman noted that the violations of the right to a fair trial distorted the role of the courts as an impartial arbiter, keeping public confidence in administration of justice very low. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Of the hundreds of persons detained around the time of the March 2008 political events and violence, approximately 150 were held for a significant period and more than 100 were charged with a crime. Most or all of these arrests appeared politically influenced to varying degrees. Some were charged under broadly defined criminal charges of ``usurpation of state authority'' or ``mass disorders.'' Others were charged with selectively enforced weapons possession charges or with resisting arrest. Authorities continued to deny the presence of political prisoners in the country and maintained that the political opposition planned the postelection violence in an attempt to seize power extraconstitutionally. At year's end approximately 13 individuals jailed in connection with the 2008 presidential election and postelection unrest remained incarcerated, either in pretrial detention or postconviction incarceration. Most of these prisoners were supporters or members of the political opposition that disputed the outcome of the February 2008 presidential election and/or participated in postelection demonstrations. The opposition ANC claimed that in addition to these individuals, a fourteenth person was also arrested and convicted for politically motivated reasons stemming from his participation in postelection protests. According to the political opposition, as of year's end, there were 15 persons in custody whom the opposition deemed ``political prisoners,'' including 14 persons detained in connection with the February 2008 presidential election or postelection unrest, and the remaining person serving a sentence handed down in a previous year. On January 27, PACE issued a resolution criticizing authorities for limited progress in responding to its demands in 2008 concerning the release of opposition supporters who had been detained in connection with the events of March 2008. PACE criticized the arrest and continued detention of these supporters on ``seemingly artificial and politically motivated charges'' and urged authorities to release all persons who did not personally commit any violent acts or serious offences. In the resolution PACE also noted that ``a significant number of prosecution cases and convictions were based solely on police testimony, without substantial corroborating evidence. In the majority of these trials, the sole witnesses or alleged victims were police officers, whose testimony was often inconsistent. In some instances the same police officers were involved as witnesses in several different cases against different opposition supporters.'' PACE's resolution also noted that authorities had not ``availed themselves of the possibility to use all other legal means available to them, such as amnesty, pardons, or the dropping of charges'' to release persons detained in connection with the events in March 2008 who did not commit acts of violence. On June 24, PACE issued another resolution that welcomed amendments made to two articles of the criminal code and their impact on the then- ongoing court cases of persons detained in connection with the March 2008 events; however, PACE criticized authorities for not applying the amendments to ``the cases of persons charged, or convicted, solely on the basis of police testimony, without substantial corroborating evidence.'' PACE also noted President Sargsian's June 16 proposal of a general amnesty, adopted on June 19 by the National Assembly, which provided for the early release of persons detained in connection with the March 2008 events who either were not charged with violent crimes or were not sentenced to prison terms exceeding five years. The June 19 general amnesty resulted in the early release of an estimated 30 of the approximately 44 opposition supporters still in prison. Most were released in June and July, with the most prominent opposition supporters released after the conclusion of their trials. At year's end approximately 13 opposition supporters remained in detention or prison, technically ineligible for the amnesty either because they were still under investigation, charged under articles that could result in a sentencing not covered by the amnesty, or had been charged or convicted of certain crimes, or sentenced to prison terms exceeding five years. Opposition supporters constituted a small fraction of the 329 prisoners released under the amnesty. On March 23, Gagik Jhangirian, a dismissed deputy prosecutor general who had publicly stated his support for opposition candidate Levon Ter-Petrossian during the February 2008 presidential election, was sentenced to three years in prison for resisting police. He was subsequently released on June 23, qualifying for early release under the general amnesty of June 19. Jhangirian appealed his conviction on the grounds that it had been unlawful and unsubstantiated by evidence, but an appeals court on May 20 upheld the original ruling. Jhangirian had been relieved of his duties shortly after the disputed presidential election by then-president Kocharian, and he and his brother were stopped in their vehicle and arrested. Jhangirian was convicted of resisting police even though a senior police officer admitted in court in February that Jhangirian did not offer any resistance during his arrest. On April 1, after the National Assembly enacted amendments to the criminal code on March 18, prosecutors dropped the charge of attempting to usurp state power, i.e., staging a coup, against seven of the most prominent opposition supporters. Prosecutors left in place lesser charges of inciting mass disorder; the original charge of organizing mass disturbances had carried an aggravating factor of being ``accompanied by murder,'' which was removed with the amendments. By dropping this aggravating factor in the case of the seven opposition supporters, authorities effectively rescinded their original claim that the seven were responsible for the deaths of 10 individuals killed as a result of the March 2008 clashes, a claim for which no evidence had been produced. The seven opposition supporters included Alexander Arzumanian, a former foreign minister who served as Ter-Petrossian's campaign manager in the February 2008 presidential election, MP Hakob Hakobian, and opposition members Grigor Voskerchian, Suren Sirunian, and Shant Harutiunian--all of whom were originally charged with inciting mass disorder leading to deaths and usurpation of state authority extraconstitutionally. In addition to these charges, the charges against the remaining two defendants, MPs Myasnik Malkhasian and Sasun Mikaelian, included being an accomplice to violent resistance against representatives of the state (for Malkhasian) and possession of illegal weapons and ammunition (for Mikaelian). On May 13, approximately 13 months after his arrest in April 2008, Shant Harutiunian was freed after the court determined that he was not of sound mind during the postelection clashes. The court dropped both of the prosecution's charges against Harutiunian, organizing mass disturbances accompanied with murder and attempting to usurp state power extraconstitutionally. The ruling came after a court-ordered medical and psychological evaluation. Harutiunian complained to media after his release that authorities invented his alleged mental condition as a pretext to keep him from appearing in open court, which he contended would have embarrassed authorities. On June 22, four of the seven--Alexander Arzumanian, Suren Sirunian, Hakob Hakobian, and Myasnik Malkhasian--were freed at the conclusion of their trials and after receiving convictions that qualified them for early release under terms of the amnesty. All received five-year sentences but Sirunian, who was given a four-year sentence. Sasun Mikaelian, the other member of parliament on trial, was sentenced to eight years in prison for illegal weapons possession and causing mass disorder, thus making him ineligible for amnesty. Grigor Voskerchian, the remaining prominent opposition supporter from the ``trial of the seven,'' was released on July 10 after being convicted and sentenced to two years in prison, thus qualifying for amnesty. The majority of the seven had served 16 months in jail. On December 11, a Yerevan court convicted and sentenced to three years Arshak Banuchian, an opposition supporter and the former deputy director of the Matenadaran ancient manuscripts museum, for embezzlement and tax evasion. Banuchian rejected the verdict, denied the alleged crimes, and denounced the case against him as politically motivated retaliation for his support of the opposition ANC. Banuchian qualified, however, for the general amnesty declared on June 19. Banuchian had originally been arrested after the March 2008 postelection unrest, charged like other opposition supporters with inciting and participating in mass disorders. According to official information, as of December 30, 94 cases against 117 persons had gone to court in connection with the March 2008 events. Courts had rendered verdicts in cases against 116 persons. Of the 116 persons tried, 38 persons received suspended sentences, five were fined, 65 were given prison sentences from six months to nine years, six were acquitted, one case was dropped due to an amicable settlement with the defendant, and one case was dropped after a court found the defendant not of sound mind while committing the alleged crime. According to official information, of 116 persons convicted, 28 were granted pardons. On June 19, when the amnesty was announced, there were 28 persons connected with the March 2008 events who were still in prison at the time, of which 19 were released. According to the opposition ANC, as of June 19, 24 opposition supporters remained in detention or prison as a result of March 2008-related charges or convictions, with 16 of these being subsequently released as a result of the amnesty. In addition, the ANC declared that as of June 19, 20 of their supporters remained in detention or prison as a result of charges or convictions stemming from the 2008 presidential campaign or election itself, with 14 of these being subsequently released as a result of the amnesty. At year's end charges remained in place against Nikol Pashinian, editor in chief of a leading opposition daily, and MP Khachatur Sukiasian, a prominent businessman. Both remained accused of organizing mass disorders during the March 2008 postelection unrest, with Pashinian additionally charged with resisting ``representatives of state authorities'' for an alleged altercation with police in 2007 while publicizing an upcoming presidential campaign rally by Levon Ter- Petrossian. In March 2008 police arrested on tax evasion charges Anush Ghavalian, a waitress at a restaurant owned by businessman and MP Khachatur Sukiasian, a prominent backer of Levon Ter-Petrossian's 2008 presidential bid. Ghavalian and her supporters claimed her arrest was intended to pressure her to provide evidence against the director of the restaurant, Gevorg Safarian, who was detained in 2007 in a crackdown against the Sukiasian family businesses immediately after Sukiasian publicly backed Ter-Petrossian's presidential bid. On April 7, Safarian was convicted for evasion of taxes and obligatory payments, and Ghavalian for complicity in a criminal act. They received three-year and four-year suspended sentences, respectively, and were released as a result of the June 19 amnesty. During their trial their first defense attorneys were subjected to a criminal investigation for their conduct; the three lawyers, Ara Zakarian, Artur Grigorian, and Diana Grigorian, resigned in protest from the trial after they discovered that an important court document had allegedly been forged by the judge presiding over the case. The attorneys unsuccessfully sought to have the actions of the judge investigated. The judge denied all defense motions to verify the accuracy of the document, and the attorneys walked out of the courtroom in protest. The three attorneys were subsequently charged in late July with ``disrespectful treatment of the institution of a court,'' an offense that could carry a one-month jail sentence and result in the loss of their licenses to practice law. Police investigated the conduct of the attorneys, but there was no investigation into the conduct of the judge. Formal court proceedings against the three lawyers began on September 3 and continued at year's end. After the walk-out by the three attorneys, Safarian and Ghavalian went to trial with substitute attorneys. During the year authorities attempted to confiscate and sell one of the companies of opposition supporter and MP Khachatur Sukiasian. In late 2008 authorities seized the assets of his Bjni mineral water company to collect a 4.5 billion dram ($14 million) fine, ostensibly for tax fraud and misappropriation of state-owned water resources; local observers viewed the exorbitant fine as punishment of Sukiasian for supporting Ter-Petrossian's 2008 presidential bid. Authorities put the company's assets up for auction in December 2008 but failed to find a buyer. They then put the assets up for auction again on February 5 and found a buyer, progovernment MP and businessman Ruben Hayrapetian. On March 19, the Administrative Court reversed the auction of Bjni, ruling that the company had to pass through bankruptcy proceedings before its assets could be auctioned. The company was finally sold, on December 24, again to Ruben Hayrapetian, for 4.3 billion drams (approximately $11.4 million). Throughout the year Sukiasian's representatives insisted that the original penalties had no merit and constituted heavy-handed retaliation against Sukiasian for his support of Ter-Petrossian in 2008. After 17 months as a fugitive, Sukiasian surrendered to authorities on September 1 and was immediately taken into custody. On September 4, Sukiasian was released from custody pending the investigation into his criminal charges, which he considered politically motivated. Along with the members of parliament, Sukiasian had originally been charged with organizing mass disorder accompanied with murder and attempting to seize power extraconstitutionally in March 2008; in April, however, his charges were reduced to organizing mass disorder without any aggravating factor. On September 7, he relinquished his seat in the National Assembly in protest of the chamber's stripping his parliamentary immunity as well as the immunity of the three other members who supported Ter-Petrossian's presidential bid. At year's end the SIS investigation into Sukiasian's alleged crime continued, and Sukiasian remained at liberty. On August 4, Arman Babajanian, editor of the opposition newspaper Yerevan Zhamanak, was released from prison where he was serving a sentence for ? 2006 conviction on charges of forgery and evasion of military service. At the time local observers interpreted the sentence as overly harsh punishment for the crimes and an example of selective prosecution of government critics. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens had access to courts to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. However, the courts were widely perceived as corrupt, and potential litigants in civil cases often evaluated the advisability of bringing suit on the basis of whether they or their opponents had greater resources with which to influence judges. Citizens also had access to the Ombudsman's Office as well as to the Constitutional Court, in the latter case to challenge the constitutionality of legislation. There was no progress during the year in the cases of Yerevan residents whose property was razed on eminent domain grounds, despite the Constitutional Court's ruling in 2006 that the 2002 government decision authorizing such demolitions violated the constitution. In June the ECHR delivered a verdict in the Minasian and Semerjian v. Armenia case, ruling that the state had violated the property rights of both citizens when expropriating their property. However, the court did not rule on the compensation, instead giving the parties three months from the date of the judgment, September 23, to reach agreement on the amount of the compensation. At year's end an agreement on the compensation had not been reached. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits unauthorized searches and provides for the right to privacy and confidentiality of communications. However, the government violated these rights in practice. By law judges may authorize authorities to wiretap a telephone or intercept correspondence only after being presented with compelling evidence; during the year judges arbitrarily granted permission, and searches without warrants and other appropriate procedures took place as well. According to the political opposition and local human rights observers, police in 2008 conducted wide-scale searches in the homes of opposition supporters, election proxies, and campaign staff both before and after the February 2008 presidential election. These searches were reportedly carried out with procedural violations, intimidation, and threats. There was no progress in the July 2008 complaint filed by Artak Zeynalian, member of the opposition Republic Party, who alleged police employees had called the cell phones of Ter-Petrossian supporters, various opposition party leaders, and media representatives to verify their phone numbers. Zeynalian had filed the complaint with the police to identify and punish those responsible for the calls; he also filed a subsequent complaint to the courts. Zeynalian submitted the case to the ECHR on July 7. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and freedom of the press; however, the government did not always respect these rights in practice. There continued to be incidents of violence, intimidation, and self-censorship against and in the press throughout the year. The media, in particular television, continued to lack diversity of opinion and objective reporting. September 2008 amendments to the Law on Television and Radio imposed a de facto two-year moratorium on the issuance of new television and radio broadcasting licenses, hindering prospects for greater media pluralism. Individuals could generally criticize the government publicly and privately without fear of retaliation; however, media outlets feared reprisal for reporting that was critical of the government. These reprisals included the threat of losing a broadcast license or of a selective tax investigation, as well as loss of revenue when advertisers learn that an outlet is in disfavor with the government. This fear of retribution led to a high degree of self-censorship. Most newspapers were privately owned, with the exception of government-sponsored Hayastani Hanrapetutiun and its Russian-language version, Respublika Armenii. The print media generally expressed a wide variety of views without restriction but remained influenced by economic or political interest groups or individuals. Greater plurality of opinion existed in online publications, although the readership of online media remained limited, especially outside Yerevan. Newspaper circulation remained very limited, as was the audience for the country's 20 radio stations, of which three were public stations and two broadcast from abroad. According to official information, 82 television stations, of which three were public and four broadcast from abroad, operated during the year. All but the three public television stations were privately owned, and half of all of the television stations operating in the country were small broadcasters based in outlying regions. Only the state-owned Public Television (H1) had nationwide coverage, although several stations were able to broadcast to most of the country, and some stations were able to extend beyond Yerevan. Most stations were owned by progovernment politicians or well-connected businessmen, factors that continued to prompt journalists working for these stations to practice self-censorship. Major broadcast media outlets generally expressed progovernment views and avoided editorial comment or reporting critical of the government. Unlike the February 2008 presidential elections, when state- controlled and progovernment media showed a distinct bias in favor of the official candidate and eventual winner, then-prime minister Serzh Sargsian, media outlets were more neutral in their coverage of the campaign for Yerevan's city council and mayoral elections on May 31. According to the monitoring of media coverage of the election campaign conducted by the Yerevan Press Club (YPC), 96 percent of all references to the political parties/bloc contesting the election were neutral during the election campaign. Nevertheless, the YPC stated in its media monitoring report that certain television channels gave clear preference to one or another candidate and party. After the August 31 joint announcement by the foreign ministries of Armenia, Turkey, and Switzerland on two protocols to establish and develop relations between Turkey and Armenia, local electronic and print media extensively covered the public debate on the protocols, permitting the expression of wide-ranging viewpoints that were both in favor and in opposition to the documents. During the year journalists continued to be targets of violent attacks. In his July 2 report, Miklos Haraszti, the OSCE representative on freedom of the media, criticized the attacks on journalists in Armenia and called on authorities to conduct swift investigations into and hold accountable those responsible for the attacks. According to Haraszti and other media observers, the government's failure to prosecute alleged attackers fostered an atmosphere of impunity and served to provoke further attacks against journalists. On May 25, during a celebration marking the fifth anniversary of the establishment of his institution, the ombudsman Armen Harutiunian stated that journalists were the least protected ``layer'' in Armenia and that there was no tolerance or respect for freedom of speech. On March 13, security guards at the Yerevan State Linguistic University (Brusov) severely beat photojournalist Gagik Shamshian after he entered the state university without authorization. Shamshian was subsequently hospitalized with severe injuries to the groin and internal bleeding. Brusov's provost issued a statement in which he expressed regret for the journalist's injuries but nevertheless maintained that Shamshian had provoked the incident. The ombudsman decried the beating, citing a ``climate of intolerance in Armenian society'' that encouraged impunity with respect to attacks against journalists. On March 14, police launched a criminal investigation into the incident. According to official information, Shamshian entered the university without authorization, refused to obey the demands of a university guard, and did not identify himself as a journalist. In spite of Shamshian's claims that he had presented credentials, the investigative body found that university security guards did not attempt to hinder his journalistic activities; they found one of the guards guilty, however, of attacking Shamshian but suspended the case in light of the guard's eligibility for the June 19 general amnesty. On April 17, a court of first instance found Shamshian guilty of contempt of court for an incident that reportedly occurred during one of the March 2008-related trials held in August 2008 and fined him 350,000 drams (approximately $950). On May 14, a separate court convicted Gohar Vizirian, a reporter for the opposition Chorrord Ishkhanutyun newspaper, for contempt of court during the same August 2008 trial and fined her the same amount. According to media reports, the verdicts were based solely on the testimony of marshals of the court present at the trial. Under the terms of a general amnesty adopted by the National Assembly on June 19, the fines against both reporters were dismissed. Violent attacks occurred in the period prior to Yerevan's May 31 municipal election. In a statement issued on April 9, several media outlets condemned the attack by police officers against the A1Plus journalist David Jalalian while he was covering an opposition gathering in downtown Yerevan on April 8. The independent A1Plus online news agency reported that Robert Melkonian, the head of the police patrol service, personally initiated the attack, which other police officers subsequently joined. Jalalian's photographs published following the attack showed that he suffered injuries to his abdominal area, and he was hospitalized after the attack. On April 14, the investigative Hetq online news agency reported that, according to the police, Jalalian had provided testimony that he was not beaten but was pushed by police and fell on his back. The news report also claimed that two police officers visited Jalalian at his home and threatened him after the attack. On April 30, Argishti Kivirian, an attorney and the editor of two online media outlets, survived an apparent murder attempt when three unknown assailants attacked him with wooden batons and tried to shoot him in the entryway of his apartment building as he returned home from work in the early morning. Kivirian was hospitalized in grave condition with severe injuries and cuts on his head and body and was placed in intensive care. The bullet casings visible in photographs reportedly taken immediately after the attack by the photojournalist Gagik Shamshian disappeared following the arrival of police at the scene. The police initially launched a criminal case on charges of ``infliction of light damage to health'' but after a public outcry upgraded the charges to ``attempted murder by a group of people.'' On July 8, the National Security Service that carried out the investigation arrested two of the attackers, Gurgen Kilikian and Vladik Merabian, charging them with attempted murder. At year's end they remained in custody pending the investigation, and authorities were reportedly searching for additional suspects. In the early hours of May 7, Nver Mnatsakanian, a news anchor and talk show host for the private Shant TV television station, was attacked and beaten by unknown assailants on his way home from work. He suffered injuries to his head, foot, and hand and required treatment in a hospital. Mnatsakanian claimed that the attack was linked with his professional activity but did not attribute the attack to anyone in particular. Some media reports speculated that an influential businessman and MP ordered the attack in retaliation for an unflattering interview Mnatsakanian conducted with him prior to the attack. On August 21, police chief Major General Alik Sargsian announced that two young men had turned themselves in and been charged in connection with the case. According to Sargsian, the two men claimed that they had mistakenly attacked Mnatsakanian for another intended target, a claim that Mnatsakanian publicly dismissed as ``ridiculous.'' According to official information, the subsequent investigation showed that the two individuals had no involvement in the attack, and they were released. Accordingly, on September 7, police suspended the case since the perpetrators remained unknown and at large. Instances of violence against journalists and obstruction of their activities occurred during Yerevan's May 31 municipal elections. On election day, violence and abuse directed at journalists often occurred in the presence of police and election officials, who did not intervene to either prevent or stop it. Reporter Armine Avetian from the pro- opposition 168 Zham newspaper was assaulted by unidentified individuals in a voting precinct in Yerevan's Malatia-Sebastia District in the presence of election officials and police. Her colleague, Lilit Tadevosian from the Tert.am online news agency, was also accosted. Nelly Grigorian, a reporter for the independent Aravot daily, was also assaulted in a voting precinct in Malatia-Sebastia and had her camera confiscated as she tried to photograph a violent altercation initiated by local persons against the female proxy of the opposition Armenian National Congress bloc contesting the election. In a voting precinct located in the Kentron District of Yerevan, MP Levon Sargsian of the ruling Republican Party and his bodyguards allegedly assaulted Gohar Vezirian from the opposition Chorrord Ishkhanutyun daily newspaper and Tatev Mesropian from the opposition Hayk newspaper and reportedly also confiscated the audio recorder of Marine Kharatian, a reporter for the opposition 168 Zham newspaper. According to official information, on May 1 a criminal case of hooliganism was launched in response to the media report that Sargsian's guards attacked Vezirian; according to law enforcement authorities, the guards claimed that Vezirian had made ``hooligan'' statements towards them. The disposition of this case remained unknown at year's end, and no official information on the alleged attack by the bodyguards was provided. Also, at year's end no criminal charges had been leveled against the guards, and there were no known investigations launched into the other cited attacks on reporters (see section 3). On June 23, Karen Harutyunian was convicted to five years in prison for his role in the violent November 2008 attack on the investigative journalist Edik Baghdasarian. Known for his reports exposing corruption, Baghdasarian suffered serious head injuries during the attack and was hospitalized for several days. Police failed to apprehend the two other perpetrators of the attack and suspended the case on October 19. Baghdasarian suspected that Vardan Ayvazian, a member of parliament and former minister of nature protection, was behind the attack, since Baghdasarian had published numerous articles alleging illegal activities by Ayvazian when he was minister of nature protection. There was no progress in the investigation of the January and March 2008 attacks against the Gyumri-based Asparez Journalists Club (AJC). The AJC received threatening telephone calls, and their office was targeted with arson in January 2008 by unknown individuals. In March 2008 a fire bomb destroyed the AJC president's car. Nobody was injured in the attack. There was no progress during the year in resolving numerous cases of intimidation and violence against journalists and damage of their property during the February 2008 presidential election. Likewise, no progress was made in the numerous cases of widespread harassment and intimidation of reporters during the February/March 2008 postelection protests. No one was prosecuted in connection with these incidents, except in one case of a voting precinct chairperson who was fined for restricting the rights of observers and one journalist at the polling place. On July 1, Nikol Pashinian, the editor in chief of the pro- opposition Haykakan Zhamanak daily and a leading opposition figure who went into hiding shortly after a state of emergency was imposed in March 2008, surrendered to authorities. Similar to other leading opposition supporters, Pashinian had been originally charged with attempting to usurp power and inciting mass disorders accompanied by murder, only later to see the coup charges dropped. He was also charged for resisting representatives of state authority stemming from a 2007 clash in Yerevan between police and a small opposition crowd that was publicizing the first campaign rally for opposition candidate Levon Ter-Petrossian in Yerevan. After his voluntary surrender, Pashinian appealed to authorities to remain at liberty while his case was pending; authorities rejected the appeal, and he was remanded into two months of pretrial detention. On August 27, authorities renewed the pretrial detention, and Pashinian remained in detention until year's end. In an October 2 letter to President Sargsian, the World Press Freedom Committee registered its concern about Pashinian's treatment, questioning why he was being punished for exercising his right to free expression during a peaceful political rally. During this rally, which was preceded in the morning by the use of force by hundreds of security forces to disperse approximately 2,000 peaceful protesters from Freedom (Opera) Square, Pashinian alternately urged protesters to remain peaceful and to collect debris to protect themselves against an attack by security forces. The court case against Pashinian began on October 20, at which Pashinian denounced the trial against him as ``the continuation of political repressions'' he said authorities initiated against the opposition in late 2007 for their support of Ter- Petrossian. On December 22, state prosecutors demanded that Pashinian be sentenced to eight years for his crimes, a sentence that would disqualify Pashinian from a general amnesty that was declared on June 19. Pashinian's trial continued at year's end. According to the Eurasia Partnership Foundation, in mid-July the Yerkir Media television station, affiliated with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation-Dashnaktsutiun political party (which was part of the ruling coalition for the last decade, through the end of April when it left the coalition over foreign policy differences), refused to broadcast the documentary ``Armenia Minus A1Plus'' and organize a talk show around the movie. The documentary was the work of director Tigran Khzmalian, a prominent opposition supporter. According to local observers, the move was an act of self-censorship taken by Yerkir to avoid problems with authorities. During the year the GALA television station based in Gyumri continued to operate and broadcast in spite of continuing legal disputes with authorities that began in late 2007 when GALA aired a speech by former president Levon Ter-Petrossian before he announced his candidacy for the 2008 presidential election. The showing of the speech prompted an aggressive tax audit that resulted in GALA having to pay 26 million drams ($85,000) in back taxes, fines, and late fees in March 2008. On March 13, GALA applied to the ECHR to dispute the penalties leveled against them. The independent A1Plus television news company remained without a broadcasting license or frequency at year's end for the seventh year in a row, but it continued to operate as an online news agency. A1Plus had applied for a broadcast license 12 times since 2002, when it was removed from the air after not being granted a new license; authorities rejected the company's applications without official explanation. In June 2008 the ECHR ruled that the country had violated article 10 (freedom of expression) of the European Convention on Human Rights by failing to give a written explanation for refusing a broadcast license to A1Plus. The ECHR's decision stated that ``a procedure which did not require a licensing body to justify its decisions did not provide adequate protection against arbitrary interference by a public authority with the fundamental right to freedom of expression.'' The ECHR awarded, and the government paid, 30,000 euros (approximately $42,900) to A1Plus' parent company, Meltex, Ltd. In December 2008 A1Plus applied to the Cassation Court to revise its former decisions to comply with the ECHR judgments. In February the Cassation Court refused to reopen the A1Plus case, following which the company subsequently applied to the Constitutional Court. The application was admitted, and the trial was scheduled to begin on December 15; on the day it was set to start, however, the trial was postponed until early 2010. On February 29, the Armenia-based NGO Committee to Protect Freedom of Speech issued a report stating that, while the increasing frequency of attacks on mass media coincided with the aggravated political situation in the country, 2008 was nevertheless unprecedented, both in terms of the number of violations of the rights of journalists and media outlets as well as the imposition of censorship on mass media. The media NGO registered 18 cases of violent attacks on journalists in 2008. On April 28, the National Assembly enacted changes to the law regulating the media, some of which responded to longstanding concerns over executive branch interference in the media. According to the Yerevan-based Internews media organization, however, the changes failed to ensure the independence of regulatory bodies long sought by independent domestic media and were made with little public discussion. A July 2 report by the OSCE representative on freedom of media nevertheless acknowledged positive changes regarding the criteria to grant a broadcasting license, sponsorship of television and radio programs, and preventive measures before suspending broadcasters. However, the report expressed lingering concerns that presidential selection of some candidates to national media regulatory bodies would constrain freedom of expression and noted that financing of public broadcasting and regulatory bodies would depend on the political will of the parliamentary majority. The report concluded that the changes in the law were incompatible with the notion of the ``independent public broadcaster'' and ``independent regulator.'' On December 9, the National Assembly elected four new members to the National Commission on TV and Radio (NCTR), which is responsible for regulating television and radio broadcasting and granting or revoking broadcasting licenses. Opposition parliamentarian Stepan Safarian complained after the vote that ``not all candidates clearly meet the requirements laid out by the law'' and that virtually no prominent media experts or civil society representatives took part in the selection process. In September 2008, with essentially no prior notification or public discussion, the National Assembly amended the Law on Television and Radio to impose a moratorium on the issuance of new television broadcasting licenses until July 2010. The amendment was passed in an unannounced, evening extraordinary session. The moratorium was enacted shortly before a call for bids on several television frequencies that were due to become available based on expiring licenses. The amendment also gave existing stations the right to extend their licenses to January 2011. Authorities insisted at the time that the moratorium was necessitated by their plans for converting the country's broadcasting format from analog to digital by 2015. Through the end of the year, the government did not conduct any new tenders for television or radio broadcast licenses. Authorities had initially stated that there were no frequencies available for new licenses. However, on June 30, Ishkhan Zakarian, the head of the Control Chamber of Armenia, denied that there were no more television frequencies available for broadcasting, refuting earlier government claims. On September 2, various regional television stations and media watchdogs wrote to the ombudsman expressing their concern about the unclear situation created after the moratorium was imposed, particularly the fact that the government had yet to issue the concept paper or launch public discussions on the introduction of digital broadcasting that it had stated it would do by June. Much of the concern was based on fear that regional television stations would be unable to prepare technically or financially for the new broadcasting requirements if the stations were not provided sufficient time to prepare prior to the tenders. Stations were also concerned that digitalization could force them off the air if they were unable to swiftly make conversions once tenders were announced. On September 18, the ombudsman wrote to Nerses Yeritsian, the minister of economy, asking for clarifications about these problems. Subsequently, on October 22, the National Assembly's Committee on Science, Education, Culture, Youth, and Sport held hearings on the issue of the country's conversion to digital broadcasting. Minister Yeritsian presented the draft of the concept at the hearing, which the government adopted on November 12. Local observers expressed concerns about the concept, saying that it did not answer any of the concerns voiced by television companies and did not show that the government was ready to cope with the technical challenges of conversion or prepared to address the financial challenges that conversion would present to media companies and the general population. Media watchdogs observed that the draft concept did not contain clear measures to prevent antimonopolistic activities. On August 20, Hovik Abrahamian, the speaker of the National Assembly, established new procedures for accrediting journalists covering the chamber's activities. According to some journalists, the new procedures were excessively restrictive and hindered their reporting on the National Assembly. During the year authorities did not bring charges against any media outlet or state body for violating the law during coverage of the 2008 presidential campaign. In March 2008 the Constitutional Court ruled that the Central Electoral Commission neglected to exert ``effective control over preelection promotion'' and that the NCTR displayed a ``formalistic approach'' to complying with the law with respect to the biased and distorted media coverage of the opposition during the campaign. The court found that no sanctions or remedies were warranted because the candidates were able to present their platforms to voters by other means of preelection promotion. On August 4, Arman Babajanian, the editor of the opposition newspaper Yerevan Zhamanak, was released from prison where he was serving a sentence for ? 2006 conviction on charges of forgery and evasion of military service. At the time, local observers interpreted the charges against Babajanian as overly harsh punishment and an example of selective prosecution against critics of the government. During the year Babajanian was diagnosed with a brain tumor, which remained untreated. Following significant public and international pressure, and after his health had abruptly worsened and he was losing his sight due to the illness, Babajanian was released. At the time of his release, Babajanian had served almost his entire sentence, despite previous attempts to gain his early release on grounds of good behavior. Local observers considered the government's denial of requests for early parole politically motivated. Internet Freedom.--During the year there were no reported cases of the government deliberately blocking independent and pro-opposition news Web sites, as it had done during the March 2008 state of emergency. Some individuals and groups reported suspected government interception of e-mail or Internet chat conversations, although they were unable to provide evidence to substantiate their suspicions. Internet cafes were widely available in the cities, although local Internet service provider connections were often extremely slow, thus limiting their effectiveness. Some Internet cafes also operated outside urban areas. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 6 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were a few anecdotal reports during the year of schoolteachers and university students being dismissed due to their political views. According to religious minority groups, teachers belonging to a minority faith were dismissed from work for their religious views. There were also reports that individuals applying for public school teacher positions were routinely denied if their affiliation with a minority religious group was known. On February 25, the media reported that the administration of the Yerevan State Engineering University cancelled a prearranged concert of the Hima Band, a musical group of the pro-opposition Hima youth movement that conducted numerous protest actions to dispute of the outcome of the 2008 presidential election. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly; however, authorities restricted this right in practice, particularly the assembly of individuals considered by the government to be political opponents. Prior to the enactment of a state of emergency in early March 2008, the Law on Conducting Meetings, Assemblies, Rallies, and Demonstrations stipulated that groups may peacefully assemble without obtaining a permit as long as they provided prior notification to the relevant authorities. In response to postelection protests disputing the result of the February 2008 presidential election, then-president Robert Kocharian issued a state of emergency decree in March 2008 for the city of Yerevan, which prohibited any type of public gathering. The prohibition was rigorously enforced by police. During the state of emergency, the National Assembly changed the Law on Conducting Meetings, Assemblies, Rallies, and Demonstrations to impose measures that significantly limited persons' rights to peaceful assembly. Although further amendments to the law in June 2008 relaxed the strict provisions that gave authorities broad discretionary powers to prohibit political rallies and protests, in practice authorities continued to restrict freedom of assembly through an arbitrary interpretation of the law and, on many occasions, denied opposition applications to hold rallies at requested venues. Authorities also restricted spontaneous, smaller-sized gatherings that did not require prior notification. According to the local NGO Helsinki Committee of Armenia human rights, there were numerous instances of restricting freedom of assembly during the first six months of the year. Many of these involved authorities denying requests to hold rallies or demonstrations and marches in venues initially requested by organizers. Many of these requests were submitted by the political opposition. The Helsinki Committee of Armenia also reported that during the year it was difficult for organizers of rallies to inform the public about upcoming demonstrations, since television stations generally refused to accept even paid announcements of demonstrations. As a result, demonstration organizers usually tried to inform the public through independent or opposition media and through hand-to-hand dissemination of flyers and leaflets. On February 19, police prevented a youth organization called Special Regiment from holding a protest demonstration to mark the anniversary of the disputed 2008 presidential election. Representatives of other opposition youth groups participated in the protest, which organizers planned to hold outside the Central Electoral Commission (CEC). According to media reports, police did not allow the demonstrators to approach the CEC building and dispersed the demonstration, with police officers reportedly confiscating demonstrators' placards. On March 1, the ANC and Heritage party held a rally on the grounds of the Matenadaran manuscript museum to commemorate the one-year anniversary of the violence following 2008 presidential election. Municipal authorities initially prohibited the rally and a march through downtown Yerevan that was planned after it, posting their decisions on the city's Web site and suggesting organizers hold the rally at an alternative venue. Organizers disputed the prohibition, claiming that authorities had not responded to their notification to hold the rally and march within the 72-hour timeline provided by the law, which stipulates that, in the absence of a response in this time period, rallies may proceed as planned. On February 17, the Council of Europe expressed concern over the rally's prohibition and called on authorities to fully respect the principle of freedom of assembly and not place undue restrictions on peaceful opposition rallies. Following negotiations between ANC officials and police on March 1, police permitted the rally and march, and both proceeded peacefully. However, there were a number of credible reports of police efforts to prevent protesters from the regions from traveling to the capital. Diplomatic observers noted a number of police checkpoints along major highways, and there were reports of pressure on bus and taxi drivers not to transport anyone to Yerevan on March 1. Police regularly used force to break up the daily gatherings of supporters of opposition leader Levon Ter-Petrossian in downtown Yerevan. On April 10, police detained Vahagn Gevorgian, an 18-year-old activist from the youth movement HIMA (NOW) and son of the acting editor in chief of the pro-opposition Haykakan Zhamanak daily newspaper, Hayk Gevorgian. Vahagn Gevorgian had been participating in the regular evening ``political promenades'' on Northern Avenue, a major pedestrian thoroughfare adjacent to Freedom Square, as well as the site of protests in February 2008. After his arrest Gevorgian was charged with insulting and assaulting one of the police officers involved in breaking up the promenades. Gevorgian denied the charges and claimed that video footage taken by opposition activists during the promenade disproved police claims. The court refused to examine the footage, however, and instead based its verdict on police testimony. On September 12, Gevorgian was found guilty and sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of 80,000 drams (approximately $210); Gevorgian avoided jail, however, under the terms of the June 19 general amnesty adopted by the National Assembly. On April 21, the ombudsman issued a statement disputing the police's explanation for prohibiting the evening ``political promenades'' in downtown Yerevan. In 2008 police had periodically used force to disperse the assembled crowds and temporarily detained dozens of protesters, a practice that continued during the year. The ombudsman rejected the police rationale that the ``promenades'' were disrupting local commerce, stating that complaints from businesses were insufficient grounds for prohibiting gatherings. The ombudsman told the media that the police actions, some of which involved brief detentions of opposition activists, contravened the law on rallies and demonstrations. Police began disrupting the ``promenades'' on April 8, dispatching scores of officers and sometimes using force. In some instances diplomatic observers witnessed police officers pushing activists hundreds of yards away from the avenue. The police actions also resulted in citizens' access to the pedestrian area being restricted or cut off during evening hours. On May 1, the eve of the start of the official campaign for Yerevan's municipal elections, the ANC held its second rally of the year, which authorities sanctioned but subjected to a heavy security presence. Authorities refused organizers' request to hold a postrally march through downtown Yerevan. In spite of the prohibition, police permitted the march. Both the rally and march proceeded peacefully. There were a number of credible reports of police efforts to prevent protesters from traveling to the capital, and the opposition complained of police roadblocks on major highways. According to media reports on May 2, roads leading into Yerevan the day before had been blocked, and public transportation temporarily halted until after the rally. Police denied that the roadblocks had been posted to restrict travel to Yerevan, claiming that they were conducting routine searches for illegal weapons. The roadblocks were instituted after police had announced a month-long special campaign against illegal weapons, which correlated almost exactly with the month-long period of the campaign for Yerevan's municipal elections. Some local observers viewed the weapons search as a pretext for suppressing the opposition's election campaign. On May 10 and 11, a group of unidentified persons assaulted several ANC members in the Avan District of Yerevan as they were distributing materials related to the Yerevan municipal elections. The three ANC members, Ofelia Margarian, Astghik Aghekian, and Amalia Poghosian, were subsequently hospitalized after sustaining bodily injuries. On May 11 police launched a criminal case into the attack, which they subsequently ended on August 26 after failing to identify the perpetrators. On June 1, the day after the disputed Yerevan municipal elections, the ANC held a rally that authorities sanctioned. There were credible reports of police roadblocks ahead of the rally on major highways leading into Yerevan. Diplomatic observers confirmed the roadblocks and police actively stopping buses, minibuses, and private vehicles. A media report cited one police officer as denying that transport to Yerevan was only restricted ahead of opposition protests, citing the special operation to search for weapons and drugs. There were no reports of police roadblocks on days when no opposition rallies were planned. On July 1, plainclothes police officers clashed with ANC youth activists on Abovian Street in downtown Yerevan when the latter were distributing leaflets announcing the holding of an ANC rally on July 2. Several youths were injured and required hospitalization. The youth claimed they were punched, kicked, and pistol-whipped by police. Police claimed that the officers themselves came under attack during the incident, when they tried to stop an alleged brawl involving 40-50 youths. Police stated that three officers were injured during the incident. One youth, Tigran Arakelian, was arrested on July 5 and subsequently charged on July 8 with hooliganism and resisting officials in connection with the July 1 incident. In early September Arakelian began a hunger strike while in a prison hospital to demand his release. He was transferred to the hospital on July 15 after complaining of serious health problems, which he alleged were a result of head injuries inflicted by police. On September 7, Arakelian claimed his continued detention in spite of his deteriorating health was proof that he was being persecuted for his political views. On August 31, Arakelian's pretrial detention was extended after his initial two-month pretrial detention was about to expire. On September 28, police brought additional charges of assaulting a public official against Arakelian, which increased his possible prison sentence, if convicted, from five years to 10 years. On October 8, authorities released Arakelian from detention, citing that most of the investigation into his case had been completed and that Arakelian would not obstruct the inquiry if freed. The Prosecutor General's Office also cited Arakelian's need for medical treatment as a reason for his release. On July 11 and July 13, respectively, two other youths, Sahak Muradian and Herbert Gevorgian, were also similarly charged in connection with the July 1 incident. On December 15, the criminal case against all three youth activists was dropped due to a lack of evidence. According to official information, the three police officers involved in the July 1 incident were not charged for the physical injuries they caused to the youths because their actions were determined to be within the scope of the law. At times during the year the government continued to restrict citizens' rights to hold closed-door meetings, a practice started after the postelection events in 2008. In December 2008 a group of local NGOs issued a statement stating that civil society groups had repeatedly been denied the right to conduct meetings or events on social or political problems. According to the NGOs, some hotels had stated that they were instructed by authorities not to rent halls for any event that might be considered political and to check with designated officials on a case-by-case basis. These claims were corroborated by employees of several hotels. The alleged restriction on closed-door meetings continued during the year. On March 9, the Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation--Armenia (OSIAFA) stated that on March 6, a local hotel suddenly reversed its written decision to rent OSIAFA space for a planned human rights conference. The conference eventually took place at a local university and included representatives of the government, civil society, and international organizations. On another occasion a local hotel twice rejected meeting space requests by OSIAFA for the holding of a roundtable discussion it planned to discuss a European Commission report. Three hotels also rejected OSIAFA's request for meeting space for a planned one-day conference on the theme of strategic litigation. There were other numerous instances in which authorities restricted freedom of assembly. According to official information, on August 20-25, the Prosecutor General's Office charged four police officers with ``exceeding official authority'' for their alleged assaults on citizens in March 2008, when security forces forcibly dispersed demonstrators from Freedom Square. Many of the demonstrators fled the square and regrouped in other downtown areas, with police in some instances chasing and pursuing demonstrators long distances as they fled. Two of the four officers were charged for applying force and hitting citizens with rubber clubs at Republic Square, approximately four blocks away from Freedom Square. On December 25, a Yerevan court convicted the two officers of ``using disproportionate force'' and sentenced them to two years' imprisonment. The court also ruled that the policemen qualified for the general amnesty declared on June 19 and would not be imprisoned but prohibited them from working for law enforcement or other state bodies for a year. The two other officers were charged after video records presented during the ad hoc parliamentary commission's inquiry into the events showed them assaulting citizens at the open-air market on Mashtots Avenue, also approximately four long blocks from Freedom Square. The Prosecutor General's Office began a search for the citizens assaulted by the police officers to ascertain whether the assaults occurred. Although the citizens assaulted in either case were never found, on December 17 a Yerevan court convicted the two officers of ``using disproportionate force'' and sentenced them to three years' imprisonment. The court ruled, however, that the policemen qualified for the general amnesty declared on June 19 and would not be imprisoned but prohibited them from working for law enforcement or other state bodies for a year. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected it in practice. However, registration requirements for all political parties, associations, and secular and religious organizations remained cumbersome. The law stipulates that citizens have the right to form associations, including political parties and trade unions, except for persons serving in the armed services and law enforcement agencies. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the law places some restrictions on the religious freedom of adherents of minority religious groups. The government generally did not enforce existing legal restrictions on religious freedom. The Armenian Apostolic Church is considered the national church and enjoys some privileges not available to other faiths. The law does not mandate registration of NGOs, including religious organizations. However, only registered organizations have legal status and may publish more than 1,000 copies of newspapers or magazines, rent meeting places, broadcast programs on television or radio, or officially sponsor visas for foreign visitors, although there is no prohibition on individual members doing so. There were no reports of the government refusing registration to religious groups. The law prohibits but does not define ``soul-hunting,'' a nonlegal term perceived locally to describe both proselytizing and forced conversion. The prohibition applies to all groups, including the Armenian Apostolic Church. Although the law prohibits foreign funding of foreign-based denominations, the authorities did not enforce the ban. Most registered religious groups reported no significant legal impediments to their activities during the reporting period. Although the law provides for alternative service for conscientious objectors, the military services themselves administer the alternative service, and members of Jehovah's Witnesses continued to refuse the alternative program for that reason. According to lawyers for Jehovah's Witnesses, as of year's end, 76 of the group's members were serving prison sentences for evading alternative service. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--According to observers, the general population expressed negative attitudes about minority religious groups. According to local experts, however, these attitudes did not affect personal and neighborly relationships, but rather constituted a general perception of minority religious groups as undermining the social fabric of the state. Minority religious groups at times continued to be targets of hostile sermons by Armenian Apostolic Church clerics, and members of minority religious groups experienced societal discrimination and intolerance, including in the workplace. Television outlets disparagingly labeled denominations other than the Armenian church as ``sects'' in their broadcasting and aired negative programs about them. The size of the country's Jewish population was estimated at between 500 and 1,000 persons. There were no reports of anti-Semitic violence or vandalism during the year. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--While the law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, there were some restrictions in practice. The authorities cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. During the year there were numerous credible reports that citizens residing outside of Yerevan were restricted from travelling to attend opposition rallies held in the capital. In order to leave the country on a temporary or permanent basis, citizens must obtain an exit visa. Exit visas for temporary travel out of the country may be routinely purchased within one day of application for approximately 1,000 drams (approximately $3) for each year of validity. In October 2008 the government abolished the practice for emigrants to deregister themselves from the civil registry, which had widely been viewed as an onerous process that was subject to extensive corruption. The law does not prohibit forced exile, but there were no reports that the government used it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--During the country's war with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, authorities evacuated approximately 65,000 households from the border region, but most IDPs later returned to their homes or settled elsewhere. Of the remaining IDPs, almost two- thirds could not return to their villages, which were surrounded by Azerbaijani territory. Other IDPs chose not to return due to socioeconomic hardships or fear of land mines. A 2005 mapping study conducted by the Norwegian Refugee Council, together with the Migration Agency under the Ministry of Territorial Administration, found that 8,399 IDPs resided in the country. There were no further studies to estimate current numbers of IDPs. In September 2008 the authorities approved a program to assist in the resettlement of 626 families that were displaced during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict; however, there was no funding provided to implement the program, according to government officials. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. A new Law on Refugees and Asylum entered into force on January 24. It incorporates the basic principles of refugee protection established by the 1951 convention, as well as all specific developments that took place in this field after the ratification of the convention. It harmonizes most aspects of admission and treatment of asylum seekers and refugees in conformity with international standards, ensuring respect for the right to asylum and addressing national security concerns. In practice authorities provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to a country where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Authorities also provided temporary protection during the year. According to the Migration Service, a total of 66 persons applied for asylum during the year. During the year the government granted temporary asylum to 33 persons and refugee status to one person. There was an established procedure for granting asylum that included amnesty for the illegal entry of an asylum seeker and access to the territory for individuals seeking asylum. However, some delays and difficulties with refugee processing at airports and land borders arose due to frequent rotations of inexperienced border officials and little training on asylum procedures. Due to a lack of institutional capacity, the authorities often struggled to integrate asylum seekers into society once they were granted permanent residency status. Temporary housing for refugees and asylum seekers was often inadequate in supply and in poor condition. Refugees faced the same social and economic hardships that confronted the general population. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government Although the law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, that right was restricted in practice due to repeated, significant flaws in the conduct of elections. Elections and Political Participation.--In accordance with changes made to the constitution in 2005, on May 31 the country conducted its first election of the Yerevan City Council (65 members) and the first, albeit indirect, election of the mayor of Yerevan (since independence in 1991, the president of the republic had appointed the mayors of the capital). According to the electoral code, the candidate heading the election list of the political party that wins at least 40 percent of the seats in the new city council automatically becomes mayor. Six parties and one bloc contested the proportional representation-based election on May 31, including the ruling Republican Party of Armenia (RPA), the ruling coalition partner Prosperous Armenia (PA), the ruling coalition partner Rule of Law (OY), the Armenian Revolutionary Federation-Dashnakstutiun, the ANC bloc, the People's Party, and the Socialistic Labor Party of Armenia. The conduct of the election was significantly flawed. Problems included favorable treatment of the ruling coalition parties and candidates; unbalanced election commissions in favor of ruling parties; instances of ballot stuffing; reports of vote buying; attempts to bribe observers; busing into Yerevan of non-Yerevan residents to vote; voter intimidation; violence against and intimidation of reporters, observers, and opposition proxies; restriction of individual civil and political rights; management of the work at polling stations by unauthorized individuals or candidates' proxies; cases of open and multiple voting; and suspiciously high turnout figures in some polling stations. Prior to the election, President Sargsian on March 4 invoked his then-existing executive branch powers and replaced the incumbent mayor of Yerevan with Gagik Beglarian, an RPA party official and then-prefect of Yerevan's Kentron District. By selecting Beglarian to top the party's election list a few days earlier, the RPA effectively appeared to give its candidate for mayor the advantage of incumbency. Local political observers interpreted the president's preelection campaign appointment of Beglarian as a ploy to give Beglarian an advantage in the election, in light of well-established practices whereby incumbents use administrative resources at their disposal to support their campaigns. In its preliminary June 2 statement on the election, the local NGO It's Your Choice (IYC), the largest election observation organization in the country, noted that ``administrative resources were largely used during the campaign.'' The IYC found that ``the campaign of the incumbent mayor of Yerevan Beglarian was accompanied by widespread, active, and quick asphalting, garbage removal, and street lighting in all the communities of Yerevan. By doing this during the official campaign the candidates offered services to the voters.'' Prior to the start of the election campaign, the PA party provided free medical services to some in the general population. In an interview to the pro- opposition 168 Zham newspaper, PA's mayoral candidate, Minister of Health Care Harutyun Kushkian, downplayed the allegations, stating that such services have become a tradition and are conducted periodically, regardless of elections. Violence marred the election campaign, both before its official start on May 2 and after, with confrontations between progovernment and pro-opposition forces, as well as armed clashes between progovernment forces themselves. Some local observers viewed the attacks against journalists Argishti Kivirian on April 30 and Nver Mnatsakanian on May 6 as connected with the Yerevan election, since Kivirian had published articles with pro-opposition views and Mnatsakanian had conducted what some viewers called an unflattering interview with an influential businessman active in the election campaign (see section 2.a.). On May 10 and 11, unidentified men assaulted female opposition supporters as they were distributing campaign materials in the Avan District of Yerevan, whose elected head at the time was an RPA party candidate who was elected deputy mayor after the election. A criminal case was launched into the assault but subsequently suspended due to a lack of evidence. Based on its monitoring of media coverage of the election campaign, the YPC reported on June 1 that 96 percent of all references to the parties and bloc contesting the election were neutral during this period. The YPC noted that ``in this regard, the elections to (the) Yerevan Council of Elders were quite different from the presidential elections of 2008.'' Nevertheless, the YPC noted that certain television channels showed clear preferences toward certain candidates and parties and that the paid broadcast time for the election campaign was fully used only by progovernmental parties, which the YPC indicated was reflective of excessive tariffs for political advertising that precluded a level playing field. On April 21, the ANC filed an appeal with the Constitutional Court arguing that individuals should not be included on voter lists during local elections if they could not demonstrate at least one year of residential registration in their claimed locality. On May 8, the Constitutional Court essentially agreed with the ANC's argument. The ruling resulted in the invalidation of a clause invoked by the CEC on February 28 that, based on the CEC's interpretation of the election code, allowed the inclusion of individuals on voter lists without one year of residential registration at their claimed locality. The ANC had filed the appeal based on allegations that ruling parties had attempted to register non-Yerevan residents for the May municipal election. Since 2007 approximately 70 citizens who used to live in homes appropriated by government in 2002 to make space for the construction of upscale apartments and office buildings on Northern Avenue in downtown Yerevan have claimed that they have been unable to vote in elections because of problems encountered in registering at temporary addresses. Although the law allows these citizens to reregister in their temporary locality and be included in voters lists, many of them claimed that they were unable to do so due to resistance by landlords who leased them apartments or by relatives who hosted them, since neither group wanted them officially registered at their addresses for fear of their own property rights being infringed. Despite multiple changes to the electoral code in recent years, there were important shortcomings in election administration that diminished the integrity of the electoral process. Among other deficiencies, progovernmental appointees--as in previous national and local elections--held the key leadership positions in an overwhelming majority of Yerevan's 439 local election commissions (voting precincts) that administered voting during the municipal election, threatening the independence and impartiality of the election and vote count process. In the beginning of May, the opposition Heritage party, which did not participate in the election but had the right, by virtue of its representation in the National Assembly, to a seat on all election commissions, declared that its member on the territorial election commission (TEC) overseeing 28 local election commissions (voting precincts) in the Malatia-Sebastia District and five in the adjoining district of Shengavit had cooperated with progovernmental parties without the Heritage party's authorization. This development led Heritage officials to complain that its TEC member had been either pressured or bought off to allow the progovernmental parties to take over the seats belonging to Heritage in the TEC's 33 local election commissions. During the election and vote count, widespread voting irregularities were observed and reported in Yerevan's Malatia-Sebastia District, a district perennially marred by pervasive cases, both observed and reported, of election fraud. Voting irregularities were also observed and reported in other Yerevan districts. Some local NGOs that observed the election assessed its conduct as flawed. The IYC, which deployed observers to all of Yerevan's 439 voting precincts, noted in a preliminary June 2 statement that the election failed to restore the confidence of voters in election processes. Among other violations, the IYC reported observing instances of open voting; intimidation and limitation of the rights of proxies, monitors, and mass media representatives; and the presence of unauthorized persons in voting precincts. According to other local observers, unauthorized individuals and proxies representing progovernmental parties appeared to be managing the electoral process in many of the voting precincts. The report issued by the local affiliate of the Transparency International (TI) anticorruption NGO cited numerous cases of voting irregularities. According to TI, in the TEC with jurisdiction over Malatia-Sebastia and a part of the Shengavit districts, their observers faced intimidation and pressure to leave in 16 of the TEC's 33 local voting precincts and attempts to be bribed in four of the voting precincts. TI's observers also noted the presence of unauthorized individuals in 12 precincts, cases of ballot stuffing in 13 precincts, and open, multiple, directed, or substitutive voting in 17 precincts. During election day and the vote count, some online media outlets reported numerous alleged violations. Cases of campaigning on election day, which is prohibited by law, were reported by local observers, media, and the opposition. Among other cases, the investigative online news agency Hetq reported open voting and campaigning for the ruling RPA. There were reports of election day violence. The ombudsman criticized reported assaults of journalists as ``a phenomenon that has become regular during every election.'' The ombudsman also stated that ``assaults against Armine Avetian from the pro-opposition 168 Zham newspaper and election observer from Transparency International Sona Ayvazian that took place on May 31 in the Malatia-Sebastia voting station were conducted in the presence of the head of the electoral commission and police officers.'' On the whole, observers and individuals who witnessed voting irregularities noted that police were passive in preventing violations and violence in and around polling stations. At a voting precinct in the Kentron District of Yerevan, RPA MP Levon Sargsian and his bodyguards reportedly assaulted Gohar Vezirian from the pro-opposition Chorrord Ishkhanutyun newspaper and Tatev Mesropian from the opposition Hayk newspaper. The bodyguards also reportedly confiscated the voice recorder of the journalist Marine Kharatian from the opposition 168 Zham newspaper. According to official information, on June 1 a criminal case of hooliganism was launched in response to the media report that Sargsian's guards attacked Vezirian; according to law enforcement authorities, the guards claimed that Vezirian had made ``hooligan'' statements towards them. The disposition of this case remained unknown at year's end, and no official information on the alleged attack by the bodyguards was provided. At year's end no criminal charges had been leveled against the guards, and there were no known investigations launched into the other cited attacks on reporters (see section 2). According to the Prosecutor General's Office, three cases were launched during the year in regard to the election-related violence. Of those cases, one was dropped and two were suspended. While the IYC reported an improvement in the accuracy of the voters list maintained by the Passport and Visa Department , many domestic observers expressed concern about the thousands of registered voters who no longer physically resided in Armenia and did not cast votes in elections. There were reports that the names of these physically absent, registered voters were fraudulently used for substitute voting. Voting by military personnel during the election also proved controversial. According to a CEC decision, conscripts were barred from casting votes in the election. In spite of the decision, the ANC publicized some lists of names of conscripts that it alleged the Ministry of Defense had produced in order to organize the voting of conscripts in the election. The authorities rejected the allegations. The only international organization accredited to observe the election, the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe, deployed 12 observers to monitor the vote. While the congress gave a generally positive assessment of the election at a press conference held on June 1, the head of its delegation stated that ``our satisfaction in seeing the citizens electing their City Council has been tempered by deficiencies in the conduct of the vote.'' According to the CEC, recount requests were filed regarding the results of 11 polling stations. Some recounts showed significant discrepancies and mistakes, and the results of six polling stations were invalidated. Additionally, eight criminal cases were opened into alleged or reported vote fraud, with five individuals charged and convicted to varying prison terms. All of these individuals were subsequently released, however, as the result of amnesty adopted by the National Assembly on June 19. Election commissions reportedly refused to register election- related complaints in many instances and, in some cases, rejected requests without sufficient cause. The ANC claimed to have filed 18 election-related appeals to the Administrative Court responsible for adjudicating such complaints; of the 18, the ANC won only one appeal. The court ruled against the majority of the appeals and allegedly did not accept some. Local observers interpreted the rulings as politically motivated. On June 6, the CEC officially reported the final results of the election, with 35 seats on the new city council going to the ruling RPA, 17 to its ruling coalition partner Prosperous Armenia, and 13 going to the ANC led by former president Levon Ter-Petrossian. Two CEC members representing the opposition Heritage and Armenian Revolutionary Federation-Dashnaktsutiun (ARF) parties refused to sign the CEC's final election protocol. On June 8, the RPA's Gagik Beglarian was officially reinstalled as Yerevan's mayor. On June 1, the ANC said it would boycott the city council after what Ter-Petrossian called ``the ugliest election in Armenia's history.'' The opposition Heritage party, which did not contest the election, largely shared ANC's assessment and described the election as ``disgraceful.'' The ARF also described the election as flawed and refused to recognize the legitimacy of the official results, noting that such elections risked becoming ``a mere procedure for reproducing the authorities.'' Dominated by government loyalists, the CEC assessed the election as largely free and fair, claiming that it had investigated and found most of the opposition allegations of vote fraud to be unsubstantiated. The Prosecutor General's Office also claimed to have investigated and found as unsubstantiated some of the charges of vote fraud leveled by the opposition. While many of the progovernment officials who commented on the election acknowledged deficiencies in its conduct, none said they were significant enough to affect the final outcome of the election. On December 27, four youth activists were accosted and beaten by more than 20 assailants in downtown Yerevan while distributing election-related materials on behalf of Nikol Pashinian, an opposition candidate in the National Assembly by-election scheduled for January 2010. Assailants reportedly used metal objects during the beating, and several of the youth activists incurred serious injuries that required hospitalization. Opposition officials alleged that supporters of another by-election candidate, Ara Simonian of the progovernment National Unity party, and the ruling Republican Party carried out the attack. Simonian denied the allegations. The police launched a criminal case of battery on December 29 that was underway at year's end. There were 12 women in the 131-seat National Assembly, including one of two deputy speakers, as well as two women appointed to the government cabinet and one female governor. The new Yerevan City Council included six women; however, none of the 12 communities of Yerevan were headed by women. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively or evenly, and officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The authorities did not take any substantive measures to curb systematic corruption, although junior and mid-level officials were periodically prosecuted during the year for petty corruption, usually accepting bribes for services. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem. The World Bank managing director, in an October visit, publicly expressed concerns over the need to address corruption in government institutions. Beginning in January, all public officials and their family members, as well as citizens with annual incomes exceeding eight million drams (approximately $21,000), were subject to financial disclosure laws, according to which they had to file their asset declarations no later than April 15; however, to what extent officials and individuals with high incomes complied with the law remained unclear. According to local observers, the authorities lacked the will and technical capacity to verify the accuracy of the declarations, which were not fully accessible to the public, or to take action against persons who concealed their incomes. Government programs to curb corruption continued to produce little tangible results. The activities of the governmental Anticorruption Strategy Monitoring Commission and Anticorruption Council continued to be viewed with skepticism. On October 6, the government approved the 2009-12 anticorruption strategy following two years of wide-ranging discussions in Yerevan and the regions and the posting of the strategy on the government's Web site. Local observers remained skeptical, however, that the newly adopted strategy contained adequate measures to genuinely strengthen anticorruption institutions and that indicators for monitoring implementation of the strategy were sufficient. Civic groups working to address corruption stated that authorities continued to ignore media reports implicating government officials in corrupt practices. According to Transparency International's 2009 Global Corruption Barometer carried out between October 2008 and February, 43 percent of the individuals it surveyed in the country reported giving bribes during 2008. Respondents identified the police as the institution that demanded most bribes. During the year authorities confiscated a company owned by MP and opposition supporter Khachatur Sukiasian. In 2008 authorities had seized the assets of his Bjni mineral water company to collect a 4.5 billion dram ($12 million) fine, ostensibly for tax fraud and misappropriation of state-owned water resources; local observers viewed the action as retaliation for Sukiasian's support of Levon Ter- Petrossian's 2008 presidential bid. The company was ultimately sold on December 24 to a progovernment businessman (see section 1). In a February 26 interview, Vahram Nercissiants, a top economic adviser to President Sargsian, stated that the holding of top governmental offices by affluent businessmen is unconstitutional. Nercissiants stated that although the constitution prohibits businessmen from holding public office, many state officials circumvented the law by registering their companies under the names of relatives while continuing to manage them personally. The adviser also noted that when affluent businessmen hold public office, their loyalties often shifted from serving the government to serving their private interests and that the country's business environment was adversely affected when such individuals used government office to set unequal business conditions and unfairly push competitors out of the market. On March 13, an adviser to the minister for emergency situations was arrested for alleged fraud and bribery. The SIS stated that the official, Sanatruk Sahakian, was suspected of receiving a large bribe from the family of a young man seeking to enroll at the country's police academy. According to the SIS, Sahakian had convinced the family that he could arrange the young man's enrollment in exchange for the bribe. On November 9, Sahakian was convicted and sentenced to four years' imprisonment for fraud and attempted official forgery. The sentence was subsequently reduced by one-third to two years and eight months as a result of the June 19 general amnesty. On April 16, President Sargsian urged the police to put an end to a spate of high-profile shootouts and illegal possession of weapons and ammunition that appeared connected to Yerevan's approaching municipal elections on May 31. Expressing serious concern at the shootings, the president stated he would toughen the response of law enforcement agencies in such instances, cautioning that authorities would take strict measures even if a relative of an official was involved. In a number of high-profile cases of alleged or reported violence during the year that involved relatives or members of the ruling party, no investigation or criminal proceedings were conducted, prompting local observers to question whether these individuals used their political connections to the ruling party and authorities to avoid legal prosecution. According to media reports, on June 30, Ishkhan Zakarian, chairman of the Control Chamber, an official auditing body that monitor's government budgetary activity, reported irregularities in the prices of public land sold to private individuals in the Armavir region. Zakarian stated that the Control Chamber discovered instances of land sales considerably below actual market value. Zakarian indentified one initial sale of 10 acres that went for 35,000 drams (approximately $94) per acre; this land was then sold two days later for 3,900,000 drams (approximately $10,500). Zakarian also reported the sale of land in Parakar village at below-market prices for the construction of casinos and furniture shops. The Control Chamber also stated that it had discovered irregularities in expenditures allegedly allotted to town planning in Armavir that amounted to 86 million drams (approximately $232,000). On October 7, Zakarian presented to the National Assembly the Control Chamber's 2008 report, in which the chamber registered financial violations and wasteful spending by government agencies during the year that totaled almost 8 billion drams (approximately $21 million), of which approximately 6 billion drams ($16 million) could be recovered. At year's end official sources did not provide information as to the progress of these cases involving wasteful spending. During the year the Control Chamber published similar findings on gross violations and financial abuse in numerous state bodies; as in previous years, however, these cases were rarely prosecuted. According to the local affiliate of Transparency International, the government ministers and regional governors implicated by these reports simply returned some of the money to the budget and continued to work without any legal action being taken against them. According to official statistics, authorities investigated 451 corruption cases during year. In the first nine months of the year, courts convicted 146 persons, including 63 officials. The majority of officials investigated or convicted worked in the police or the Ministry of Justice, and most of the officials were section heads or other low-level officials. According to a May 25 media report, the local NGO Achilles Society for the Defense of Drivers' Rights identified corruption as permeating all departments of the traffic police. According to the NGO, bribes solicited by the traffic police ranged from 5,000 to 50,000 drams (approximately $13 to $130). While the law provides for public access to government information, in practice many government bodies and officials were reluctant to provide such access. During the year the government still had not adopted the regulations required by, and supplementary to, the 2003 Freedom of Information Law, on the aspects of collection and provision of information. Officials cited the absence of these regulations when refusing to provide information. NGOs were more successful in gaining access to information through the courts. On July 6, in response to a claim lodged by the local NGO Freedom of Information Center, the Administrative Court for the first time imposed an administrative penalty of 50,000 drams (approximately $130) on a regional official for failing to provide information to the NGO in accordance with the law. According to the account of a former prisoner reported by the NGO Helsinki Committee, Nubarashen prison was ruled by a clandestine organized criminal system, with rampant corruption involving prison administration; blackmail, and gambling. In April 2008 the Freedom of Information Center published the results of a survey on journalists' access to information, which cited access to official information as a serious problem. The survey claimed the main obstacle in obtaining official information was the mentality of officials, who viewed the information at their disposal as their private property. Other obstacles included the absence of formal procedures for storing and providing information as well as the low level of awareness of their rights among journalists. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restrictions, freely investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. During the year independent local human rights organizations and local affiliates of international organizations operated in the country. The authorities generally did not deny requests to meet with domestic NGO monitors and followed some NGO recommendations, particularly those related to social welfare, education, and local matters. Authorities were usually unresponsive, however, to NGO allegations of mistreatment and abuse committed by law enforcement bodies. Authorities' general response in such instances was that they had investigated the allegations but could not corroborate them. Since January a supervisory public council comprised of public figures reportedly served as a police watchdog. According to the September 2008 announcement of the council, the body's purpose was to help improve the transparency of police conduct and prevent human rights abuses. There were few reports during the year on the council's operations or its impact on the police. According to official information, the council dealt with such problems as the carrying of weapons, traffic regulations, loud honking by cars, fireworks regulations, and aggressive content in television shows. On August 15, police charged Mariam Sukhudian, a youth environmental activist, with false reporting of a crime after she publicly reported instances of sexual and other abuse at a state-run boarding school for children with special needs in 2008. The activist and local human rights monitors criticized the charges as trumped-up retaliation for Sukhudian's bringing the abuses to light and called for an impartial investigation into the conditions at all state-run special needs schools. On October 21, police informed Sukhudian that the charges against her had been downgraded to slander, punishable by fine. At year's end the investigation of the criminal charges against Sukhudian continued. On June 5, police detained and arrested Arshaluis Hakobian, a member of the local NGO Helsinki Association, for allegedly assaulting a police officer while being delivered a summons to appear in connection with the official complaint of electoral fraud that Hakobian filed during the May 31 municipal elections. According to reports, during the elections Hakobian, an accredited election observer, was evicted along with a colleague from a polling station in Yerevan's fraud-rife district of Malatia-Sebastia, barred from reentry, and threatened with physical harm. He subsequently filed the complaint with the SIS. Police claimed Hakobian assaulted them as they were delivering a summons for him to appear before the SIS investigating the complaint. According to Hakobian, the police officers who visited his house on June 5 were aggravated by his refusal to sign the summons, which Hakobian claimed was illegitimate. Hakobian stated police pressured him to sign the summons, beat him on the way to and at the police station, and denied him access to a lawyer during the initial hours of his detention. On June 11, CSMB members visited Hakobian in prison and reported numerous injuries on his body (legs, hands, back, and head). The police reportedly registered Hakobian's injuries in a medical folder upon his arrival at the prison. The government claimed to have investigated the claims of mistreatment and denied it occurred. On June 15, the Geneva- based Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders issued a statement of concern over the ``arbitrary arrest'' of Hakobian and condemned police mistreatment against him, which the organization charged was punishment for Hakobian's human rights activities. After being charged on June 5 with assaulting a public official, Hakobian was remanded into custody for a two-month pretrial detention period. On August 5, authorities extended his pretrial detention for one month. On September 15, his case got underway. On October 16, the authorities released Hakobian from detention following a motion by the prosecutor requesting the court to postpone further judicial proceedings by one month; the prosecutor justified his motion by stating that the prosecution needed additional time to ``change or complement'' the original charges. The court granted the request and ordered Hakobian's immediate release from detention on the condition that Hakobian not leave the country while the case continued. On November 20 and December 21, the judge postponed the proceedings into the case in response to the prosecution's requests for more time to conduct an investigation into the actions of the police officers who detained and arrested Hakobian. On November 28, the SIS launched an investigation into the alleged abuse by the police officers that was subsequently dismissed on December 29 due to lack of evidence, and the proceedings against Hakobian had yet to be resumed by year's end. On May 21, police dismissed charges against Tigran Urikhanian for criminally assaulting Mikael Danielian, the head of the local Helsinki Association NGO, in May 2008. Urikhanian, a marginal progovernment figure, and two accomplices reportedly carried out the assault. Despite numerous witnesses to the attack, police chose not to recognize Danielian as a victim and characterized the incident as hooliganism. Throughout the investigation, however, police could not corroborate the hooliganism charges with supporting facts. While police assessed Urikhanian's actions as exceeding ``legitimate self defense,'' they concluded that they did not constitute a crime since Danielian's injuries were not grave. Police did not press charges against the other two assailants, claiming that they had ``repented'' for their actions. Police also chose not to include in their case materials the testimony of Artur Sakunts, director of the human rights NGO Helsinki Citizens Assembly Vanadzor, who witnessed the attack. According to Danielian, throughout the investigation, the police investigator threatened him with possible arrest on charges of hooliganism if he did not reconcile with the offenders. Danielian appealed the decision to dismiss the criminal case in both the court of first instance and the court of appeals; on both occasions, the courts ruled against his appeals. There were no developments in the investigation of the assaults against youth activists Arsen Kharatian in May 2008 and Narek Hovakimian in June 2008. The government generally cooperated with international NGOs, permitting them to visit the country and issue reports. A human rights defender (ombudsman) operated in the country, with a mandate to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms from abuse by the national, regional, and local governments and their officials. During the year the ombudsman issued regular and ad hoc reports on various human rights problems in the country. The government was generally not responsive to these reports and did not answer questions raised in the ombudsman's April 2008 ad hoc report on the March 2008 postelection violence. During the first half of the year, the Ombudsman's Office received complaints from 2,602 citizens; the office resolved 42 of these complaints, with 94 persons reportedly receiving redress for their grievances. On September 16-17, approximately 16 months after its establishment, an ad hoc parliamentary commission released its findings on the March 2008 postelection events and 10 resulting deaths. The report stated the commission was unable to shed more light onto the circumstances of the deaths and urged law enforcement authorities to do more to identify, track down, and prosecute individuals responsible for the deaths. Relatives of the civilian victims protested the commission's findings and demonstrated before the parliament for a full, objective accounting of the deaths. Before the release of the report, President Sargsian on June 6 disbanded the bipartisan fact-finding group of experts he established in October 2008 to assist the ad hoc parliamentary commission in its inquiry. According to local observers, the disbanding of the fact- finding group was connected to the leaking of sensitive reports that assigned culpability to authorities for some of the 10 deaths. PACE regretted the disbanding of the fact-finding group due to ``the insurmountable tensions between its members and the politicizing of its work by members of both sides''; declared that an independent, impartial, and credible investigation into the March 2008 events was still necessary; and stated that the final report by the ad hoc parliamentary commission would ``determine whether the criteria of impartiality and credibility have been met and whether further investigations are necessary.'' On December 21, the PACE Monitoring Committee criticized the commission's self-censorship for not sufficiently challenging the official version of events. It also deplored the report's one-sided description of events and lack of discussion on the postelection arrest and prosecution of a large number of opposition supporters. The very low profile on human rights problems of the Standing Committee on Protection of Human Rights and Public Issues of the National Assembly led the local human rights community to view the committee with deep skepticism. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not effectively enforce these prohibitions. Women.--Rape is a criminal offense and carries a maximum penalty of 15 years' imprisonment. There are no explicit laws criminalizing marital rape. During the year authorities launched 23 criminal cases against 26 persons on cases of rape and attempted rape; however, social stigma continued to contribute to the underreporting of those crimes. Authorities convicted 10 of these 26 individuals for rape or attempted rape; the investigations into the remaining cases were continuing at year's end. According to official information, none of these reported cases constituted marital rape. There is no law against domestic violence. Few cases of spousal abuse or other violence against women were reported during the year, although such violence was presumed to be widespread. In a 2007 survey commissioned by the Women's Rights Center, 66 percent of the respondents acknowledged that family members subjected them to psychological abuse, and 39 percent considered themselves victims of either moderate or severe physical abuse. Most cases of domestic violence were not reported to police because victims were afraid of physical harm, were apprehensive that police would return them to their husbands, or were embarrassed to make family problems public. There is one NGO-operated shelter in the country, which offers refuge and assistance, including psychological and legal counseling, to victims of domestic violence. The NGO also operates a hotline that offers assistance to victims of domestic violence. Police reported investigating 241 cases of domestic violence during the year, including 132 cases of battery and 100 cases of infliction of willful damage to health. The remaining cases included a murder attempt or threat thereof, hooliganism, and insults. The Prosecutor General's Office reported registering two instances of murder and two instances of attempted murder by spouses. While prostitution constitutes an administrative offense punishable by a fine, operating a brothel and engaging in other forms of pimping are crimes punishable by one to 10 years' imprisonment. According to media reports, fewer than 5,000 women were involved in prostitution in the country, of whom approximately 1,500 were in Yerevan. Local observers claim that police and other security forces tolerated prostitution. The law does not specifically prohibit sexual harassment, although it addresses lewd acts and indecent behavior. While there was no public data on the extent of the problem, local observers believed sexual harassment directed against women in the workplace to be widespread. According to law, couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. In practice, however, especially in more traditional families, such decisions were often made by the male spouse and his parents. Access to and information about contraception was low, especially in rural areas. Skilled attendance during childbirth was more accessible in large towns and population centers. Women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. There were reports that women, especially those in rural or remote areas, faced insufficient access to adequate general and reproductive health-care services. Observers noted that various efforts made to improve reproductive health care had not been effective. International and local observers recommended during the year that the government continue to take measures to improve women's access to health care in general, and to reproductive health-care services in particular. During the year observers called on authorities to increase efforts to improve the availability of sexual and reproductive health services (including family planning), to mobilize resources for that purpose, and to monitor the actual access to those services by women. Further recommendations were made that the government widely promote family planning and reproductive health education to girls and boys with special attention to the prevention of pregnancies of underage girls, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV/AIDS. Men and women enjoy equal legal status, although gender and age discrimination were continuing problems in the public and private sectors. Women generally did not enjoy the same professional opportunities or wages as men and often were relegated to more menial or low-paying jobs. Women remained underrepresented in leadership positions in all branches of the government, national as well as regional and local. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents. Observers indicated that parents, particularly the poorest and most socially disadvantaged, were unable to register their children at birth, thereby potentially depriving them of essential social services and increasing their children's vulnerability. During the year, however, international donors worked with the authorities to address the situation with some success. Severe disparities remained in both primary and secondary education in the country because of gender, regional location, and income. Numbers of dropouts after basic education remained substantial, especially among poor students. Free basic health care was available to boys and girls through age 18 but often was of poor quality, and officials often required overt or concealed payment for services. Statutory rape, defined in the law as sexual acts with a person less than 16 years of age, is punishable with a fine and imprisonment up to two years. Child pornography is punishable with a maximum imprisonment of six years. At year's end a court case continued against the former deputy head of Special School No. 18, a facility for children with antisocial behavior, who allegedly forced two students to beg and sexually assaulted another student. In November 2008 Armenian Public Television broadcast reports containing allegations of sexual and other abuse of students at Special School No. 11, a school for children with special needs, by the school's administration and staff. The alleged abuse came to light when a group of youth activists served as volunteers in the school. In their work and interaction with children, the volunteers observed and heard about multiple problems and abuses at that school, including poor food quality, poor sanitary conditions, exploitation of children by the school's director and staff for their household chores, severe punishments and beatings, and several instances of sexual abuse by a teacher. On August 15, the authorities opened criminal proceedings for false crime reporting, which police downgraded to slander charges on October 21, against the leader of the youth group who publicized the abuses, Mariam Sukhudian. On August 26, the Prosecutor General's Office stated its investigation into the allegations of sexual abuse proved them invalid. At year's end the investigation of the criminal charges against Sukhudian continued. In February and March the human rights NGO Armenian Helsinki Committee monitored 12 special-education schools and four boarding institutions to assess the provision of care and protection of children enrolled in the establishments. The study, published in the Ditord (Observer) human rights journal, revealed frequent physical and psychological violence against children at the institutions. Many children indicated they had been slapped or beaten, shut in a classroom, or prevented from going home, among other forms of punishment. According to the study, some teachers admitted resorting to violence. The study also noted that most of the institutions lacked proper central heating and adequate sanitary and hygiene conditions. The committee also studied children's rights in the 12 general education schools in the Syunik region during the February and March period. The study found various forms of physical or psychological violence regularly used as a means of punishing children. Violence often took the form of beating, slapping, pulling ears, and humiliating treatment. There was also unequal treatment of students at schools, depending on teachers' relations with students, whether students pursued private classes with a teacher, and whether students had influential parents. The Helsinki Committee conducted a similar study in 2007 and 2008 in 39 general education schools throughout seven regions of Armenia, collecting data. The results of the two studies were substantively the same. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reported cases of persons trafficked into, from and within the country. The country is primarily a source for women and girls trafficked to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Turkey for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. NGOs reported that women were also trafficked to Turkey for the purpose of forced labor. Men and women were trafficked to Russia for the purpose of forced labor. During the year there were court cases involving internal trafficking of minors for sexual exploitation and forced begging and trafficking of Russian women to the country for labor exploitation. According to official data, at least 60 persons were identified as victims of trafficking. Individual or small organized groups of traffickers using developed networks in source and destination countries typically recruited victims among the most socially vulnerable in the population, especially persons in the rural areas, through promises of high-paying jobs in the destination countries. In the case of trafficking for sexual exploitation, traffickers typically, but not always, targeted women already engaged in prostitution. The majority but not all of these victims were aware that they would end up in the sex industry in other countries; however, they were unaware of the traffickers' intent or the exploitative circumstances they would face abroad. Once in the destination country, traffickers deprived victims of their travel documents, confined them in hotel rooms, and told them they must ``repay'' their expenses. Traffickers reportedly encouraged victims to become recruiters, promising them future proceeds earned by new victims or by promising them money they had already earned but been deprived of by their traffickers. Amendments to the criminal code in November increased the criminal punishments envisaged by one of the two existing statutes pertaining to trafficking (increasing the punishments in one to match punishments in the other). As a result, both antitrafficking statutes envisage punishments for convicted traffickers from five to 15 years, depending on the aggravating circumstances. Changes to both statutes also stipulated confiscation of the trafficker's assets as a form of punishment, and exempted trafficking victims from criminal prosecution for crimes they were forced to commit as a result of their victimization, provided the victims supported the investigation of these crimes. According to government figures, law enforcement agencies investigated 15 trafficking cases during the year, and the courts convicted 11 persons under the trafficking statute, compared with four persons in 2008. On April 20, for the first time ever, a Yerevan court convicted four women of trafficking as an organized criminal group; their sentences ranged between one and 13 years in prison, the longest prison sentence ever handed down for trafficking in the country. On December 18, a Yerevan court convicted another trafficker to 13 years in prison for exploiting women as prostitutes in the UAE. In contrast with previous years, during the year courts delivered longer prison sentences to convicted traffickers, with none of the sentences being suspended. On April 2, a Yerevan court sentenced a male trafficker to seven years in prison for forcing five children into begging. During the year the trial of two Russian traffickers who exploited victims as exotic dancers in local nightclubs continued. In cooperation with Russian law enforcement, police identified 11 more victims in this case (all of whom were already in Russia), bringing the total number of victims of the alleged traffickers to 24. The written testimonies of the newly discovered victims were used in court proceedings. The trial continued at year's end. The Ministerial Council to Combat Trafficking in Persons, chaired by the deputy prime minister, was responsible for implementing, coordinating, and monitoring the government's antitrafficking efforts. In 2007, following extensive discussions with foreign governments and NGOs involved in antitrafficking programs, the government approved a 2007-09 national action plan to combat trafficking in persons. The police, the National Security Service, and the Prosecutor General's Office were responsible for investigating and prosecuting trafficking cases. Authorities actively cooperated with several trafficking destination countries and regularly shared information with them. No reports of official complicity in trafficking came to light during the year. At year's end, however, authorities had not yet prosecuted any officials in connection with the 2006 escape from the country of Anush Zakhariants, a convicted Uzbek trafficker of ethnic Armenian origin. The National Security Service located Zakhariants in Uzbekistan during the year. On December 14, the Prosecutor General's Office officially requested Uzbekistan to extradite Zakhariants to the country; at year's end the extradition request remained pending. Upon their return to the country, trafficking victims feared social stigma and discrimination and were generally but not always reluctant to help locate and prosecute their traffickers. Government officials did not require victims to assist in pursuing traffickers but worked with those who were willing to do so. NGOs reported that judges' overall treatment of victims continued to improve. Several NGOs assisted trafficking victims, many of whom were referred to them by authorities. Two hotlines were also available for trafficking victims. Antitrafficking NGOs operated without financial assistance from the government and depended on foreign government funding. In 2008 the government had approved national budget funds to be allocated for antitrafficking, including the cofunding of operating a trafficking victims' shelter. During the year the government primarily supported public awareness activities. Cofunding of the shelter fell through, however, due to technical problems between the government and NGOs that operated the shelter. The public awareness activities included the organization of a youth campaign against trafficking and the publication of 100,000 brochures containing legal advice for Armenian citizens who travel, reside, and/or work abroad. The country's 2010 national budget adopted at year's end, like the 2009 budget, included multiple allocations devoted to its antitrafficking efforts. In comparison with the 2009 budget, the 2010 budget allocated more money, specifically toward victims' assistance. In November 2008 the government approved the national referral mechanism (NRM) for use by public officials to help refer trafficking victims for assistance. According to local observers, however, the NRM appeared to place disproportionate focus on helping law enforcement agencies locate and punish traffickers rather than providing assistance to victims. The level of assistance to the victim prescribed in the NRM depended on victims' level of cooperation with law enforcement agencies. On September 3, the government decided to include trafficking victims as a special category of socially vulnerable groups eligible for free medical aid. Throughout the year NGOs, international organizations, and the government conducted trafficking prevention activities, mainly through educational and media programs to raise public awareness of the problem. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services; however, discrimination remained a problem. The law and a special government decree provide for accessibility to buildings for persons with disabilities, but in practice very few buildings and other facilities were accessible to these persons. In its monitoring of mental health facilities in the Syunik and Shirak regions during the year, the human rights NGO Helsinki Citizens Assembly of Vanadzor (HCAV) reported encountering numerous problems in these facilities. The deficiencies included, among other things, poor hygienic conditions, poor alimentation, inappropriate buildings, use of outdated and ineffective medication, lack of professionally trained staff, instances of physical violence, and use of patient labor in health facilities. The HCAV also noted that there appeared to be systematic problems in the entire operation of mental health facilities, including an absence of a state policy on mental health, the lack of appropriate legislation for the proper implementation of the law, the lack of standards and norms of conduct for staff, and insufficient funding of facilities. In July 2008 the online news agency Armenianow.com published a HCAV survey of patients at the Vanadzor Neurological and Psychiatric Clinic. Patients there reported beatings, torture, and abusive narcotic sedation by clinic personnel and medical staff. Patients also complained of deprivation of privileges and insufficient food. Hospitals, residential care, and other facilities for persons with serious disabilities remained substandard. According to official data, more than 90 percent of persons with disabilities who were able to work were unemployed. The government, through the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities but failed to do so effectively. According to the local NGO Unison, which monitored the May 31 Yerevan municipal elections, persons with physical disabilities did not have access to the polls during the vote, and very few persons with disabilities participated in the vote. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--General societal attitudes towards homosexuality remained highly unfavorable. The country's endorsement of the UN December 2008 statement against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity caused a public outcry and increased the number of negative articles in the media about homosexuals. Society continued largely to view homosexuality as an affliction. Persons who were openly gay were exempted from military service, purportedly because of concern that they would be abused by fellow servicemen. However, the legal pretext for the exemption was predicated on a medical finding of gays possessing a mental disorder, which was stamped in their documents and could affect their future. During the year there was at least one reported case of a young man, whose homosexuality was revealed during military service, being diagnosed and hospitalized with ``homosexuality disease.'' According to local human rights activists, lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender persons experienced some of the most humiliating discrimination in prisons, where they were forced to do some of the most degrading jobs and separated from the rest of the prison population. Societal discrimination based on sexual orientation continued to be a problem with respect to employment, family relations, and access to education and health care for sexual minorities. Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports during the year of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Many employers reportedly discriminated against potential employees by age, most commonly requiring job applicants to be between the ages of 18 and 30. While this discrimination appeared to be widespread, authorities did not take any action to mitigate it. After the age of 40, workers, particularly women, continued to have little chance of finding jobs appropriate to their education or skills. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers, except for those serving in the armed forces and law enforcement agencies, to form and to join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements. In practice, however, most workers were unable to exercise this right. Labor organizations remained weak because of employer resistance, high unemployment, and poor economic conditions. The Confederation of Labor Unions (CLU) estimated that as of February approximately 240,000 workers, or an estimated 20 percent of the workforce, were members of 24 trade unions. There were additional labor unions that did not belong to the CLU. Labor unions were generally inactive, with the exception of those connected with the mining industry. However, some mining enterprises, including some financed by foreign capital, discouraged employees from joining labor unions with the implied threat of loss of employment. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without government interference. The law also provides for the right to strike except for members of the armed forces and law enforcement agencies, but workers rarely went on strike due to the fear of losing their jobs. While the law prohibits retaliation against strikers, it occurred periodically. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Although the law provides for collective bargaining, in practice it was practically nonexistent. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced and compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women and girls were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and labor, and that men were trafficked for labor exploitation in the construction sector. A small number of boys and girls were trafficked internally for commercial sexual exploitation and forced begging (see section 6). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The laws and policies protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The minimum age for employment is 16, but children may work from age 14 with permission of a parent or a guardian. Children less than the age of 18 are prohibited from working overtime, in harmful and dangerous conditions, at night, or on holidays; nevertheless, the authorities responsible for compliance with child labor law unevenly enforced the law. According to local observers, many children, especially in rural regions, were involved in family businesses--mainly agriculture--as a result of the severe socioeconomic plights of their families. Observers also reported seeing children in Yerevan selling flowers and drawings and working in local markets after school hours. Children also worked in trade, construction, and car services, operated vehicles, and gathered waste metal and bottles. According to an October 2008 study by the UN Children's Fund on child labor, less than 5 percent of children between seven and 18 had paying jobs, not counting those involved in family farms or businesses. The survey also found that almost one-third of working children were below the legal working age, that almost all children worked without legal contracts, and that some children were employed in heavy manual work as laborers and loaders. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The government sets the minimum wage by decree. The monthly minimum wage of 30,000 drams (approximately $80) as fixed by the state budget did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. During the year there were reports of numerous labor rights violations committed by a construction company. The firm had been awarded a government contract to construct housing in the city of Gyumri as part of a government rehabilitation project to rebuild the housing stock destroyed by the 1988 earthquake. Some of the reported violations included extremely low wages, working hours up to 65 hours per week, unpaid worker salaries, and work without contracts. In spite of numerous media reports on the violations, reportedly neither the State Labor Inspectorate nor any other state body investigated the reported conditions. In the absence of any labor unions, some of the workers reportedly took their cases to court but dropped the cases after reaching agreements with the company to recover only a fraction of the compensation owed them. According to some local observers, some of the workers were reluctant to speak out for their rights because of fear that they would lose their jobs. The law provides for a 40-hour workweek, 28 days of mandatory annual leave, and compensation for overtime worked. In practice, however, the authorities did not effectively enforce these standards. Many private sector employees were unable to obtain paid leave and were required to work more than eight hours a day without compensation. According to representatives of some employment agencies, many employers also hired an employee for a ``probationary'' period of 10-30 days, during which the employee was not paid. Often these employees were subsequently dismissed and unable to claim payment for the time they worked because their initial employment was undocumented. Evidence also suggested that some private sector employers underreported the size of their staff to avoid paying taxes. Occupational and health standards are established by government decrees. The authorities responsible for enforcing these standards did not always do so effectively, however, due to a lack of capacity, skills, and will. During the year the State Labor Inspectorate reportedly made little progress toward implementing an inspection regime or enforcing the labor code, and its work was reportedly undermined by corruption. Workers had the right to remove themselves from work situations that endangered their health and safety, but they were unlikely to do so because such an action could place their employment at risk. Work safety and health conditions remained substandard in numerous sectors, and there were two fatal workplace incidents during the year. On May 14, four persons were killed and approximately 20 injured in two powerful explosions at the Nairit chemical plant in Yerevan. According to reports, before the explosions Nairit had periodically faced emergency situations that were not properly addressed; the plant's obsolete Soviet-era equipment and poor safety standards also were believed to contribute to the explosions. On the same day, the authorities opened an investigation to determine the precise cause of the explosions. On October 10, three employees of the chemical plant were charged with a second breach of safety rules that resulted in one person's death, and the case went to court on November 9. On December 14, at the request of the defense, a Yerevan court suspended the case against the three workers, exonerating them of the charges as provided by the June 19 general amnesty. On June 17, four Chinese workers employed by the Chinese company HPCC-3 died in an accident at the construction site of a thermal power plant in the city of Hrazdan near Yerevan. The Emergency Rescue Service reported that the workers fell to their deaths after the platform that was holding them collapsed. The same day police launched a criminal investigation into the accident based on the alleged violation of workplace safety standards at a construction site. The case was dropped on August 8 after the investigation concluded that three of the deceased workers themselves had violated safety standards, and the fourth victim, who was their supervisor and responsible for his subordinates' safety, also perished in the accident. __________ AUSTRIA Austria is a parliamentary democracy with constitutional power shared between a popularly elected president and a bicameral parliament (Federal Assembly). The country's eight million citizens choose their government representatives in periodic, free, and fair multiparty elections. In September 2008 voters elected members of the national parliament. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. During the year there were some reports of excessive use of force by police and societal discrimination against Muslims and members of unrecognized religious groups, particularly those considered ``sects.'' There were reports of anti-Semitic incidents, including two physical attacks, taunting, graffiti and defacement, threatening letters, Internet postings, property damage, and vilifying letters and telephone calls. Violence against women, child abuse, and trafficking in women and children for prostitution and labor also remained problems. There were incidents of neo-Nazi and right-wing extremism and xenophobia directed toward members of minority groups. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, on August 5, police shot and killed a 14-year-old burglar in a supermarket. A surviving 16-year-old accomplice claimed that police shot at the youths while they were fleeing. An investigation was continuing at year's end. The Vienna Public Prosecutor's Office decided to accuse one of the police officers of manslaughter. The Justice Ministry's approval of the decision was pending at the end of the year. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police beat and abused persons. On February 11, an American citizen working in Vienna was injured when police briefly arrested him after confusing him with a drug dealer. The police rejected accusations of excessive use of force and stated that physical force was used only when the subject resisted arrest. At year's end, the Prosecutor's Office was determining whether to file charges against the officers involved. In an August 2008 report, the UN Committee for Elimination of Racial Discrimination expressed concern over ``reports of police brutality toward persons of African descent or from the Roma minority.'' In August the media reported two individual incidents of suspected police mistreatment. In one case in Vienna, two police officers reportedly beat a 45-year-old Serb sociologist. The two officers were suspended from duty the following day and were awaiting trial at year's end. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prisons and detention center conditions did not always meet international standards. Overcrowding remained a problem in some institutions. The Human Rights Advisory Council, an independent governmental body whose members are appointed by the minister of the interior, repeatedly described conditions facing aliens prior to deportation as ``questionable from a human rights point of view'' and, at times, ``not in conformity with human rights standards.'' There were no indications that authorities made changes in response to these criticisms. Some human rights observers criticized the incarceration of nonviolent offenders, including persons awaiting deportation, for long periods in single cells or inadequate facilities designed for temporary detention. There were allegations that a lack of adequate medical care continued to be a problem. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) monitored prisons on a regular basis. On February 15-25, a delegation from the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) visited the country to review measures taken by authorities in response to previous CPT recommendations. The delegation paid particular attention to the treatment of persons in police detention and to the detention conditions under which foreign nationals were held. It examined problems related to prisons, including the situation of juvenile prisoners, and visited a civil psychiatric hospital and a social welfare institution. At year's end, the CPT had not released its report on the delegation's findings. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and information available during the year suggested that the government generally observed these prohibitions; however, the strict application of slander laws tended to discourage reports of police abuse. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the police and army, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Some police violence appeared to be racially motivated. In a report released on April 9, Amnesty International noted that immigrants and ethnic minorities living in the country were more likely to be suspected of crimes than ``whites'' and that police and the judicial system regularly denied their right to equal treatment. The report noted that authorities do not effectively investigate and punish racially motivated police misconduct. Amnesty International expressed concern that the criminal justice system as a whole, and police in particular, were failing to provide the same level of service to foreign nationals and members of ethnic minorities as they routinely provide to citizens from the country's majority ethnic group. Police were also accused of not taking seriously personal safety concerns of members of minority communities. After the killing of a Chechen asylee on January 13 and the killing of a religious leader at a Sikh temple on May 24, information emerged suggesting that, in both cases, police had ignored warnings or specific requests for personal protection. NGOs and other groups continued to criticize the police for targeting minorities. Racial sensitivity training for police and other officials continued with NGO assistance. The Human Rights Advisory Council monitored police respect for human rights and made recommendations to the interior minister. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--In criminal cases the law allows investigative or pretrial detention for up to 48 hours, during which a judge may decide to grant a prosecution request for extended detention. The law specifies the grounds for investigative detention and conditions for bail. The judge is required to evaluate such detention periodically. Maximum duration for investigative detention is two years. There is a bail system. Police and judicial authorities respected these laws and procedures in practice. Some legal experts called for a review of an article in the criminal code designed to target collusion of suspected terrorists, but which, they asserted, authorities have used improperly to detain persons on charges not connected with terrorism. The provision has been used to accuse animal rights activists who had damaged fur stores. Detainees have the right to access a lawyer. Although indigent criminal suspects have the right to an attorney, the criminal procedure code requires an attorney be appointed only after a court has decided to remand such suspects into custody, i.e., 96 hours after their apprehension. During the year there were no reports to indicate whether the government respected these rights in practice. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. A system of judicial review provides multiple opportunities for appeal. Persons charged with criminal offenses are considered innocent until proven guilty. Trials must be public and conducted orally. Juries are used only in trials of major offenses. Defendants have the right to be present during trials. They can confront or question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants can consult attorneys no later than 96 hours after apprehension. Legal counsel is provided pro bono for persons in need in cases where attorneys are mandatory. Attorneys are not mandatory in cases of minor offenses. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) found three violations by the country of the right to a fair trial and seven violations involving length of proceedings, as provided under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, including an appellate system. These institutions are accessible to plaintiffs seeking damages for human rights violations. Administrative remedies as well as judicial remedies were available for redressing alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. In one judgment in 2008 the ECHR found the government in violation of the right to respect for private and family life as provided under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and the press. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views with a few restrictions. Individuals generally could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. The law prohibits public denial, belittlement, approval, or justification of the Nazi genocide or other Nazi crimes against humanity in a print publication, a broadcast, or other media. It also prohibits incitement, insult, or contempt against a group because of its members' race, nationality, or ethnicity if the statement violates human dignity. The government strictly enforced these laws. Strict libel laws discouraged reporting of governmental abuse. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engaged in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Approximately 65 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet, according to 2008 statistics from the International Telecommunication Union. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right; however, religious minority groups widely regarded as sects complained about second-class status. Religious organizations exist in three legal categories: officially recognized religious societies and religious confessional communities, and associations, sometimes referred to as sects. Some unrecognized religious groups and experts on law and religion, citing past findings by the ECHR, complained that the law obstructs legitimate claims for recognition and relegates such groups to second-class status, because it requires a 20-year period of existence (at least 10 of which must be as a group organized as a confessional community) and membership equaling at least 0.2 percent of the country's population (approximately 16,000 persons). Following a decades-long legal battle, the government officially recognized Jehovah's Witnesses as a religious society on May 7. On September 1, the Education Ministry rejected the application of the Alevi association, ``Aleviten,'' a religious group that combines elements of religions in Anatolia with Sunni and Shia Islam, for recognition as either a religious society or a religious community on the grounds that the state already recognized one Islamic group, the Islamic Belief Community. One of the two parties in the governing coalition, the conservative Austrian People's Party (OVP), denied party membership to members of some unrecognized religious groups that it defined as ``cults'' (e.g., Scientologists). The OVP believed these groups' view of mankind differed fundamentally from its own. The opinions of these groups, the OVP said, were incompatible with OVP ethical principles, or in the OVP's view were opposed to basic rights granted by ``progressively minded'' constitutional states and an open society. The Federal Office of Sect Issues functioned as a counseling center for those who had questions about sects and cults. While the office is legally independent of the government, the minister for education supervised its director. Some members of the public and experts on law and religion believed the Office of Sect Issues and similar government offices fostered societal discrimination against unrecognized religious groups. The City of Vienna and the Lower Austrian state government funded a counseling center run by a controversial NGO, the Society against Sect and Cult Dangers (GSK), which actively worked against alleged sects and cults. The GSK distributed information to schools and the general public and offered counseling to persons who believed sects and cults had negatively affected their lives. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There was some societal discrimination against members of unrecognized religious groups, particularly those considered to be cults or sects. The majority of these groups had fewer than 100 members. The Church of Scientology and the Unification Church were among the larger unrecognized groups. Muslims complained about incidents of societal discrimination and verbal harassment, including occasional incidents of discrimination against Muslim women wearing head scarves in public. There was some debate in the state of Vorarlberg on the question of erecting minarets. There was also significant public opposition to the expansion of a Turkish Muslim center in Vienna. During the year in state election campaigns in Salzburg and Upper Austria as well as in the run up to the 2010 Vienna municipal election, the right-wing Freedom Party (FPO) conducted political campaigns with an anti-Muslim tone. FPO campaign posters featured slogans declaring ``the West in Christian hands'' and promising to protect the country from ``Islamization.'' The Jewish community numbered approximately 7,700. The NGO Forum against Anti-Semitism reported 46 anti-Semitic incidents in 2008, including one physical attack, as well as name-calling, graffiti and defacement, threatening letters, anti-Semitic Internet postings, property damage, and vilifying letters and telephone calls. The Vienna Jewish community's offices and other Jewish community institutions in the country, such as schools and museums, continued to receive extra police protection. On February 12, unknown perpetrators wrote anti-Semitic and anti- Muslim graffiti on the walls of the former concentration camp at Mauthausen. At a commemoration event on May 9 at the former Nazi satellite concentration camp at Ebensee in Upper Austria, five teenagers fired rubber bullets at participants and displayed the Nazi salute. They were charged with violating the law banning neo-Nazi activity. At the end of the year, the teenagers had not been brought to trial. The law prohibits public denial, belittlement, approval, or justification of the Nazi genocide or other Nazi crimes against humanity in a print publication, broadcast, or other media. The government strictly enforced these laws. On August 23, a far-right FPO politician in Vorarlberg province called the director of a Jewish museum in the province an ``exile Jew from America.'' Critics noted that the remark displayed anti-Semitic sentiments, particularly since the museum director was not from the United States but Germany. On December 12, a Palestinian asylum seeker attacked a rabbi in Vienna during a Hanukkah celebration and bit off part of the rabbi's finger. The asylum seeker was arrested. On December 26, an unknown perpetrator painted pro-Nazi graffiti and a swastika on a cemetery wall in Peggau, near Graz. In August there was a public debate over the Carinthian public prosecutor's decision to drop charges against the state's governor, who, in defiance of a court order requiring bilingual signs for the Slovenian minority, had illegally removed town signs in the province. The Justice Ministry backed the legal argument by the public prosecutor despite widespread criticism of the decision as being politically motivated. In December the weekly newspaper Falter reported investigators concluded arson caused a June 2008 fire in an asylum house that killed one African and injured 19 other asylum seekers. Previously Carinthian police reported that the victims caused the fire with cigarettes, but Falter reported investigators found gasoline placed to ignite the fire. School curricula fostered discussion of the Holocaust and the tenets of different religions and advocated religious tolerance. The Education Ministry offered special teacher-training seminars on Holocaust education. An ombudsman for equality had responsibility for combating workplace discrimination of various kinds, including against religion. In 2008, 47 cases of discrimination based on religion were brought before the Equal Rights Commissioner. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not use it in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Rejected asylum seekers have recourse to a federal asylum court. When they allege a breach of the European Convention on Human Rights, they can appeal to the Constitutional Court. During its first year of operation, the asylum court adjudicated two-thirds of the 10,200 new appeal cases it received and one-third of the 23,600 old appeal cases it inherited. In 2007, the last year for which data is available, more than 11,000 asylum seekers waited for longer than three years for a final decision; of these, some 200 asylum seekers waited for a final decision for longer than 10 years. There was a higher approval rate for some nationalities, particularly for refugees originating from the Russian Federation (many from the Chechen Republic), Afghanistan, and Iraq. On August 11, the UNHCR criticized the drop in the approval rate for refugees granted asylum: in the first nine months of 2008, the approval rate dropped to 35.5 percent from 41.2 percent in 2007, while the approval rate for refugees from the Chechen Republic decreased from 83.5 percent to 49.5 percent. Critics charge that the decline reflected a desire to accept fewer applicants rather than an improvement in the situations in the applicants' countries. While a large portion of asylum seekers returned to the country of ``first application'' under the Dublin Directive, some asylum seekers decided to return to their home country through the voluntary return program. The country subscribed to a ``safe country of transit'' policy, which required asylum seekers who transited a country determined to be ``safe'' to return to that country to seek refugee status. Member states of the EU and other signatories to the 1951 convention were considered safe countries of transit. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In September human rights groups in the country called for an overhaul of the detention system after a young Indian asylum seeker in predeportation center died of a heart attack in his cell four weeks into a hunger strike. On October 21, parliament passed asylum legislation which will introduce new measures to counter the abuse of the asylum process, by limiting follow-up applications and improving the assessment of claims of family relations and age. On December 22, an asylum seeker from the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, now a citizen and resident of Vienna, won a case in the ECHR for treatment by prison officials in 1994 while he was detained and held in custody. The ECHR awarded the plaintiff 10,000 euros ($14,300) and found that the government violated the prohibition against inhuman and degrading treatment. Asylum seekers and refugees received a subsistence allowance and housing. While they were legally restricted from seeking regular employment, they were eligible for seasonal employment. Children of asylum seekers and refugees between the ages of 6 and 15 were eligible for education. The government did not provide temporary protection during the year to any individuals who did not qualify as refugees. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The country held national parliamentary elections in September 2008; there were no reports of serious abuse or irregularities. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament; there were no reports of serious abuse or irregularities. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. The parliament consists of the National Council, which is popularly elected, and the Federal Council, which is named by the federal states. There were 51 women in the 183-seat National Council and 16 women in the 62-member Federal Council. There were five women in the 14-member Council of Ministers (cabinet). There appeared to be relatively little representation of ethnic minorities at the national level. Following the September 2008 elections, a Muslim woman entered the Federal Assembly for the Green Party. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. In February 2008 the former head of the Federal Crime Investigation Office, Herwig Haidinger, publicly accused senior interior ministry officials of corrupt practices. Haidinger was suspended from duty in November 2008, and he subsequently filed two charges in court, one against his suspension from duty, the other against the OVP (the party heading the Interior Ministry). Following these charges, the public prosecutor brought countercharges of perjury and slander against Haidinger. On September 30, the Vienna public prosecutor dropped all charges against Haidinger. Haidinger was disciplined and fined half a month's salary for having violated the Interior Ministry's internal code on media contacts. The court ordered the OVP to compensate Haidinger 2,000 euros (approximately $2,860) for a statement by one of their members of parliament, who called Haidinger ``a reliable liar.'' During the year parliament created a special committee to investigate allegations that the state prosecutor had ``forgotten'' to investigate charges of political nepotism against former interior minister Ernst Strasser. The parliamentary probe proved inconclusive and was terminated in December without producing substantiated charges. The failed expansion of the Vienna airport terminal due to cost overruns triggered a controversy over political influence in the appointment of managers and consultants handling the project. The construction of terminals for Vienna International Airport (``Skylink'') stopped in April due to escalating costs; ``embezzlement'' and related statutory offenses were alleged against the board of Airport Vienna in connection with contracts for construction companies and consultants. The prosecutor's office, the Financial Market Authority, and the federal auditor's office were investigating the allegations at year's end. In a report on corruption released in December 2008, the Council of Europe found that, while the country had adopted new anticorruption initiatives, it was still at an early stage in the fight against corruption. The report noted that the country's police and prosecutorial bodies are perceived overall as lacking independence, training opportunities, and coordination mechanisms, and are at times understaffed. The report also noted that the country needed to improve its administration with regard to transparency and other preventive anticorruption measures. In January the new anticorruption prosecutor's office began implementing the anticorruption law that went into effect in 2008. There are financial disclosure laws for public officials. The courts are responsible for corruption cases. Parliamentary committees oversee ethics rules for elected officials. The law provides for full public access to government information, and the government generally respected this provision in practice. Authorities may only deny access if it would violate substantial data protection rights or would involve national security information. Petitioners could challenge denials before the Administrative Court. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views, but some groups were dissatisfied with the information supplied by authorities in response to specific complaints. A human rights ombudsman's office consisting of three independent commissioners examines complaints against the government. An Amnesty International report on racism in the police and justice system stated that, while 898 complaints related to racial discrimination were brought before the Public Prosecutor's Office, only 20 cases were brought to court. The case of 96-year-old Milivoj Asner, a former police chief in eastern Croatia indicted by Croatian authorities in 2005 for crimes against humanity during World War II, continued to develop during the year. A German expert appointed by an Austrian court reported in April that Asner was not competent to stand trial. Meanwhile, Serbian authorities opened investigations against Asner. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law provides for protection against discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these protections. Women.--Under the law, rape, including spousal rape, is punishable by up to 15 years' imprisonment. The government generally enforced the law. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was a problem. The Office of Women's Affairs and Civil Service estimated that 10 percent of adult women have suffered from violence in a relationship. However, fewer than 10 percent of abused women filed complaints. By law police may expel abusive family members from family homes for up to three months. In 2008 the courts issued injunctions prohibiting abusive family members from returning home in 6,566 cases. The government funded privately operated intervention centers and help lines for victims of domestic abuse. The centers provided for victims' safety, assessed the threat posed by perpetrators, helped victims develop plans to stop the abuse, and provided legal counseling and other social services. In the view of most observers, these centers were generally effective in providing shelter for victims of abuse. Prostitution is legal; however, trafficking, including for the purposes of prostitution, is illegal and was a problem. Laws regulating prostitution require prostitutes to register, undergo periodic health examinations, and pay taxes. The law prohibits sexual harassment, and the government generally enforced the law. Of the 3,157 cases of discrimination brought to the ombudsman for equal treatment of gender in 2008, 464 involved sexual harassment. The labor court can order employers to compensate victims of sexual harassment on the basis of the Federal Equality Commission's finding on the case; the law provides that a victim is entitled to a minimum of 700 euros (approximately $1,000) in financial compensation. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and are free to do so without any discrimination, coercion, and violence. Women have access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth, including obstetric and postpartum care, and are diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections equally with men. The Office of Women's Affairs and Civil Service takes the lead in promoting the legal rights of women. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, and the Federal Equality Commission and the ombudsman for equal treatment of gender oversee laws requiring equal treatment of men and women. However, women's average earnings were approximately 83 percent of those of men doing equal work. In addition, women were disproportionately represented among those unemployed for extended periods and were more likely than men to hold temporary positions and part-time jobs. Although labor laws provide for equal treatment of women in the civil service, women remained underrepresented. The law requires the government to hire women of equivalent qualifications ahead of men in all civil service areas, including the police force, in which fewer than 40 percent of the employees are women. The judiciary system and academia were two areas which did not meet the target. There are no penalties, however, for agencies failing to attain the 40 percent target. The current women's affairs minister, Gabriele Heinisch-Hosek, together with trade unions, embarked on a major awareness-raising campaign during the year to address this problem. She pointed to an international study (Global Gender Gap Report 2009) published in October showing the gender gap in the country had worsened. Female employees in the private sector may invoke equality laws prohibiting discrimination against women. On the basis of the Federal Equality Commission's findings, labor courts may award compensation of up to four months' salary to women who experienced discrimination in promotion due to their gender. The courts may also order compensation for women who were denied a post despite having equal qualifications. Children.--By law children derive citizenship from their parents (jus sanguinis). Child abuse remained a problem, and the government continued its efforts to monitor abuse and prosecute offenders. The Ministry for Economics, Family, and Youth estimated that 90 percent of child abuse was committed by close family members or family friends. Officials noted a growing readiness to report abuse cases. According to authorities, approximately 20,000 incidents of abuse are reported annually. Trafficking of children remained a problem. There were occasional reports during the year of underage marriage, primarily in the Muslim and Romani communities; however, such cases were undocumented. Some male immigrants married underage girls in their home countries and returned to the country with them. The law provides up to 10 years' imprisonment for an adult convicted of sexual intercourse with a child under the age of 14. If the victim becomes pregnant, the sentence may be extended to 15 years. In 2007 the Ministry of the Interior reported 1,470 cases of child abuse, most involving intercourse with a minor. In March a court sentenced 74-year-old Josef Fritzl to life imprisonment after a jury found him guilty of murder through negligence, kidnapping, rape, incest, and ``grave sexual abuse.'' Fritzl had imprisoned his daughter for more than 20 years and fathered several children with her during that time. The law provides for criminal punishment for possessing, trading, or private viewing of child pornography. Exchanging pornographic videos of children is illegal. In March police participated in a multinational operation that uncovered an international child pornography ring. The police identified and charged 189 men in the country with owning or trading pornographic material through a Croatian-based Web site. In September police moved against a separate international child pornography ring. Police accused 31 individuals of illegally owning or trading child pornography through a Brazilian-based Web site. In the fall, Operation Typhon, a two-year Austrian and European police and EUROPOL operation against an Internet pedophile ring, led to the arrest of 23 men. The courts sentenced most of the suspects to between three and six months in prison for placing or downloading pornographic material on the Internet. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, persons were trafficked to, through, from, and within the country. Women were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and domestic labor, and children were trafficked for begging, stealing, and commercial sexual exploitation. Austria was a transit and destination country for women trafficked from Romania, Ukraine, Moldova, the Balkans, and to a lesser extent the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Belarus, and Africa. Victims were trafficked through the country to Spain, Italy, France, and other EU countries. There were reports that Romani children were trafficked to the country from Bulgaria and Romania, although the number has decreased substantially since 2006 as a result of government cooperation with Romania and Bulgaria in setting up crisis centers for trafficked children. Women were trafficked into the country primarily for sexual exploitation. Small numbers of women were reportedly trafficked from Asia and Latin America for domestic labor. Vienna had the largest number of trafficking cases, although trafficking was a problem in urban centers such as Graz, Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck. The NGO Lateinamerikanische Frauen in Oesterreich-Interventionsstelle fuer Betroffene des Frauenhandels (LEFOE-IBF) reported assisting 203 trafficking victims in 2008, up from 170 in 2007. Traffickers included citizens who were generally connected with licensed brothels and foreign nationals who were involved primarily with unlicensed brothels. Authorities estimated that organized crime groups from Eastern Europe, including Russia, controlled much of the trafficking. Police were also aware of cooperation between domestic and foreign citizens to traffic foreign prostitutes through the country. Most trafficked women were brought to the country with promises of unskilled jobs such as nannies, cleaners, or waitresses. Upon arrival they were often coerced into prostitution. According to police, some women also knowingly entered the country to work as prostitutes but were forced into dependency akin to slavery. Most victims were in the country illegally and feared being turned over to authorities and deported. Traffickers usually retained victims' official documents, including passports, to maintain control over them. Victims reported being subjected to threats and physical violence. Fear of retribution, both in Austria and in the victims' countries of origin, was a major deterrent to victims' cooperation with authorities. The law permits the prosecution of traffickers for prostitution by means of deception, coercion, or the use of force, and for trafficking for the purposes of slavery. Laws forbidding the exploitation of labor and the exploitation of aliens are also used against traffickers. Trafficking is punishable by up to 10 years in prison. Trafficking for slavery is punishable by imprisonment for 10 to 20 years. In 2008 there were 18 proceedings, two convictions, and six pending proceedings under this provision, as a result of which the court handed down one partially suspended prison sentence of 12 to 24 months. The Federal Bureau for Criminal Affairs, a division of the Ministry of the Interior, is responsible for combating trafficking. Contact with authorities in countries of origin facilitated prosecution of suspected traffickers. During the year there were no reports that the government extradited any persons wanted for trafficking crimes in other countries. Temporary residence permits were generally issued on humanitarian grounds to trafficking victims. Victims had the possibility of continued residence if they met the criteria for residence permits. LEFOE-IBF provided secure housing and other support for trafficking victims. The International Organization for Migration also sought to put victims in contact with NGOs in their countries of origin upon their return. With financial assistance from the Ministry of the Interior, LEFOE-IBF continued to operate a center in Vienna that provided psychological, legal, and health-related assistance, emergency housing, and German language courses to trafficked women or men. The federal and local governments funded NGOs that provided assistance in other cities. The government worked with international organizations to carry out prevention programs throughout the region. The government funded research on trafficking, and NGOs produced antitrafficking brochures and organized law enforcement workshops and international conferences funded with the help of private donors. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law protects persons with physical and mental disabilities from discrimination in housing, education, employment, and access to health care and other government services. The government's performance in enforcing these provisions was mixed. There were no reports of societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. Federal law mandates access to public buildings for persons with physical disabilities; however, many public buildings lacked such access due to insufficient enforcement of the law and low penalties for noncompliance. The law provides for involuntary sterilization of adults with mental disabilities in cases where a pregnancy would be considered life-threatening. However, authorities have not performed any involuntary sterilizations in recent years. The law prohibits the sterilization of minors. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Consumer Protection handles problems for persons with disabilities. The government funded a wide range of programs for persons with disabilities, including provision of transportation and assistance for integrating schoolchildren with disabilities into regular classes and for integrating employees with disabilities into the workplace. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--In 2007 the Ministry of the Interior recorded 240 neo-Nazi, right-wing extremist, and xenophobic incidents directed against members of minority groups. The government continued to express concern over the activities of extreme right-wing skinhead and neo-Nazi groups, many with links to organizations in other countries. The domestic NGO Zivilcourage und Anti-Rassismus Arbeit recorded 704 cases of alleged racial discrimination in 2008. Human rights groups reported that Roma faced discrimination in employment and housing. However, the situation of the Romani community, estimated at more than 6,200 indigenous and between 15,000 and 20,000 nonindigenous individuals, significantly improved in recent years according to the head of the Austrian Romani Cultural Association. Government programs, including financing for tutors, have helped school-aged Romani children move out of ``special needs'' and into mainstream classes. The government also initiated programs in recent years to document the Romani Holocaust and to compensate its victims. NGOs reported that Africans living in the country experienced verbal harassment in public. In some cases black Africans were stigmatized as being involved in the drug trade and other illegal activities. The law recognizes Croats, Czechs, Hungarians, Roma, Slovaks, and Slovenes as national minorities. It requires any community where at least 25 percent of the population belongs to one of these groups to provide bilingual town signs, education, media, and access to federal funds earmarked for such minorities. The law affected 148 communities. Full recognition of the Slovene minority remained a problem. The governor of the state of Carinthia refused to implement rulings by higher courts that would give more rights to the Slovene minority. The government continued training programs to combat racism and educate the police in cultural sensitivity. The Ministry of the Interior renewed an agreement with the Anti-Defamation League to teach police officers cultural sensitivity, religious tolerance, and the acceptance of minorities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There was some societal prejudice against gays and lesbians; however, there were no reports of violence or discrimination based on sexual orientation. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons' organizations, such as the Homosexual Initiatives (HOSI) in Vienna and Linz and the Lambda Rights Committee, were present and generally operated freely. Vienna hosted an annual gay pride march in July and provided police protection. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to form and join independent unions without prior authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. No workers were prohibited from joining unions. An estimated 36 percent of the workforce was organized into nine national unions belonging to the Austrian Trade Union Federation (OGB). The law does not explicitly provide a right to strike; however, the right is recognized in practice. The law prohibits retaliation against strikers, and the government effectively enforced the law. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Collective bargaining is protected in law and was freely practiced. Approximately 80 percent of the labor force worked under a collective bargaining agreement. The OGB was exclusively responsible for collective bargaining. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination or other forms of employer interference in union functions. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women were trafficked to the country for sexual exploitation and domestic labor and that children were trafficked to the country for begging and possibly sexual exploitation. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace and to prohibit forced or compulsory labor, and the government generally enforced these laws and policies effectively. There were reports of trafficking of children for begging and possibly sexual exploitation. In 2008 the Crisis Center for Unaccompanied Minors in Vienna assisted 90 children, primarily from Bulgaria and Romania, who were trafficked into the country for begging and possibly sexual exploitation. The minimum legal working age is 15 years. Children under the age of 15 are not allowed to work under any circumstances. Children over 15 years of age are subject to the same regulations on hours, rest periods, overtime wages, and occupational health and safety restrictions as adults. The Labor Inspectorate of the Federal Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Consumer Protection is responsible for enforcing child labor laws and policies, and the Inspectorate enforced the laws effectively. There were no incidents of illegal child labor reported in the country during the year. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no legislated national minimum wage. Instead, nationwide collective bargaining agreements set minimum wages by job classification for each industry. The accepted unofficial annual minimum wage is 12,000 to 14,000 euros (approximately $17,200 to $20,000), which provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 workers earned wages below this level. The country participated in an International Labor Organization (ILO) pilot project measuring ``decent work standards'' in ILO member states. The ILO's profile for the country, released in October, positively noted progress in employment rates for women and an improved framework for reconciling work, family, and personal life but found the country lagging in reducing the persistently large wage gap between men and women. The law allows companies to increase standard working hours from 40 to 50 hours per week. In special cases and including overtime, work hours can be raised to up to 60 hours per week for a maximum of 24 weeks annually, broken into segments of a maximum of eight weeks each and at least two weeks' break between each segment. The law also requires compulsory time off on weekends and official holidays. An employee must have at least 11 hours off between workdays. Authorities effectively enforced these provisions. Foreign workers from both the formal and informal sectors make up approximately 13 percent of the country's workforce. Wage and hour standards are equitably enforced across all groups. The law limits overtime to five hours per week and to 60 hours per year; however, authorities did not enforce these laws and regulations effectively, and some employers exceeded legal limits on compulsory overtime. Collective bargaining agreements can specify higher limits. The Labor Inspectorate regularly enforced mandatory occupational health and safety standards. Workers could file complaints anonymously with the Labor Inspectorate, which could bring suit against the employer on behalf of the employee. However, workers rarely exercised this option and normally relied instead on the nongovernmental worker's advocacy group, the Chamber of Labor, which filed suits on their behalf. The law gives workers the right to remove themselves from a job without incurring any prejudice to their careers if they fear serious, immediate danger to life and health, and the government effectively enforced this law. __________ AZERBAIJAN Azerbaijan is a republic with a population of approximately nine million and a presidential form of government. Legislative authority is vested in the Milli Majlis (National Assembly). In practice the president dominated the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Ilham Aliyev, the son of former president Heydar Aliyev, was reelected president for a second term in October 2008 in a process that did not fully meet international standards for a democratic election. Election shortcomings included serious restrictions on political participation and the media, pressure and restrictions on observers, and flawed vote counting and tabulation processes. The two- term limit for the presidency was removed in a March referendum, the conduct of which was seriously flawed. Although there were more than 50 political parties, the ruling Yeni Azerbaijan Party continued to dominate the political system. Ethnic Armenian separatists, with Armenia's support, continued to control most of the Nagorno-Karabakh region of the country and seven surrounding Azerbaijani territories. The government did not exercise any control over developments in those territories. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Members of the security forces at national and local levels committed numerous human rights abuses. The right of citizens to peacefully change their government was restricted in the October 2008 presidential election, March referendum, and December municipal elections. Torture and beating of persons in police and military custody resulted in at least four deaths and law enforcement officials acted with impunity. Prison conditions were generally harsh and life threatening. Arbitrary arrest and detention, particularly of individuals considered by the government to be political opponents, and lengthy pretrial detention continued. The government continued to imprison persons for politically motivated reasons. Pervasive corruption, including in the judiciary and law enforcement, continued. Restrictions on freedom of assembly continued, particularly in terms of political organizing, peaceful protests, and religious activity. Restrictions and pressure on the media and restrictions on political participation worsened. The government imposed restrictions on the activities of some unregistered Muslim and Christian groups and local officials abused some members and congregations. Cases of violence against women were also reported. Trafficking in persons for sexual exploitation and forced labor remained a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any arbitrary or unlawful killings; however, human rights monitors reported that at least four prisoners died in police or military custody due to alleged abuse and mistreatment. On January 14, Vagif Suleymanov died in police custody in the Bilasuvar region. Credible sources indicated he was beaten to death. On May 19, Togrul Mammadzade, age 70, died in the Ministry of Justice's medical treatment facility. While the ministry reported the death as a suicide, credible sources believed he was beaten to death. On June 11, Rustam Aliyev died in police custody in the Lankaran District after being detained a week earlier. Credible sources indicated that the police allegation that he hanged himself in his jail cell was physically impossible and that medical evidence indicated Aliyev was beaten to death. On August 2, Aga Turabov was beaten by police officers of the Narimanov District Police Department in Baku. Turabov died on the spot of heart failure. There were no new developments in the cases of Rashad Haziyev, Mahammad Rahimov, or Zaur Mammadov, all of whom were found dead in or outside of police stations in 2008. The government reported six deaths of military conscripts during the year, which it attributed to incidents along the line of contact. Ethnic Armenian separatists, with Armenia's support, continued to control most of the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan and seven surrounding Azerbaijani territories. During the year shootings along the militarized line of contact separating the sides as a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict again resulted in numerous casualties on both sides. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported two civilian casualties along the line of contact for the year. According to the national agency for mine actions, landmines killed two persons, of whom one was a civilian, and injured 17, 15 of whom were civilians. A domestic nongovernmental organization (NGO), the Azerbaijan Campaign to Ban Landmines, reported that landmines killed two persons and injured six others during the year. The two dead were military personnel, while the six injured were civilians. b. Disappearance.--During the year there were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. However, there were reports of disappearances in connection with the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh. The government reported 4,133 persons missing as the result of conflict during the year. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) continued to actively process cases of persons missing in connection with the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and worked with the government to develop a consolidated list of missing persons. According to the ICRC, during the year the number of persons confirmed missing from both sides of the conflict increased from 4,478 to 4,558. The ICRC reported that it opened investigations into 105 new missing-persons cases during the year. As a result of a framework agreement signed with the government in 2008, the ICRC collected ante mortem data from 2,000 families during the year. The information, which was gathered from families on both sides of the line of contact as well as in Armenia, was meant to assist state commissions in the identification of human remains. The ICRC continued to pay special attention to prisoners of war and civilian internees (POWs/CIs) and conducted visits throughout the year to ensure their protection under international humanitarian law. The ICRC often provided clothing, toiletries, and other assistance during these visits. The ICRC regularly facilitated the exchange of Red Cross messages between POWs/CIs and their families to reestablish contact and, on several occasions, paid transportation costs for families of missing persons to the ICRC office in Baku. Upon the request of and with full cooperation by the government, the ICRC facilitated the transfer of one set of human remains between Armenia and Azerbaijan during the year. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and criminal code prohibit such practices and provide for penalties of up to 10 years' imprisonment; however, there were credible reports that security forces beat detainees to extract confessions and military personnel physically abused subordinates. A May review by the UN Committee Against Torture found that the definition of torture in Azerbaijani legislation does not include references to the purposes of torture, as outlined in the Convention against Torture. A domestic human rights monitor reported that the number of persons tortured in custody by security forces increased from 81 in 2008 to 131 during the year; of the 131 tortured, at least four subsequently died. Impunity remained a problem. According to a report submitted to the UN Committee against Torture by the Human Rights Center of Azerbaijan (HRCA) and the International Federation of Human Rights (FIDH), problems also included a de facto ban on independent forensic examinations and delays in access to a lawyer. In October 2008 two sergeants from the Internal Affairs Ministry, Vugar Agayev and Eldaniz Rahimov, were arrested for beating subordinates. The unit's commander and deputy commander were dismissed. In May Agayev and Rahimov were sentenced to five years' imprisonment each under article 331.3 of the criminal code, which punishes military superiors' abuse of subordinates. On September 11, Ministry of Internal Affairs officers reportedly placed Mahammad Gurbanov involuntarily into a psychiatric facility in the exclave of Nakhchivan. Local human rights defenders stated Gurbanov was not mentally ill but was detained for refusing to pay a bribe to customs officials at the Sadarak border crossing and then writing public complaints about the corruption. Gurbanov was released on October 10. A local NGO reported numerous police beatings of persons based on sexual orientation. During the year there was no accountability for the 2008 beating of Mirza Zahidov. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, authorities punished 247 officers for human rights abuses and criminally prosecuted four police officers for these violations during the year. According to the report by HRCA and FIDH, since the criminalization of torture in 2000, no official had been convicted of torture nor have authorities held accountable any persons responsible for torture in three rulings by the European Court of Human Rights between 2007-09. For example, at year's end the government had yet to fully implement the 2007 verdict of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) regarding the case of Sardar Jalaloglu, who was abused in police custody in 2003. While the Supreme Court overturned Jalaloglu's conviction in 2007, and he received the 10,000 euros (approximately $14,300) awarded by the ECHR in compensation in 2008, the persons who mistreated Jalaloglu had not been brought to justice as required in the judgment. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions remained harsh and life threatening despite continuing prison infrastructure improvements. Overcrowding, inadequate nutrition, lack of heating and ventilation, and poor medical care combined to make the spread of infectious diseases a serious problem. Despite recent improvements to prison infrastructure, prisons, which were generally Soviet-era facilities, did not meet international standards. In maximum-security facilities, authorities limited physical exercise for prisoners as well as visits by attorneys and family members. There were few opportunities for prisoners to work or receive training. Some pretrial detainees were reportedly held in ``separation cells,'' which were often located in basements to conceal evidence of physical abuse. Food and sleep reportedly were denied in these cells to elicit confessions. Local and international monitors continued to report poor conditions at maximum security Qobustan prison. In a November 26 report, the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) stated that during a December 2008 visit to Qobustan Prison, a prison officer attempted to threaten a prisoner for speaking to the CPT delegation, and it was apparent that authorities had warned certain other prisoners not to complain to the delegation. Nevertheless, the delegation received several credible reports from prisoners of intentional physical abuse and excessive use of force by prison officers. The alleged abuse included punches, kicks and blows with truncheons, and sexual abuse. According to local human rights defenders, prison officials made death threats to prisoners, stripped them of their clothes, soaked them with cold water, malnourished them, denied them contact with friends and family, denied them medical treatment, handcuffed them in punishment cells for weeks at a time, and routinely beat them. Hamid Suleymanov, investigation department chief of the Penitentiary Services, stated in 2007 that he found no proof of these violations. Prisoners responded to his assertion with hunger strikes; 15 inmates did so in January 2008. They viewed hunger strikes as their only option to raise awareness of the situation in Qobustan. The Justice Ministry reported that during the year a new temporary detention facility for those under investigation was built in Baku. The facility met all international standards. Harsh prison conditions resulted in numerous deaths; the Justice Ministry reported that 105 persons died in detention during the year, a decrease of 19 percent from 2008. The Ministry attributed most deaths to a variety of diseases but reported a substantial decrease in deaths due to tuberculosis (TB), though more still died of TB than any other single disease. The Ministry of Internal Affairs reported one death in its facilities, due to suicide. Authorities dismissed one officer and disciplined two others for negligence in connection with these deaths. On August 17, Novruzali Mammadov, a prominent scholar of the ethnic minority Talysh group and former editor in chief of the Talysh Sedo newspaper, died in the Ministry of Justice medical treatment facility. The ministry reported that he died of a stroke, but family members and local human rights defenders believed he had not received appropriate medical care. Mammadov's widow sued the Ministry of Justice, and the case was ongoing at year's end. Mammadov had been convicted of high treason in a closed trial; some local NGOs believed his arrest was related to his ethnicity and cultural activities. During the year there was no investigation into the 2008 death of Arif Aslanov while in Ministry of Justice custody. TB remained the primary cause of death in prisons; the Ministry of Justice reported that it treated 889 prisoners and detainees for TB. The ICRC positively assessed the government's pilot program, established in April 2007, which treated 96 prisoners for multidrug- resistant TB (MDR-TB) and placed 779 in category II therapy during the year. According to the ICRC, the prison hospitals' MDR-TB wards were state of the art, well ventilated, and had indirect ultraviolet lights. The ICRC reported that the government's active and passive efforts were effective in screening inmates for TB. The ICRC reported that 18 inmates died from the disease during the year, down from 52 in 2008. The government reported that the other major causes of death among prisoners and detainees were myocardial infarction, hepatic cirrhosis, and strokes. A joint government-human rights community prison-monitoring group reconstituted in 2006 was only able to gain access to prisons with prior notification to the Penitentiary Service. During the year the group visited numerous detention facilities, advocated for better medical conditions in prisons, arranged for more telephones to be installed in prison facilities, donated 319 books to prison facilities, and provided legal assistance to 47 prisoners. The Ministries of Internal Affairs and Justice cooperated with many of these efforts, but the group highlighted additional problems that remained, including inadequate medical facilities and staff at prisons, insufficient food and recreational activities for inmates, and incomplete access to detention centers for monitoring group members. Men and women were held together in pretrial detention facilities; however, all women were housed in a separate prison facility after being sentenced. Minors were also supposed to be held in a separate facility; however, international monitors noted some children were held with adults. The government permitted some prison visits by international and local humanitarian and human rights groups, including the ICRC, the CPT, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Azerbaijan Committee against Torture. As of July 1, however, the Azerbaijan Committee against Torture was no longer permitted to visit Ministry of Justice facilities without prior notification. Ministry of Internal Affairs-run pretrial detention centers still allowed the committee immediate access. The ICRC had unobstructed access to the POWs/CIs who were held in connection with the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. However, the Penitentiary Service since June denied foreign embassies access to prisons outside of consular visits. The missions of some international organizations were still permitted to visit prisons for monitoring purposes. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--Although the law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, the government generally did not observe these prohibitions in practice, and impunity remained a problem. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of National Security are responsible for internal security and report directly to the president. The Ministry of Internal Affairs oversees local police forces and maintains internal civil defense troops. The Ministry of National Security has a separate internal security force. Law enforcement corruption was a problem. Police often levied spurious, informal fines for traffic and other minor violations and extracted protection money from local residents. In recent years traffic police officers received substantial pay raises to counter corruption; nevertheless, the low wages of other law enforcement officials continued to contribute to police corruption. High inflation also put pressure on wages. During the year the ministry reported that it punished 10 police officers for corruption. The Ministry of Justice reported that five employees of the Penitentiary Service were accused of crimes related to corruption during the year. There were reports that police officials required additional money on top of fines by the court in order to return prisoners' clothing and release them. While security forces were generally able to act with impunity, the government reported that it took action against 247 police officers for human rights violations during the year. The government reported that it criminally prosecuted four officers, dismissed 13 officers from the Ministry of Internal Affairs police forces, removed 26 officers from their positions, and administratively disciplined 208 others. On January 14, the Ministry of National Security (MNS) arrested Major Elsevar Nabiyev of the Ganja police, under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, after seizing 16 kilograms of narcotics from his possession. The MNS accused Major Nabiyev of leading a narcotics dealing organization. No update was available at year's end. In October 2008 several police officers from a unit to combat drug trafficking in Baku were arrested on distribution charges. One kilogram of heroin was seized during the search of their offices. The officers remained in custody at year's end. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law states that persons who are detained, arrested, or accused of a crime should be advised immediately of their rights and reason for arrest and accorded due process; however, the government did not respect these provisions in practice. Arbitrary arrest, often on spurious charges of resisting the police, remained a problem throughout the year. The law allows police to detain and question individuals for 24 hours without a warrant; in practice police detained individuals for several days, sometimes weeks, without a warrant. In other instances judges issued ex post facto warrants. Judges, acting at the instruction of the Prosecutor General's Office or of other executive branch officials, sentenced detainees to jail within hours of their arrest without providing them access to lawyers. The law provides for access to a lawyer from the time of detention; in practice access to lawyers was poor, particularly outside of Baku. Although entitled to it by law, indigent detainees did not have such access. Authorities often restricted family member visits and withheld information about detainees; days frequently passed before families could obtain any information about detained relatives. There was no formal, functioning bail system; however, individuals were sometimes permitted to vouch for detainees, enabling their conditional release during pretrial investigation. Politically sensitive suspects were at times held incommunicado for several hours or sometimes days while in police custody. During the year there were numerous instances of violations of arrest and detention procedures, many of which involved individuals engaged in peaceful demonstrations. For example, on April 28, police arrested four members of the Dalga proreform youth movement outside Martyrs' Alley, a public park. The four persons were held for several hours at a police station and then released without being charged. From May 8 to 10, police arrested nearly 100 young persons in connection with protests critical of the authorities' response to the April 30 shooting at the State Oil Academy, when a gunman forced his way into the institute and killed 13 persons. Police preemptively arrested several youths connected with planning the May 10 protests and held them until after May 10 on spurious charges of resisting arrest. In addition, on May 10, police arrested dozens of youths during several demonstrations and held them for several hours without access to lawyers or informing them of the basis for their detention. Police released them all late in the afternoon without any formal charges, after recording their names and addresses. Several youths reported that police visited their families during the following weeks to ask about their activities. On September 16, authorities arrested six youth activists wearing T-shirts stating ``I am also a hooligan,'' to protest the arrest of fellow youth activists Emin Milli and Adnan Hajizade, who were on trial at the time, charged with hooliganism (see sections 1.e. and 2.a.). The six were arrested outside the Sabail courthouse and held for more than three hours as the court held the second hearing in the case; they were released only after the hearing was completed. No charges were filed against them. Lengthy pretrial detention of up to 18 months was a serious problem. The prosecutor general routinely extended the permitted, initial three-month pretrial detention period in successive increments of several months until the government completed an investigation. Amnesty.--On March 17, the government adopted the proposal of first lady and Milli Majlis deputy Mehriban Aliyeva and announced an amnesty for certain categories of prisoners. A total of 9,000 prisoners were pardoned, 1,700 of whom were freed from jail, while the rest were serving conditional sentences or had paid fines. The persons freed included an alleged political prisoner, journalist Mirza Sakit (Sakit Zahidov), who had served 33 months of a 36-month sentence. On December 25, President Aliyev issued a pardon of 89 prisoners. These pardons were based on appeals to the pardon committee. Among those pardoned was journalist Mushfig Huseynov, who was convicted on charges considered to be politically motivated by many local observers. Huseynov suffered from late-stage TB, and his health had severely deteriorated over the previous months. Despite indications in 2008 that they would be released, several prominent journalists remained in prison at year's end. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--Although the law provides for an independent judiciary, in practice judges did not function independently of the executive branch. The judiciary remained corrupt and inefficient. Verdicts were largely unrelated to the evidence presented during the trial. The executive branch continued to exert a strong influence over the judiciary. The ostensibly independent Judicial Legal Council, which administers the examination for candidates for judges, was controlled by the Ministry of Justice. The judicial selection process included lengthy coursework, written and oral examinations, and a final interview. International observers believed that the oral component of the examinations allowed for corruption in the selection process. The examination process resulted in the selection of 80 lower court judges, none of whom were sworn in at year's end. Supreme Court, Appellate Court, and Constitutional Court judges are nominated by the president and must be approved by the Milli Majlis. Credible reports indicated that judges and prosecutors still took instruction from the presidential administration and the Justice Ministry, particularly in cases of interest to international observers. While judges' salaries steadily increased for several years prior to 2008, there continued to be credible allegations that judges routinely accepted bribes. During the year the Ministry of Justice reported that disciplinary proceedings were initiated against 10 judges; however, the Judicial Legal Council reported that it disciplined 22 judges and removed two court chairmen from their positions during the year. On February 9, the president issued a decree creating the 2009-13 State Program on Development of the Justice System. The program's objectives included improving legislation and the quality of professional staff training. Following the Legal Education Society's (LES) 2008 publication of a book reporting on disciplinary actions against judges, Judge Gazanfar Karimov--one of the judges named in the book--sued LES head Intigam Aliyev and his coeditor for ``insult to honor and dignity.'' LES reported in the book that disciplinary decisions against judges often were not implemented and reprinted the text of the decision censuring Karimov from the Judicial Legal Council's Web site as an example. During the year the district and appellate courts ruled in favor of the judge and ordered Aliyev to pay a fine, print a retraction and apology, and to collect all copies of the book. Aliyev's appeal was pending before the Supreme Court at year's end. Observers believed that authorities targeted Aliyev and this project for having exposed the executive branch's control over the judicial system. Courts of general jurisdiction may hear criminal, civil, and juvenile cases. District courts try the majority of cases. The Court of Grave Crimes acts as the court of first instance in cases in which the accused committed a crime deliberately and in which the punishment would be a prison sentence of more than seven years. Cases are heard by a three-judge panel. The Military Court of Grave Crimes functions similarly for serious crimes committed by members of the military. The Supreme Court may not act as the court of first instance. Either one judge or a three-judge panel presides over first-hearing trials at the district court or the Court of Grave Crimes, while a panel of three or more judges hears cases at the Court of Appeals. At the Supreme Court, cases are initially heard by a panel of three judges. Their ruling can be further appealed to the Plenum, which is the highest level of the court and consists of a panel of nine judges. All citizens have the right to appeal constitutional matters to the Constitutional Court. The constitution prohibits any one person from being tried and/or sentenced twice for the same crime. On April 22, however, Sayyara Heydarova was given a three-year conditional sentence for the same incident for which she was originally jailed in 2005. Heydarova had been arrested in 2005 while attempting to stop illegal tree cutting in the yard of her apartment complex. She was accused of beating four men during the incident and sent to prison. Local human rights defenders believed she was arrested for organizing her neighbors to petition against the building activity in this yard. In 2007 she went on a hunger strike to protest her imprisonment and was released after another female prisoner on a hunger strike died. Heydarova appealed the second conviction; her appeal was pending at year's end. After the country joined the Council of Europe in 2001, citizens gained the right to appeal court decisions on human rights cases to the ECHR within six months of the first Supreme Court ruling on a case. As in previous years, citizens exercised this right frequently during the year. The ECHR did not consider any of the 12 judgments it had delivered against the government to be fully implemented at year's end. On October 8, the ECHR delivered judgments on two cases brought against the government. The court ruled in favor of the Nature Defense Community, an NGO, and its former chairman, Sabir Israfilov, who claimed that the Ministry of Justice had illegally dissolved the organization. The court awarded monetary compensation to Israfilov. The court also ruled in favor of Rahib Maksimov, convicted of a bomb attack on the Baku metro in 1994. The court ruled that the government had mishandled Maksimov's appeal proceedings, and that the appeal would have to be reopened. The Judicial Legal Council continued to coordinate efforts with international organizations to train judges. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for public trials except in cases involving state, commercial, or professional secrets or matters involving confidential, personal, or family matters. During the year international monitors noted numerous violations of this law in practice, however. While the law provides for the presumption of innocence in criminal cases, the right to review evidence, the right of defendants to confront witnesses and present evidence at trial, the right to a court- approved attorney for indigent defendants, and the right of appeal for defendants and prosecutors, these provisions were generally not respected in practice. International monitors found numerous instances where the judge did not inform the accused of their rights or the charges brought against them. Even in cases where the presumption of innocence was not explicitly breached, the practice of having the accused appear in handcuffs inside locked metal cages implicitly did so. In addition, judges often failed to read the verdict publicly, leaving the accused without knowledge of the reasoning behind the judgment. Jury trials were not used. Foreign and domestic observers usually were allowed to attend trials; however, the Court of Grave Crimes and Court of Grave Military Offenses severely limited access to OSCE trial monitors in 2006 and 2007. Small courtrooms with inadequate seating prevented public attendance at some hearings. Information regarding trial times and locations was generally available, although there were some exceptions, particularly the Court of Grave Crimes. Although the constitution prescribes equal status for prosecutors and defense attorneys, in practice prosecutors' privileges and rights outweighed those of the defense. Judges reserved the right to remove defense lawyers in civil cases for ``good cause.'' In criminal proceedings, judges may remove defense lawyers because of a conflict of interest or if a defendant requests a change of counsel. In addition, judges often showed preference to prosecutors when assessing motions, oral statements, and evidence submitted by defense counsel. The law limits representation in criminal cases to members of a government-controlled collegium of lawyers (bar association). Since there were only 768 collegium members, of which only an estimated 415 were practicing, in a country of nine million, access to licensed legal representation was restricted, particularly outside of Baku. After a two-year hiatus, the collegium held a bar examination in May, with the oral portion in July. According to international monitors, the written portion of the collegium's entrance examination was poorly designed even in comparison with previous years' exams, with many questions that were ambiguous or irrelevant to the knowledge needed to be an attorney. Thus only 15 percent of applicants passed this first stage. The oral portion was inconsistent and unprofessional, with no standard set of questions or approved answers. In addition, the chairman of the collegium refused to swear in several lawyers who passed all stages of the examination. The purported reason for this refusal was that the lawyers were already employed, although there is no legal basis for this restriction, and many collegium members had full-time jobs. The collegium reserved the right to remove lawyers from criminal cases and sometimes did so for reasons that observers believed were questionable. As a result, criminal defendants were not fairly or adequately represented, their rights were not protected, and there was a lack of due process of law. The constitution prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence; however, despite some defendants' claims that testimony was obtained through torture or abuse, no cases based on claims of abuse were dismissed, and there was no independent forensic investigator to determine the occurrence of abuse. Judges often simply ignored claims of police mistreatment. Investigations often focused on obtaining confessions rather than gathering physical evidence against suspects. Serious crimes brought before the courts most often ended in conviction, as judges generally required only a minimal level of proof and collaborated closely with prosecutors. In the rare instances in which judges determined that the evidence presented was not sufficient to convict a defendant, they could return cases to the prosecutor for additional investigations, effectively giving the prosecutors subsequent chances for convictions. Aside from the Court of Grave Crimes and the Military Court of Grave Crimes, courts often failed to provide translators. Each court is entitled to contract translators during hearings, and such expenses must be covered by the Ministry of Justice. There were no verbatim transcripts of judicial proceedings; testimony, oral arguments, and judicial decisions were not recorded. Instead the court officer generally took notes that tended to be sparse and decided what if anything should be included in the notes. The case of youth activists Emin Milli and Adnan Hajizade included a number of procedural shortcomings. Although they sought protection from the police after being assaulted in a restaurant in July, the two were detained and accused of hooliganism while their assailants were released. The accused did not receive timely medical treatment for injuries when originally arrested, nor did they have prompt access to their lawyers. Government officials violated the defendants' presumption of innocence in public statements proclaiming their guilt. After a hearing that was closed to the public, the two men were held for two months in pretrial detention and prevented from seeing family members. During the eventual trial in the fall, the judge excluded some physical evidence and witness testimony provided by the defense, despite their clear relevance to the case. International and local observers were prohibited from attending the initial hearings in the case, although they were allowed to monitor the subsequent trial (see section 2.a.). In 2007 the Court of Grave Crimes convicted Ali Insanov, former minister of health, and 10 other defendants of public corruption and other charges. The court sentenced Insanov to 11 years in prison. According to OSCE trial monitors, there was ``an overwhelming appearance'' that Insanov and his codefendants ``did not have a fair trial and that the judges were not impartial.'' In 2007 the Court of Grave Crimes convicted Farhad Aliyev, former minister of economic development, his brother Rafiq, and 17 other defendants on a range of charges related to corruption. The Aliyev brothers received prison sentences of 10 and nine years, respectively. All of the defendants were originally arrested in 2005 on coup plotting charges and subsequently charged with corruption. During the trial monitors noted numerous due process violations. Both Insanov and the Aliyev brothers remained incarcerated enduring the year. The Aliyev brothers' separate appeals to the ECHR were pending at year's end. In a separate case during 2008, the ECHR issued a judgment that found a violation by the country of the right to a fair trial and two violations regarding length of proceedings under article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The country has a military court system with civilian judges. The military court retains original jurisdiction over any case in which crimes related to war or military service are adjudicated. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Local NGOs maintained that the government continued to hold political prisoners, although estimates of the number varied. At year's end NGO activists maintained that the government held between 23 and 45 political prisoners. Elchin Amiraslanov, Safa Poladov, and Arif Kazimov--who had been listed in the Council of Europe's experts report on political prisoners--remained incarcerated during the year. Some estimates of the number of political prisoners included persons arrested in 2005 on charges of plotting a coup and subsequently convicted of corruption. There were no reliable estimates of the number of political detainees. Most political detainees received sentences of between 10 and 15 days in jail, which were often described as ``administrative detention'' sentences. The government generally permitted unrestricted access to alleged political prisoners by international humanitarian organizations such as the ICRC. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law does not provide for an independent and impartial jury in civil matters. District courts have jurisdiction over civil matters in their first hearing; appeals are addressed by the Court of Appeals and then by the Supreme Court. Citizens have the right to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. As with criminal trials, all citizens have the right to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights within six months of the first Supreme Court ruling on their case. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits arbitrary invasions of privacy and monitoring of correspondence and other private communications; the government did not respect these legal prohibitions in practice. The constitution allows for searches of residences only with a court order or in cases specifically provided by law; however, authorities often conducted searches without warrants. It was widely believed that the Ministry of National Security and the Ministry of Internal Affairs monitored telephone and Internet communications, particularly those of foreigners, prominent political and business figures, and persons engaged in international communication. In one such incident, the Ministry of National Security identified and questioned many of the 43 persons who voted via text message for the Armenian entry into the annual Eurovision song contest. After an investigation, the European Broadcasting Union, which ran the contest, decided not to sanction the country's public television channel but changed its rules so that in the future the television company that broadcasts the program will be responsible for the actions of the telephone companies with which it works. Police continued to intimidate and harass family members of suspected criminals. During the year domestic human rights monitors reported concerns about the lack of due process and respect for the rule of law in a number of cases related to property rights. Domestic monitors reported that the number of property rights complaints they received skyrocketed during the year, compared to previous years. For example, the Baku Executive Authority announced to residents of a historic building on the seaside boulevard that they had to vacate their homes immediately, as the building would be demolished. Human rights defenders reported that no compensation was given to these residents and that water, electricity, and gas were shut off in the building in order to force them to leave. Residents filed a lawsuit, which was pending at the end of the year, but the building was torn down. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press and specifically prohibits press censorship; however, the government often did not respect these rights in practice. During the year the government took actions that further limited media independence. During the year the UN Universal Periodic Review of Azerbaijan's commitments to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights noted its concern over the extensive limitations to the right to freedom of expression. During 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found a violation by the country of the freedom of expression as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Although opposition parties continued to publish newspapers, and human rights activists were mostly able to conduct their work without fear of reprisal, the government penalized persons who criticized government officials or practices in some cases. A March referendum made a number of changes to the constitution, including several that limit freedom of the media. These included a prohibition on videotaping or photographing of anyone without their permission. The government also amended the law on mass media to make it easier for the government to close a publication. A State Media Support Fund established to assist newspapers in 2008 announced the first cash grants for 55 media outlets on September 1. While the fund provided grants to both opposition and progovernment newspapers, most commentators characterized the program as an attempt to constrain further an already tame press with financial subsidies. A number of journalists who criticized government officials in the course of their work were subjected to harassment, threats, and acts of physical violence that appeared to be connected to their criticism of the government or public officials. Reporters without Borders reported that independent and opposition journalists were under constant pressure because of their work. According to prominent journalists, companies and institutions were fearful of placing their advertising in opposition media due to direct or indirect recommendations from government representatives, so paid advertising was all but absent from newspapers. A number of opposition and independent media outlets operated during the year. The print media expressed a wide variety of views on government policies, although objective, professional reporting was rare. However, broadcast media almost exclusively adhered to a progovernment line in their news coverage. Most print outlets in the country were organs of the ruling party, opposition parties, or were thought to be connected to prominent government officials. There were eight national television stations and 14 regional outlets. There were 11 national radio broadcasters. The government prohibited Voice of America, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and the BBC from broadcasting on national FM frequencies and national television effective January 1. Without these international broadcasters, the public no longer had access to unbiased news on any widely available broadcast media. There also were several national state-owned newspapers and numerous newspapers funded by city or district-level officials. Newspaper circulation rates, both government and opposition, were low, not surpassing 5,000 in most cases. Many newspapers were circulated only in the capital. Some private television stations operated, but independent media monitoring found their programs to be biased in favor of the ruling party. ANS Television, the audience leader, was generally regarded as a source of relatively balanced news coverage prior to its temporary closure by the National Television and Radio Council (NTRC) in 2006. However, most media monitors believed ANS had since adopted a more cautious, self-censored approach to news coverage, often airing the same news and news angles as government-sponsored media. Electronic media were generally more susceptible to pressure due to their reliance on government-provided broadcast licenses. Such outlets were less critical of the government than opposition and independent print outlets. ``Free Waves,'' a 20-month monitoring study of television broadcasting supported by the European Commission, indicated that the country's television networks were largely devoted to promoting President Aliyev, his government, and the ruling party. State-run AzTV, for example, devoted 98 percent of its political coverage to the government, the Aliyev family, and the ruling Yeni Azerbaijan Party (YAP), with just 2 percent left for opposing views. There were no restrictions on systems to receive satellite broadcasts by foreign stations, but the NTRC continued to impose a general requirement that local, private television and radio stations not rebroadcast entire news programs of foreign origin. Although the government released some journalists, several remained imprisoned or were jailed during the year on criminal convictions for libel and other charges supposedly unrelated to their work. International and local commentators believed that the government targeted the journalists due to their criticism of government figures and policies. On December 25, opposition newspaper Bizim Yol correspondent Mushfig Huseynov was pardoned by President Aliyev and released from prison. Huseynov had been sentenced in January 2008 to six years in prison for accepting a bribe. He suffered from TB. Some domestic observers considered Huseynov's arrest to be politically motivated, while others believed him to be guilty but to have been selectively prosecuted. During the year the government--after several months' delay-- submitted all documentation on the case of imprisoned journalist Eynulla Fatullayev to the ECHR. After a search of Fatullayev's cell on December 29, the Penitentiary Service claimed it found 0.22 grams of heroin in his possession. On December 30, authorities charged Fatullayev with drug possession and on December 31, in a hearing that reportedly lasted 15 minutes, a judge sentenced Fatullayev to two months of detention in isolation, pending further investigation of the case. The OSCE representative on media freedom called the charge ``highly improbable,'' and local human rights defenders believed the case was brought in order to keep Fatullayev imprisoned after an ECHR ruling, where the case was pending at year's end. In 2007 the Baku Court of Grave Crimes had sentenced the already jailed editor in chief of Realny Azerbaijan and Gundelik Azerbaijan to eight and one-half years in prison on charges of supporting terrorism, inciting ethnic hatred, and tax evasion. The charges were based on an article that Fatullayev wrote criticizing the government's policy towards Iran and listing specific locations in the country as potential targets for an Iranian attack. The sentence incorporated Fatullayev's previous libel conviction for an article he allegedly wrote purporting that government forces may have played a role in the 1992 events in Khojali. International and domestic observers considered his imprisonment politically motivated. Ganimat Zahid, editor in chief of Azadliq newspaper, remained in prison at year's end. On September 17, a court denied Zahidov's appeal for early release for good behavior, stating that he had refused to participate in a prison volleyball game and therefore was uncooperative. In 2007 police had arrested Zahid on charges of hooliganism and inflicting minor bodily harm. International and domestic observers considered his imprisonment to be politically motivated. On April 9, authorities released prominent political satirist Mirza Zahidov (also known as Mirza Sakit or Sakit Zahidov) from prison in connection with a large amnesty (see section 1.d.). His release was delayed for three weeks, reportedly for administrative reasons. In 2006 the Baku Court of Grave Crimes convicted Zahidov of drug possession and sentenced him to three years in prison. International and domestic observers considered his imprisonment politically motivated. Spurious lawsuits were also used to intimidate journalists. For example, Mahal Ismayiloglu, a former reporter for a government newspaper who switched to writing for an opposition newspaper in 2008, was subsequently prosecuted for an alleged fight with his neighbor's maid. In August Ismayiloglu was convicted of attacking the maid and given a two-year conditional sentence. The case was awaiting a hearing at the Supreme Court at year's end. Ismayiloglu had a heart attack during the year but was prevented from leaving the country for needed surgery due to the pending court case. Local human rights defenders believed government officials were retaliating against Ismayiloglu for ``switching sides'' to an opposition newspaper. Harassment, intimidation, and violence against individual journalists continued during the year; the government did not hold perpetrators accountable. A media-monitoring NGO reported that during the year there were 51 incidents involving verbal or physical assaults on journalists, compared with 49 cases in 2008. Law enforcement agencies began investigations into 15 of these cases; however, only one case was brought to trial, largely due to the fact that it happened on live television. During the year numerous journalists reported physical attacks in connection with their professional activity. On April 26, Yasamal District police beat three employees of ANS Television as they were filming the controversial destruction of a mosque. Employees received minor injuries and their equipment was destroyed. Police eventually compensated the channel for the equipment, but did not return the video of the incident. Early in the morning of September 13, unknown assailants beat the editor in chief of Ayan newspaper, Javid Alasgaroglu, and threw him into a trash dump. Alasgaroglu sustained serious injuries and was immediately hospitalized. The victim's family attributed the incident to Alasgaroglu's professional activity. The newspaper had published several critical articles about government officials. Emin Huseynov, a reporter who was chair of the Institute for Reporters' Freedom and Safety (IRFS), was hospitalized after being beaten by police in June 2008 while covering the breaking up of a public meeting by police. He later filed suit against the Ministry of Internal Affairs, charging that no legal action had been taken against his attackers. Huseynov lost 50 percent of his hearing as a result of his injuries. During the year the court of first instance and the court of appeal rejected Huseynov's lawsuit, and the case was pending before the Supreme Court at year's end. There was no evidence that authorities held any police officers accountable for physical assaults on journalists in recent years. Serious concerns remained about the lack of accountability for the 2005 killing of Elmar Huseynov. There were no developments reported in the investigation of his killing, but one human rights defender was called to the Ministry of National Security in March regarding the case. Media and human rights activists continued to call on the government to further investigate this case. Amendments in 2008 to the election code allowed lobbying groups who registered in the March national referendum to have free television and radio airtime, as well as print space in government newspapers. Opposition parties and human rights advocates, however, complained that the free airtime was moved from State Television to Public Television, which had lower viewership, and that the timing of the broadcasts made it difficult for working people to watch. International and local media monitors concluded that news coverage of the referendum was overwhelmingly biased to favor the government's position. Although pro-opposition journalists openly criticized government officials, a combination of intimidation and a desire not to alienate potential advertisers led most independent journalists and editors to practice some degree of self-censorship. Libel remained a criminal offense, and the number of libel prosecutions increased during the year. The law allows for large fines and up to three years' imprisonment for persons convicted of libel. Administration officials stated publicly in April that this provision would be removed from the criminal code, and subsequently courts overturned the conviction of two journalists for libel. However, the government's statements notwithstanding, libel remains a criminal offense. During the year three journalists from NOTA newspaper were convicted under this criminal provision. On July 22, editor-in-chief Sardar Alibeyli and advisor Faramaz Novruzoglu were sentenced to three months' imprisonment in a case brought by a public union chairman. In the same case correspondent Ramiz Tagiyev was given a six-month conditional sentence. On October 8, the Appellate Court upheld the lower court's decision and Alibeyli and Novruzoglu were imprisoned. Separately, on October 9, the Appellate Court also rejected Alibeyli's appeal of a case brought by several Internal Affairs representatives and sentenced Alibeyli to four months' imprisonment, to be served concurrently with his earlier sentence. In previous years the government used defamation suits and the threat of exorbitantly high fines for libel to intimidate and harass the media. Fine payments due from previous defamation suits threatened the financial viability of the print media and journalists. Government reliance on measures that hampered printing and distribution of independent newspapers and magazines remained largely unchanged. Most newspapers and magazines were printed in government publishing houses or on private printing presses owned by individuals who had connections with government officials. The majority of independent and opposition newspapers remained in precarious financial situations; they continued to have problems paying wages, taxes, and periodic court fines. Most relied on political parties or influential sponsors for financing, as the advertising-based business model was weak. The government prohibited some state libraries from subscribing to opposition newspapers. The government also continued to prohibit state businesses from buying advertising in opposition newspapers and pressured private business to do the same. Political commentators said that this problem reduced the wages opposition and independent outlets could pay to their journalists, allowing progovernment outlets to hire away quality staff. In addition, international media monitoring reports indicated that intimidation by officials of the Ministry of Taxes further limited the independence of the media. Nakhchivan- and Baku-based journalists reported that authorities in the enclave of Nakhchivan continued to block distribution of opposition newspapers. Internet Freedom.--The government generally did not restrict access to the Internet, but it required Internet service providers to be licensed and have formal agreements with the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies. Penetration was low, particularly outside the capital city. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 17 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. There was no evidence to confirm the widely held belief that the government monitored Internet traffic of foreign businesses and opposition leaders. During the year authorities temporarily blocked access to a Web site supporting jailed youth activists Emin Milli and Adnan Hajizade. Authorities also blocked public access to two Web sites of an independent NGO, the Election Monitoring Center, although the sites were accessible from abroad. Domestic observers reported that, on several occasions during the year, the government temporarily blocked public Internet access to a Web site popular for lampooning the president. There were reportedly greater restrictions on the Internet in Nakhchivan, where residents claimed they were unable to view opposition Web sites. Access to the Internet was limited to urban centers due to lack of infrastructure. On July 8, two men attacked youth activists and bloggers Emin Milli (Abdullayev) and Adnan Hajizade, who were dining with friends at a restaurant in Baku. Milli suffered wounds to his leg, and Hajizade's nose was broken during the assault. After Milli and Hajizade filed a complaint with the police about the attack, the police arrested them for purportedly starting the fight while releasing their assailants (see section 1.e.). Observers noted that the two assailants were significantly larger than Milli and Hajizade and believed that the authorities had arranged a provocation at the restaurant in order to prosecute Milli and Hajizade for their peaceful expression of support for reform via the Internet and alleged antigovernment activity. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government on occasion restricted academic freedom. Some domestic observers raised concerns about the government's selection of participants for state-sponsored study abroad programs. Credible reports indicated that students who had been accepted into U.S. graduate schools and approved for scholarships by the government were denied them after the arrest of youth activists Emin Milli and Adnan Hajizade (see section 1.e.). Hajizade had attended high school in the United States and later graduated from the University of Richmond. The government maintained that its selection process was transparent and political affiliation was not a factor. Opposition party members continued to report difficulties in finding jobs teaching at schools and universities. Most known opposition party members teaching in state educational institutions had been fired in previous years. During the 2008 presidential election campaign, students at several universities reported pressure from deans to avoid cooperation with an independent NGO monitoring the election. Some students reported being directed by the deans of their faculties to change voter registration from their home districts so that they would have to vote at the university. Others reported that universities required students to attend propresidential rallies, providing transportation and threatening students with expulsion if they did not attend. In another case students were threatened with expulsion from their dormitory if they participated in election monitoring. There were no reports of government restrictions on cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly; however, the government severely restricted this right in practice. Although the law stipulates that groups may peacefully assemble only with prior notification of relevant government bodies, the government continued to interpret this provision as a requirement for advance permission from the Baku mayor's office. In June 2008 new amendments to the law on freedom of assembly entered into force. A review of the amended law by international organizations noted that it met most international standards, and numerous international observers called on the government to implement it fully. However, in practice the government continued to require all rallies to be preapproved and held at designated locations far removed from the city center, a stipulation most political parties and NGOs found unacceptable. In contrast, the ruling YAP held a large rally in a central square in October 2008 to celebrate the reelection of the president. Opposition parties had been denied permission to hold a rally in the same square. The government denied opposition and some other NGO requests to hold political rallies on multiple occasions and broke up several unsanctioned pickets and demonstrations, often detaining participants for several hours. On January 2, approximately 150-200 persons attempted to protest Israel's actions in Gaza outside the Israeli Embassy in Baku. Police temporarily detained approximately 150 of them; of these, police charged and held 25 for several days. Journalists reported that force was used to break up the protest. On January 21, the opposition Musavat youth group attempted to hold a protest outside the National Television and Radio Council regarding the closure of Voice of America, Radio Liberty, and the BBC (see section 2.a.). Despite the group's advance, notification to the Baku mayor's office as required in the law, police arrested and temporarily detained seven members of the group during the demonstration. On June 22, approximately 50 well-known civil society activists attempted to protest near the Milli Majlis regarding planned changes to the NGO law. Dozens of police, both uniformed and plainclothed, moved the protesters several blocks away from the building, where they could not be seen. Police allowed them to hold their demonstration at this location. On October 6, approximately 20 youths held a protest in front of the Baku State University over the three-fold increase in fares for the Baku metro. On October 13, a larger group of young persons attempted to hold a similar protest in the same location. This group shouted slogans, and eight of them were promptly arrested and detained for several hours. They were released that evening after paying a fine. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, although in practice the government's restriction of this right worsened during the year. A number of provisions allow the government to regulate the activities of political parties, religious groups, businesses, and NGOs, including a requirement that all organizations register either with the Justice Ministry or the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations (SCWRA). Although the law requires the government to act on registration applications within 30 days of receipt, vague, cumbersome, and nontransparent registration procedures continued to result in long delays that effectively limited citizens' right to associate. On June 30, the Milli Majlis amended the law on NGOs to add new restrictions on freedom of association. While officials removed the most troublesome provisions of the first draft of the amended law, the new amendments contained some restrictions, including requiring deputies of NGO branches to be Azerbaijani citizens and requiring foreign NGOs to sign an agreement with the government before opening an office. On December 25, President Aliyev issued a decree making further changes to the law on NGOs. International and local NGOs were concerned by a new provision in this decree that requires NGOs to register all grants they receive with the Ministry of Justice. The government had not announced procedures for this registration process at year's end. During the year the ministry registered 162 noncommercial legal entities. The ministry did not provide information on the total number of NGO applications received or rejected during the year. Several NGOs reported problems obtaining registration with the Ministry of Justice. For example, several members of the former NGO Election Monitoring Center, which the ministry deregistered in 2008, attempted to register as a new organization, the Election Monitoring and Democracy Studies Center. The organization was denied registration on what observers believed to be unsubstantial grounds, and it was pursuing a lawsuit against the ministry at year's end. Another NGO, the Society of Democratic Reforms, reported that it unsuccessfully had attempted to register for 10 years. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion; however, burdensome registration requirements and selective harassment of religious groups marred application of the law. Amendments to the law passed in May added new restrictions on the ability of religions to function. Although the law expressly prohibits the government from interfering in the religious activities of any individual or group, there are exceptions, including cases where the activity of a religious group threatens public order and stability. Most religious groups met without government interference; however, local authorities monitored religious services, and officials harassed and detained members of Islamic and ``nontraditional'' religious groups. There appeared to be a distinction between how the government treated groups it perceived as ``traditional'' and ``nontraditional.'' ``Traditional'' religious groups included Islamic communities registered with the government, Jewish groups, the Orthodox Church, and the Catholic Church. Groups perceived as ``nontraditional'' included unregistered Islamic groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, and several Protestant communities. In general the ``traditional'' groups reported no religious freedom problems, while ``nontraditional'' communities frequently complained they were the victims of selective harassment or that the government arbitrarily created obstacles to their registration. A number of legal provisions enabled the government to regulate religious groups, particularly a requirement that religious organizations, including individual congregations of a religious group, be registered. Muslim religious groups must receive a letter of approval from the Caucasus Muslim Board (CMB) before they can be registered by the SCRWA. The SCWRA and its chairman have broad powers over registration and could both control the publication, import, and distribution of religious literature and suspend the activities of groups violating the law. The SCWRA could also appeal to the court for the suspension of activities of a religious group. Registered Muslim organizations are subordinate to the CMB, a Soviet-era entity that appointed Muslim clerics to mosques, administered Islamic educational institutions, periodically monitored sermons, and organized annual hajj pilgrimages. Some local Muslim believers criticized the CMB's and the SCWRA's ability to register and regulate their communities. In the course of the year, authorities prohibited activities or closed a number of mosques not registered with the SCWRA. For example, in August Baku city authorities suspended construction of the Fatimei-Zahra mosque, explaining that the mosque community was not registered. In September authorities suspended activities of the unregistered Juma mosque in Ganja city. The Shahidlar mosque of Baku, constructed and run by the Turkish religious wagf (religious endowment), was closed earlier in the year and remained closed at year's end. On October 17, the government closed another Turkish wagf-run mosque in Mehdiabab, northwest of Baku. Since April, when local Baku government authorities destroyed the Prophet Muhammad Mosque over a property dispute, there were no known developments relating to the community or the property. At the beginning of the year there were a total of 529 registered religious communities in the country, of which 497 were Islamic and 32 were non-Islamic. However, the amended Law on Religious Freedom adopted in May required all religious communities, both traditional and nontraditional, to reregister with the SCWRA. Previous registration status with the SCRWA was no longer valid, and all religious communities had until January 2010 to complete reregistration. By year's end, the total number of religious communities that applied for reregistration reached 660, of which 150 were registered. Prior to the May amendments, several groups reported that the SCWRA sometimes failed to rule on registration applications in a timely manner, and some groups complained that the SCWRA or local officials made the application process difficult or impossible for nontraditional, including some evangelical Protestant, communities. Unregistered organizations were vulnerable to being declared illegal and closed or subjected to selective harassment by authorities. A variety of unregistered religious groups continued to function, including Muslim groups, members of Jehovah's Witnesses, and some evangelical Christians. The SCWRA estimated that there were 160 unregistered groups. However, some unregistered groups--particularly nontraditional religious organizations--were subject to periodic and selective police harassment in the form of disruption of religious services and intimidation. Local law enforcement officials occasionally monitored religious services and reportedly singled out some observant Christians and Muslims for searches on the grounds of security. Law enforcement and national security bodies observed the activities of certain mosques. Some Muslim representatives criticized the government for adopting a heavy-handed stance in reaction to the August 2008 bombing of the Abu Bakr mosque. After the bombing, authorities closed the heavily attended mosque, and attempts to obtain court permission to reopen it had not succeeded by year's end. There was a spike in the number of reported detentions and forced beard-shavings carried out by police in Baku after the bombing. A number of practicing Muslims asserted that the government often failed to distinguish between practicing Muslims and extremists. They charged that the government often adopted a heavy-handed approach to practicing Muslims and, in the process, failed to grant them genuine religious freedom. This approach reportedly included forcibly shaving beards and fingerprinting Muslims, banning prayers outside mosques, and pressuring certain television stations not to run religious programming. A number of Muslims criticized the CMB for trying to monopolize Islamic religious practices in the country. As amended in May, the Law on Religious Freedom forbids clerics who graduated from foreign educational institutions from leading Islamic religious ceremonies. This limited the pool of clerics in the country to those who graduated from Baku Islamic University. On November 29, police detained and beat Lydia Suleymanova, an 81- year-old member of Jehovah's Witnesses in Zagatala, as she left a religious meeting. A police officer detained her at a bus stop and brought her to a public cafe, where he confiscated her bag containing her religious books and beat her. Other police officers then took her to the police station, where she was forced to sign a confession she could not read. She filed a complaint with the Prosecutor's Office, but the official medical examiner refused to see her, despite her having pictures showing her injuries. Officials dropped the criminal case against Baptist pastor Hamid Shabanov in March. In June 2008 police in Zagatala arrested him for allegedly possessing an illegal weapon. Local Baptists claimed the authorities planted the weapon in Shabanov's residence. International and domestic court monitors reported procedural violations in Shabanov's trial. The law expressly prohibits religious proselytizing by foreigners, and officials strictly enforced the prohibition. In September law enforcement authorities deported Javid Shangarov from the northern town of Yalama. Shangarov, who belonged to the Baptist church, held a Russian passport. The government was concerned about Islamic missionary groups (predominantly Iranian Shi'a and Salafi Sunni) operating in the country and continued to restrict their activities. The law permits the production and dissemination of religious literature with the approval of the SCWRA; however, authorities appeared to selectively restrict the importation and distribution of religious materials. Obtaining permission to import religious literature remained burdensome, and Islamic and Christian groups complained about the lengthy approval process. During the year there were multiple episodes in which police confiscated allegedly radical Islamic literature in several areas of the country. However, the SCWRA also facilitated the importation of some literature, and the process appeared to be improving, albeit in an arbitrary manner. The law does not restrict the right of women to wear the Muslim headscarf in educational or state facilities. In practice women were not allowed to wear headscarves in photos for passports and other official identity documents. The government did not restrain university administrators or employers from selectively pressuring some women not to wear headscarves. At year's end, the government had not developed an alternative service option for persons who conscientiously objected to serving in the military. The lack of such an option remained a problem for several members of Jehovah's Witnesses, who conscientiously objected to serving in the military and faced prosecution for refusing to serve. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were some reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. There was popular prejudice against Muslims who converted to other faiths and hostility toward groups that proselytized, particularly evangelical Christian and other missionary groups. The government actively tried to promote religious tolerance. The SCWRA convened leaders of various religious communities on several occasions. During the year the SCWRA organized several seminars, conferences, and regional meetings on religious freedom and tolerance. There were no credible reports of anti-Semitic acts against the country's Jewish community. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; however, the government limited freedom of movement at times, particularly for internally displaced persons (IDPs). The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to IDPs, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. In 2007 responsibility for all refugee matters, including refugee status determination, was moved from the deputy prime minister to the newly created State Migration Service. International NGOs continued to report that this new department remained inefficient and did not operate as transparently as the previous one. The law requires men of draft age to register with military officials before traveling abroad. Some travel restrictions were placed on military personnel with access to national security information. Citizens charged with or convicted of criminal offenses and given suspended sentences were not permitted to travel abroad. Officials regularly extracted bribes from individuals who applied for passports. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. While official government policy allows citizens of ethnic Armenian descent to travel, low-level officials reportedly often requested bribes or harassed ethnic Armenians who applied for passports. Some Armenians of mixed descent reported to a local NGO that they had problems with officials in the passport and registration department when applying for identification cards. Applicants with Azerbaijani surnames who applied encountered no problems except for having to pay bribes. Since his 2004 conviction for participating in postelection demonstrations in 2003, the government prevented the former imam of the Juma Mosque in Baku, Ilgar Ibrahimoglu, from traveling outside the country. Since 2006 the government has prevented the foreign travel of Popular Front Party chairman Ali Kerimli by refusing to renew his passport, citing an outstanding civil complaint against him from 1994. The government had renewed Kerimli's passport on several occasions in the intervening years without objection. Kerimli filed an appeal on the decision, which was rejected at all levels of the court system. Kerimli submitted his case to the European Court of Human Rights in January and was awaiting a judgment at year's end. Internally Displaced Persons.--At year's end the government reported that there were 586,013 registered IDPs in the country. The vast majority fled their homes between 1988 and 1993 as a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. IDPs were required to register their place of residence with authorities and could live only in approved areas. This so-called ``propiska'' system, a carryover from the Soviet era, was imposed mainly on persons who were forced from their homes after ethnic Armenian separatists took control of Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent territories in the western part of Azerbaijan. The government asserted that registration was needed to keep track of IDPs to provide them with assistance. The government reported that during the year 60 international and 40 domestic humanitarian organizations implemented projects independent of the government related to refugees and IDPs, spending a total of approximately 24 million manat ($30 million). The government stated that it supplemented this spending with money from the national oil fund to improve living conditions for IDPs and refugees. During the year the government completed the construction of three new settlements for refugees and IDPs, in which 747 families lived. In addition, the government built six apartment buildings in Baku with a total of 369 units, as well as building 26 additional houses in the Murovdagh settlement. The State IDP and Refugee Committee's estimated expenditures were 307.8 million manat (approximately $375.4 million). IDPs received monthly food subsidies of approximately 13.50 manat (approximately $16.50) from the government and heating fuel subsidies in the winter. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to some refugees through the refugee status determination department. While the department progressed in many ways, improvement was offset by a series of court rulings on refugee status determinations that rejected all appeals of negative asylum decisions. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year the UNHCR recognized 2,338 persons as refugees or asylum seekers. Information on government approval of refugee status was not available at year's end. The government did not provide any notable assistance to government- or UNHCR-recognized refugees or asylum seekers. More than 58 percent of the 2,338 refugees registered and recognized by the UNHCR in the country were Chechens from Russia. The government does not recognize Chechens as refugees as established under the 1967 protocol, and it did not accept asylum applications from them. As a result, the UNHCR continued to carry out all protection and assistance functions for Chechens in the country. Despite UNHCR recognition of many Chechens and Afghans as refugees, the laws on residence, registration, and the status of refugees and IDPs did not apply to Chechens and Afghans. They were required to register with police and were not entitled to residence permits. Chechens were permitted to enter the country visa-free under a bilateral passport system with Russia. However, most Chechens could not afford the associated costs to acquire passports. The UNHCR reported good cooperation with the government on extradition requests. Russia requested extradition of two Chechens during the year. After reviewing the cases, the UNHCR dropped its objection to the extradition of one individual, and the government denied the extradition request for the other individual. According to the UNHCR, 82 Chechens sought and were granted temporary protection during the year, a 40 percent decrease from the previous year. All refugee children registered with the UNHCR were allowed to attend public schools. However, because Chechens and Afghans did not have legal resident status in the country, they were not permitted access to public medical services. The UNHCR provided basic medical assistance through the support of foreign donors. During the year 100 Afghans arrived and registered with the UNHCR, a decrease from previous years. Afghans complained of police visits to their homes, with the implied threat of deportation. There were no reports of forced return of Afghans. Afghan community leaders reported that the UNHCR denied protection to 50 persons during the year. In addition, they reported that UNHCR benefits were not enough to support their families, but without legal status in the country it was impossible to find work. The government has no legal mechanism to provide temporary protection to individuals who do not qualify as refugees. However, the government accepted the UNHCR identification card issued to Chechens and Afghans. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived by birth within the country or from one's parents. The law provides for the right to apply for stateless status. However, in practice many persons could not obtain the documentation required for the application and therefore remained formally unrecognized. The law on citizenship was amended in 2008 to make it harder for foreigners and stateless people to obtain citizenship. According to UNHCR statistics, the government reported there were 2,078 stateless persons in the country at the end of the year. The vast majority of these persons were ethnic Azeris from Georgia or Iran. NGOs estimated there were many other undocumented stateless persons, with estimates ranging from hundreds to tens of thousands, among them Meskhetian Turks, whose status was not formally recognized and who did not possess stateless certificates. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. The government continued to restrict this right in practice by interfering in elections. The law also provides for an independent legislature; however, the Milli Majlis's independence was minimal, and it exercised little legislative initiative independent of the executive branch. Elections and Political Participation.--On December 23, municipal elections were held throughout the country. Media monitors concluded that all television stations largely ignored the pre-election period. Political parties were required to have candidates registered in at least one-half of all municipalities in order to qualify for free airtime during this period, a requirement that only the ruling YAP met and subsequently refused to use. Opposition parties and local election monitoring NGOs reported interference in the candidate registration process. Official results showed a turnout of 31.86 percent, which was low for the country, and indicated the general apathy of voters to these elections. A delegation of the Council of Europe Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, which monitored the election, noted shortcomings in areas including ``counting of the voters in the polling stations, the role and the origin of local election observers, the readability of ballot papers, and the regularity of the vote count.'' After reviewing hundreds of post-election complaints, the Central Election Commission canceled the results in 33 of the 4,813 polling stations in the country and announced plans to repeat these elections in 2010. On March 18, authorities held a national referendum on 41 proposed changes to 29 articles of the constitution. The changes included, among other items, the removal of term limits on the presidency and a provision that postpones elections in times of war. Little time was given to the Milli Majlis or the public to discuss the changes sought by the administration. The Council of Europe's Venice Commission, in a review of the amendments, concluded ``the overall logic and coherence of the reform is not always evident and the procedure chosen may give rise to some criticism.'' The commission also stated that ``explicit constitutional limitations on the successive terms of a president are particularly important in countries where democratic structures and their cultural presuppositions have not yet been consolidated.'' The prereferendum environment was marred by serious limitations on freedom of speech and assembly. The Central Election Commission (CEC) registered nine lobbying groups for the referendum, in accordance with the election code. Two of these were opposition groups. However, opposition groups reported widespread harassment, including arrests and detention, while collecting signatures for registration and during the campaign period. The authorities also harassed citizens who signed these petitions. The opposition group For Karabakh and the Republic applied to local officials several times for permits to hold meetings in central Baku, but these requests were denied each time. Voters lacked the information necessary to make an informed choice on the large number of referendum items. In addition, a local NGO reported that its volunteer election monitors were harassed by the local authorities to prevent them from collaborating with the NGO. Balloting procedures on referendum day were flawed and widely considered worse than the 2008 presidential election. While the OSCE was not invited to observe the referendum, the CEC registered 40,000 observers, of whom 132 were foreign. Independent local observers noted serious problems with voting procedures, including cases of multiple voting and ballot stuffing at over one-quarter of polling stations. Voter turnout was estimated by observers at 43 percent, rather than the official tally of more than 71 percent. This lower figure exceeded the 25 percent threshold needed under the law for referendum to be valid. Observers also noted significant shortcomings in the counting and tabulation process. The country held a presidential election in October 2008. The final report of the OSCE election observation mission stated that the country had made considerable progress toward meeting its OSCE commitments and other international standards, especially regarding some technical aspects of election administration, but found that the election process did not meet all of these commitments. While the OSCE mission reported that the election was carried out in a peaceful manner, it also noted a lack of robust competition and the absence of vibrant political discourse facilitated by the media. The OSCE observation report concluded that the election ``did not reflect some of the principles necessary for a meaningful and pluralistic democratic election.'' In May 2008 the Milli Majlis adopted amendments to the election code that partially addressed concerns raised previously by the Council of Europe and the OSCE. Further amendments were made on February 17 that did not address these continued concerns. However, the structure of election commissions at all levels--a longstanding problem--was not made more balanced by the amendments, and concerns remained over the candidate registration process, rules on media coverage, and complaint and appeals procedures. The period prior to the October 2008 elections was marred by continued restrictions on freedom of speech and freedom of assembly for the main opposition parties. The main opposition parties boycotted the election, citing these restrictions and problems with the election code, especially provisions limiting their ability to campaign effectively. The government's failure to improve respect for freedom of assembly, its continued control of the media, and the lack of a clear distinction between the government and the ruling party in campaign activities prevented a competitive campaign and reduced citizens' opportunity to make an informed choice in the election. The OSCE's final observation report for the 2005 parliamentary elections concluded that they did not meet a number of the country's OSCE and Council of Europe commitments for democratic elections. The OSCE concluded that the 2006 rerun elections in 10 out of 125 constituencies showed some improvement while noting continuing problems. The ruling YAP continued to dominate the political system. Domestic observers reported that membership in the ruling party conferred advantages such as being given preference for public positions. Opposition party members in the exclave of Nakhchivan reported instances of pressure by local officials to join the ruling party. During the year opposition parties played a less active role in politics than in previous years. Members of the opposition were more likely to experience official harassment and arbitrary arrest and detention than other citizens. For example, in October local authorities prevented leaders of the Musavat Party from holding a meeting with party members in Barda and from entering the towns of Yevlakh and Mingachevir. Regional branch opposition party members reported that local authorities often took actions to prevent routine party activities, such as pressuring restaurant owners not to allow opposition parties to use their facilities for meetings and events. Party members often had to conceal the purpose of their gatherings and hold them in remote locations. Opposition party members reported that police often dispersed small gatherings at tea houses and detained participants for questioning. Since 2006 opposition parties have had serious difficulties renting office space, with some parties operating out of their leaders' apartments reportedly because landlords were afraid to rent office space to them due to official pressure. There were 14 women in the 125-seat Milli Majlis. Several women held senior government positions, including deputy speaker of the Milli Majlis, and several deputy ministers. There were no legal restrictions on the participation of women in politics, although traditional social norms limited women's political roles, and they were underrepresented in elective offices. Ethnic minorities, such as the Lezghins, Talysh, and Avars, continued to serve in the Milli Majlis and in government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law penalizes corruption by prohibiting bribery; however, there was widespread corruption with impunity throughout all facets of society, including the civil service, government ministries, and the highest levels of government. The World Bank's worldwide governance indicators reflected that corruption was a severe problem. Criminal cases related to petty corruption were opened during the year, specifically on bribery charges. However, these cases had little or no impact on the prevalence of bribery and petty and grand corruption in the country. During the year the Presidential Administration removed from office the appointed head of the Executive Committee of the Nizami District of Baku, Mehbali Aliyev, reportedly due to corruption. No criminal charges had been filed against Aliyev by year's end. Key provisions of the government's 2007 national strategy for increasing transparency and combating corruption still had not been implemented at year's end. The strategy established a framework for increasing the accountability of government, cooperating with civil society, and systematically monitoring and reporting on the implementation of anticorruption measures. One of the national strategy's main elements, the law on financial disclosure, requires officials to report their annual income, sources of income, property, and financial liabilities. It also prohibits nepotism and limited gifts and direct or indirect financial benefits to public officials or third parties. The law provides for public access to government information by individuals and organizations; however, the government often did not provide access. Although government ministries have separate procedures on how to request information, they routinely denied requests, claiming not to possess the information. Individuals have the right to appeal the denials in court; however, the courts generally upheld the decisions of the ministries. Over the past several years, the government took some steps to improve transparency in extractive sector industries. It endorsed the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in 2004 in which governments committed to adhere to the 12 agreed EITI Principles to manage natural resources for the benefit of all members of society by creating a cooperative relationship between government, companies, and civil society to disclose payments and revenues received from extractive industries. Following an EITI-accredited validator's examination and approval of the country's key EITI documents, the EITI Board granted Azerbaijan status as the first EITI-compliant country on February 16. The State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan (SOFAZ), which is responsible for implementation of the EITI principles, also increased access to information about oil and gas revenues. However, some observers complained that the fund was not designed, governed, or managed to ensure expenditures were geared towards poverty alleviation or the delivery of public services. Moreover, observers noted that the country's oil and gas revenues in full were not managed by SOFAZ or subject to EITI transparency practices. While all of the 26 oil and gas companies in the country participated in the EITI process, only a handful of companies agreed to disaggregated revenue reporting. In addition, the country's EITI compliant status was based on the government's agreement to create a work plan on cooperation with NGOs. At year's end the government had not created this work plan, but had promised to take steps to do so. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Although the government maintained ties with some human rights NGOs and responded to their inquiries, on occasion the government criticized and intimidated other human rights NGOs and activists. The Ministry of Justice continued routinely to deny or fail to register some human rights NGOs. The major local human rights NGOs were the Association for the Protection of Women's Rights, the Bureau of Human Rights and Respect for the Law, the Azerbaijan Foundation of Democracy Development and Human Rights Protection, Azerbaijani Committee against Torture (ACAT), the Institute for Peace and Democracy, the Helsinki Citizens' Assembly, IRFS, and the Human Rights Center of Azerbaijan. Most of the leading NGOs affiliated themselves with one of two independent, umbrella organizations, the Human Rights Federation and the Monitoring Group of Human Rights Organizations. The government met with a variety of domestic NGO monitors. The Ministry of Justice participated in a joint political prisoner review committee with several representatives of the human rights community. In previous years the Ministry of Internal Affairs allowed one NGO, ACAT, to have immediate access to police and pretrial detention facilities; however, as of July 1, the Ministry of Justice only permitted the group access with several days' advance notice. During the year some NGOs reported increased pressure against their activities. For example, the Minister of Internal Affairs sued Leyla Yunus, leader of the Institute of Peace and Democracy, for an interview she gave to an online newspaper in which she criticized the police. The minister subsequently dropped the case. In addition, several election observers affiliated with EMDS were harassed by local authorities in connection with their observation activities (see section 3). During the year the Milli Majlis amended the law on NGOs (see section 2.b.). Several NGOs reported that the government and police at times refused to protect them from so-called provocateurs who threatened, harassed, and attacked NGO activists and vandalized their property. For example, on December 15, a group of Nakhchivan State University leaders and students reportedly beat two representatives of the Nakhchivan Democracy and NGO Development Resource Center who were investigating corruption at the university. The group from the university also reportedly threatened a journalist with the IRFS who arrived at the scene of the assault. The NGO representatives called the police before the attack, as they feared an attack was imminent and needed protection. However, the police did not arrive until after the assailants had left the scene. Local authorities reportedly responded by denying that the events occurred and scheduling a tax inspection of the Resource Center for January 2010. During the year Akifa Aliyeva of the Helsinki Citizens' Assembly fled the country after reporting repeated harassment by local authorities in connection with her work defending the rights of a Ukrainian prisoner in Ganja. The registration process for NGOs remained cumbersome and included requirements to register grants from foreign entities. NGO grants from foreign entities are subject to a social security tax of 22 percent on employee salaries, although grants from a few countries with bilateral agreements with the government were subject to only a 2 percent tax. NGO activists reported that these provisions inhibited their organizations' activities. The NGO Council continued its grants program begun in 2008, giving approximately 1.8 million manat (approximately $2.2 million) to 250 NGOs during the year. While many of these NGOs were considered to be progovernment, some NGOs that were critical of the government also received grants. One NGO sued the council for revoking a grant awarded to the organization. The NGO stated the grant was revoked after the NGO submitted an official complaint about the council's grant review process, which the NGO alleged was corrupt. The case continued at year's end. The government generally permitted visits by UN representatives and other international organizations, such as the ICRC. International NGOs, such as Reporters without Borders, generally operated without government hindrance. Citizens may appeal violations committed by the state or by individuals to the ombudswoman for human rights. The ombudswoman may refuse to accept cases of abuse that are more than one year old, anonymous complaints, and cases already being handled by the judiciary. The ombudswoman received 8,000 appeals, of which 83.7 percent were complaints during the year; 51 percent of these complaints were accepted for investigation, and of those investigated, 44.7 percent were successfully resolved. The incumbent ombudswoman's term expired in July, but she continued to fulfill the duties of the office because her successor had yet to be named. The Office of the Ombudsman took the lead in implementing the government's 2006 human rights national action plan (NAP). During the year the ombudswoman reported that the NAP working group, which included five subcommittees, continued to work on areas identified as priorities in the action plan. All state agencies involved in the NAP submit their annual reports to the ombudsman, who reviews and compiles the reports into one larger report on the progress of implementation of NAP, shortcomings, challenges and the ways of improvement of the situation. As of year's end, implementation of the plan was uneven. During the year the ombudswoman traveled around the country to hear human rights complaints, cooperated with foreign diplomats and domestic NGOs working on human rights, and submitted an annual report to the Milli Majlis. During the year she criticized significant violations in the high-profile case of the youth activists and bloggers Emin Milli and Adnan Hajizade. However, local human rights NGOs and activists criticized the ombudswoman's work as ineffective and generally regarded her as not independent of the government. The Milli Majlis and the Ministry of Justice also had human rights offices that heard complaints, conducted investigations, and made recommendations to relevant government bodies. Officials of the Human Rights Office within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regularly met with the diplomatic community to discuss issues of concern. The Milli Majlis's human rights body did not operate fully independently of government influence. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, but the government did not always respect these prohibitions in practice or effectively enforce them. Women.--Rape is illegal and carries a maximum 15-year prison sentence. The government reported 35 rapes during the year. Most rape victims reportedly knew their assailants but did not report incidents because of fear and shame. There are no laws on spousal abuse or specific laws on spousal rape, although these crimes could be prosecuted under other sections of the criminal code if a spouse complained. Violence against women, including domestic violence, continued to be a problem. In rural areas women had no effective recourse against assaults by their husbands or others. There were no government-sponsored programs for victims of rape or domestic violence. In Baku a women's crisis center operated by the Institute for Peace and Democracy provided free medical, psychological, and legal assistance to women. The center also worked on a number of projects funded by international donors to combat gender-based violence and trafficking in persons in the Caucasus region. Representatives of the institute regularly appeared on popular television talk shows to discuss women's issues. Prostitution is an administrative offense rather than a crime and is punishable by a fine of up to 40 manat (approximately $48), down from 88 manat (approximately $102) after amendments made to the code in December. Pimps and brothel owners may be sentenced to prison for up to six years. Prostitution was a serious problem, particularly in Baku. The law prohibits sexual harassment; however, the government only rarely enforced the prohibition. No organization was specifically dedicated to receiving these complaints. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Information was accessible so families and individuals could make reproductive decisions free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Contraception was widely available, but demographic surveys showed low levels of use. Skilled attendance during childbirth was accessible. Women and men were treated equally and diagnosed for transmitted infections, including HIV. However, patriarchal norms, based on cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors, in some cases limited women's reproductive rights. Women nominally enjoy the same legal rights as men; however, societal discrimination was a problem. Traditional social norms and lagging economic development in the country's regions continued to restrict women's roles in the economy, and there were reports that women had difficulty exercising their legal rights due to gender discrimination. Women were underrepresented in high-level jobs, including top business positions. A local NGO reported that women's salaries are on average 70 percent of men's salaries. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth within the country or from one's parents. The law requires the government to protect the rights of children with regard to education and health care. In practice government programs provided a low standard of education and health care for children. While education was compulsory, free, and universal until the age of 17, large families in impoverished rural areas sometimes placed a higher priority on the education of male children and kept girls to work in the home. Some poor families forced their children to work or beg rather than attend school. The Ministry of Internal Affairs did not provide any information on the number of cases of rape or sexual abuse of children reported during the year. There were reports that children were trafficked for sexual exploitation and begging. During the year four of the identified victims of sex trafficking were under the age of 18. Child marriage was not considered a significant problem, although evidence suggested it was growing, primarily in rural central and southern regions among poor families. Statutory rape is prohibited by law and defined as ``the sexual relations or other actions of sexual nature, committed by a person who has reached 18, with the person who has not reached 16,'' and is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment. Child pornography is prohibited by law, and its production, distribution, or advertisement is punished by three to five years' imprisonment. If the pornography is created by the parents of the child or by teachers or other educators, the punishment increases to four to seven years' imprisonment. A large number of refugee and IDP children lived in substandard conditions. In some cases these children were unable to attend school. Trafficking in Persons.--The criminal code prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. The country was primarily a source and transit point for women, men, and children trafficked for sexual exploitation and forced labor. Central Asian, Russian, and local women and girls were trafficked from or through the country to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Turkey, Iran, India, and Pakistan for exploitation in the sex industry. Men and boys were trafficked to Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and the UAE for forced labor. Although there were no official reports of internal trafficking, domestic monitors reported a growing trend of internal trafficking of women for sexual exploitation, of men for forced labor in the construction industry, and of children for begging. During the year the government reported it identified 91 trafficking victims, four of whom were minors. Traffickers generally targeted women. Traffickers were either foreigners or ethnic Azerbaijanis who acted in loose concert with international networks. They approached victims directly and indirectly through friends and relatives, usually offering to arrange employment abroad. Traffickers also used deceptive newspaper advertisements offering work abroad. Traffickers reportedly used forged documents to move victims. Traffickers also used fraudulent marriage proposals from men posing as Iranian businessmen to lure women into prostitution in neighboring Iran. During the year 76 persons were prosecuted to completion under the law against trafficking in persons, of which 58 were convicted. Most trafficking-related crimes prosecuted during the year carried maximum penalties of between three and 12 years' imprisonment, except for rape and sexual violence, which both carried maximum 15-year prison sentences. There also are specific criminal penalties for enslaving, raping, and forcing children into prostitution. The deputy minister of internal affairs, a known human rights violator, was the national coordinator for government antitrafficking activities. This constituted an obstacle to maintaining a victim- centered approach to the government's antitrafficking efforts, monitoring the efforts of relevant government bodies, and dealing with the NGO community. Government bodies involved in antitrafficking included the Ministries of Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Justice, National Security, Labor and Social Protection, and Health; the prosecutor general; the state border guard; the State Customs Service; and the State Committee on Family, Women's and Children's Issues. The Ministry of Internal Affairs has a separate countertrafficking department. The government operated a national hotline for victims of trafficking. During the year the government did not receive any requests to assist with extradition or international investigations of trafficking cases. There was no evidence of direct and witting official complicity in trafficking, but a culture of corruption in some government agencies created opportunities for evasion of some administrative barriers to trafficking. The law protects trafficking victims by relieving them from civil, administrative, and criminal responsibility for offenses committed under coercion, intimidation, or other trafficking conditions. However, in practice victims were subjected to verbal abuse and stigmatization by judges. Victims were often treated as criminals and penalized solely for unlawful acts they committed as a direct result of being trafficked. The law allows the use of pseudonyms to protect the identity of victims and provides for their assistance and shelter. The government did not systematically screen vulnerable population groups to identify trafficking victims. There was no standardized mechanism to return trafficked women to their countries of origin. According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), some citizens and foreign nationals who were either victims of trafficking or engaged in prostitution were deported to the country primarily from Turkey. A few trafficking victims deported from Dubai received assistance from the country's NGOs. However, the government had no program to assist them. In August the government enacted and implemented the National Referral Mechanism, which created a national and interagency system for organizing victim assistance. The government referred victims to a government-funded shelter, which provided victims with access to legal, medical, and psychological services. The government also referred victims to an assistance center under the Ministry of Labor and to NGOs for training and job placement. In August 2008 the IOM started a project with the countertrafficking department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to strengthen management capacity of the shelter and hotline services by training their staff and formulating operational guidelines. The government, while fully funding the hotline, did not operate it directly but did actively advertise it. In February the government began implementing a second phase of its national antitrafficking action plan. As part of this plan, the government in September enacted and distributed regulations (indicators) for identifying trafficking victims. This list of indicators is meant to help law enforcement easily identify trafficking victims to ensure they receive proper assistance. The discovery of a large number of labor trafficking victims from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia in October exposed several weaknesses in the government's implementation of these indicators and the National Referral Mechanism. Several NGOs, such as the Institute for Peace and Democracy's Women's Crisis Center and Clean World, and government bodies, such as the State Committee for Women's and Children's Issues, worked on antitrafficking activities. The Ministry of Internal Affairs claimed to have conducted 70 trafficking awareness programs in various parts of the country. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services, but discrimination in employment was a problem. It was commonly believed that children with disabilities were ill and needed to be separated from other children and institutionalized. Several international and local NGOs developed educational campaigns to change social perceptions and reintegrate disabled children. There are no laws mandating access to public or other buildings for persons with disabilities, and most buildings were not accessible. Care in facilities for the mentally ill and persons with disabilities varied; some provided adequate care while others lacked qualified caregivers, equipment, and supplies to maintain sanitary conditions and provide a proper diet. The Ministries of Health and Labor and Social Welfare were responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Some of the approximately 20,000 citizens of Armenian descent living in the country historically complained of discrimination in employment, schooling, housing, the provision of social services, and other areas. Citizens who were ethnic Armenians often concealed their ethnicity by legally changing the ethnic designation in their passports. There were no reports of violence or discrimination against Armenians during the year. Some groups reported sporadic incidents of discrimination, restrictions on the ability to teach in their native languages, and harassment by local authorities. These groups included Talysh in the south, Caucasian Lezghins in the north, displaced Meskhetian Turks, and displaced Kurds from the Lachin region controlled by Armenia-supported Nagorno-Karabakh separatists. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There are no laws criminalizing sexual orientation. There were numerous incidents of police brutality against individuals based on sexual orientation. During the year there were no investigations into or punishments of those responsible for these acts, although this was largely due to victims' unwillingness to file claims due to fear of social stigma. In 2007, after an official complaint was made through the ombudsman's office, two police officers were removed from their positions. During the year police raided gay bars on four occasions and arrested almost 50 persons. Police reportedly held the individuals and threatened to expose their sexuality publicly unless they paid a bribe. The human rights Ombudsman's Office intervened to resolve the incidents. One NGO worked on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues in the country. This NGO worked to prevent the spread of HIV/ AIDS, and provided legal advice, psychological assistance, and outreach activities. The NGO reported no official harassment of its work. There were no attempts to organize gay pride marches during the year; however, there was a small gathering on May 17 to commemorate International Anti-Homophobia Day. There were no reported deaths during the year due to violence based on sexual orientation. However, domestic violence due to sexual orientation remained a large problem. The government did not officially condone discrimination based on sexual orientation; however, there was societal prejudice against LGBT persons. While being fired from a job for sexual orientation remained illegal, LGBT individuals reported that employers found other reasons to fire them. Discrimination in access to healthcare was also a problem. In 2008 two transgender individuals died from injuries received from a car accident because physicians at Baku Hospital Number 1 refused to treat them. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discriminations against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, including the right to form labor unions, but there were some restrictions on this right in practice. The overwhelming majority of labor unions remained tightly linked to the government, with the exception of the journalists' unions. Uniformed military and police are prohibited from participating in unions, although civilians working in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defense were allowed to do so. The law also prohibits managerial staff from joining a union, but managers in government industries often had union dues automatically deducted from their paychecks. The Azerbaijani Trade Union Confederation (ATUC) had approximately 1.6 million members representing 28 labor federations in various industrial sectors. Although the ATUC was registered as an independent organization, some workers considered it closely aligned with the government. The law allows trade unions to conduct their activities without government interference; however, in practice most unions were not independent. The law provides most workers with the right to strike. Categories of workers prohibited from striking include high-ranking executive and legislative officials; law enforcement officers; court employees; fire fighters; and health, electric power, water supply, telephone, railway, and air traffic control workers. Striking workers who disrupted public transportation could be sentenced up to three years' imprisonment. The law prohibits retribution against strikers, such as dismissal or replacement. Both local and international NGOs claimed that workers in most industries were largely unaware of their rights and afraid of retribution if they initiated complaints. This was especially true for persons working in the public sector. While the labor law applied to all workers and enterprises in the country, the government could negotiate bilateral agreements with multinational enterprises that effectively exempted such enterprises from national labor laws. For example, production sharing agreements (PSAs) between the government and multinational energy enterprises signed in 1994 and subsequently did not provide for employee participation in a trade union. Some labor organizations and local NGOs reported that some of these companies discouraged employees from forming unions, and most employees of multinational enterprises operating under PSAs were not union members, although there were exceptions. Workers employed by British Petroleum were unionized, but the situation was worse in other multinational corporations, especially companies run by Chinese subcontractors. The ATUC reported that during the year there was some progress in starting new unions and that multinational corporations in the country had begun to welcome these initiatives. The law prohibits trade unions from carrying out political activities and from associating with political parties or receiving finances from political parties. Many of the state-owned enterprises that dominated the formal economy withheld union dues from workers' pay but did not deliver the dues to the unions. A quarter of the dues collected for the oil workers' union were officially for ``administrative costs'' associated with running the union. However, the complete lack of transparency made it impossible to tell exactly how dues were spent. Unions and their members had no recourse to investigate withheld funds. Membership in the Union of Oil and Gas Industry Workers remained mandatory for the State Oil Company's 65,000 workers, whose union dues (2 percent of each worker's salary) were automatically deducted from their paychecks. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining agreements to set wages and work conditions in state enterprises. In reality unions could not effectively negotiate such wage levels because government-appointed boards ran major state-owned firms and set wages for all government employees. Collective bargaining agreements were often treated as formalities and not commonly used. There were no reports of government antiunion discrimination. Labor disputes were primarily handled by local courts, which, while not exhibiting antiunion discrimination, were widely considered corrupt. There were reports of antiunion discrimination by foreign companies operating in Baku. A representative from the Oil Workers' Rights Defense Council noted that in the Caspian Shipyard, owned by a company from Singapore, workers who had fought to establish a union not only failed but were subsequently fined 140 manat ($175) by the company for their attempts. Labor NGOs reported that multinational energy companies and their subcontractors often discouraged union membership by their employees. For many multinational companies, the absence of union membership rights in the PSAs facilitated this behavior. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution and law prohibit forced or compulsory labor, except in circumstances of war or in the execution of a court's decision under the supervision of a government agency. Some observers reported that there were infrequent occurrences of forced or compulsory labor, including trafficking in women, men, and children for sexual exploitation, forced labor, and begging. Men and boys were trafficked to Russia for forced labor (see section 6). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law provides for the protection of children from exploitation in the workplace and from work that is dangerous to their health, and there were few complaints of abuses of child labor laws. However, there were reports that child labor was used in cotton production. Children were also reportedly trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and begging (see section 6). The minimum age for employment depended on the type of work. In most instances the law permits children to work from age 15; 14-year- old children may work in family businesses or, with parental consent, at after-school jobs during the day that pose no hazard to their health. Children under 16 may not work more than 24 hours per week; children between 16 and 18 may not work more than 36 hours per week. The law prohibits employing children under 18 in difficult and hazardous work conditions. The Ministry of Labor and Social Security is responsible for enforcing child labor laws. However, the unit responsible is considered ineffective. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The administratively set minimum monthly wage is 75 manat (approximately $91) per month. Local NGOs reported that this wage was not enough to provide a decent standard of living. The Ministry of Taxes, the Ministry of Labor, and the State Social Protection Fund share responsibility for enforcing the minimum wage. However, in practice the minimum wage was not effectively enforced. Due to intervention by labor unions and inspectors, approximately 950,000 manat ($1,100,000) were paid to workers who filed reports about unpaid salaries from the middle of 2008 until the middle of the year. The law provides for a 40-hour workweek; the maximum daily work shift is 12 hours. Workers in hazardous occupations may not work more than 36 hours per week. The law requires lunch and rest periods, which are determined by labor contracts and collective agreements. It was not known whether local companies provided the legally required premium compensation for overtime, although international companies generally did. There was no prohibition on excessive compulsory overtime. However, most individuals worked in the informal economy, where the government did not enforce contracts or labor laws. The law sets health and safety standards; however, government inspections of working conditions were weak and ineffective, and standards were widely ignored. The ATUC monitored compliance with labor and trade regulations, including safety and health conditions. The ATUC received 236,220 complaints in 2008. Conversely, the Ministry of Labor reported receiving only one complaint. Workers did not have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered their health or safety without jeopardizing their employment. According to information provided by the office of the International Labor Organization (ILO) in the country, 33 fatal accidents and 122 injuries occurred in the first six months of the year, with 18 deaths and 38 injuries in the construction sector alone. According to the Oil Workers Rights Defense Council, an NGO dedicated to protecting worker rights in the oil sector, seven oil sector workers died in workplace accidents during the same period. The International Trade Union Confederation reported that the government's bilateral agreements with multinational corporations, the contents of which were confidential, contributed to labor rights violations. In 2007 the Oil and Gas Workers' Union of Azerbaijan reached a new contract with the State Oil Company that included greater social protections and health and safety commitments. Only 20 percent of the contract's points were met at year's end, although the contract's clauses were stipulated to be completed by 2010. Workplace accidents were also a problem in other sectors of the economy. The law provides equal rights to foreign and domestic workers. However, on one hand local human rights groups including the Oil Workers Rights Defense Council maintained that disparities existed, particularly in foreign oil companies, where local workers were more likely to receive lower pay and work without contracts or health care. On the other hand the Oil Rights Defense Council reported resolving labor issues with large international companies was far easier than with local companies because the multinational companies had more experience and more transparency in their labor relations. A representative from the ILO noted that many persons working in governmental regulatory bodies also had business interests, causing conflicts of interest. __________ BELARUS Belarus is a republic with a population of 9.5 million. The country has a directly elected president, who is chief of state, and a bicameral parliament, the National Assembly, consisting of the Chamber of Representatives (lower house) and the Council of the Republic (upper house). A prime minister appointed by the president is the nominal head of government. In practice, however, power is concentrated in the presidency. Since his election in 1994 as president, Alyaksandr Lukashenka has consolidated his power over all institutions and undermined the rule of law through authoritarian means, manipulated elections, and arbitrary decrees. Subsequent presidential elections have not been free or fair, and the September 2008 parliamentary election failed to meet international standards. While civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces, their members continued to commit numerous human rights abuses. The government's human rights record remained very poor as government authorities continued to commit frequent serious abuses. The right of citizens to change their government was severely restricted. The government failed to account for past politically motivated disappearances. Prison conditions remained extremely poor, and reports of abuse of prisoners and detainees continued. Arbitrary arrests, detentions, and imprisonment of citizens for political reasons, criticizing officials, or for participating in demonstrations also continued. The judiciary lacked independence, trial outcomes usually were predetermined, and many trials were conducted behind closed doors. The government further restricted civil liberties, including freedoms of press, speech, assembly, association, and religion and continued to enforce politically motivated military conscriptions of opposition youth leaders. The government seized published materials from civil society activists and limited the distribution of a number of independent media outlets. State security services used unreasonable force to disperse peaceful protesters. Corruption continued to be a problem. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and political parties were subjected to harassment, fines, and prosecution. Religious leaders were fined or deported for performing services, and churches continued to face persecution from authorities. Trafficking in persons remained a significant problem, although some progress was made to combat it. There was discrimination against Roma, ethnic, and sexual minorities, and against use of the Belarusian language. Authorities harassed independent unions and dismissed their members, severely limiting the ability of the workers to form and join independent trade unions and to organize and bargain collectively. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports during the year that the government or its agents committed any arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated or other disappearances during the year. On at least three occasions during the year, activists reported that plainclothes security forces personnel abducted members of civil society and the political opposition from the street in Minsk, drove them outside the city, and dumped them in forests miles away. In December 2008 plainclothes security forces abducted Artur Finkevich, leader of the Young Belarus opposition group from the street, beat him, and left him in a forest near Rakau, approximately 25 miles west of Minsk. On November 27, opposition activist Uladzimir Lemesh was pushed into a vehicle, handcuffed, and dropped off in a forest 10 miles outside of Minsk. On December 5, security forces abducted opposition youth leader Zmitser Dashkevich near his home in Minsk, drove him to a forest approximately 40 miles north of Minsk, and forced him out of the car. The following day, security forces in Minsk abducted Yauhen Afnahel, a coordinator for the civic movement European Belarus, and dumped him outside the city. In 2006 authorities suspended the investigation into the 2000 disappearance and presumed killing of journalist Zmitser Zavadski. There was evidence of government involvement in these cases, but authorities continued to deny any involvement in the disappearances. The prosecutor general continued to extend its 10-year-long investigation into the 1999 disappearance of former interior minister and opposition leader Yury Zakharanka. There were no developments in the continuing investigations in the 1999 disappearances of opposition activist Viktar Hanchar and businessman Anatol Krasouski. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, the Belarusian Committee for State Security (KGB), riot police, and other security forces continued to routinely beat detainees and demonstrators. Police beat individuals during arrests and in detention for organizing or participating in demonstrations or other opposition activities. On February 14, riot police forcefully broke up a peaceful march involving approximately 100 youth members of the political opposition in central Minsk and beat Malady Front leader Zmitser Dashkevich and members Mikalai Dzemidzenka and Paval Kuryanovich. On February 16, police violently dispersed a Solidarity Day gathering in Minsk and beat a number of opposition activists who subsequently required medical treatment for injuries including cuts and bruises. In a separate incident the same day, riot police forcefully dispersed opposition activists praying at the site of a former Bernardine monastery. On July 16, police broke up several Solidarity Day rallies across the country. In Minsk police detained and beat approximately 10 European Belarus civil campaign activists inside a police bus. Young Belarus leader Artur Finkevich and youth activist Andrei Kim reported that they were abused at a police station. On September 9, members of the opposition held a protest in Minsk against Russian-Belarusian military exercises then under way; police used force to disrupt the protest. For example, European Belarus civil campaign activist Zmitser Barodzka stated that law enforcement officers had injured his nose. The following day police detained 17 opposition activists for four hours at a police station, during which time the officers allegedly harassed, humiliated, and physically assaulted them. Police also denied the detainees access to medical assistance. In September 2008 the International Federation of Human Rights (FIDH), in cooperation with the domestic human rights NGO Vyasna, released a joint report, Conditions of Detention in Belarus, based on interviews with more than 30 persons. The report noted ``substantial evidence'' of the use of torture and mistreatment of suspects during criminal and administrative investigations. Hazing of new army recruits with beatings and other forms of physical and psychological abuse continued; however, the situation improved somewhat with the government increasing prosecutions. For example, on December 11, a Minsk military court convicted eight former conscripts to penalties ranging from two years of house arrest up to eight years in prison for abusing 10 fellow soldiers in a military unit between August 2008 and April. One of the soldiers was beaten to death on April 7. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions remained austere and posed threats to life and health. There were shortages of food, medicine, warm clothing, and bedding. Ventilation in cells and overall sanitation was poor. As a result, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and other communicable diseases were prevalent. On September 9, the United Nations Development Program reported that none of the country's prisons fully complied with the World Health Organization's tuberculosis infection control guidelines and expressed concern over sexual and other types of harassment and violence in prisons. The report by FIDH and Vyasna concluded that prison conditions in the country were ``extremely unsatisfactory and amount to inhumane treatment.'' Those interviewed in preparation of the report included former prisoners and detainees, relatives of prisoners, defense attorneys, NGO members, and a former judge. Despite numerous requests to the Ministries of Interior and Justice, government officials refused to meet with FIDH representatives or approve requests to visit detention facilities. According to a 2008 Belarusian Helsinki Committee (BHC) report, authorities continued to isolate prisoners--particularly inmates with HIV/AIDS and foreign citizens--and restricted or impeded a variety of rights, including the right to appeal their sentences, express their political and civil beliefs, vote, and obtain information from their families. Prison administrators arbitrarily persecuted inmates and applied severe penalties for minor violations of the ``internal regime.'' Former prisoners reported that medical check-ups were rare, conducted by underqualified medical personnel, and that examination results were often fabricated. Authorities failed to provide conditions necessary for maintaining proper personal hygiene. Prisoners often complained of malnutrition and low quality uniforms and bedding. Some former political prisoners reported that they were subjected to psychological abuse and often had to share a cell with violent criminals. They also reported that authorities neither explained nor protected their legal rights. Overcrowding in prisons, detention centers, and work release prisons (``khimiya'') was a serious problem. Persons sentenced to khimiya, a form of internal exile, lived in prison barracks and were forced to work under strict conditions. The law permits family and friends to bring detainees food and hygiene products and to mail parcels to prisoners, but in many cases authorities did not respect the law. According to the government, there were 37,578 persons in confinement as of May, including approximately 1,200 juveniles. Of all prisoners, 46 percent were serving sentences for economic crimes including embezzlement, fraud, tax evasion, theft, money laundering, and illegal business activities. Prisoners who complained about abuse of their rights often faced humiliation, death threats, or other forms of punishment. Some said they were blackmailed. Sources claimed that applications for parole frequently depended on bribing prison personnel. While standard bribes were generally between BYR 430,000 and BYR 646,000 ($200 and $300), high-profile prisoners were often asked to pay larger amounts. During the year there were no reports of independent monitoring of prison conditions by domestic or international human rights groups, independent media, or the International Committee of the Red Cross. However, on occasion authorities granted foreign diplomats access to political prisoners and other jailed persons in the presence of prison officials. For example, on May 29, the head of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) office in Minsk visited Mikalai Autukhovich at pretrial detention facilities. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law limits arbitrary detention; however, the government did not respect these limits in practice. Authorities continued to arrest individuals for political reasons and to use administrative measures to detain political activists before, during, and after protests. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of Interior has authority over the police, but the KGB and presidential security services also exercised police functions. The president has the right to subordinate all security bodies to his personal command. Petty corruption among police was widespread. In 2008 authorities convicted 103 police officers of various crimes and held more than 5,000 administratively liable or subject to disciplinary action. From January to May the number of corruption-related offenses increased by 15.5 percent, while bribery cases reportedly rose from 470 to 501. Impunity remained a serious problem. While individuals have the right to report police abuse to the prosecutor, the government often did not investigate abuses by the security forces or hold perpetrators accountable. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police routinely detained and arrested individuals without a warrant. Under the law police must request permission from a prosecutor to detain persons for longer than three hours. In practice, however, these procedures usually were a formality. Detained persons suspected of a crime may be held for up to 10 days without formal charge and for up to 18 months after charges are filed. Under the law, prosecutors and investigators have the authority to extend detention without consulting a judge. Detainees have the right to petition the legality of their detention; however, in practice appeals by suspects seeking court review of their detentions were frequently suppressed or ignored. Police often detained individuals for several hours, ostensibly to confirm their identity. This tactic was frequently used to detain members of the opposition and demonstrators, to prevent the distribution of leaflets and newspapers, or as a pretext to break up civil society meetings. During the year authorities arbitrarily detained or arrested scores of individuals, including opposition figures and members of the independent media, for reasons that were widely considered to be politically motivated. On February 8, riot police in Vaukavysk arrested two former political prisoners and entrepreneurs, Mikalai Autukhovich and Yury Lyavonau, and their associate, Uladzimir Asipenka, in armed raids. On February 18, authorities charged the three with deliberate destruction of property, arson, and illegal arms possession. On June 23, Autukhovich was additionally charged with terrorism. Investigators extended their probe every three months to hold the activists in custody pending trial, which remained unannounced at year's end. Between April and July, police also detained four other persons for 10 days and questioned in relation to the Autukhovich case. In early September police placed Mikhail Kazlou in a pretrial holding facility over his purported failure to report on Autukhovich's plans for terrorist attack. Police released Lyavonau without charge on August 8 and formally closed his case on September 24. Antinuclear protesters were often banned from holding information campaigns. On April 26, opposition youth Yauhen Skrabets was sentenced to one day in jail for distributing materials on April 25. Police also arrested Hanna Bunko and Yauhen Rudy for distributing materials but subsequently released them without charge. On May 5, authorities detained for five hours and subsequently expelled three leaders of the Perspektiva small business association from the city of Brest. The leaders were scheduled to lead a protest against a beer sales ban at kiosks. Opposition youth were often targeted for rallying and posting political banners. On April 17, police in Brest held five European Belarus campaigners in jail overnight and fined each of them BYR 70,000 ($25) for organizing a Solidarity Day rally. On June 30, police detained European Belarus campaigners Maksim Vinyarski and Uladzimir Kumets overnight; both were subsequently fined BYR 350,000 ($125) on July 1 and released. Their associate Maksim Sergiyets was fined BYR 875,000 ($305) on similar charges on June 24 and BYR 700,000 ($250) on September 14 for participating in the September 9 protest. Vinyarski was again held in custody overnight on September 21 and released on September 22 with a BYR 1,050,000 ($375) fine. Authorities continued to pursue cases against 14 opposition youth leaders who were sentenced or fined for participating in a January 2008 entrepreneur demonstration in Minsk. In April 2008 a court sentenced Artsyom Dubski, Alyaksei Bondar, Mikhail Kryvau, Mikhail Pashkevich, Alyaksandr Straltsou, Alyaksandr Charnyshou, and Tatsyana Tsishkevich to two years of ``restricted freedom,'' and Andrei Kim to 18 months in prison. Anton Koipish and Uladzimir Siargeyeu each received fines of BYR 3,500,000 ($1,600). In May 2008 activists Paval Vinahradau and Mikhail Subach were also sentenced to two years of ``restricted freedom'' on the same charges, and a minor named Maksim Dashuk, received an 18-month sentence of partial house arrest. In October 2008 police arrested Alyaksandr Barazenka upon his return to Belarus and in December a court sentenced him to one year of partial house arrest. On February 13, police arrested Artsyom Dubski upon his arrival to Belarus for violating his previous house arrest sentence. On April 15, authorities released Dubski pending trial, and on July 7, a court sentenced him to one year of imprisonment. On June 15, a Minsk court tried a minor named Maksim Dashuk for breaching his original 18-month partial house arrest; Dashuk's 18-month sentence was ultimately extended by approximately one month. On June 15, the court also adjusted the sentences of Alyaksandr Straltsou and Alyaksandr Charnyshou, required them to pay 15 percent of their salaries to the government, and banned them from traveling abroad. Tatsyana Tsishkevich, Alyaksei Bondar, and Mikhail Kryvau remained abroad and would face charges if they returned to the country. Authorities amnestied Alyaksandr Straltsou, Alyaksandr Barazenka, Mikhail Subach, Mikhail Pashkevich, and Paval Vinahradau during the year and released Andrei Kim from prison in August 2008 following a presidential pardon. In July 2008 authorities detained more than 15 opposition and human rights activists in connection with a July 4 bombing in central Minsk that injured 50 persons. They were released without charge after 10 days. Vyasna criticized the arrests and accused the KGB of using the incident as a pretext to detain and question activists and intimidate their family members. Interior Ministry officials would not confirm the total number of persons detained or released. Investigations into the bombing continued at year's end, and during the year police continued to summon local residents for mandatory fingerprinting. Amnesty.--On May 5, Lukashenka signed a new amnesty law. According to the Interior Ministry, the amnesty was expected to apply to approximately 30,000 convicts, of whom 4,500 could be released. As of November 7, 2,216 convicts were released from prisons. More than 9,300 persons had their jail terms reduced by one year, and another 1,000 had their convictions commuted. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the government did not respect judicial independence in practice. Corruption, inefficiency, and political interference were prevalent in the judiciary. There was evidence that prosecutors and courts convicted individuals on false and politically motivated charges and that executive and local authorities dictated the outcomes of trials. The criminal justice system has three tiers: district courts, regional courts, and the Supreme Court. A Constitutional Court is empowered to adjudicate constitutional issues and to examine the legality of laws; however, in practice it was subservient to the executive branch. The president appoints six of the 12 members of the Constitutional Court, including the chairman, as well as the chairmen of the Supreme Court and the Supreme Economic Court. He also has the authority to appoint and dismiss all district and military judges. Judges depended on executive branch officials for personal housing. Prosecutors are organized into offices at the district, regional, and national levels. They answer to and serve at the pleasure of the prosecutor general, who is appointed by the president. Prosecutors are not independent and do not have authority to bring charges against the president or members of his executive staff. A 2006 report by the UN special rapporteur on Belarus described the authority of prosecutors as ``excessive and imbalanced'' because they can extend detention without the permission of judges. The report also noted an imbalance of power between the prosecution and the defense. Defense lawyers were unable to examine investigation files, be present during investigations, or examine evidence against defendants until a prosecutor formally brought the case to court. Lawyers found it difficult to call some evidence into question because technical expertise was under the control of the prosecutor's office. According to many defense attorneys, these imbalances of power had intensified at the beginning of the year, especially in relation to politically motivated criminal and administrative cases. There were very few cases in which criminal defendants were found innocent. By presidential decree bar associations are independent; however, they remained subordinate to the Ministry of Justice in practice. Lawyers must be licensed by the ministry, are required to work in regional bar associations, and must renew their licenses every five years. The law prohibits attorneys from private practice, although private legal companies are allowed to provide legal assistance and advice to private companies and represent their clients in economic courts. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports during the year that authorities revoked lawyers' licenses for defending NGOs or opposition political parties. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the presumption of innocence; however, in practice defendants frequently had to prove their innocence. The law also provides for public trials; however, trials were occasionally closed and frequently held in judges' offices. Judges adjudicate all trials; there is no system of trial by jury. However, in the case of grave crimes, a judge adjudicates the trial with the assistance of two civilian advisors. Defendants have the right to attend proceedings, confront witnesses, and present evidence on their own behalf; however, in practice these rights were not always respected. During the year numerous opposition politicians and NGO leaders were tried and convicted without the right to be present at their trials. On January 26, European Belarus activist Marta Maiseyenka was fined in absentia BYR 175,000 ($65) for displaying an opposition flag. On March 14, a court in Homyel notified Belarusian Christian Democrats Yauhen Yakavenka and Zmitser Kudasau that they had been fined BYR 700,000 ($250) and BYR 1,050,000 ($370), respectively, in absentia for participating in an unsanctioned demonstration on February 21. On March 17, a court tried and convicted three members of the Hrodna-based Union of Poles, Andrzej Paczobut, Ihar Bantsar, and Mechyslau Yaskevich, for holding an unauthorized demonstration on January 17. Bantsar and Yaskevich were tried and convicted in absentia, while Paczobut was present for the proceedings. Each was sentenced to fines of BYR 525,000 ($185). A court rejected their appeal on March 27. The law provides for access to legal counsel for detainees and requires that courts appoint lawyers for those who cannot afford one; however, at times these rights were not respected, and some detainees were denied access to a lawyer as well as to a Belarusian interpreter in case they requested hearings in the Belarusian language. Most judges and prosecutors were not fluent in Belarusian. The law provides for the right to choose legal representation freely; however, a presidential decree prohibits members of NGOs from representing individuals other than members of their organizations in court. Courts often allowed information obtained from forced interrogations to be used against defendants. Defendants have the right to appeal court decisions, and most defendants appealed their criminal convictions. In an appeal, defendants and witnesses seldom appeared before the court and the court usually reviewed the protocol and other documents from a lower court trial. In the vast majority of cases, upper courts upheld the verdicts found in the lower court. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--On February 13, police arrested Artsyom Dubski upon his arrival in the country for violating his previous house arrest sentence. Dubski was initially charged for participating in a peaceful demonstration of entrepreneurs in Minsk in January 2008. On April 15, authorities released Dubski pending trial, and on July 7 a court sentenced him to one year's imprisonment. On November 27, authorities rejected Dubski's request for parole, and he remained in prison at year's end. On February 8, riot police in Vaukavysk arrested two former political prisoners and entrepreneurs, Mikalai Autukhovich and Yury Lyavonau, and their associate, Uladzimir Asipenka, in armed raids. On February 18, the three were charged with alleged deliberate destruction of property, arson, and illegal arms possession. On June 23, Autukhovich was additionally charged with terrorism. Investigators extended their probe every three months to hold the activists in custody pending trial. Authorities released former political prisoner Lyavonau on August 8 and dropped all the criminal charges against him on September 24. At year's end Autukhovich and Asipenka remained in pretrial holding facilities. Authorities continued to harass former political prisoners and detainees with short-term detentions and jail sentences. For example, on March 20, police arrested Artur Finkevich for alleged use of obscenities. He remained in custody until court hearings on March 23 and was fined BYR 525,000 ($180). Finkevich had previously served more than two years in prison for writing political graffiti. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides that individuals can file lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation; however, the civil judiciary was not independent and was rarely impartial in such matters. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions; however, the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice. Under the law, persons who obstruct members of law enforcement in the performance of their duties, including actions that in principle may be illegal, could be penalized or charged with an administrative offense. Such obstruction includes any effort to prevent KGB officers from entering the premises of a company, establishment, or organization, and refusing to allow KGB audits or to deny or restrict KGB access to information systems and databases. The law requires a warrant for searches; however, the KGB and riot police entered homes, conducted unauthorized searches, and read mail without warrants. The KGB has authority to enter any building at any time, as long as it applies for a warrant within 24 hours after the entry. There were credible reports that government agents covertly entered homes of opposition activists and offices of opposition groups and monitored the actions of individuals. There were numerous instances in which authorities searched residences and offices for clearly political reasons. For example, on February 5, police raided the residence of European Belarus activist Paval Yukhnevich and seized computer equipment, a video camera, and printed materials on the pretext of investigating a robbery. Yukhnevich and his associates Yauheni Afnahel, Uladzimir Ihnatovich, Marta Krylova, and Alyaksandra Lyndava were arrested and questioned about their activities for two hours. On the eve of an opposition youth rally on February 14, police raided the apartment of Malady Front member Kasya Halitskaya without a warrant and confiscated European Union flags, signs, and political flyers. On February 14, police also searched the residence of Malady Front member Mikalai Dzemidzenka in Minsk and seized his personal computer. On August 5, police searched the apartment of Belarusian Christian Democracy member Yury Zhylko in Zhodzina. The officers failed to find drugs that they were purportedly looking for and confiscated Christian, human rights, and other literature. On September 6, the KGB and police confiscated a draft of Belarusian Christian Democracy cochair Paval Seviarynets' book A Heart of Light from his colleague's apartment. The law prohibits authorities from intercepting telephone and other communications without a court order. In practice authorities monitored residences, telephones, and computers. Nearly all opposition political figures reported that authorities monitored their conversations and activities. The law allows the KGB, the Internal Affairs Ministry, and certain border guard detachments to use wiretaps, but they must first obtain a prosecutor's permission. However, the lack of prosecutorial independence rendered these due process protections meaningless. Ministry of Communications contracts for telephone service prohibited subscribers from using such services for purposes contrary to state interests and public order. The ministry has the authority to terminate telephone service of those who breach the law. There were multiple cases of youth members of political opposition groups forcibly conscripted into the military. There were also reports of discrimination and harassment against them while undertaking military service. In January authorities forcibly conscripted Franak Vyachorka, former leader of the Belarusian Popular Front's youth wing. Police arrested Vyachorka on a Minsk street and forcibly delivered him to the 8th Radar Brigade in Baranavichy. He took a military oath there on February 7 and was later transferred to a radar unit in Mazyr. In mid- December Vyachorka was sent back from a hospital to the military unit despite medical grounds for an early discharge from the army. Vyachorka's medical record was revised to omit his previous diagnosis. In early December, Malady Front activist Ivan Shyla was granted an early discharge from the army for health reasons. In June 2008 the then 17-year-old Shyla was expelled from a secondary school in Salihorsk one day before his final graduation examination. The official grounds for Shyla's expulsion were that he had frequently violated the school's regulations by participating in unsanctioned demonstrations and other opposition activities. There were numerous reports that the government coerced young persons, university students, and military conscripts to join the pro- Lukashenka state-funded NGO Belarusian Republican Youth Union (BRYU). In addition, the government employed and encouraged a widespread system of BRYU informants organized into civilian patrol squads, whose supposed purpose was to encourage students to become law-abiding citizens. During the year such squads continued to actively recruit youths and students for various projects around the country. High school students feared that they would not be allowed to enroll in universities without BRYU membership, and university students reported that proof of BRYU membership was often required to register for popular courses or to receive a dormitory room. Universities also offered patrol members discounts on tuition. In January 2008 Minister of Education Alyaksandr Radzkou stated that membership in the BRYU would be considered in new mandatory recommendations for students who wished to train for professions in foreign affairs, state administration, and journalism. During the year authorities continued to harass family members of NGO leaders and civil society activists. For example, Zmitser Dashkevich's parents were harassed on a number of occasions, including through a defamatory television program about their son's abduction. Authorities harassed and threatened members of the Belarusian Christian Democratic party and their families, and threatened them with expulsion and job dismissal in an effort to force them to recant their membership. For example, authorities warned Alena Chuzhak that her family could be evicted from their home because of her political activities. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government did not respect these rights in practice and enforced numerous laws to control and censor the media. Individuals could not criticize the government publicly without fear of reprisal. Authorities videotaped political meetings, conducted frequent identity checks, and used other forms of intimidation. Wearing masks, displaying unregistered flags, symbols, and placards bearing messages deemed threatening to the government or public order are also prohibited. The law also limits free speech by criminalizing actions such as giving information to a foreigner about the political, economic, social, military, or international situation of the country that authorities deem to be false or derogatory. On February 8, a new media law entered into force that allows authorities to further restrict press freedoms. The law subjects online news sources to the same regulations as print and broadcast media, requires reregistration of existing media before February 8, 2010, mandates accreditation of journalists, and limits support from foreign organizations to 30 percent. The new law was widely criticized by domestic and international NGOs and press advocates such as the Committee to Protect Journalists, Index on Censorship, Article IX, World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers, the Belarusian Association of Journalists (BAJ), and Civic Belarus. There were independent newspapers and magazines and Internet news Web sites. However, they operated under repressive media laws and most faced discriminatory publishing and distribution policies. State-owned media dominated the information field and maintained the highest circulation and viewership. The state-owned postal system, Belposhta, and the state-owned kiosk system, Belsayuzdruk, continued to refuse to deliver and sell 11 independent newspapers. In 2007 Belposhta removed three popular Russian newspapers (Kommersant, Moskovskiy Komsomolets, and Nezavisimaya Gazeta) from its subscription list. However, other Russian newspapers, including Izvestiya, were distributed. Media analysts asserted that the newspapers were removed because of reporting critical of Lukashenka's policies. Since November 2008 authorities allowed independent newspapers Narodnaya Volya and Nasha Niva and one regional newspaper to be distributed through state distribution systems after two- to three-year government bans. Narodnaya Volya also reached agreement with authorities for the newspaper to be printed at a state-owned press in Minsk. The newspaper previously was printed in Smolensk, Russia, due to government harassment. However, while both papers were publicly available, they were still subject to restrictions. In September the state-owned Belsayuzdruk printing company denied a request from the Narodnaya Volya to increase its circulation from twice a week to three times a week, claiming that it was ``not possible to distribute additional copies due to the massive output of other periodicals'' on that specific day of the week. On October 12, the Information Ministry denied registration to the regional independent newspaper Mahileuski Chas on the grounds that its chief editor ``had no higher education diploma.'' The paper's registration was denied on three separate occasions during the year. On November 2, the Information Ministry refused to register the regional publication Mar'ynahorskaya Gazeta over its failure to secure a legal address, after local authorities pressured its landlord to terminate the newspaper's lease. On November 10, the ministry denied registration to the regional independent newspaper Prefekt Plus, noting that the paper was located in residential premises, which violated the media law. During the year the ministry twice rejected a registration application from regional newspaper Salihorsk-plus, claiming that the application did not comply with the media law regulations. Local authorities frequently warned independent editors and journalists to avoid reporting on certain topics and not to criticize the government. Authorities also warned businesses not to advertise in newspapers that criticized the government. On October 1, private radio station Avtoradio discontinued broadcasting an international, political, cultural news and music show, produced jointly with the European Radio for Belarus, after an Information Ministry warning that the station would be shut down. On November 18, the Information Ministry released a statement that it had issued warnings to four national independent newspapers, including the Nasha Niva and the Narodnaya Volya, and noted that these newspapers could be closed for disseminating illegal information and other violations of the media law. Authorities sent a second warning to Narodnaya Volya on December 24 for allegedly publishing false information about media subscription rates in Minsk. Journalists reporting for international media focused on the country, such as the Warsaw-based independent satellite channel Belsat and Polish radio station Radio Racyja, continued to receive warnings from the prosecutor's office for working without accreditation. After enactment of the new media law, authorities sent warnings to at least 20 independent journalists. International media continued to operate in the country but not without interference and harassment. Euronews and Russian channels First Channel, NTV, and RTR were generally available, although only through paid cable services in many parts of the country. Their news programs were at times blocked or replaced with local programming. Broadcasts from other countries, including Poland and Lithuania, could be received in parts of the country, usually along the border. On April 1, the government suspended broadcasting of five popular Russian channels, including TV Center International and Ren TV. These channels frequently broadcast critical and satirical pieces on Lukashenka. A representative of the Information Ministry claimed that there were no political grounds behind the ban and asserted that cable providers had made a decision to remove the broadcasts based on economic calculations. The Russian channels also ostensibly failed to obtain permits under the media law for broadcasts in Belarus. On December 8, the Foreign Affairs Ministry rejected a third registration application from Belsat. On November 30, the ministry issued accreditation to 12 journalists and technical personnel of the European Radio for Belarus after the Council of Ministers registered the station's local bureau for a period of one year on November 11. The government continued to harass, assault, and arrest journalists. A court in Homyel fined independent journalists Zmitser Karmazin and Aleh Razhkou BYR 700,000 ($250) each for participating in the International Mother Language Day rally on February 21. On July 8 in Homyel, police detained Razhkou for three hours and questioned about him over his coverage of an entrepreneur rally that day. Police searched his belongings and copied the photographs taken at the event. On April 16, law enforcement officers detained and beat independent correspondent Uladzimir Grydzin while he was photographing a police precinct on fire in Minsk. On April 21, independent journalist Ales Lyubianchuk was fined BYR 770,000 ($275) for allegedly resisting police during his detention on April 16. On August 14, authorities deported two Russian journalists from the television station NTV for filming a documentary about the 1999-2000 high-profile disappearances. KGB officers questioned the journalists and seized their electronic equipment and printed materials. Security officers continuously hampered independent journalists from covering Solidarity Day and other protests in Minsk. On July 16, police detained photojournalist Vadzim Zamirouski for three hours. On September 9 and 16, officers surrounded each journalist present and violently blocked them from filming the police crackdown on the demonstrations. Journalists who were covering the event reported that police damaged a camera of a Polish TVP correspondent. Police also detained independent journalists for long periods allegedly to check their identification. At an October 16 demonstration, riot police seized cameras and damaged journalists' equipment. The BAJ condemned interference with the independent journalists' operations and called for fair and open investigations into the incidents. On October 22, Deputy Interior Minister Yauheni Poludzen stated that the government would take measures to ensure that police did not obstruct journalists. According to Poludzen, ministry press officers would attend future mass public events, and media representatives would have to refer to them for any questions about the event. On November 27, Interior Minister Anatol Kulyashou echoed his deputy's remarks, noting that the ministry would like to pursue ``businesslike and open relations'' with media. The government censored the media. Many publications were forced to exercise self-censorship. Authorities warned, fined, or jailed members of the media who publicly criticized the government. The government tightly controlled the content of domestic broadcast media. In April 2007 the president stated that control of radio and television stations remained a high priority for the government and that private stations would not be allowed to operate in the country. He also stated that state publishing houses would never sign contracts with independent media publications that violated media laws. On April 9, the president reiterated his earlier remarks and dismissed concerns about ``the closure of the Russian channels.'' Only the state-run radio and the state-run television networks ONT, the First National Channel, STV, and LAD were allowed to broadcast nationwide. The government continued to use its virtual monopoly on television and radio broadcasting to disseminate its version of events and minimize all opposing viewpoints. State television coordinated its propaganda documentaries with the country's security services. Local independent television stations operated in some areas and reported local news; however, most were under government pressure to forego reporting on national issues or risk being censored. Such stations were frequently pressured into sharing materials and cooperating with authorities to intimidate local opposition and human rights groups that met with foreign diplomats. Many independent outlets practiced self-censorship. On February 16, a local television channel in Brest denied a request from opposition and trade union members to show their program about economic and social difficulties in Belarus. Under the law, the government may close a publication after two warnings in one year for violating a range of restrictions on speech and the press. In addition, regulations give authorities arbitrary power to prohibit or censor reporting. The Information Ministry can suspend periodicals or newspapers for three months without a court ruling. The law also prohibits the media from disseminating information on behalf of unregistered political parties, trade unions, and NGOs. Under the law, libel is a criminal offense. Slandering and insulting the president and public officials carry large fines and prison sentences of up to four years. The libel law makes no distinction between private and public persons concerning defamation of character. A public figure who was criticized for poor performance while in office may sue both the journalist and the media outlet that disseminated the critical report. The government took numerous other actions during the year to limit the independent press, including limiting access to newsprint and printing presses. Several independent newspapers, including Vitsyebski Kuryer and Tavarysch, printed materials in Russia because domestic printing presses (mostly state-owned) refused to print them. Other independent newspapers, such as Salidarnasc and BDG, disseminated Internet-only versions due to printing and distribution restrictions. On February 25, a court in Brest declared in a closed-door hearing that the popular independent history magazine ARCHE published ``extremist'' materials. KGB officers confiscated copies of the magazine from an independent journalist in October 2008 and claimed that the publication, and particularly articles critical of the 2008 parliamentary elections, ``discredited state activities, incited social and political tension,'' and ``posed a threat to Belarus' security.'' Following numerous appeals, the KGB dropped the charges on June 23. After authorities ordered the Hrodna-based independent newspaper Gazeta Slonimskaya to vacate its rented premises by June 2008, its editor, Viktar Uladashchuk, stated that he could not lease a new office because rental agencies feared government reprisals. At year's end its journalists continued to work from their homes. During the year there were numerous examples of the government confiscating independent and opposition newspapers and seizing leaflets and other materials deemed to have been printed illegally. On June 23, traffic police in Schuchyn detained Union of Poles Deputy Chairperson Mechyslau Yaskevich, along with organization members and journalists Andrzej Paczobut, Ihar Bantsar, and Andrzej Pisalnik. Police seized 100 copies of the unregistered newspaper Glos znad Niemna na uchodzstwie and the Union of Poles' magazine Magazyn Polski na uchodzstwie from them ``for further examination'' by the local ideology department. Issues of the magazine featured a satirical portrait of Lukashenka on the front page. On July 17, police officers banned eight opposition activists from distributing the independent weekly Novy Chas at the heavy machinery factory BelAZ in Zhodzina and confiscated 500 copies of the newspaper. Police also detained two of the activists, Raman Bahdanau and Alyaksandr Serhiyenka, for several hours. On November 11 and 13, police detained and questioned for more than three hours democratic activist Barys Khamayda in Vitsyebsk in an apparent bid to prevent him from distributing independent publications. Officers examined his printed materials and released him without charge. Internet Freedom.--The government partially restricted access to the Internet, and monitored e-mail and Internet chat rooms. Many individuals and groups were generally able to engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. The authorities freely monitored Internet traffic. Internet cafe owners were required to maintain records of their customers and submit them to government security services. By law Beltelekam and other organizations authorized by the government had the exclusive right to maintain Internet domains. In December the Council of Ministers drafted a bill that would provide for registration of all Internet media outlets and identification of all Internet users and would allow authorities to block access to ``extremist'' and other objectionable Web sites. The bill, which was not subject to public discussion, would also make Internet service providers accountable for information released by customers. On December 30, Lukashenka stated that the government should ``establish order'' on the Internet to ``rigidly regulate and hold responsible'' Internet users. On March 27, the head of the Belarusian Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Filaret, called upon the government to effectively regulate the Internet and control access to its ``dangerous resources.'' In addition, he stated that the government could apply ``practices used in other countries, in particular, China.'' Approximately 30 percent of the population had access to the Internet, and Internet use was highest in urban areas. Access was restricted by relatively high costs and lack of high-speed services. On occasion state providers blocked independent and opposition Web sites during major political events. On June 8, authorities blocked the Web site of human rights group Charter97 after it posted a satirical show about Lukashenka and other materials criticizing the government. On February 8, a new media law entered into force. Under the law, the government may legally block any unregistered Web sites, regardless of their origin. In response to the government's interference and Internet restrictions, many opposition groups and independent newspapers switched to Internet domains operated outside the country. The few remaining independent media sites with domestic ``.by'' domains practiced heavy self-censorship. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government restricted academic freedom and cultural events. Educational institutions were required to teach an official state ideology that combined reverence for the achievements of the former Soviet Union and the country under the leadership of Lukashenka. Use of the word ``academic'' was restricted; NGOs were prohibited from including the word ``academy'' in their titles. On October 22, Deputy Education Minister Tatsiana Kavalyova stated that ideology remained ``the backbone'' of education in the country and gave ``special flavor to the educational environment.'' She also noted that every educational institution maintained an ideology department. During the year authorities dismissed teachers on political grounds. For example, the Brest state university pressured Aleh Halenka, a senior professor with 30 years of experience and a member of the Free Trade Union, to voluntarily resign on August 31. University authorities subsequently pressured 10 other professors to disavow their membership in the union. On March 25, the private School of Languages dismissed an English teacher, Marjana Gruzdzilovich. She had reportedly told a student who had made disparaging remarks about opposition demonstrations and activists that she participated in a number of protests as well. Following a significant outcry in the independent media, Gruzdzilovich was reinstated on March 31. Government-mandated textbooks contained a heavily propagandized version of history and other subjects. All schools, including private institutions, are considered political bodies that must follow state orders and cannot be headed by opposition members. The education minister has the right to appoint and dismiss the heads of private educational institutions. The government tasked BRYU, the pro-Lukashenka, state-funded youth organization, with ensuring ideological purity among students. University students reportedly were pressured to join the BRYU to receive benefits and rooms in dormitories. Local authorities also pressured BRYU members to campaign on behalf of government candidates. In addition, authorities at times pressured students to act as informants for the country's security services. According to an education ministry directive, educational institutions may expel students who engage in antigovernment or unsanctioned political activity and are to maintain the proper ideological education of students. During the year at least three students were expelled for politically motivated reasons, compared with at least 10 students in 2008, 20 students in 2007, and more than 100 in 2006. Some school officials continued to cite poor academic performance or absence from classes as reasons for the expulsions. In May Malady Front activist and first-year finance student Pyotr Ruzau was expelled from his university in Baranavichy after being convicted of painting political graffiti. On June 1, following extensive media coverage, the university reinstated Ruzau. On July 13, the Belarus State University expelled Belarusian Popular Front youth group member Paval Chuduk, a second-year theological student. Chuduk had been accused of participating in political activities after his trip to Sweden to observe the European Parliament elections. Following her return from Eastern Partnership Civil Society Forum in Brussels on November 16-17, the Belarusian State University expelled Malady Front activist Tatsyana Shaputska. Although the foreign minister claimed that she was expelled for poor attendance, Shaputska was reportedly told that the reason for her expulsion was that she failed to gain permission for the trip from the law faculty dean. The government continued to ban teachers and democratic activists from promoting the wider use of the Belarusian language. On September 1, a school in Minsk fired Belarusian-speaking astronomy and physics teacher Tatsiana Ulanava, a member of the Belarusian Conservative Christian Party. The government also harassed activists attempting to promote Belarusian language and culture. In Homyel on February 23, a court sentenced Kastus Zhukouski to seven days in jail and three other activists to fines of up to BYR 1,750,000 ($625) for participating in an unauthorized International Mother Language Day on February 21. On March 4, civil society activist Andrus Papou was fined BYR 525,000 ($185) on the same charges. On September 15, the Right Alliance youth group was denied permission to hold a protest in a remote park in Minsk to promote education in the Belarusian language. On October 14, police in Baranavichy arrested two youth activists for collecting signatures in support of the Belarusian language and held them overnight in jail. They were released the following day with fines of BYR 350,000 each ($125). On October 20, police detained Malady Front members Zmitser Dashkevich, Nasta Palazhanka, and Mikita Krasnou in Minsk for the purpose of an identification check. In Karelichi on October 23, police briefly detained Malady Front activist Andrus Liaukovich and questioned him about the organization's Belarusian language campaign. The government also restricted cultural events. During the year the government continued to force opposition theater groups into venues such as bars and private apartments and to suppress unofficial commemorations of historical events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of peaceful assembly; however, the government severely restricted this right in practice. Only registered political parties, trade unions, or NGOs may request permission to hold a demonstration of more than 1,000 persons, and denials were common. Security forces frequently forcibly dispersed participants, often causing injuries (see section 1.c.) The law criminalizes participation in the activities of unregistered NGOs, training of persons to demonstrate, financing of public demonstrations, or solicitation of foreign assistance ``to the detriment'' of the country. Violations are punishable by up to three years in prison. Organizers must apply at least 15 days in advance for permission to conduct a public demonstration, rally, or meeting. Government officials are required to respond no later than five days prior to the scheduled event. However, authorities generally refused permits to opposition groups or granted permits for demonstrations away from city centers. On January 14, authorities denied antinuclear campaigners permission to hold a series of protests in the cities of Smarhon, Maladziechna, and Vileyka. Additionally, on April 19, Astravets town authorities did not permit the campaigners to arrange a public meeting on April 24 to discuss the government's plans to construct a nuclear power plant in the region. Democratic activists asked to hold the annual March 25 Freedom Day demonstration and April 26 Chernobyl commemoration demonstrations in central Minsk. Authorities denied the activists permission to hold the demonstration in downtown Minsk and instead gave permission to demonstrate in a secluded park on the outskirts of the city. Officials in Brest denied opposition political groups authorization to organize May 1 Labor Day marches. Authorities in Minsk refused requests from the European Belarus group to hold May 1 posters and collect signatures in support of Belarus' integration into the European Union. On September 3, authorities denied opposition political groups permission to organize a monthly Solidarity Day picket line to mark the 10th anniversary of the high-profile disappearances. They had intended to assemble at the alleged site of the disappearances on September 16. Authorities used intimidation and threats to discourage persons from participating in demonstrations, openly videotaped participants, and issued heavy fines or jail sentences on participants of unsanctioned demonstrations. Police and other security officials beat and detained demonstrators before, during, and after unsanctioned peaceful demonstrations. On March 25, approximately 1,000 democratic activists peacefully demonstrated to mark the 91st anniversary of the country's declaration of independence. The Interior Ministry accused the demonstrators of violating traffic and ``provoking'' clashes with police officers in central Minsk. Police in full riot gear blocked a group of opposition youth from marching toward downtown Minsk. In May riot police forcefully dispersed a series of daily demonstrations in downtown Minsk. More than 50 opposition youth protested the politically motivated arrests of Vaukavysk activists, and a number of the activists were assaulted on May 1. On May 7, during a protest to mark the 10th anniversary of Zakharanka's disappearance, police detained, questioned, and fingerprinted approximately 30 activists; some detainees reported that police beat them in police vehicles and at the police station. At a May 14 Malady Front ``sovereignty rally,'' police forcefully dispersed peaceful protesters from the central square. On May 16, Hrodna-based United Civic Party leader Yury Istomin reported that he was assaulted after a rally in Vaukavysk. Police identified but neither detained nor interrogated the alleged perpetrators. On September 16, riot police dispersed an opposition Solidarity Day rally in downtown Minsk marking the 10th anniversary of high-profile disappearances. Police officers shoved approximately 35 activists into police buses. They also impeded journalists taking pictures of the dispersal. All detainees were subsequently released without charges; however, many reported being assaulted, harassed, threatened with physical abuse, and forced to give fingerprints. On October 16, police again forcefully dispersed approximately 30 opposition activists at a Solidarity Day demonstration. United Civic Party Chair Anatol Lyabedzka reported that police beat him while he was being transported to the police precinct. Security forces blocked independent journalists and cameramen from covering the demonstration. Police also used preemptive arrests and detentions to prevent protests. For example, a few hours before a planned prodemocracy demonstration on March 25, security forces abducted Malady Front members Nasta Palazhanka and Dzyanis Karnou and drove them approximately five miles outside of Minsk, where they were released. During the drive, police beat Karnou in the face and back. In some instances the government encouraged and coordinated with progovernment groups to disrupt opposition demonstrations. On February 3, three opposition youth in Homyel, including Belarusian Christian Democrat Kastus Zhukouski, were fined a total of BYR 9,100,000 ($3,250) for staging an unsanctioned protest against politically motivated dismissals that same day. Police detained the activists, searched them, and reportedly harassed them at a precinct. On February 13, Malady Front members Zmitser Dashkevich and Mikalai Dzemidzenka were fined BYR 1,400,000 ($500) and BYR 1,225,000 ($435), respectively, for holding a political picket the previous day. Dzemidzenka and two associates were fined BYR 1,575,000 ($550) again on March 3 for rallying the previous day. On March 27, a Vitsyebsk court convicted three Conservative Christian Party members of violating rules on mass demonstrations during a March 25 rally and fined them approximately BYR 700,000 ($250). On April 23, a judge sentenced Malady Front member Mikhas Iljin to 10 days in jail for an anticommunist protest in the vicinity of the Lenin monument in Brest on April 22. Police arrested Homyel For Freedom movement coordinator Uladzimir Katsora on June 25 and held him in custody for three days. Four other opposition activists were also convicted and fined for holding a Solidarity Day protest on May 7. On dozens of occasions during the year, authorities fined opposition activists and members of NGOs for participating in unauthorized protests. For example, on June 22, two opposition youth in Vitsyebsk were fined BYR 700,000 ($250) for allegedly ignoring police orders to disperse during the April 26 Chernobyl March demonstration. On October 13, a court convicted seven Homyel opposition activists for planning to stage a Solidarity Day demonstration on September 16 and fined them approximately BYR 7,700,000 ($2,740). The court also fined other activists on October 15 and October 19 for the same charges. On December 3, a court in Minsk sentenced Young Belarus activists Paval Prakapovich and Yahor Babrou to 15 days in jail and Andrei Kuzminsky to seven days in jail. Their associate Nasta Mashchava was fined BYR 1,050,000 ($360) on December 4. Police detained the four on December 2 for holding an unsanctioned picket against the regime's policies. Mashchava was charged with illegally taking pictures of the picket without press accreditation. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association; however, the government severely restricted it in practice. The government enforced laws and registration regulations to restrict the operation of independent associations that might be critical of the government. All NGOs, political parties, and trade unions must register with the Ministry of Justice. A government commission reviews and approves all registration applications; in practice its decisions have been based largely on political and ideological compatibility with the government's authoritarian philosophy. Registration procedures required applicants to provide the number and names of founders, along with a legal address in a nonresidential building. Individuals listed as members are vulnerable to retribution. The government's refusal to rent office space to unregistered organizations and the expense of renting private space forced most organizations to violate the nonresidential address requirement. This allowed authorities to deregister existing organizations and deny their reregistration. During the year the government denied registration to numerous NGOs and political parties on a variety of pretexts, including by citing ``technical'' problems with applications. Authorities frequently harassed and intimidated organization founders to abandon their membership in groups seeking registration to deny the group the number of petitioners necessary for registration. During the year the government denied registration to more than a dozen NGOs and three political parties. Many of these groups had previously sought and been denied registration on multiple occasions. The government continued deregistering groups during the year, including a few regional NGOs. On March 11, the Supreme Court turned down the second appeal to challenge the Justice Ministry's refusal to register an association called Haryzantal. The ministry claimed that it had conducted a forensic examination, which determined that one of the founding member's signatures was invalid, and thus the organization lacked the 10 signatures required for registration. On May 29, the Supreme Court upheld the ministry's March denial of registration of the Hrodna-based regional chapter of the Belarusian Popular Front and the Adradzhenne NGO. The ministry claimed that registration applications contained numerous ``technical'' mistakes and that the groups failed to secure ``a legal address.'' On July 22, the Supreme Court upheld the Ministry of Justice's April denial of registration of the Belarusian Christian Democracy party, citing technical flaws in the party's registration documents. The government had refused two previous registration attempts in 2007 and 2008. The party again attempted to register in early December, and the Justice Ministry once again denied registration on the grounds that the party had allegedly provided false information about its founders. On August 12, the Supreme Court rejected a registration denial appeal by prominent human rights NGO Vyasna. This was the third denial since the government stripped Vyasna's registration in 2003. The Justice Ministry stated that the NGO failed to document the precise meaning behind its name and asserted that many of its founders had administrative or criminal records that made them inappropriate advocates for human rights work. On October 20, the ministry declined a registration request from the Belarusian Party of Working People, claiming the party did not meet the minimum required number of founders. The list of founders also allegedly contained fraudulent information. On December 29, the Brest Regional Court turned down an appeal filed by the Brestskaya Vyasna human rights NGO to challenge its fifth registration denial of the year. During the year the Ministry of Justice again reported that it continued to issue written warnings to NGOs, political parties, and trade unions. Harassment in the form of inspections by security officials and confiscation of political literature, usually without warrants continued. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion; however, the government restricted this right in practice. While the constitution affirms the equality of religions and denominations, it also contains restrictive language, stipulating that cooperation between the state and religious organizations ``is regulated with regard for their influence on the formation of spiritual, cultural, and country traditions of the Belarusian people.'' In 2008 Lukashenka described the Belarusian Orthodox Church as the ``main ideologist of our country,'' asserting that ``we have never separated ourselves from the church.'' The government continued to use restrictive provisions of the religion law to hinder or prevent activities of groups other than the Belarusian Orthodox Church (BOC). In particular, the law restricts the ability of religious organizations to provide religious education, requires governmental approval to import and distribute literature, and prohibits foreigners from leading religious organizations. A concordat and other arrangements with the government provide the BOC with privileges not enjoyed by other religious groups. The BOC is a branch of the Russian Orthodox Church and the only officially recognized Orthodox denomination in the country. All religious matters are regulated by the Office of the Plenipotentiary Representative for Religious and Nationalities Affairs of the Council of Ministers (OPRRNA). Under the law, religious organizations must register either with OPRRNA or with local and regional governments. Only groups with 20 or more members may be registered as religious communities. During the year OPRRNA refused to register some nontraditional religious groups, making their meetings illegal. At year's end OPRRNA reported that 25 religious denominations with 3,106 religious communities and 158 religious organizations were officially registered. The Office of Religious Affairs continued to deny registration to what it considered nontraditional faiths, mainly Protestant groups such as the New Life Church and the Belarusian Evangelical Church. Most Christian communities continued to campaign for amendments to the religion law, which restricts their activities and allows criminal prosecution of individuals for their religious beliefs. In early December the Minsk city prosecutor's office announced that it had resumed a criminal investigation against Yauhen Volkau, who was suspected of acting on behalf of an unregistered organization, a violation of the law. Authorities then announced they had closed the case on December 30. Volkau was suspected of representing the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church, which is banned in Belarus for ``destructive'' activities. The Unification Church was denied formal registration in Belarus in 1996 and 2001. Under the law, residential property can be used for religious services only if it has been officially converted from residential use, which had the effect of forcing religious organizations to reregister properties where they wished to worship. Authorities continued to reject reregistration requests from many Protestant churches and other nontraditional faiths. As a result, the groups often were forced to meet illegally or in the homes of individual members. In April a Minsk-based Greek Catholic community unsuccessfully appealed to Lukashenka for a permission to construct a church. In August the Navapolatsk local government turned down a request by the local Evangelical Faith Grace Church to purchase a plot of land to build a church. The government continued to limit the ability of groups to own or use property for religious purposes. A property that is not registered makes religious activity there illegal. During the year the government continued its efforts to harass and evict the New Life Church from its property on the outskirts of Minsk. On March 5, the appellate panel of the Supreme Economic Court upheld a January 13 decision to revoke the church's ownership of its property. On March 16, Minsk city government offered a one-acre plot at a different location that was four times smaller and insisted that the church sell its property below market value. The OPRRNA and Minsk city authorities claimed that the property was needed to construct a day- care center or a school. Senior Pastor Viachaslau Hancharenka announced on May 8 that the church community unanimously rejected the city administration's offer. On October 1, authorities fined Hancharenka BYR 420,000 ($150) for failing to allow fire-safety officers to inspect the church building on September 9. On October 7, the Minsk City Economic Court upheld the eviction of the New Life Church in a lawsuit filed by the local housing authorities. On December 8, an appellate court rejected the church's subsequent appeal. Since November 2007 the church maintained a policy of banning any officials from entering their premises in response to the government's continued attempts to appropriate their property. The law allows persons to gather in private homes to pray but requires them to obtain permission from local authorities to hold rituals, rites, or ceremonies in homes. Police interfered with religious meetings in residences several times during the year and sometimes arrested and fined participants. Baptists, Pentecostals, and other Protestants were warned or fined for illegally conducting religious services based on charges of disturbing public order or illegally gathering without prior permission. According to various press reports in December, Mahilyou regional authorities urged the residents to inform ideology officers about unregistered religious organizations and their illegal activities, including services, literature distribution, and missionary work. In November a Protestant activist in Asipovichy, Mahilyou region, was fined for holding a Thanksgiving Day celebration at a private home. Police and ideology officers interfered in the celebration. On October 28, authorities warned 10 members of the unregistered God's Embassy Church in Harbavichy that they could be held liable for holding a worship service at a private residence on October 25. Local ideology and police officers raided the house and confiscated religious literature. On July 14, the New Generation Full Gospel Church in Baravanichy was fined BYR 350,000 ($125) for holding an ``illegal'' Sunday morning prayer service on June 21. Also in Baranavichy on July 7, a court fined two members of a local Council of Baptist Churches BYR 700,000 ($250) each for praying in a private home. Authorities claimed that the New Testament Church had violated the religion law by allowing Barys Hrysenka, a visiting member of a Ukrainian Messianic Jewish organization, to speak at the church on May 21. Hrysenka was also fined BYR 105,000 ($35) for participating as a foreigner in religious activities without permission. The law allows citizens to speak freely about their religious beliefs; however, authorities continued to prevent, interfere with, or punish persons who proselytized for any religious group other than the BOC. The government did not permit foreign missionaries to engage in religious activities outside of their host institutions. The law requires one-year, multiple-entry ``spiritual activities'' visas for foreign missionaries. Observers expressed concern that lack of standardized government guidance on implementing visa laws affected the ability of missionaries to live and work in the country. In February 2008 the Council of Ministers introduced a directive that outlines the grounds for denying entry to foreign and stateless clergy invited by local religious organizations. The grounds include presenting false data in travel papers, lack of Belarusian or Russian language skills, a prior administrative offense conviction, and any previous denial of entry into the country. Foreign religious figures must also submit an increased number of documents that makes the process cumbersome. The law also prohibits the establishment of offices by foreign organizations whose activities incite ``national, religious, and racial enmity'' or could ``have negative effects on the physical and mental health of the people.'' Foreign citizens officially in the country for nonreligious work can be reprimanded or expelled if they participate in religious activities. There were at least two such expulsions during the year. The law does not provide for the return of property seized during the Nazi occupation or the Soviet period and restricts the return of property used for cultural or educational purposes. During the year, however, the government restituted six previously seized properties to the BOC and one such property to the Jewish community. At year's end authorities still had not followed through on a commitment to find a new location for state archives stored in a former Roman Catholic monastery complex--the Bernadine Monastery--in central Minsk. On July 15, the OPRRNA stated that the government could not return the former Roman Catholic monastery complex because it had nowhere to move the state archives. Conscientious objectors to military service were harassed and prosecuted by authorities. On November 6, a court in Homyel fined Zmitser Smyk, a member of the local Jehovah's Witness Church, BYR 3.5 million ($1,285) for evading the military draft. Smyk had attempted to secure a civilian service alternative to mandatory military service, under a provision of the constitution not enforced in practice. The prosecutor claimed that Smyk had no grounds to be exempted from military service due to his religious beliefs. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Jewish groups estimated that between 30,000 and 50,000 persons identify themselves as Jewish. Most Jews in the country were not religiously active. During the year anti-Semitic incidents continued, and authorities sporadically investigated reports of such acts. Religious sites were vandalized, and some religious sites were destroyed to make way for commercial development. The government did not promote antibias and tolerance education. In May local and international Jewish leaders appealed to the president to preserve a 19th-century wooden synagogue in Lyuban after local authorities demolished a similar synagogue in April, allegedly due to its poor condition and ``lack of historical or cultural value.'' Heritage preservation activists also protested the destruction and urged the government to erect a memorial sign at the site. On June 2, 13 Jewish gravestones were reportedly vandalized at a cemetery in Barysau. Police opened a criminal investigation but failed to identify and penalize the perpetrators. In October, Vaukavysk town authorities began laying water and sewage pipes on the site of a Jewish cemetery. During contruction, workers unearthed human remains, and then quickly reburied them. Local authorities denied that any human remains had been disturbed. In a similar case in Mazyr, local authorities also denied that excavations were conducted at a site of a cemetery in May-August or that human remains were uncovered. Jewish community and civil society activists continued to express concern over the concept of a ``greater Slavic union'' that was popular among nationalist organizations, including the neo-Nazi group Russian National Union (RNU), which remained active despite its official dissolution in 2000. In Navapolatsk the city prosecutor's office denied two appeals to investigate incidents of vandalism and painting swastikas on buildings during the year. Neo-Nazis were widely believed to be behind these and numerous other attacks across the country. The deputy chief of the Internal Affairs Ministry's Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Department, Andrei Saladounikau, acknowledged in 2008 there were a few neo-Nazi groups in the country. He maintained that the KGB monitored the groups and that they were ``poorly organized and not popular among young people.'' On April 22, anti-Semitic graffiti and swastikas were painted on walls of a synagogue in Vitsyebsk. On May 9, vandals set fire to wreaths and flowers laid at the memorial to Holocaust victims in Brest. The memorial had been vandalized many times since it was unveiled in 1992. No vandals were convicted for the attacks. On that same day, RNU activists harassed local opposition youth members in Navapolatsk. Police made no attempt to interfere. In July vandals painted anti-Semitic graffiti and a swastika on a building in eastern Minsk. Another anti-Semitic slogan appeared on a residential building in central Minsk. On July 25, vandals painted a swastika and anti-Semitic slogans on a memorial to Jews murdered by the Nazis in Slutsk in 1943. This was the third vandal attack on the memorial erected in 2007. In July a Jewish community in Pinsk repeatedly voiced concern about the destruction of the Karalin historic Jewish neighborhood in the city center. Karalin was a sacred place where Hasidic Judaism originated. Despite numerous appeals to the Culture Ministry, authorities demolished the majority of the buildings in Karalin for construction of facilities for the local university. On September 8, a KGB deputy chairperson refused to open criminal cases to investigate numerous incidents of Nazi and anti-Semitic graffiti in Minsk, saying they were ``acts of hooliganism.'' In December 2008 a district court banned as ``extremist'' and ``anti-Semitic'' 13 religious books and other materials published and distributed by the Minsk-based Christian Initiative Company. In a related development the Prosecutor General's Office revoked the company's publishing and retail licenses and seized 50,000 booklets, which authorities said incited hatred between Orthodox Christians and Jews. On June 18, the KGB press office announced that it had limited access to eight local and three foreign Web sites allegedly promoting radical religious extremism. However, anti-Semitic and Russian ultranationalist newspapers and literature, DVDs, and videotapes imported from Russia continued to be sold in the country. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement, including the right to emigrate. However, the government at times restricted the right of its citizens to foreign travel. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and persons of concern. In January 2008 a presidential decree replaced exit stamps with a computerized, government database to verify the validity of passports and to track citizens who travel abroad. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the database contains the names of at least 100,000 persons who are prohibited from foreign travel, including those who possess state secrets, are facing criminal prosecution or civil suits, or have outstanding financial commitments. Opposition politicians and civil society activists criticized the database, saying it restricted freedom of travel. Some persons were informed by letter that their names were in the database; others were informed at border crossings. In some cases opposition activists were either turned away at the border or detained for lengthy searches. For example, on April 16, border guards blocked Artur Finkevich from leaving Belarus to attend a meeting with a foreign embassy in Vilnius. On October 13, border guards detained and thoroughly searched United Civic Party leader Anatol Lyabedzka at the Polish border. The following day border guards again searched Lyabedzka and former political prisoner Alyaksandr Kazulin at the Lithuanian border. Guards also detained and searched Lyabedzka October 7 and again on November 11. On October 4, police spent two and one-half hours searching Belarusian Popular Front Chairperson Ales Yanukevich at Minsk airport, causing him to miss his flight to London. On December 10, customs officers at Minsk airport thoroughly searched the luggage of Anatol Lyabedzka and the Belarusian Popular Front leader Ales Yanukevich upon their return from Germany. Customs officers reportedly made copies of all printed material found in the luggage and confiscated some of the documents. Under a presidential decree, any student who wishes to study abroad must obtain permission from the minister of education. The decree, ostensibly intended to counter trafficking in persons, also requires the Ministry of Interior to track citizens working abroad and travel agencies to report individuals who do not return from abroad as scheduled. The law also requires persons who travel to areas within 15 miles of the border to obtain an entrance pass. The law does not allow forced exile, but sources assert that security forces threatened opposition leaders with bodily harm or prosecution if they did not leave the country. The law allows internal exile, or khimiya, for persons convicted of crimes. Many university students who had been expelled or were under threat of expulsion for their political activities opted for self-imposed exile. Since 2006 more than 500 students left the country to continue their studies at foreign universities. Internal passports served as primary identity documents and were required for permanent housing, work, and hotel registration. Police continued to harass individuals who lived at a location other than the legal place of residence indicated in their internal passport. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided some protection against expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. Since the beginning of asylum procedure in 1997 through October 1, 812 persons, including 205 children, received refugee status. Of those, 357 remained in Belarus. During the year 153 persons filed asylum applications. From 1997 to October 1, a total of 1,584 asylum seekers were filed. Refugees originated mainly from Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. While all foreigners have the right to apply for asylum, authorities continued to occasionally refuse asylum applications from citizens of Russia. At times, immigration authorities and courts asserted that, under the terms of Belarus-Russia treaties on the union between the countries and on the equal rights of citizens in each country, Russian and Belarusian citizens have equal rights and the former can legally settle and obtain residence permit in Belarus based on their Russian citizenship. Nevertheless, immigration authorities did accept eight applications from Russian citizens during the first nine months of the year. Asylum seekers have freedom of movement within the country but must reside in the region where they filed their applications for refugee status and in a place known to the authorities. According to sources, authorities often required asylum seekers to settle in rural areas. Change of residence is possible only with notification to authorities. Registered asylum seekers are issued certificates that serve as identification documents and protect them from expulsion. In accordance with the law, they must also register with local authorities to obtain internal passports. Stateless Persons.--According to a June 20 press report citing government statistics, there were approximately 8,000 stateless persons in the country. Arbitrary detention of and violence against stateless persons generally were not problems. However, stateless persons faced discrimination in employment because authorities often required them to settle in rural areas and prohibited them from seeking jobs outside of the regions where they lived. In practice stateless persons could not change their region of residence. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides the right for citizens to change their government peacefully; however, the government denied citizens this right in practice. Since his election in 1994 to a five-year term as the country's first president, Lukashenka steadily consolidated power in the executive branch to dominate all branches of government. Flawed referenda in 1996 and 2004 amended the constitution to broaden his powers, extend his term in office, and remove presidential term limits. In March 2006 Lukashenka gained a third term through a fraudulent election. The September 2008 parliamentary election fell significantly short of international standards for democratic elections, according to the final report by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights observation mission. Despite the president's stated intent to conduct a free and fair election, authorities impeded constitutionally guaranteed rights of expression, association, and assembly. All of the 110 candidates declared winners were supporters of Lukashenka's policies. Elections and Political Participation.--Prior to the 2008 election, Lukashenka stated his intention to hold transparent elections and said that election campaign laws were in fact being violated to accommodate Western demands for transparency and adherence to democratic standards. For example, election officials stated that they registered candidates despite errors on registration forms. In August Lukashenka reiterated his claim that he had ordered the results of the 2006 presidential election to be falsified from 93 percent to ``some 80 percent.'' In response to his comments, opposition leaders petitioned the Prosecutor General's Office to begin an investigation into alleged fraud in the 2006 election. On November 9, the office announced that it had no evidence of any violations of the electoral code and would therefore not begin an investigation. Throughout the 2008 campaign, opposition candidates reported inequities such as government restrictions on access to broadcast media and venues for campaign rallies. There were instances where state-owned printing houses refused to produce opposition leaflets. Supporters of opposition candidates also reported harassment by authorities, including seizure of campaign materials. Despite a nominal increase in opposition representation, authorities continued to exclude opposition representatives from election commissions at all levels. The Central Election Commission had four opposition members in advisory, nonvoting roles. Opposition activists also made up less than 1 percent of commissioners in precinct election commissions. Political parties continued to receive warnings for minor offenses under a law that allows authorities to suspend parties for six months after one violation and close them after two warnings. The law also prohibits political parties from receiving support from abroad and requires all political groups and coalitions to register with the Ministry of Justice. In Mahilyou authorities registered a local office of the Belarusian Social Democratic Party Hramada on October 28. The Babruysk Hramada branch remained unregistered after a landlord terminated a lease agreement for the party's ``legal address.'' Police continued to detain members of the Communist Party for distribution of their independent newspaper Tavarysch. On July 8 and 9, police detained party representatives for three hours in Kalinkavichy and Homyel and confiscated copies of their publication. On September 30, police detained Anatol Lyabedzka, opposition Communist Party leader Syarhei Kalyakin, and at least four colleagues for distributing copies of the United Democratic Forces' anticrisis platform. Police confiscated their materials and released them after a three-hour detention. Authorities continued to harass the unrecognized Union of Poles, its chairman Anzhelika Borys, and her associates (see section 6). In January 2008 the Ministry of Justice filed a liquidation suit against the Belarusian Party of Communists; however, the party denied that there was a suit and registered 18 candidates for the 2008 legislative elections. During the year there were multiple cases of youth members of political opposition groups forcibly conscripted into the military. There were also reports of discrimination and harassment against them while undertaking military service (see section 1.f.). There were 35 women in the 110-member Chamber of Representatives and 19 women in the 64-member Council of the Republic. A woman chaired one of Chamber of Representative's 20 committees and there was one woman in the 40-member Council of Ministers. No high level members of government or the National Assembly openly identified themselves as members of a minority, although several were ethnic Poles or members of other ethnic groups. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, reports indicate officials continued to engage in corrupt practices. The World Bank's worldwide governance indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem in the country. Prosecutor General Ryhor Vasilevich stated on June 23 that the majority of the corruption cases were related to accepting and soliciting bribes, fraud, and abuse of power. In November the prosecutor general informed the Council of Ministers that the Ministries of Transport and Communications, Architecture and Construction, Education, Agriculture and Foodstuffs, Industry, and Energy were ``most corruption-prone'' and registered the highest number of corruption crimes. Deputy Prime Minister Uladzimir Syamashka acknowledged that senior officials had often refused to assist law enforcement agencies in investigating corruption crimes. He instructed the ministries to streamline their efforts to tackle corruption and secure effective operations of anticorruption departments. The lack of transparency between the president's personal funds and official government accounts, and a heavy reliance on off-budget revenues, suggested corruption within the executive branch. The January 2008 anticorruption law expanded the list of professions vulnerable to corruption, designated the Prosecutor General's Office as the coordinator of anticorruption efforts, and prohibited government officials from having foreign bank accounts or engaging in nepotism. On April 25, Lukashenka signed a decree broadening authority to investigate corruption cases from prosecutors to also include the Interior Ministry and the KGB. The prosecutor general reported that during the year authorities registered 3,366 corruption crimes and identified 1,746 offenders. On June 4, the head of the State Control Committee stated that his office began investigating 59 economic crimes against government officials. On December 4, the Prosecutor General's Office announced that corruption had caused BYR 88 billion ($30 million) worth of damage to the state from January to October and that 1,470 persons had been charged with corruption. There were numerous corruption prosecutions during the year; however, prosecutions remained selective and were in some cases politically motivated. On January 21, the prosecutor general announced the arrest of former chief of the Financial Investigations Department of the State Control Committee, Anatol Hramovich, for abuse of power, bribery, and customs duty evasion. Hramovich's case remained pending at year's end. On February 17, a judge sentenced two Mahilyou State Control Committee officers to up to nine and one-half years in jail on charges of bribery and extortion of a foreign company's chief executive officer. On March 11, KGB officers arrested the first deputy chairman of the Mazyr city government on bribery charges for taking money from a local private company to advance its interests and abuse of power. He was sentenced on December 31 to six years in jail and his property was ordered confiscated. In March the KGB opened a major corruption case against a number of senior-level Interior Ministry personnel in Homyel region. Authorities reportedly arrested and charged the officials with bribery and other corruption-related offenses. On May 11, Ihar Radzyuk, the former Staubtsy town government chairperson, was sentenced to four years in prison for abuse of power. His deputy, Ihar Komar, was jailed for three and one-half years in the case. On May 13, a court in Malaryta sentenced two senior customs officials to seven years in prison for bribery and ordered their personal property confiscated. On August 26, a court sentenced another customs officer to five years in jail on similar charges. On October 28, the senior member of the progovernment Liberal Democratic Party and former Minsk city government member, Uladzimir Karunas, was imprisoned for five years and his property ordered confiscated for bribery and complicity in fraud. On November 16, a court sentenced Syarhey Novik, one of the leaders of the Interior Ministry's cybercrime department, to 12 years in jail and ordered his personal property confiscated over thefts from automated teller machines. The law, government policies, and a presidential decree severely restrict public access to government information. Citizens had some access to certain categories of information on government databases and Web sites; however, much of the information was neither current nor complete. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were a number of active domestic human rights NGOs; however, authorities were often hostile to their efforts, did not cooperate with them, and were not responsive to their views. Three prominent human rights NGOs, the Belarusian Helsinki Committee, the Center for Human Rights, and the Innovative Foundation for Legal Technologies, remained registered in the country. A variety of unregistered NGOs, including Vyasna, Charter97, Committee for the Protection of the Repressed ``Solidarity,'' Human Rights Alliance, Legal Assistance to Population, and ``For Religious Freedom,'' continued to operate in spite of systematic harassment from authorities. Authorities harassed both registered and unregistered NGOs with frequent inspections and threats of deregistration and monitored their correspondence and telephone conversations. The government ignored reports issued by human rights NGOs and rarely met with them. State-run media did not report on human rights NGOs and their actions; independent media that reported on human rights issues were subject to closure and harassment. On April 26, police searched the offices of human rights group Charter97 and obstructed its live coverage of a Chernobyl-related demonstration. The government refused to register and continued to harass NGOs under article 193 of the criminal code, which criminalizes organizing or participating in any activity by an unregistered organization. The law also prohibits persons from acting on behalf of unregistered NGOs. Since 2006 courts convicted 17 persons of crimes under article 193.1. Several domestic and international human rights groups, including Amnesty International, continued to urge the government to abolish article 193 and remove other legal obstacles that hinder the work of NGOs and allow official harassment of civil society and youth activists. In August the prosecutors in Brest warned Mikhas Iljin that he could be held criminally liable for participating in the Malady Front, an unrecognized organization. His associate received a similar warning in Brest in December. On November 13, the Prosecutor General's Office issued a warning to a group of 15 human rights advocates and civil society leaders that they could face criminal liability under article 193 for their participation in an unregistered organization. The group, dressed as Santa Clauses, handed the prosecutor's office a statement saying that they were participants ``in an unregistered association of Santa Clauses'' and planned to organize New Year celebrations, distribute ``gifts, including among minors,'' and extend their wishes of ``happy New Year at meetings and through the media.'' In December 2008 the Ministry of Justice approved the registration of the civil society NGO For Freedom led by former presidential candidate Alyaksandr Milinkevich. The ministry had previously denied three registration applications, citing as reasons improper payment of registration fees, irregularities in the group's charter, organizing an unapproved open-air rally, and technical flaws in registration documents. On March 24, the ministry authorized the For Freedom movement to establish regional offices and media outlets and to conduct polling. On April 7, police confiscated office property from the residential premises rented by the For Freedom movement in Minsk. According to Milinkevich, court officers inventoried all the property in the apartment in November 2008 on the pretense that a person involved in a criminal case had lived there 10 years prior. While the government continued to reject the vast majority of NGO registration requests during the year, at least two organizations, including the Center for the Chernobyl Initiatives and the Association of Small and Medium-Sized Businesses, successfully registered. Authorities can close an NGO after issuing only one warning that it violated the law. The most common violations that prompted a warning or closure were failure to obtain a legal address and technical discrepancies in application documents. The law allows authorities to close an NGO for accepting illegal forms of foreign assistance and permits the Ministry of Justice to participate in any NGO activity and review all NGO documents. NGOs also must submit detailed reports annually to the ministry about their activities, office locations, officers, and total number of members. In April 2008 a presidential order took effect that increased rent 10-fold for most NGOs. Prior to the order, NGOs paid one euro ($1.40) per square foot for office space, compared to 10 euros ($14) charged to commercial groups. While some groups, including youth sports groups, charity organizations, and children's arts centers, continued to pay the one euro rate, other NGOs, such as the Belarusian Voluntary Society for Historic and Cultural Heritage Protection, were required to pay the higher rate. Many NGOs stated the higher rent would likely force them to close. During the year the BHC continued to experience problems with authorities. In February 2008 the Supreme Court allowed the Ministry of Justice to withdraw a petition to suspend the BHC's activities. However, the NGO's bank accounts remained blocked, and alleged tax arrears were unresolved. The case originated in 2005, when authorities seized BHC office equipment as partial payment of BYR 191.5 million (approximately $68,500) in alleged tax arrears and fines for back taxes on international donor funds dating from 2000-02. On October 19, the financial intelligence services requested income statements and other information from BHC members. The KGB allegedly harassed NGO members by planting defamatory articles or information about them in the media. For example, on March 3, unknown persons left photographs containing digitally altered pornographic images of Union of Poles leader Anzhelika Borys at Borys' home and all neighboring apartments in the building. On December 1, unknown persons released a recording purportedly of Belarusian Christian Democrats cofounder Ryhor Dzmitruk in conversation with three prostitutes. Authorities were reluctant to discuss human rights with international NGOs, whose representatives often had difficulty gaining admission to the country. For example, on February 27, authorities refused to issue visas to representatives of the Polish Stefan Batory Foundation and another foreign institute seeking to participate in a civil society conference. The government denied a visa to the president of the International Federation for Human Rights, Souhayr Belhassen, who sought to observe the Vyasna appeal hearings before the Supreme Court on August 10. In September authorities prohibited Swedish independent media expert Joanna Kurash from traveling to the country as a member of an international media experts' delegation. Authorities routinely ignored NGO recommendations on how to improve the human rights situation in the country and their requests to stop harassing the NGO community. On October 22, the first deputy chairperson of the Presidential Administration, Natalia Pyatkevich, held a meeting with the BHC, BAJ, and other human rights advocates as part of the process for government's preparations to draft a report for the Universal Periodic Review by the UN Human Rights Council. She stated that the government ``was not politically'' ready to liberalize legal practices related to civil society or take steps to improve the country's human rights record. In December 2007 the UN General Assembly for a second consecutive year adopted a resolution expressing deep concern over the human rights situation in the country, particularly the government's ``persistent'' harassment and prosecution of opposition activists and independent NGOs. The resolution also expressed concern that senior government officials were implicated in the disappearances of opposition figures Yury Zakharanka and Viktar Hanchar and businessman Anatol Krasouski in 1999 and television journalist Zmitser Zavadski in 2000, as well as the government's failure to hold a free and fair presidential election in 2006. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status. In practice the government did not always protect these rights. Problems included violence against women and children; trafficking in persons; and discrimination against persons with disabilities, Roma, ethnic minorities, and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community. Women.--The law criminalizes rape in general but does not include prohibitions against spousal rape. Rape was a problem. However, most women did not report it due to shame or fear that police would blame the victim. In 2007 the Ministry of Internal Affairs reported 306 cases of rape or sexual assault. According to the prosecutor general, the number of rape cases decreased 26 percent in January-September 2008 compared to the same period in 2007. Domestic violence, including spousal abuse against women, was a significant problem. A 2006 Amnesty International report concluded that measures taken by authorities to protect women against domestic violence were insufficient. The criminal code does not contain a separate article dealing with domestic violence. According to a 2008 study released by the Belarus State University's Center for Sociological and Political Research, four out of five women between ages 18 and 60 claimed that they were subject to psychological violence in their families. One in four women suffered from physical violence, and 13.1 percent of women reported that they were sexually abused by their partners. Women remained reluctant to report domestic violence due to fear of reprisal and social stigma. According to the study, only 6 percent of male and 46 percent of female victims of domestic violence sought professional assistance. NGOs operated crisis shelters primarily in Minsk, but they were poorly funded and received only limited support from the government. During the year the Minsk Family Welfare Center noted a rise in the number of male victims of domestic violence. In 2008 the center estimated that male victims comprised 30 percent of the total victims. According to the Interior Ministry, men accounted for 10 percent of all registered victims of domestic abuse. Between January and October, the Interior Ministry registered more than 1,850 reports of domestic violence. Of these cases, 146 were murders and 316 were cases for severe physical injuries. Prostitution is illegal, but it is an administrative--rather than a criminal--offense, and penalties are light. Officials and human rights observers reported that prostitution was not a significant problem. However, anecdotal evidence indicated that it was growing, particularly in regions outside the main cities. There were prostitution rings in government-owned hotels, particularly in towns outside of Minsk. According to a senior interior ministry official, 1,730 persons were cited by police for prostitution-related activities, 560 of whom were in Minsk. Svyatlana Brutskaya, leader of a project on HIV/AIDs prevention, put the number of persons engaged in prostitution in Minsk at 3,000. Between January and November, 431 persons received administrative penalties for engaging in prostitution. This was a 30 percent increase compared to the same period in 2008. Sexual harassment reportedly was widespread, but no specific laws, other than those against physical assault, address the problem. Couples and individuals had the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children, and had the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Access to information on contraception and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care were widely available. Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. The Ministry of Labor and Social Security is responsible for ensuring gender equality, although it cannot issue binding instructions to other government agencies. The law provides for equal treatment of women with regards to property ownership and inheritance, family law, and the judicial system, and it was generally respected in practice. The law also requires equal wages for equal work, although this provision was not always enforced. There were very few women in the upper ranks of management or government. The National Statistics Committee reported that as of December 31, 57.1 percent of the unemployed were women. The law grants women the right to three years of maternity leave with assurance of job availability upon return. However, employers circumvented employment protections by using short-term contracts, then refusing to renew a woman's contract when she becomes pregnant. During an inspection of 29 enterprises in the Vitsyebsk region, the local prosecutor's office found that employed women who were taking care of minor children were at times forced to travel on business and to work overnight and overtime without their prior consent and in violation of laws. A number of women worked in extreme and hazardous conditions. Children.--Citizenship is derived either by birth within the country's territory or from one's parents. A child of a Belarusian citizen is a Belarusian citizen regardless of place of birth, even if the other parent is not a citizen. Romani children were subject to harassment from non-Romani children and teachers. The majority of Romani youth did not finish secondary school. There was no public school for Roma, although there were school programs for Jews, ethnic Lithuanians, and Poles. Reports of child abuse were infrequent. Between January and September, authorities removed 457 children from homes with neglectful parents and placed them in the care of child welfare authorities. An education ministry representative stated on November 19 that the number of child pornography, child prostitution, and child trafficking cases remained small. However, there were reports that the number of child pornography cases was on the rise and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and, in one case, labor. As of October 1, the Interior Ministry registered 11 child pornography cases. The law provides penalties of up to 13 years in jail for production or distribution of pornographic materials depicting a minor. Rape or sexual assault of a person known to be a minor is punishable by up to 15 years in jail. Sexual acts between a person over 18 years of age and a person known to be under 16 carry penalties of up to five years in jail. There were some reports of child marriage within the Romani community, where girls as young as 14 and boys as young as 16 frequently were married with parental consent. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, trafficking remained a serious problem, and the country continued to be both a source and transit country for trafficked persons. From January through September, the Ministry of Internal Affairs registered 321 trafficking-related crimes, including 94 cases of trafficking. Over the same time period, the ministry also reported 232 victims who were trafficked abroad. The majority were sexually exploited. Women were primarily trafficked to Russia, the European Union (particularly Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Lithuania, Austria, and the Netherlands), the Middle East (particularly Israel, Lebanon, and the United Arab Emirates), and Turkey. Trafficking to Russia presented a particular problem, both because of an open border between the countries and because authorities tended to downplay problems with Russia due to political considerations. Most female victims of trafficking were seeking a way to escape bad economic circumstances or situations involving domestic abuse. Local NGOs asserted that more government intervention to reduce domestic violence and alcoholism would greatly reduce the number of women seeking employment abroad. Reports by the Ministry of Internal Affairs indicated that traffickers were usually members of loosely organized criminal networks with connections to larger international organized crime rings, brothels, clubs, or bars in destination countries. Traffickers lured victims through advertisements, via modeling and employment agencies, and by personal approaches through friends and relatives to offer jobs abroad or solicit marriage partners. Traffickers often withheld victims' documents and used physical and emotional abuse, fraud, and coercion to control them. The law criminalizes trafficking for sexual or other exploitation. The property of convicted traffickers may be confiscated. The penalty for trafficking is a minimum of five years' imprisonment with property forfeiture, while the punishment for severe forms of trafficking is a minimum of 15 years' imprisonment. Presidential decrees have eliminated criminal responsibility for illegal acts committed by victims, defined the status of victims, and mandated measures to provide protection, medical care, and social rehabilitation, but only on the condition that victims cooperated in an investigation and prosecution. Reports indicated antitrafficking agencies often pressured victims to cooperate in investigations. The government's antitrafficking efforts were coordinated by the Internal Affairs Ministry's department on Combating Trafficking in Human Persons. However, NGOs were more active in the areas of prevention and rehabilitation. Government sources stated that victims were more likely to trust assistance from NGOs than from government agencies. Antitrafficking NGOs and international organizations complained that the government provided insufficient and mostly in-kind assistance and failed to provide mandatory funding for victim assistance. NGOs actively participated in training government workers in rehabilitation but were dissatisfied with implementation by regional authorities. During the year there were no investigations, prosecutions, or convictions of officials complicit in human trafficking. There were no reports of government complicity in trafficking, although such information may have been limited because of lack of press freedom and imprisonment of citizens for criticizing government officials. There were, however, continued reports that law enforcement and border officials often accepted bribes to facilitate border crossings without thorough scrutiny of identity documents. Such actions could have facilitated trafficking. There was no indication that the government systematically facilitated or condoned trafficking. The State Control Committee was responsible for investigating allegations of official trafficking-related corruption through the Interagency Commission for Combating Crime, Corruption, and Drug Trafficking. Victims seldom reported trafficking crimes to police due to social stigma, aversion to dealing with authorities, and a shortage of social services and rehabilitation options. The Ministry of Labor and Social Protection maintained 156 social service centers that could in theory help trafficking victims, but only 20 had specialized trafficking- related services and ``crisis'' facilities. Officials referred child victims of trafficking to one of the 146 government social care and education centers under the Education Ministry. To supplement government shelters, the UN Development Program, the International Organization for Migration, and La Strada also opened rehabilitation shelters for victims and their families. More than 30 NGOs nationwide provided services to trafficking victims. La Strada provided training to many regional victim support centers but expressed dissatisfaction with the follow-up, citing several cases where regional officers displayed skepticism or insensitivity towards victims. La Strada and the Young Women's Christian Association maintained a women's hotline that provided advice regarding offers of employment or marriage that might be trafficking-related. Since 2001 the hotline received over 15,000 calls and 550 emails. During the year the hotline received 770 calls and more than 100 emails. The government continued to distribute information through state institutions, show antitrafficking commercials on state television, place materials at local and foreign diplomatic posts, and organize roundtables and seminars for NGOs and government officials. To deter trafficking, the government required Internet dating services to reregister and provide information about citizens and foreigners planning to meet in person. Authorities continued to enforce strong measures to discourage and control freedom of movement, which they justified in part as antitrafficking measures. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law does not specifically prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and other government services, and such discrimination was common in practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Security is the main government agency responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. The law mandates that transport, residences, and businesses be accessible to persons with disabilities. However, in practice few public areas were wheelchair accessible. The Republican Association of Disabled Wheelchair Users estimated that more than 75 percent of persons with disabilities were unable to leave their own homes without assistance. Authorities provided minimal, reportedly ineffectual, benefits for persons with disabilities. For example, persons with disabilities who lived alone were entitled to a 50 percent discount on rent and utilities. Since few residences were accessible, persons with disabilities had to live with friends or family and thus were ineligible for the discount. Public transportation was free to persons with disabilities, but neither the subway in Minsk nor the bus system was wheelchair accessible. A government prohibition against workdays longer than seven hours for persons with disabilities made companies reluctant to hire them. On May 29, a court in Minsk rejected a lawsuit from a wheelchair user seeking damages for his inability to enter the Ballet and Opera Houses on March 12. The individual's wheelchair was too wide to fit through the main entrance of the building, and security guards refused to allow him to enter through a side entrance reserved for employees. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Governmental and societal discrimination against the ethnic Polish population and Roma persisted. There were also expressions of societal hostility toward proponents of Belarusian national culture. Authorities continued to harass the unrecognized Union of Poles, its chairperson Anzhelika Borys, and her associates. On January 31, authorities deported two Polish language and history teachers at a school in Brest. They were members of the Union of Poles and residents of Poland. On February 19, police warned Teresa Selivonchyk, chairwoman of the Union of Poles office in Baranavichy, to stop acting on behalf of the unregistered organization. In March police in Hrodna refused to open a criminal investigation into incidents of harassment against Andrzej Paczobut and his family. Criminals damaged the entrance doors to his apartment and made phone calls to threaten his daughter with physical abuse. Also in early March, the Foreign Ministry cancelled Paczobut's foreign media accreditation for allegedly ``biased'' coverage of events in the country and ``slandering the president.'' On June 23, policed detained four Union of Poles members for three hours and confiscated their printed materials in Shchuchyn. On October 12, officials in Ivyanets made an inventory of the property at the Polish community center after they had allegedly received an anonymous report about the community's financial fraud. Official and societal discrimination continued against the country's 40,000 to 60,000 Roma. The Romani community continued to experience high unemployment and low levels of education. In 2005 authorities estimated the unemployment rate among Roma at 80 percent. Roma were often denied access to higher education in state-run universities. On December 3, however, OPRRNA stated that the country's Romani community had no problems that would require the government's ``attention.'' Officials also claimed that the rate of unemployment among Roma was decreasing and school attending rates were improving. The Russian and Belarusian languages have equal legal status; however, in practice Russian was the primary language used by the government. In 2007 the Constitutional Court's chief justice acknowledged that discrimination against the Belarusian language was ``not rare'' but maintained that such discrimination was usually corrected. Because the government viewed proponents of the Belarusian language as political opponents of the regime, authorities continued to harass and intimidate academic and cultural groups seeking to promote use of the Belarusian language. Authorities made concessions to Belarusian language usage, such as changing street signs to Belarusian and airing more news shows in Belarusian, but proposals to widen the language's usage were routinely rejected. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexuality is not illegal, but discrimination against members of the LGBT community was widespread, and harassment occurred. According to a local LGBT rights group, government-controlled media discouraged participation in the protests following the 2006 presidential election by saying they were part of a ``gay revolution.'' In February Homyel authorities denied local gay activists permission to hold a ``Right to Love'' event on February 12 in which they planned to distribute educational materials and raise public awareness about homophobia and discrimination against homosexuals. A similar request submitted to the Minsk authorities was also denied. On July 22, Syarhei Androsenka, the head of the GayBelarus project, announced that Belarus customs officials had seized 25 copies of a gay interest magazine that were mailed to him. Officials claimed that they seized the publication because it was not registered in the country. In the early morning of August 24, following a dispute at a bar, unknown persons followed and assaulted gay rights activist Maksim Tsarkou. During the assault the assailants cursed at the victim and shouted homophobic slurs. On September 23, the KGB in Homyel informed local gay rights activist Svyataslau Semyantsou that they had opened a criminal case against him for participating in activities of an unregistered group. The KGB also threatened Semyantsou with charges of providing defamatory and discrediting information to a foreign source. On December 17, a court in Minsk fined LGBT community activist Alyaksandr Gagaryn BYR 105,000 ($35) for participating in an unsanctioned picket in front of the Iranian embassy. The activists demonstrated to protest the capital punishment against LGBT persons in Iran. Police fined Syarhei Androsenka BYR 875,000 ($300) and Syarhei Pradzed BYR 350,000($120) on December 23 for their participation in the same protest. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Societal discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS remained a problem and the illness carried a heavy stigma despite greater awareness and increased tolerance towards persons infected with the virus. For example, maternity wards no longer had separate facilities for HIV-infected mothers. However, the UN AIDS office reported that there were still numerous reports of HIV-infected individuals who faced discrimination. In December the government reported that 10,590 persons were infected with HIV. In November the Belarusian Community of People Living with HIV noted that it had received approximately 15 complaints from HIV- positive residents of Svetlahorsk who said that teachers at schools attended by their children had been informed of their HIV status. According to the association, local authorities collected the information from the local drug addiction hospital and shared it with the schools, in response to a presidential decree that requires authorities to monitor families in which parents are drug users. The association expressed concern that the disclosure of confidential medical information could lead to discrimination against children of HIV-positive individuals. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers, except state security and military personnel, to form and join independent unions; however, in practice the government did not respect this right. During the year the government continued efforts to suppress independent unions, stop union activities, and bring all union activity under its control. Its efforts included frequent refusals to extend employment contracts for members of independent unions and refusals to register some unions. According to Belarusian Congress of Democratic Trade Unions (BCDTU) leader Alyaksandr Yarashuk, no independent unions have been established since President Lukashenka's 1999 decree requiring trade unions to register with the government. The law provides for the right to strike; however, tight government control over public demonstrations made it difficult for unions to do so. Management and local authorities also blocked worker attempts to organize strikes on many occasions by declaring them illegal. The government-controlled Federation of Trade Unions of Belarus (FTUB) was the largest union, claiming an estimated four million members; however, that number was likely inflated, since the country's total workforce was approximately four million. The BCDTU, with three constituent unions and approximately seven thousand members, was the largest independent union. Approximately 9,500 persons were members of independent trade unions. On December 9, Leanid Kozik, FTUB chairman, asserted that ``provocations'' and ``demands'' by trade unions not affiliated with the FTUB should be ignored. Local authorities continued to deny registration to the Vitsyebsk, Mahilyou, and Homyel chapters of the Belarusian Union of Electronic Industry Workers (REP). According to the REP, authorities refused to reregister the chapter in Mahilyou because the REP office landlord had not agreed to register the office as its legal address due to harassment from officials. On April 22, a court in Mahilyou upheld the registration denial. The REP reported on January 7 that the Rechytsa city authorities registered their office despite two earlier registration denials and an unsuccessful court appeal to challenge them. The government prevented the REP from staging multiple protests across Belarus on April 3. The REP had intended to disseminate information about violations of trade union rights. The government combined administrative measures and a system of contracts with individual workers, mostly from one to five years in length, to discourage membership in independent unions and in regional, national, and international labor organizations. On January 16, a court in Babruisk sentenced local factory worker and free trade union member Vasil Kurlyandchyk to 18 months of community service for allegedly beating a factory manager in August 2008. Kurlyandchyk claimed that he suffered head and brain injuries in the incident and was hospitalized for two weeks. He suggested that the charges stemmed from his multiple complaints to the management about the illegal deductions from his salary for purportedly flawed products. On October 12, a court in Babruisk upheld two reprimands that were issued to Mikhal Ustsinovich, leader of a 20-member independent trade union at the Belshyna tire factory. Ustsinovich was accused of allegedly violating the factory's labor regulations. Ustsinovich could be dismissed after a third disciplinary action. In January the Ministry of Justice denied registration to Razam, a trade union of small- and medium-sized businesses, citing absence of the minutes of the union's founding convention, failure to cover registration fees, and insufficient documentation. Razam's leader, Mikalai Kanakh, said that the registration process was ``excessively complicated'' and insisted that his group had filed correct applications with the ministry. The government also targeted union leaders and activists. During the year more than 30 REP members were forced to quit their membership in the union following threats of dismissal. Workers who were deemed ``natural leaders'' or who involved themselves in NGOs or opposition political activities were routinely fired for these activities. For example, in October Mahilyou-based Belarusian Social Democratic Party Hramada leader Ihar Barysau was dismissed from his job for allegedly failing to comply with professional duties. In 2006 Barysau also lost his job due to his political activities. Pursuant to a December 18 court order, management of a hydropower station in Lukoml reinstated Alyaksey Gabryel, the leader of a local independent trade union. Gabryel's labor contract was not extended in October, and it was widely believed that he was dismissed for his union activities. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively; however, government authorities and managers of state-owned enterprises routinely interfered with union activities and hindered workers' efforts to bargain collectively, in some instances arbitrarily suspending collective bargaining agreements. On July 30, the FTUB issued recommendations for the employers to sign collective bargaining agreements only with the most represented trade unions irrespective of whether there were members of other trade unions among the personnel. BCDTU leader Yarashuk argued that such measure would violate the rights of trade unions. Since 2004 the government has required state employees, who constitute approximately 80 percent of the working population, to sign short-term work contracts. Although such contracts may have terms of up to five years, most expired after one year, which gave the government the possibility of firing employees by simply declining to renew their contract. Many members of independent unions, political parties, and civil society groups lost their jobs because of this practice. On August 11, Brest-based Riona Enterprise Management forced 11 of 12 REP members at the firm to withdraw from the union by threatening to withhold their salaries. The REP had sought to have their working conditions designated as hazardous so they could receive appropriate compensation. During the year the Polatsk chapter of the BFTU continued to negotiate without success with the Polatsk Shklovalakno fiberglass manufacturer over the company's unwillingness to grant the BFTU the same privileges granted to its rival, the progovernment FTUB. In contrast, the management of the Baran-based Lyos factory ceased putting pressure on Free Trade Union of Metal Workers members to leave that union and join the FTUB. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's six free economic zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that women, men, and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. During the year the government approved several ``subbotniks,'' which required employees of government, state enterprises, and many private businesses to work on Saturday and donate earnings to finance government social projects. Workers who refused to take part were subject to fines and intimidation by employers and authorities. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law forbids the exploitation of children in the workplace, including a prohibition on forced and compulsory labor, and specifies policies for acceptable working conditions. The government generally implemented these laws in practice. The minimum age for employment is 16; however, a child as young as 14 may conclude a labor contract with the written consent of one parent or legal guardian. The prosecutor general's office reportedly enforced the law effectively. Minors under 18 were allowed to work in nonhazardous jobs, but were not allowed to work overtime, on weekends, or on government holidays. Work was not to be harmful to the minors' health or hinder their education. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--On November 1, the national minimum monthly wage was BYR 220,080 (approximately $102), which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. In November the average monthly wage was BYR 1,012,900 ($355). The law establishes a standard work week of 40 hours and provides for at least one 24-hour rest period per week. Because of the country's difficult economic situation, many workers worked considerably less than 40 hours per week, and factories often required workers to take unpaid furloughs due to lack of demand for the factory's products. The law provides for mandatory overtime and holiday pay and restricts overtime to four hours every two days, with a maximum of 120 hours of overtime each year. According to sources, the government was believed to effectively enforce these standards. The law establishes minimum conditions for workplace safety and worker health; however, employers often ignored these standards. Workers at many heavy machinery plants did not wear minimal safety gear. There is a state labor inspectorate, but it lacked authority to enforce employer compliance and often ignored violations. The Ministry of Labor reported that 83 workplace fatalities occurred and 338 employees suffered serious injuries in workplace incidents from January to June. The ministry reported that workplace accidents were caused by carelessness, poor conditions, malfunctioning equipment, and poor training and instruction. Worker intoxication was involved in 6 percent of workplace deaths and injuries. The law does not provide workers the right to remove themselves from dangerous and unhealthy work environments without risking loss of employment. __________ BELGIUM The Kingdom of Belgium, with a population of approximately 10.7 million, is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch who plays a mainly symbolic role. The country is a federal state with several levels of government: national, regional (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), language community (Flemish, French, and German), provincial, and local. The council of ministers (cabinet), led by the prime minister, holds office as long as it retains the confidence of the lower house (Chamber of Representatives) of the bicameral parliament. Federal parliamentary elections held in 2007 were considered free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The following human rights problems were reported: overcrowded prisons, lengthy pretrial detention, poor detention conditions prior to expulsion of adults and children whose asylum applications were refused, violence against women, child abuse, trafficking in persons, and racial and ethnic discrimination in the job market. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. In 2008 the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of provisions prohibiting inhuman or degrading treatment. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions met most international standards, but overcrowding remained a problem. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. On average in 2008, 9,891 inmates occupied prison and detention facilities. By year's end the number of inmates had reached 10,327 in facilities with a designed capacity of 8,529. In June the human rights commissioner of the Council of Europe (CE) issued a report noting that 75 percent of all prisons in the country were overcrowded. He also expressed concern over the dilapidated state of some prisons and shortcomings in the supply of health care. Although the government upgraded some older facilities, incarcerations outpaced construction. Forty percent of all inmates were noncitizens, which prompted authorities to address cultural diversity in the prisons by allowing inmates to practice their religious beliefs and providing meals that met the dietary requirements of different religions. An independent Central Control Council oversees the prisons. The government permitted visits to prisons and detention centers by members of parliament and independent human rights groups during the year. From September 28 to October 7, the CE's Committee for the Prevention of Torture carried out its fifth visit to the country that focused on prison conditions, safeguards against police mistreatment of persons in custody, and conditions at the detention camp for irregular migrants in Vottem and at other facilities where persons were incarcerated. During the year the Justice Ministry continued implementing the 2008-12 master plan for building seven new penitentiaries and upgrading existing infrastructure. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The federal police are responsible for internal security and nationwide law and order. Local police operated branches in 196 police districts. The federal police General Inspection Service handled 1,179 complaints in 2008, and there were 87 files handled by its disciplinary commission. An independent oversight committee (Committee P) also monitored police activities. In a report submitted to parliament in January, the committee stated that it had received 6,244 complaints about federal and local police conduct, including discriminatory behavior, brutality, racism, failure to intervene, violations of privacy, and arbitrary detention. The committee noted that police officers often failed to observe rules and regulations when dealing with undocumented aliens, prostitutes, and squatters. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Under the constitution, an individual can be arrested only while committing a crime or by a judge's order carried out within 24 hours. The law provides a person in detention the right to a prompt judicial determination of the legality of his or her detention, and the authorities generally respected this right. Detainees were promptly informed of charges against them. There is a functioning bail system. Alternatives to incarceration included conditional release, community service, probation, and electronic monitoring. In 2008 the Justice Ministry handled 10,131 alternative punishment files (e.g., community service), compared with 9,847 the previous year. By year's end an additional 987 convicts were electronically monitored outside of prison premises. The law provides rights to inmates regarding disciplinary matters, correspondence, telephone conversations, and religious practice. Brochures were distributed to inmates informing them about their rights. Implementation courts are responsible for handling release issues, penitentiary leave, and electronic monitoring. In 2007 legislation came into force offering better protection to offenders with mental disorders, and the government implemented plans to treat more of these inmates outside of prisons. The legislation allows authorities to keep inmates imprisoned after completing their sentences if the court determines that their release might endanger the public. According to 2009 figures, pretrial detainees made up almost 34 percent of the prison population. The average length of pretrial detention was approximately 90 days. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the ECHR. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. All defendants are presumed innocent and have the right to be present, to counsel (at public expense if necessary), to confront witnesses, to present evidence, and to appeal. On January 13, the ECHR ruled that a defendant in a 2004 murder case was denied a fair hearing as the jury had failed to justify its verdict. Such a justification had not been required under the law. In December parliament adopted changes to the law governing how trial courts operate, adding the requirement for juries to justify their verdicts. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found one violation by the country of the right to a fair trial and nine violations by the country involving length of proceedings as provided under the ECHR. The law gives domestic courts jurisdiction over war crimes and crimes against humanity that occurred outside the country when the victim or perpetrator is a citizen or legal resident of the country. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Plaintiffs can seek damages either individually or through specialized organizations for human rights violations under the applicable antidiscrimination legislation. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and legal code prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. The Commission for the Protection of Private Life monitored privacy- related matters and issued advisory opinions to the relevant authorities. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided by the ECHR. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The law prohibits public statements that incite national, racial, or religious hatred, including denial of the Holocaust. The maximum sentence for Holocaust denial is one year's imprisonment. In June 2008 two individuals were each sentenced to one year's imprisonment, fined 24,789 euro (approximately $34,700), and denied their civil and political rights for 10 years for having over a long period denied the Holocaust in brochures and leaflets. On June 15, a Charleroi court convicted a man for having made a Nazi straight-arm salute during his swearing-in ceremony as city councilor and denied him the right to run for elected office for a five-year period. Individuals could criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. In cooperation with the government, Child Focus, a government-sponsored center for missing and exploited children, developed programs to warn users of Web sites containing illegal content, especially child pornography. Internet connections rose to 2.9 million during the year, and 60 percent of all households had Internet connectivity. According to International Telecommunications Union statistics for 2008, approximately 69 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. During the year authorities took action against a Dutch national who started a Web site that posted the whereabouts in the country of convicted pedophiles, by blocking access to the Web site upon order from the Federal Prosecuting Office. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law accorded ``recognized'' status to six religions and a grouping of nonconfessional philosophical or secular organizations, each of which received financial benefits from the federal and regional governments. The lack of recognized status did not prevent other religious groups from freely practicing their religions, and citizens generally practiced religion without official harassment or impediment. During the year the Buddhist secretariat began receiving subsidies as a ``nonconfessional'' philosophical community meriting state support. Scientologists continued to experience a strained relationship with the government. On May 12, the Brussels Chamber of Indictment started hearings in the case against the Scientology Church of Belgium, based on a 12-year investigation of the group. The federal prosecutor sought the indictment of 12 persons, the Scientology Church of Belgium, and the Human Rights Office of the church. The charges included embezzlement, racketeering, unlawfully performing medical acts, and forming a criminal organization. In October 2008 police raided a Sikh temple in Vilvoorde, near Brussels, as a religious ceremony was taking place. Of the 49 worshippers present, 46 were illegally living in the country. Following public criticism that police lacked respect for religious freedom, the local police chief asserted that police had not been informed in advance about the ceremony. Police claimed that there was evidence that many of those present at the ceremony were smuggled into the country. On June 17, the court dropped charges against all 15 members of the alleged ring, who had been charged with smuggling the illegal Sikh immigrants. The Center for Information and Advice on Harmful and Sectarian Organizations (CIAOSN), an agency funded by the Justice Ministry that provides nonbinding advice to the public and public institutions, received several hundred requests for information about particular groups. In February 2008 a Brussels court issued a final ruling that CIAOSN had wrongly identified Shaya Yoga as a dangerous sect in one of its publications. CIAOSN appealed the ruling. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--In its 2008 annual report, the Center for Equal Opportunity and the Combat against Racism (CEOCR) warned against growing societal violence, harassment, and discrimination against Muslims. Of the 105 religious discrimination incidents reported by the public to the center, 94 concerned discrimination against Muslims. Of the 430 Internet hate incidents that were reported 80 percent were against Muslims. The size of the Jewish community was estimated at 40,000 to 50,000. During the year there were reports of a number of anti-Semitic acts, including attacks against persons, verbal harassment of Jews, and vandalism of Jewish property. The law prohibits public statements that incite national, racial, or religious hatred, including denial of the Holocaust. Anti-Semitism expressed itself through youth violence (almost exclusively from Muslim extremists). Consequently, many Jews were afraid to wear religious symbols in public. Violence in the Middle East was mirrored in increased tension between Jews and Muslims. A group of Jewish community leaders stated that Jews lacked public support and faced an anti-Israel bias in the media during the Gaza incursion in January. The CEOCR registered 108 anti-Semitic incidents during the year, compared with 66 in 2008. The Jewish defense organization antisemitisme.be registered 101 incidents during the year, compared with 73 in 2008. During the year there was a noticeable increase in Internet hate messages. In addition there were reports of anti-Semitic graffiti on Jewish homes and of persons insulting Jews on the street. During the year antisemitisme.be reported 10 incidents involving physical violence and four incidents involving Holocaust denial. On January 23, the Brussels Appellate Court convicted two managers of the Web site of the Islamic Center of Belgium for inciting hatred and violence against Jews. They were fined 2,000 euro (approximately $2,860) and given a provisional one-month prison sentence if they failed to pay the fine. The two had been originally convicted in 2006. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The law allows authorities to grant ``subsidiary protection'' to individuals who may not qualify as refugees and who could establish that upon return to their home country they would face the death penalty, torture, or other inhuman treatment. During the year 416 applicants, most of them from Afghanistan and Iraq, qualified for subsidiary protection. During the year 17,186 applications were filed for a total of 22,785 asylum seekers, compared with 12,252 applications in 2008. Most applicants came from Afghanistan, Russia, Kosovo, or Iraq. The Commissariat for Refugees awarded refugee status to 2,303 applicants. Most accepted refugees came from Iraq, Russia, and Guinea. During the year scores of asylum seekers who stayed in the country illegally after their applications were refused took refuge in churches, went on hunger strikes, and climbed tower cranes to draw public attention to their situation. On the eve of the summer recess, the government reached agreement on a new set of criteria for awarding residence permits for undocumented aliens. The latter were allowed to submit applications between September and December. The newly defined criteria concerned aliens who had become victims of an unduly long asylum application period, undocumented aliens who were living in a precarious humanitarian situation or who could prove that they were integrated into society, either by having lived in the country for at least five years, or by having been gainfully employed for at least one year. Regularization on the grounds of an unduly long application period, for urgent humanitarian reasons, or on medical grounds was granted to 8,369 applicants in 2008, compared to 11,335 the previous year. In 2008 the number of applications for refugee status on humanitarian grounds exceeded the number of asylum applications. During the year FEDASIL, the government agency providing shelter for refugees, the Red Cross, and local governments provided assistance to an average of 18,150 persons but lacked capacity to deal with the growing demand. In 2007 a new refugee relief act came into force, under which refugees who spent four months in a collective relief center qualified for independent living and were permitted to leave the centers. Following a critical report from a European Parliament commission, the government announced that unaccompanied minors stopped at the border were no longer being held in closed centers, but in specialized observation and orientation centers. Minors held with their parents had access to individualized education. During the year FEDASIL provided shelter to 645 unaccompanied foreign minors. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Refused asylum seekers were informed in writing and in person of the repatriation scenarios from which they could choose. The government, in partnership with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), provided relocation assistance to unsuccessful asylum applicants who agreed to return voluntarily to their countries of origin. Unsuccessful applicants who did not leave voluntarily were subjected to forced repatriation. A report issued during the year showed that between 1984 and 2009, over 40,000 refused asylum seekers and other immigrants were repatriated under the IOM-sponsored Return and Emigration of Asylum Seekers ex-Belgium program. Between January and November, 2,446 immigrants used the program. This figure was in line with that of the previous year, when 2,446 persons were repatriated under IOM auspices. Refused families with children qualified for temporary individual housing. In 2008 6,902 persons were assigned to the closed centers, compared with 7,506 persons in 2007. Their average stay in closed centers was 36 days. Most refugees held at these centers came from Romania, Brazil, Morocco, Bulgaria, or Russia. The Council of Europe human rights commissioner, members of parliament, and representatives from the International Federation of Human Rights Organizations visited the closed centers to verify living conditions. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) complained that living conditions at the closed centers for refused asylum seekers were substandard. The government started to refurbish the closed centers at the Brussels national airport. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens ages 18 and older exercised this right through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Voting in all elections is compulsory. Failure to vote is punishable by a nominal fine. Elections and Political Participation.--General elections were held in 2007; they were considered free and fair. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. On June 7, the country held elections for representatives to the country's regional parliaments as well as to the European Parliament; the elections were considered free and fair. The constitution requires the presence of men and women in federal, regional, and local governments, and the law requires an equal number of male and female candidates on party tickets, in European, federal, regional, provincial, and local elections. Failure to meet the requirement would nullify the elections and render any government created thereby illegal. There were 57 women in the 150-seat federal Chamber of Representatives and 29 women in the 71-seat Senate; four of the 22 federal cabinet ministers and state secretaries were women, and 10 of the 31 regional ministers were female. Following the June 7 regional elections, the representation of women reached 44 percent in the Brussels parliament, 41 percent in the Flemish parliament, and 35 percent in the Walloon parliament. There were five members of minorities in the Chamber of Representatives, three in the Senate, and two minority ministers in regional governments. Legislation is in force to guarantee female presence in public advisory agencies. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. Elected officials and high-level civil servants are required to disclose any regular private employment or public jobs they hold and to provide confidential disclosure of their financial situation. The judicial investigation in the case of active and passive corruption charges in connection with public building contracts continued. During the year a judicial investigation was opened regarding a construction contract for a juvenile delinquency center. The law provides public access to government information with some exceptions such as information involving national security. In practice the government respected this law. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. The government-sponsored CEOCR is tasked with promoting equal opportunity and with combating all forms of discrimination, exclusion, or preferential treatment based on race, skin color, descent, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, marital status, birth, wealth, age, religion or ideology, physical condition, disability, or physical characteristics. The center is tasked with ensuring respect for the basic rights of foreigners and informs the authorities on migration issues, including smuggling and trafficking. The center is tasked with promoting consultation among public and private players, and it has the authority to start litigation regarding complaints sent to the center. Federal and regional government ombudsmen monitor and publish reports on the workings of the agencies coming under their respective jurisdictions. During the year the federal ombudsman released a report on the closed centers for rejected asylum seekers. The government cooperated with international tribunals in the prosecution of war crimes. In May 2008 police arrested Jean-Pierre Bemba, the leader of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo and a former Congolese vice president, after an arrest warrant was issued by the International Criminal Court. Bemba was charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes and transferred to The Hague in July 2008. His trial was scheduled for April 2010. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. The law identifies 18 grounds of possible discrimination subject to legal penalty: age, sexual orientation, civil status, birth, financial situation, religious belief, philosophical orientation, physical condition, disability, physical characteristics, genetic characteristics, social status, nationality, race, color of skin, descent, national origin, and ethnic origin. A separate law governs gender discrimination in the workplace. Under a directive issued by the Board of Prosecutors General, the police and prosecutors must mention racial motivation when recording offenses. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the government prosecuted such cases. In 2008 the federal police registered 2,786 rape cases, compared with 3,111 the previous year. A convicted rapist can be imprisoned for a minimum of 10 years to a maximum of 30 years. The length of sentence is based on the age of the victim, the age difference between the offender and the victim, the relationship between the offender and victim, and the use or absence of violence during the crime. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16 years old. Statutory rape with anyone under the age of 16 years old carries penalties of imprisonment from 15 to 20 years. If the victim is under the age of 10 years old, the imprisonment rises to 20 to 30 years. Domestic violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a problem. The federal police reported 10,460 such cases of physical violence between partners during the first half of the year, compared with 19,768 cases in 2008 and 16,532 cases in 2007. The federal police registered 63 cases of sexual violence between partners during the first half of the year, compared with 131 cases in 2008 and 129 cases in 2007. There were 8,391 cases of psychological violence between partners during the first half of the year, compared with 16,927 cases in 2008 and 18,356 cases in 2007. The law defines and criminalizes domestic violence and provides for fines and incarceration. The law allows police to enter a home without the consent of the head of household when investigating a domestic violence complaint; however, there were complaints that the police frequently declined to take such action in practice. A plan for dealing with domestic violence was in force, and the regional governments formally joined the effort. Police forces and prosecuting magistrates registered all complaints and official actions taken in connection with domestic violence. A number of government-supported shelters and telephone help lines were available across the country for victims of domestic abuse. In addition to providing shelter, many offered assistance on legal matters, job placement, and psychological counseling to both partners. In a report to the Senate in 2008, the federal police noted 17 honor killings had taken place over a five-year period. During the year the Institute for the Equality of Men and Women claimed damages in the case of a Pakistani woman who died in an honor killing resulting from a failed arranged marriage. Following a recommendation by the Senate, the justice minister and the federal police took measures to improve identification of honor killings. Prostitution is legal; however, the law prohibits organizing prostitution or assisting immigration for the purpose of prostitution. There were reports that women and girls were trafficked to the country for the purpose of prostitution, and there were a number of arrests and convictions on related charges. The law prohibits discrimination on the grounds of gender, pregnancy, motherhood, or sex change. It also prohibits sexual intimidation in labor relations and in access to goods, services, social welfare, and health care. Separate legislation prohibits sexual harassment in the workplace, and the government generally enforced it. A victim of sexual harassment in the workplace can claim damages in a court of justice. Victims of sexual harassment have the right to sue their harassers and seek financial remedies, but most cases of sexual harassment were resolved less formally. The constitution guarantees complete freedom in the way persons organize their private lives, including the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Health clinics and local health NGOs were permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning. There are no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women have the same legal rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, in the judicial system, in labor relations, and in social welfare protection. The federal government's Institute for the Equality of Men and Women, which is tasked with promoting gender equality, is authorized to initiate lawsuits if it finds that equality laws have been violated. Most of the complaints it received in 2008 were work-related, and most often concerned women whose employment contract was terminated because of pregnancy. During the year the government continued implementing the 2007 Gender Mainstreaming Act. The law obliges the authorities to address gender aspects in planning policy, collecting data, drafting budgets, awarding contracts, and drafting reports. Economic discrimination against women continued. During the year the Institute for the Equality of Men and Women released a survey which showed that there was an average gap of 11 percent in the gross wages paid to men and women. The gap was 27 percent for white-collar and 16 percent for blue-collar workers. The gap was less significant in the public sector, where female contract workers earned 7 percent less than their male colleagues, and female statutory civil servants earned 1 percent more than their male colleagues. Taking into account part-time work, the overall wage gap was 25 percent. The report showed that the main factors contributing to the gap were job classification, branch of employment, type of employment contract, and time actually worked. Through legislation and decrees, federal and regional authorities sought to increase the presence of women on the boards of public enterprises and government agencies. Data from the European Professional Women's Network indicated that women filled 5.8 percent of the positions on boards of directors of the country's leading private companies. Children.--The government registered all live births immediately, and citizenship is conferred to the child through the parents' nationality. There were reports of child abuse. In 2008 the federal police registered 3,971 cases of child abandonment, abuse, and neglect compared with 2,029 in 2007. The NGO Child Focus reported that it handled 2,166 missing children and child abuse cases involving 2,388 children in 2008. There were 1,041 cases of runaways; half of the runaways returned home within 48 hours. Twenty-two cases concerned abduction by a third person. Child Focus handled 231 cases (involving 333 children) of abduction to another country. The law provides for the protection of youth against sexual exploitation, abduction, and trafficking, and provides severe penalties for child pornography and possession of pedophilic materials. The penalties for producing and disseminating child pornography range from five to 15 years' imprisonment, and from one month to one year for possession of such material. The law permits the prosecution of residents who commit such crimes abroad and provides that criminals convicted of sexual abuse of children must receive specialized treatment before they can be paroled and must continue counseling and treatment after their release from prison. In 2008 the NGO Child Focus handled 280 sexual abuse cases and continued its Internet-based public awareness campaign, stopchildporno.be. The group received 1,421 reports of child pornography on the Internet and forwarded relevant cases to the specialized units of the federal police. According to official figures, in 2008 the federal police investigated 397 child pornography cases, and international networks operating in several countries were dismantled with the help of Europol and Eurojust. In several court cases, judges handed down prison sentences for downloading child pornography. In 2008, Child Focus, in conjunction with the King Baudouin Foundation, produced the first comprehensive study to document the growing number of children contacted via cellular telephone and Internet for sexual purposes and children responding to such requests. Child Focus overhauled its clicksafe.be Web site, which provided guidance to children, parents, and educators on the safe use of the Internet. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports of women, men, and girls trafficked to, through, and within the country for commercial sexual exploitation and labor. According to the CEOCR and domestic NGOs that worked with trafficking victims, women and girls were trafficked primarily from Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia for sexual exploitation. Particularly prominent source countries were Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, Nigeria, China, and Turkey. Male victims were typically trafficked for exploitative labor in restaurants, bars, sweatshops, horticulture, fruit farms, construction sites, convenience stores, certain bakeries and butcher shops, and janitorial services. Prominent source countries for victims of labor exploitation were China, India, Brazil, and Bulgaria. Traffickers were principally organized criminal gangs. The law criminalizes recruiting, transporting, transiting, sheltering, and passing to others the control over persons for the purpose of prostitution, child pornography, exploitation of poverty, economic exploitation, or organ transplant. The law also makes it illegal to force trafficked persons to commit crimes. Persons convicted of violating the antitrafficking law are subject to one to five years' imprisonment and may be fined between 2,750 and 275,000 euros (approximately $3,930 to $393,000). Repeat offenses, offenses of an organized nature, and those with aggravated circumstances are subject to higher penalties. If the offender belongs to a criminal organization or if the trafficking results in manslaughter, the punishment is 15 to 20 years' imprisonment and fines ranging from 5,500 to 825,000 euros ($7,870 to $1,180,000). The country's antitrafficking policy is implemented by the Interdepartmental Coordination Unit to Combat Human Trafficking and Smuggling, chaired by the justice minister. Its executive board is composed of representatives from the Criminal Policy Department of the Justice Ministry, the CEOCR, the Immigration Office, the federal police, and the ministries of state security and social welfare and employment. In 2008 prosecutors handled 387 trafficking cases, including 202 economic exploitation and 141 sexual exploitation cases. In 2008 the federal judicial police identified 81 criminal organizations dealing with smuggling, 84 with sexual exploitation, and 37 with economic exploitation. The judicial police handled 356 sexual exploitation cases, making 99 arrests, and dealt with 206 economic exploitation cases, making 27 arrests. The laws allow authorities to grant residence to trafficking victims who cooperate with them. The prevailing protection system has the force of law and extends to unaccompanied minors and other categories of vulnerable victims. The government has a plan for combating trafficking and smuggling that is aimed at improving data sharing between law enforcement agencies, combating child pornography more effectively, and tracking persons who exploit trafficking victims. Trafficking victims who are foreign nationals have 45 days to decide whether to assist in the investigation of their traffickers and can qualify for a renewable three-month residency permit or a six-month permit, depending on the status of the judicial investigation. Victims can eventually obtain permanent residence when their traffickers are sentenced. Unaccompanied minors and victims willing to file a complaint can bypass the 45-day period and immediately apply for a three-month residency permit. In 2008 the Immigration Office awarded residence permits under the trafficking victim status program to 174 applicants, mostly victims of economic exploitation, including six underage victims. The government continued to subsidize three specialized shelters providing assistance to victims of trafficking. NGOs continued to report excellent cooperation and coordination with law enforcement agencies. The shelters registered 495 victims in 2008. The three centers noted a significant increase in 2008 in the number of victims of economic exploitation and male victims. The government data collection on human trafficking was slow. Trafficking victims were harder to identify as international gangs frequently rotated victims within the EU. Cases were also harder to prosecute as trafficking gangs became more sophisticated at stopping victims from testifying. Traffickers also allowed victims to keep some money that they had earned, making it more difficult to claim that they were forced to engage in prostitution. Trafficking gangs started to threaten the families of victims. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides for the protection of persons with physical and mental disabilities from discrimination in employment, education, access to health care, and other state services or other areas. In 2008 the CEOCR received 234 complaints regarding discrimination against persons with disabilities. Most were employment- related, and they concerned access to private and public buildings and services, including public transport, and access to banks, bars, and restaurants. While the government has mandated that public buildings erected after 1970 must be accessible to persons with disabilities, many older buildings were still inaccessible. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--A survey released in November on discrimination and intolerance as perceived by ethnic minorities coming from the Northern Africa, Turkey, Sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe showed that color of the skin and clothing related to Islam were the most important factors causing intolerance along with discrimination by Belgians, especially when seeking housing and employment. In its 2008 annual report, the CEOCR stated that discrimination against members of the Muslim community, estimated at 450,000 persons, principally of Moroccan and Turkish origin, greatly exceeded that experienced by other immigrant communities. In 2008 the CEOCR, which investigates complaints of discrimination, racism, and hate instigation, handled 2,207 discrimination and racism complaints, a decrease from the previous year. Most complaints concerned nationality and ethnic descent (39.2 percent), physical handicaps (13.3 percent), and discrimination on the ground of religious and philosophical orientation (8.3 percent). Complaints related to ethnic descent, nationality, race, and skin color accounted for 57 percent of the complaints registered by the CEOCR. Places of work and the Internet were most often cited as the places where the alleged discriminatory acts occurred. Thirty-nine percent of the complaints received by the CEOCR were deemed to be justified. In 2008 the CEOCR initiated court cases in 2.5 percent of the registered complaints. Courts convicted a number of persons for inciting racial hatred, shouting abuse, denying the Holocaust, and using violence against asylum seekers. Judges convicted employers for discriminating on racial and physical grounds in hiring personnel. Landlords were convicted for discriminating against foreigners and persons with disabilities. Data released by the Justice Ministry indicated that in 2008, 61 percent of the cases of alleged discrimination handled by the courts were dismissed. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--According to the CEOCR, 5.2 percent of the complaints it received in 2008 concerned discrimination based on sexual orientation. Most were work-related, and the center received several reports on violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender persons. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--In 2008 3.9 percent of the complaints received by the CEOCR involved discrimination based on health or medical conditions, including against persons with HIV/AIDS. Most of the complaints were related to work. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice, with citizen and noncitizen workers enjoying the same rights. Works council elections are mandatory in enterprises employing over 100 employees, and safety and health committee elections are mandatory in companies employing more than 50 employees. Approximately 58 percent of private and public sector workers were members of labor unions. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike for all private and all public workers, except for the military. The International Trade Union Confederation noted in its annual survey of violations of trade union rights that, on occasion, multinational companies took legal action aimed at prohibiting certain forms of collective action, including strike pickets. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The right to bargain collectively is recognized, and the government protected this right. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination and employer interference in union functions, and the government protected this right in practice. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Women, men, and children from Eastern Europe, sub- Saharan Africa, and Asia were trafficked to the country for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Female victims, including children, worked as prostitutes in massage parlors, as escorts, and through the Internet. Male victims were forced to work in restaurants, bars, sweatshops, horticulture, fruit farms, and construction sites. Police and courts used antitrafficking legislation to combat economic exploitation. In its 2008 report on trafficking, the CEOCR noted several cases of debt bondage, with victims lacking freedom of movement as their documents were retained. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--Laws and government policy protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government generally enforced these laws. The minimum age of employment is 15. Persons between the ages of 15 and 18 can participate in part-time work and study programs and work full time during school vacations. The Ministry of Employment regulates industries that employ juvenile workers to ensure that labor laws are followed and occasionally grants waivers for children temporarily employed by modeling agencies and by the entertainment business. There is growing concern about children exploited by organized begging gangs in larger cities. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The monthly national minimum wage for workers 21 years of age was 1,387.50 euros (approximately $2,080) and increased to 1,440.70 euros ($2,160) for workers 22 years of age with one year of service. When combined with extensive social benefits, this wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The standard workday is eight hours, and the standard workweek is 38 hours. Departure from these norms can occur under the terms of a collective bargaining agreement, but work time may not exceed 11 hours per day and 50 hours per week. An 11-hour rest period is required between two work periods. Overtime is paid at a time-and-a-half premium Monday through Saturday and at double time on Sundays. The Ministry of Labor and the labor courts effectively enforced these laws and regulations. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their safety or health without jeopardy to their continued employment, and workers exercised this right in practice. In general regulations were enforced effectively by the Employment and Labor Relations Federal Public Service. __________ BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of two entities within the state, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the Federation) and the Republika Srpska, and Brcko District, with a total population of approximately four million. The Federation has a Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) and Croat majority, while the Republika Srpska has a Serb majority. The 1995 General Framework Agreement for Peace (the Dayton Accords), provides for a democratic republic with a bicameral parliamentary assembly but assigns many governmental functions to the two entities. The Dayton Accords also provide for a high representative with the authority to impose legislation and remove officials. The tripartite presidency consists of Bosnian Croat Zeljko Komsic, Bosnian Serb Nebojsa Radmanovic, and Bosniak Haris Silajdzic. In 2006, the country held general elections that international observers deemed free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The following human rights problems were reported: reports of continued deaths from landmines, police abuses, poor and overcrowded prison conditions, inter-prisoner violence in prisons, police failure to inform detainees of the rights or allow effective access to legal counsel prior to questioning, harassment and intimidation of journalists and members of civil society, obstruction of refugee returns, government corruption, discrimination and violence against women and ethnic, sexual, and religious minorities, discrimination against persons with disabilities, trafficking in persons, and limits on employment rights. At year's end Ratko Mladic, the Bosnian Serb war crimes indictee most wanted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), remained at large. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. Domestic courts and the ICTY continued to adjudicate cases arising from killings during the 1992-95 conflict. During the year there were 22 landmine accidents that killed nine persons and injured 19. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. An estimated 12,000 persons remained missing from the 1992-95 war. During the year the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) reported 22,451 requests to trace relatives missing from the 1992-95 conflict. By year's end a total of 11,399 persons had been accounted for, including 467 located alive. The state-level Missing Persons Institute (MPI) continued to account for persons missing from the 1992-95 conflict. During the year the Republika Srpska continued to support an entity-level body with similar responsibilities to MPI. Observers characterized the team as an effort to disrupt the MPI's work. Republika Srpska operational teams refused MPI personnel access to archives that were transferred to MPI's ownership in accordance with the law. Republika Srpska prosecutors did not cooperate in MPI's exhumation and identification process. Since May there were no exhumations or identifications carried out by Republika Srpska prosecutors. At year's end excavations coordinated by MPI resulted in the recovery of 218 bodies and 346 sets of partial remains. The majority of remains were recovered from 13 mass graves (four of them related to the 1995 Srebrenica genocide). From 2000 through the end of the year, the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) generated a total of 27,505 DNA matches relevant to 15,331 missing persons, of which 23,562 DNA matches related to the country. ICMP collected over 87,766 blood samples from persons related to 28,911 missing individuals, of which 69,532 blood samples related to 23,279 persons relevant to the country. During the year the BiH State Prosecutor's Office and its War Crimes Department continued to investigate the events surrounding the Srebrenica genocide and the fate of individuals missing from those events. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were allegations that police physically mistreated individuals at the time of their arrest and during detention. On October 14, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on the 2007 visit by a CPT delegation to the country's detention centers, prisons, psychiatric establishments, and social care homes. With regard to treatment while in police custody, the delegation noted it received allegations from a number of persons of physical mistreatment by police, consisting mainly of kicks, punches, and blows with batons to various parts of the body. The CPT report cited several examples of police mistreatment, including allegations that police officers threatened and beat individual detainees in some cases. The CPT report noted that, despite the medical evidence in certain cases, prosecutors had failed to take further action. With regard to treatment of persons who were imprisoned, the CPT reported receiving numerous allegations of mistreatment by prison staff at the Zenica prison that suggested that mistreatment was a general problem at the prison. The vast majority of prisoners interviewed at the Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, and Mostar prisons made no allegations of mistreatment. The CPT delegation also reported meeting several patients at the Sokolac Psychiatric Hospital who alleged that police punched and hit them with batons at the time of their apprehension. The delegation noted that a doctor working at the hospital confirmed the allegations. The CPT report also recorded the presence of baseball bats, replica pistols, and metal piping (with wrist straps) in interrogation rooms at a number of police stations and stated that there was no legitimate reason for such items to be present. Following the earlier release of preliminary observations by the CPT delegation on its 2007 visit, various state and entity level ministries and state, entity, and cantonal law enforcement agencies took measures to address the problem of police abuse. The Federation minister of interior and the police director informed the ministries and police commissioners of each canton of the CPT findings, including a reminder that mistreatment of persons deprived of liberty is illegal, unprofessional, and would be punished. Cantonal ministries reported to the Federation government on actions they had taken to investigate and punish cases of mistreatment. In the Republika Srpska, Ministry of Interior officials responsible for oversight of individual organizational units were ordered to pay special attention to monitoring legality of treatment of persons deprived of liberty, and to undertake sanctions as regulated by the law in order to combat torture and inhuman and degrading treatment. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgement that found one violation by the country with regard to the prohibition on inhuman or degrading treatment in Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions were below international standards in several areas. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers and such visits occurred during the year. Prison standards for hygiene and access to medical care met prisoners' basic needs, but overcrowding, poor hygiene, and antiquated facilities remained serious problems. There were no proper facilities for treating mentally ill or special needs prisoners. There were some reports of ethnically motivated violence among inmates, particularly the formation of prison gangs based on ethnicity or region of origin. In its October 14 final report, the CPT delegation stated that it found a culture that was conducive to inter-prisoner violence at the Zenica prison and heard accounts of inter-prisoner violence and bullying in the Doboj, Foca, and Sarajevo prisons. At Zenica prison, the delegation reported that the information it gathered ``clearly indicated that the establishment was not under the effective control of prison staff'' and that violence and abuse among inmates appeared to be a feature of everyday life in the prison. The report stated that the prisons of Zenica, Doboj, and, to a lesser degree, Foca and Sarajevo could be considered unsafe for prisoners and staff alike. The CPT delegation noted that gang control of significant parts of Zenica and Doboj prisons, in particular, rendered life for other prisoners particularly dangerous and disagreeable. There were reports of corruption among prison officials. Lenient rules allowing weekend furloughs for good behavior to even violent felons came under increasing public scrutiny following the disappearance of a high-profile prisoner. Adult and juvenile female inmates were held together in separate wings of facilities for adult males. Facilities held male inmates aged 16 to 18 with adult male inmates, with male inmates under the age of 16 held separately. The correction facility for Republika Srpska juveniles aged 16 to 18 in the Banja Luka Prison was seriously overcrowded. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers and gave international community representatives widespread and unhindered access to detention facilities and prisoners. On September 25, the Ombudsman Institution of Bosnia and Herzegovina published a report of its visit to all 12 prisons and three separate correctional departments in the country in which it noted several problems. The ombudsman found the legal framework to be inadequate and in disharmony with international standards, especially regarding EU standards. The ombudsman found that mistreatment was common in prisons, often a result of serious organizational problems, such as putting together inmates serving sentences for violent crimes with inmates serving sentence for less serious offenses, such as traffic incidents. Violence among inmates was very frequent. The report noted growing concern regarding Zenica prison, where little effort has been made to improve existing conditions, as well as for the poor condition of Sarajevo prison. The ombudsman noted that many of the country's prisons were located in very old buildings or located in city centers that made exercise periods difficult. The ICRC continued to have access to detention facilities under the jurisdiction of the ministries of justice at both the state and entity levels. The ombudsman's report noted several improvements in prisons during the year, including the construction of new facilities, and improvements to existing ones including the new Republika Srpska juvenile department within Kula prison, and improvements in the conditions for accommodation of inmates at the psychiatric department of Zenica prison. As of May a new facility (within Zenica prison) for these inmates was operating, providing much better conditions for inmates with mental disorders. To address these concerns, the ombudsman established a department for the protection of the rights of detainees and prisoners within its own structure. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The law extends significant overlapping law enforcement competencies to the state-level government, to each entity, and the Brcko District, each of which has its own police force. A 2,000-person EU force continued to implement the military aspects of the Dayton Accords. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization oversees defense reform, counterterrorism, and cooperation with the ICTY. The EU Police Mission remained in the country, tasked with the mission to monitor aspects of the work of the local police. The country made some limited progress on state-level police reform. Authorities postponed local-level police reform until after the completion of constitutional reform in this area. By year's end six of the seven bodies mandated by the law were formed, but often had only minimal staff and had not begun operations. Entities did not meet the target standards of ethnic representation on police forces that their respective constitutions mandated. Police standards units (PSUs) are the internal affairs investigative units in each entity's Ministry of the Interior and in the Brcko District. There were continued reports of corruption within the entity- and state-level security services. During the first nine months of the year, the Republika Srpska PSUs investigated 1,373 conduct-related complaints and determined that 80 were well-founded. The unit forwarded recommendations for disciplinary action to prosecutors in 41 cases that they considered major violations. In addition authorities filed 31 felony reports and three misdemeanor reports against eight Republika Srpska Interior Ministry employees for offenses including narcotics trafficking, forgery, theft, domestic violence, assault, extortion, and traffic violations, indicating a significant decrease from the previous year. During the year Federation PSUs investigated 1,109 cases and forwarded 69 complaints to prosecutors for disciplinary action. During the year the Brcko District PSU investigated 158 cases and concluded that 52 complaints were well-founded. The PSU forwarded 52 cases deemed to be major violations of duty to prosecutors for disciplinary action. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police generally arrested persons openly with warrants based on sufficient evidence. The law provides that authorities shall promptly inform detainees of the charges against them, and there was a functioning bail system. The law requires police to bring suspects before a prosecutor within 24 hours of detention. During this period, police may detain individuals for up to six hours at the scene of a crime for investigative purposes. The prosecutor has an additional 24 hours to release the person or to bring the person before a judge who decides whether they should remain in pretrial custody. The law generally limits pretrial detention to one year. The law allows detainees to request a lawyer of their own choosing, requires authorities to inform detainees of the charges against them after an indictment, and provides for the right to a speedy trial. In practice, detainees were often denied prompt access to an attorney. There were no cases of arbitrary arrest or detention reported during the year. In its October 14 report, the CPT delegation reported that the right to access an attorney only became effective some time after detained persons had been deprived of their liberty and that access to an attorney seemed to occur only after detainees were brought before a judge to be remanded into custody. Many of the persons interviewed by the delegation claimed that they had not been permitted to contact an attorney or even informed of their rights until after being questioned by crime police. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgement that found one violation by the country of the right to liberty and security provided under Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The state constitution does not explicitly provide for an independent judiciary, but the laws of both entities do. The State Court is the highest court in the country for certain criminal cases, including war crimes, organized crime, terrorism, economic crime, and corruption. The country also has a State Constitutional Court and State Prosecutor's Office. Each entity has its own supreme court and Chief Prosecutors' Offices. The state-level courts do not exercise judicial supremacy over the entity-level courts. Political parties sometimes influenced the judiciary in politically sensitive cases. Judicial reforms reduced the level of intimidation by organized crime figures and political leaders, but intimidation continued. The absence of extradition treaties with neighboring countries continued to be a major hurdle to bringing suspects to justice, particularly given the relatively small size of the country, the prevalence of dual citizenship, and the ease of movement across borders with former-Yugoslav countries. In September Republika Srpska Prime Minister Dodik publicly labeled the State Court and the State Prosecutor's Office ``fake institutions'' imposed by the Office of the High Representative. He also called for their abolition, and the Republika Srpska government subsequently filed a criminal report with the State Prosecutor's Office. The state-level High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council (HJPC) acts independently and regulates many of the most important affairs of the judiciary with clear, transparent criteria for judicial and prosecutorial appointments and detailed disciplinary liability for judges and prosecutors. Local officials and police generally cooperated in enforcing court decisions, but problems persisted as a result of inefficiency. Despite efforts to streamline court procedures, there was a backlog of nearly two million unresolved cases, over one-half involving utility bills. It was estimated that only one-tenth of the cases involved criminal matters. According to the 2008 Report of the Center for Human Rights of Sarajevo University, more than 20 percent of decisions of the State Constitutional Court had not been implemented. The majority of the cases pertained to so-called ``systematic failures'' of government, such as issues of missing persons, old currency savings, and payment of war damage compensation. Trial Procedures.--Under Federation and Republika Srpska laws, defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence, trials are public, and the defendant has the right to counsel at public expense, if charged with a serious crime. However, courts did not always appoint defense attorneys where the maximum sentence was less than five years. The law provides defendants the right to confront witnesses, to present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf, to access government-held evidence relevant to their case, and to appeal verdicts. The government observed these rights in practice. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgement that found one violation by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The State Court continued to make progress adjudicating organized crime and war crimes cases and expanded the witness protection program. During the year the State Investigation and Protection Agency (SIPA) Witness Protection Department provided support to more than 120 individuals. The State Court War Crimes Chamber and entity courts continued conducting war crimes trials during the year. The State Prosecutor's Office opened 33 new war crimes investigations involving 103 suspects and confirmed 18 new indictments involving 31 alleged war criminals. The State Prosecutor's Office continued to use plea agreements in some cases. In December 2008 the Council of Ministers adopted a national strategy for the prosecution of war crimes that foresaw the prosecution of the most serious war crimes by 2016 and all other war crimes by 2024. On October 16, a State Court first instance panel found Milorad Trbic guilty of genocide in Srebrenica in 1995 and sentenced him to 30 years in prison. On February 16, a State Court appeals panel upheld the May 2008 conviction of Dusko Knizevic, Zejlko Mejakic, and Momcilo Gruban for crimes against humanity, including murder, rape, and physical and mental abuse, committed against Bosniaks and Croats at the Omarska and Keraterm detention camps in Prijedor in 1992. However, the court found that the State Prosecutor's Office had not proven that Mejakic and Gruban had command responsibility for the crimes, but found them guilty of joint criminal enterprise. The court confirmed the prison terms of 21 and 31 years respectively for Mejakic and Knizevic, but reduced Gruban's sentence from 11 to seven years, due to the testimony of several witnesses who said Gruban had provided assistance to some detainees. On February 20, a State Court first instance panel found Marko Radic, Dragan Sunjic, Damir Brekalo, and Mirko Vracevic guilty of crimes against humanity, including inhuman treatment and rape, committed against Bosniaks in Heliodrom Camp between July 1993 and March 1994. The four men were members of the Second Brigade of the Croat Defense Council. The court senteced Radic, Sunjic, Brekalo, and Vracevic to 25, 21, 20, and 14 years in prison, respectively. On May 5, a State Court appeals panel upheld the conviction of Mirko Perez and Milorad Savic for crimes against humanity in connection with their participation in the killing of 23 Bosniaks from the villages of Ljoljici and Cerkazovici and the wounding of four others. Perez and Savic were former members of the reserve police in Jajce, and Perez was also formerly a member of the Army of Republika Srpska. On February 26, the trial of Ratko Bundalo in a 1992 Kalinovik war crimes case began; the trial continued at year's end. On September 9, a State Court appeals panel upheld the July 2008 conviction of six of the seven defendants found guilty of genocide in the killing of more than 1,000 Bosniak men and boys in Kravice, but reduced the sentences of the remaining six from 38 to 42 years to nine to 10 years each. The court granted a retrial to the seventh individual. Despite local and international efforts to prosecute war crimes, many lower-level perpetrators remained unpunished, including those responsible for the approximately 8,000 persons killed in the Srebrenica genocide and those responsible for approximately 13,000 to 15,000 other persons who are missing and presumed killed during the 1992-95 war. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, and citizens could file civil suits for human rights violations. The country has three ombudsmen (one Bosniak, one Croat, and one Serb), each with six- year mandates. At year's end the entities still maintained ombudsmen despite the law requiring entities to eliminate these positions when state-level positions were created. Property Restitution.--The country's four traditional religious communities had extensive claims for restitution of property that the government of the former Yugoslavia nationalized after World War II. The law provides religious communities the right to restitution of expropriated property ``in accordance with the law.'' In the absence of state legislation specifically governing restitution, return of former religious properties continued on an ad hoc basis at the discretion of municipal officials; these officials rarely completed such restitution, and usually did so in favor of the majority group in that particular municipality. On April 2, the Islamic community in Zvornik regained the possession of land in Divic, from which the Serb Orthodox Church had removed an illegally constructed church building built on the foundations of a prewar mosque. The Islamic community paid for the relocation. According to the local imam, the reconstruction of the mosque was underway at year's end. Many officials used property restitution cases as a tool of political patronage. Other unresolved restitution claims were politically and legally complicated. For example, the Serbian Orthodox Church continued to seek the return of the building that housed the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Economic Sciences. The Jewish and Muslim communities also asserted historic claims to many commercial and residential properties in Sarajevo. The Catholic community maintained a large number of similar claims in Banja Luka. Roma displaced during the 1992-95 conflict had difficulty repossessing their property as a result of discrimination and because they lacked documents proving ownership or had never registered their property with local authorities. The lack of documentation also prevented them from applying for reconstruction assistance. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. However, some Republika Srpska-based journalists continued to complain of telephone tapping and increased government surveillance. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government did not always respect press freedom in practice. Laws delegated safeguarding freedom of the press to the cantons in the Federation and to the entity-level authorities in the Republika Srpska. Defamation laws exist at the entity level, and freedom of information legislation exists at both the entity and state levels. Government respect for freedom of speech and the press continued to decline during the year. The Federation criminal code prohibits hate speech; the Republika Srpska criminal code does not. The broadcasting code of practice also regulates hate speech by broadcasters. The country's Communications Regulatory Agency (CRA) did not register any cases of hate speech during the year. However, independent analysts noted a tendency by politicians and other leaders to label unwanted criticism as hate speech. Many media outlets used language, often nationalistic, considered incendiary on matters related to ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and political affiliation. Both entities have defamation laws which were used in courts. Many independent, privately owned newspapers were available and expressed a wide variety of views. A number of independent print media outlets continued to encounter financial problems that endangered their operation. During the year the Press Council considered 116 complaints related to print media, accepting 32 as valid and rejecting 45 as unfounded. In some cases the council instructed media outlets to publish a refutation or a retraction, or advised the same, resolving 23 cases in this way. The council rejected 16 cases, as they were already in court procedures. Most of the complaints accepted by the council involved allegations that print media outlets denied persons the right to respond to reports and articles that they considered false or defamatory. The Press Council was faced with difficulty in preserving its status as an organization able to deal with media issues throughout the country. Political pressures on state-level broadcast media continued. Both Bosnia-Herzegovina Radio Television (BHRT) and the CRA were exposed to political pressure, with politicians often alleging a lack of impartiality. In the case of the BHRT, observers believed the attacks were aimed at undermining the state-level public broadcasters and building support for transferring media competencies from the state to the entity level. Other public broadcasters remained vulnerable to political influence as well. Two public broadcasters, Federation Television (FTV) and Radio Television of Republika Srpska (RTRS), remained the largest television broadcasters in the country. RTRS reported predominantly pro-Republika Srpska ruling party views. The status of the CRA remained shaky, and its authority was challenged on political grounds. The Council of Ministers failed, for a second year in a row, to appoint a CRA general manager and attempted to influence the selection of a candidate by making it part of broader political package. In April the mandate of CRA council members expired. At year's end, the state parliament had not completed procedures for appointing new council members. The few media outlets in the Republika Srpska that retained editorial independence continued to report government interference with their operations. A local commercial network of five stations operated in both entities (Mreza Plus), as did the private television networks OBN and PinkBH. Dozens of small independent television stations broadcast throughout the country. Radio continued to provide a forum for diverse points of view. In many cases, news programs of independent broadcasters reflected opposition perspectives. The majority of Republika Srpska media showed a distinct pro- Republika Srpska government bias. On September 17, that government reached a decision to distribute five million convertible marks ($3.6 million) to media outlets, including independent media, raising concerns about the impact of such financial support on editorial policies. On November 16, Republika Srpska media signed individual agreements with the government and received the first installment of these funds. Federation media outlets also exhibited political bias along ethnic lines, with some clearly taking positions in support of specific political or business interests. There were continued reports of threats against journalists. During the year the Free Media Help Line (a part of the Bosnian Journalists Association) registered 40 cases involving violations of journalists' rights and freedoms or pressure from government and law enforcement officials. During the year there were 13 cases of pressure on and threats to journalists that included six death threats, and four physical attacks. Other cases involved assault threats and denial of access to information. In some instances, media sources reported officials threatened media outlets with loss of advertising or limited their access to official information. Politicians and government officials also accused media outlets of opposing a given ethnic group or betraying their own ethnic group. Some Republika Srpska-based journalists complained of telephone tapping, increased government surveillance, actual or threatened lawsuits, repeated visits from tax authorities, and revocation of credit or loans. On February 8, residents of Gluha Bukovica attacked FTV journalists and held them for two hours while they were reporting on a local imam charged with pedophilia. The Islamic community accused several media outlets of ``Islamophobia'' for their reporting on the story. The Bosnia and Herzegovina Helsinki Committee for Human Rights (HCHR), the Office of the High Representative, and others strongly criticized the attacks. In May Republika Srpska Prime Minister Dodik filed suit for slander against the BETA news agency and a Banja Luka correspondent, Ljiljana Kovacevic, for reporting that SIPA submitted a report on suspected criminal activity against him and other persons in connection with questionable construction tenders. Dodik asked the court for 15,000 convertible marks ($11,000) in compensation for damages. On June 7, an unknown person verbally threatened the general secretary of the Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina Journalists, Borka Rudic. The individual was waiting for Rudic in front of her apartment building and, implying that she encouraged ``Islamophobia,'' said that she ``would see what would happen to her in the future.'' The incident was reported to the police, and an investigation was underway at year's end. On June 11, Alija Behram, the director of RTV Mostar and host of a political-themed television show, received a death threat by text message, which immediately followed the conclusion of a broadcast of his political show, during which he addressed several controversial political issues in Mostar. In the message, Behram was accused of working against Muslims and was told that ``your end is near.'' He reported the threat to the cantonal Ministry of the Interior, which announced that it would open an investigation. According to Behram, the police responded seven days after he initially reported the incident. The Free Media Help Line sent a letter to the police demanding a detailed investigation and protection for Behram. On June 27, convicted trafficker Tasim Kucevic was sentenced to an additional two years in prison for his April 21 assault on Safija Mahmutovic and verbal attack on FTV journalist Vildana Duran on the premises of the State Court. In the incident, Mahmutovic stopped Kucevic on his way into court and showed him a photo of her niece, one of his victims. Kucevic later verbally threatened Dzenana Karup-Drusko, a journalist for Dani magazine, and Avdo Avdic of ``60 Minutes'' for their reports on the incident. The media reported extensively on the attacks. The country's political leaders and representatives of judicial and executive branches, as well as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and associations of journalists, criticized the attack. In July, following the escape of Karay Kamal bin Ali from Zenica prison, FTV reported the prisoner had received a gift from Reis Ceric. In a July 29 press release, the Islamic community asserted that FTV's reporting was ``crucial evidence of the hatred that television spreads against the Islamic community.'' The press release claimed that FTV's coverage indicated ``the possibility of a repetition of genocide against'' Bosniaks. FTV noted and apologized for a factual error in its reporting of the gift exchange: Ceric had received a gift from Kamal bin Ali, rather than given a gift to him. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 35 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events; however, ethnic favoritism and politicization of faculty appointments constrained academic freedom. In Sarajevo, Serbs and Croats complained that Bosniaks received preferential treatment in appointments and promotions at the University of Sarajevo. The University of Banja Luka continued to limit faculty appointments almost exclusively to Serbs. The University of Mostar remained divided into two separate universities, reflecting the continued ethnic divide in the city. Parochial interests influence the remaining five universities in Bosniak-majority areas. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government, with certain exceptions, generally respected this right in practice. A wide range of social, cultural, and political organizations functioned without interference. The law allows NGOs to register freely; however, some NGOs and NGO associations experienced difficulties registering, including long delays and inconsistent application of the law. Some NGOs, frustrated by delays at the state level, chose instead to register their organizations at the entity level. On March 18, Slobodan Vaskovic, a reporter for FTV, and his cameraman were verbally attacked in Trebinje while filming a Serb Orthodox congregation during a religious service. According to the reports, the bishop's driver tried to break the crew's camera and take their equipment. Vaskovic and his crew sought refuge in the office of a local NGO, and were later escorted by police out of Trebinje. Vaskovic claimed that his car was later stoned while driving through Ljubinje. There was widespread public criticism of the attack, although the Serb Orthodox Church criticized the reporters for allegedly having political motivations. A police investigation continued at year's end. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion; however, societal abuses and discrimination based on religious belief restricted the ability of adherents of minority religions to worship as they pleased. The religions with the largest number of adherents in the country are Islam, Orthodoxy, and Catholicism. Bosniaks are predominantly Muslim, Serbs are predominantly Orthodox, and Croats are predominantly Catholic. In some cases, entity and local governments allowed or encouraged an atmosphere in which abuses of religious freedom could take place. Minor attacks on religious objects and religious officials occurred frequently, but a systematic obstruction of religious freedom in several high-profile cases remained. The reluctance of police and prosecutors to investigate and prosecute crimes against religious minorities aggressively remained a major obstacle to safeguarding the rights of religious minorities. The law requires religious communities to register with the Ministry of Justice; any religious group can register if it has at least 300 adult members who are citizens. Muslim, Serbian Orthodox, Jewish, and Catholic congregations registered, as did congregations of several smaller Christian denominations. The law provides for the right to religious education. The law calls for a representative of the various religious communities to teach religious studies in all public and private schools. However, authorities did not always fully implement the law, particularly in segregated school systems or where there was political resistance at the municipal level. Schools often offered religious instruction only in the municipality's majority religion. Authorities sometimes pressured parents to consent to religious instruction for their children. In some cases, peers and teachers pressured and discriminated against children who chose not to attend religion classes. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Individuals reported ethnically-motivated religious violence in many municipalities. Perpetrators directed violence at ethnic symbols, clerics, and religious buildings. Civil society representatives noted that political leaders tended to criticize incidents primarily in cases where members of their own ethnic group were victims. On January 30, a bomb was thrown at Hadzi Perviz Mosque in Banja Luka, causing minor damage. Police confirmed the attack and invited citizens to help them find the perpetrators. The Republika Srpska Minister of Interior Stanislav Cadjo, publically criticized the attack. On August 10, shots were fired at the Serb Orthodox Church building in the Sarajevo suburb of Reljevo. Sarajevo canton police arrested a 20-year-old man, who admitted firing the shots and claimed that he was drunk at the time. He was detained and a criminal procedure against him was opened. On September 20, according to media reports, unidentified persons threw rocks at the catholics while they were gathered at a mass at Londza cemetery near Donji Vakuf. One woman sustained light injuries. Police stated that they believed the attackers were minors whose identity would be determined in the course of the investigation. The case continued at year's end. There were a number of highly politicized cases involving the illegal construction of religious buildings or monuments on private or government-owned land. In these cases the buildings or monuments were built to send a political message to religious minorities about the dominance of the majority group in that area. There were no reports of anti-Semitic violence against members or properties of the Jewish community, which is estimated to be less than 1,000 people. In January unknown persons painted anti-Semitic graffiti in Mostar, Sarajevo, and Zenica, possibly in response to the conflict in the Gaza Strip. Also in January the Islamic youth magazine SAFF published an anti-Semitic article that used pejorative language in referring to Jewish victims of the Holocaust and the suffering of Jews in concentration camps during World War II. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights; however, some limits remained in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally-displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--The return of persons displaced by the 1991-95 wars in the former Yugoslavia continued to steadily decrease. According to the UNHCR, 984 persons (of whom 956 were minority returnees) returned during the year. Government officials and some NGOs, however, believed that the total number of returns was lower, since the UNHCR determines returns based on property restitution rather than physical presence. According to UNHCR, there were an estimated 117,345 registered displaced persons in the country still seeking return to their prewar places of residence. The difficult economic situation in the country remained a primary factor inhibiting returns, with many rural areas experiencing official unemployment rates above 40 percent. When jobs were available, minority returnees often complained of discrimination in hiring. In returnee areas throughout the country, the percentage of minorities holding municipal employment was neither representative of current populations, nor consistent with legally mandated percentages based on the 1991 census, indicating local government failures to implement and enforce the provisions of the law. A hostile return environment remained a factor. During the year observers noted a trend of attacks directed against symbols of minority groups, rather than attacks against individuals. Many returnees cited authorities' failure to apprehend war criminals as a disincentive to return. Many displaced persons created permanent lives away from their prewar homes, and only individuals with few other options (including a large number of elderly pensioners) tended to return. Other factors inhibiting returns were a lack of access to social benefits, a lack of available housing, and high municipal administration taxes on documents that were necessary for return, such as birth or land certificates. Minority returnees often faced intimidation, discrimination, and other obstructions in their access to education, health care, and pension benefits, as well as poor infrastructure. At the end of July, Bosniak returnees to Dzivare village near Trebinje reported they were exposed to numerous provocations, robberies, and verbal insults. For example on July 26, a group of people taunted Bosniak returnee children, asking them whether ``they would want some pork,'' singing Chetnik songs, and yelling ``this is Serbia.'' Returnees reported the incidents to the police, who responded by providing increased patrol in the area where the incidents occured. In the Republika Srpska, the Ministry for Refugees and Displaced Persons provided support to Bosniaks and Croats returning to the entity and to Bosnian Serbs returning to the Federation. The Federation Ministry for Refugees assisted Croats and Serbs returning to the Federation, and Bosniaks and Croats returning to the Republika Srpska. Both entity-level refugee ministries provided limited reconstruction assistance to returnees and also committed part of their budgets towards joint projects that were determined by the State Commission for Refugees. On June 18, a revised Return Strategy for Bosnia and Herzegovina was rejected by Republika Srpska delegates in the State House of Peoples, thus blocking the implementation of Annex VII of the Dayton Peace Accords (functionally, the country's constitution), which grants the right of refugees and displaced person to return to their prewar places of origin, or to be compensated for property that cannot be restored to them, and to freely choose their place of living. On July 15, the Republika Srpska government reduced the budget for the Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons by 15 million convertible marks ($11 million). Bosniak and Croat political representatives criticized the decision. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Asylum seekers with pending claims, regardless of national origin, may remain in asylum centers until their claims are adjudicated, which was normally three months, although in some cases longer. Asylum seekers have the right to appeal a negative decision, and the court is required to render a decision within two months. Asylum seekers have the right to education and legal redress for human rights complaints. However, they do not have the right to employment unless they are granted asylum. There were no reports of abuse of refugees, and adequate protection was provided to refugees in asylum centers. During the year the government did not grant temporary protection to any individuals not considered to qualify as refugees. Stateless Persons.--According to UNHCR statistics, there were approximately 10,000 stateless persons in the country at the end of the year. The law provides that a child born to one or two parents who are citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina is also a citizen, regardless of the place of birth. A child born on the territory of the country to parents who are not Bosnian citizens does not gain citizenship unless both parents are stateless persons. In practice, statelessness was often the result of complexities which arose from the breakup of the former Yugoslavia, and in some cases lack of registration for births or marriages. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic multiparty elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) concluded that the 2006 general election was largely conducted in line with international standards but noted problems, including problems with the registration process, group voting, irregularities in the counting process, and a few cases of voter intimidation. In September 2008 Republika Srpska special police units in Doboj arrested the director of the Center for Social Welfare and 16 Serb Democratic Party (SDS) activists on suspicion of buying votes ahead of the October 5 local elections. A hearing was held on December 23. All those indicted pled not guilty. A next hearing in the continuing trial had not been scheduled at year's end. Political parties generally operated without restriction or outside influence. Individuals and parties representing a wide spectrum of political views could freely declare their candidacies and run for election. The law provides that Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and ``others'' must be adequately represented in entity, cantonal, and municipal government institutions, based on the 1991 census until the returns process (as described in Annex VII of the Dayton Accords) is completed. However, this law was not respected in practice. Separate from the three constituent peoples, there were 16 recognized national minority groups. Nationalist rhetoric from leaders of all ethnic groups dominated political exchanges. In particular, Serb politicians regularly called into question the validity and existence of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and threatened to call a referendum in the Republika Srpska to secede from the state. The law requires that at least 30 percent of political party candidates be women. At year's end seven of 57 members of the parliament were women. There were no women in the nine-member Council of Ministers, although there were two female deputy ministers. At the entity level, women held three of 22 leadership positions in the Federation and two of 22 leadership positions in the Republika Srpska. Minorities remained severely underrepresented in government. There were no members of a minority group in the parliament and only one member of a minority in the Council of Ministers. On December 22, the ECHR handed down a ruling in the January 2006 case brought by representatives of the Jewish and Romani communities claiming that the provision of the constitution that precludes ``others'' (i.e. those outside the three ethnic constituencies) from becoming president violates the European Convention on Human Rights. The ECHR found that the Bosnian constitution discriminates against minorities other than the ``constituent peoples,'' and required Bosnia to bring its constitution in compliance with the European Convention for Human Rights. Separately, at year's end, the court had not rendered a judgment in response to the September 2007 application by a Bosniak from Srebrenica which sought redress with regard to a provision in the Republika Srpska constitution that precludes non-Serbs from running for president. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides for criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials frequently engaged in corrupt actions with impunity. According to World Bank governance indicators for 2008, corruption was a serious problem. While the law prohibits citizens from holding positions of public responsibility if they have pending criminal indictments against them, this prohibition was not observed in practice. On February 19, SIPA announced that it filed a criminal report for corruption against Republika Srpska government officials, including Prime Minister Milorad Dodik, in connection with allegations that they were involved in several illegal construction tenders. Although the Republika Srpska government cooperated with investigators, RS officials said the entity government would ``reassess'' its relationship with state-level law enforcement bodies. In March the media reported that the manager of the Federation Development Bank, Ramiz Dzaferovic, was under investigation for corruption by the Federation Financial Police. The investigation continued at year's end. On September 9, the State Court began corruption trials against Edhem Bicakcic and Dragan Covic, president of the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina party, for alleged offenses committed during the time they served as prime minister and deputy prime minister of the Federation, respectively. The trials continued at year's end. During the year Transparency International maintained its allegation that Prime Minister Dodik misappropriated public funds and pocketed revenue from the privatization of several formerly state-owned enterprises. Dodik claimed in press interviews that the NGO was engaging in blackmail and racketeering. Transparency International charged that Dodik's allegations were attempts at retaliation and complained that state-level judicial institutions failed to investigate the case against him. In June 2008 the State Court found Mladen Ivanic, president of the Party for Democratic Progress and a House of Peoples delegate, guilty of misuse of public funds when he was Republika Srpska prime minister from 2000-02. The court sentenced him to 18 months in prison. An appeal was pending at year's end, although Ivanic remained in office. Candidates for certain public offices, including candidates for parliament at the state and entity levels, and members of the Council of Ministers and entity governments are subject to financial disclosure laws. The Central Election Commission is responsible for ensuring compliance with these laws. Although the law provides for citizen access to government records, many government agencies did not comply with the law. According to the law, the government must provide an explanation for any denial of access, and citizens may appeal denials in the court system or to the ombudsman's offices. In practice, the government sometimes failed to provide the required explanation for denial of access unless citizens appealed to the ombudsman, the courts, or legal aid. Public awareness of the law remained low. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of human rights groups and NGOs generally operated without restriction, investigating and publishing their findings. However, government officials were often inefficient and slow to respond to their recommendations. The state-level government cooperated fully with international organizations, such as the Office of the High Representative, which has special powers over the government, as well as other international organizations, such as the ICRC and the OSCE. However, the Republika Srpska government was less cooperative with such organizations. Citizens' remedies for human rights violations included seeking assistance from the state ombudsman, whose recommendations were not binding. The law establishes a single state-level ombudsman institution composed of three members representing the country's three constituent groups that will eventually replace entity-level ombudsman institutions which had not been disbanded more than three years after passage of a law requiring such, though laws requiring this closure were passed by both Federation and Republika Srpska parliaments. The country's state parliament has a Joint Commission for Human Rights, Rights of Children, Youth, Immigration, Refugees, Asylum, and Ethics, comprised of members of both the House of Peoples and House of Representatives. The Commission, comprised of 11 members, regularly holds hearings, proposes legislation, and participates in human rights- related activities with governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The ICTY trial of Radovan Karadzic, a fugitive for 13 years, continued at year's end. One ICTY indictee wanted for crimes committed in the country, Ratko Mladic, remained at large. In a December 3 speech to the UN Security Council, ICTY Chief Prosecutor Serge Brammertz reported that the government continued to respond to all prosecution requests, but noted deep concern over the departure of international judges and prosecutors from the country. He noted that their departure could jeopardize continuing trial proceedings and war crimes investigations and that there could be serious repercussions for the ICTY's work. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or other social status; however, the government did not enforce these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape and spousal rape are illegal; the maximum penalty for either crime is 15 years' imprisonment. A sense of shame reportedly prevented some rape victims from complaining to authorities. While police generally responded to reports of sexual assault, they tended not to treat reports of spousal rape with the same seriousness. Violence against women, including domestic violence and sexual assault, remained widespread and underreported. According to NGO estimates, one- third of the women in the country were victims of domestic violence. Both entities have laws that require police to remove an offender from the family home. Experts estimated that only one-tenth of domestic violence victims reported the crime. Police received specialized training in handling cases of domestic violence, and there were two hotlines operating throughout the country that provided assistance to victims. During the year, the Republika Srpska domestic violence hotline had received 688 reports of domestic violence. There were several shelters throughout the country for victims of domestic violence. Prostitution is illegal. The law treats procuring as a major crime, but prostitution and solicitation are misdemeanors punishable by a fine only. Police raids on bars and brothels drove prostitution further underground. Single mothers, minorities, or other vulnerable women, particularly from economically depressed rural areas, were at higher risk of being recruited for exploitation. Couples and individuals had the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. The law prohibits sexual harassment, but it was a serious problem. Many NGOs reported that women experienced sexual harassment, but victims almost never filed complaints because they did not recognize their experiences as harassment and were not aware of their legal rights. Women have equal legal status to men, and authorities treated women equally in practice. The government's Agency for Gender Equality worked to inform women of their rights. The state- and entity-level parliaments had committees for gender equality. Although few women held positions of substantial economic or political power, they were represented in most professions. Results from a 2006 Labor Force Survey indicated that almost 63 percent of women of working age are inactive in formal labor markets, though the problem of employers underreporting employment in order to avoid mandatory social security contributions is prevalent. Authorities documented a small but increasing number of gender- related discrimination cases. Anecdotal accounts indicated that women and men generally received equal pay for equal work at government owned enterprises but not always at private businesses. Women in all parts of the country had problems with nonpayment of maternity leave allowances and the unwarranted dismissal of pregnant women and new mothers. Many job announcements openly advertised discriminatory criteria, such as age and physical appearance, for female applicants. Women remained underrepresented in law enforcement agencies, although there was continued progress. Children.--Under the country's laws, a child born to one or two parents who are citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina is also a citizen, regardless of the place of birth. A child born on the territory of the country to parents who are not Bosnian citizens does not gain citizenship unless both parents are stateless persons. The government failed to register the births of an estimated 1,000 children--mostly Roma--in the country. These children experienced significant obstacles in accessing social, educational, and health benefits. While education is free and compulsory through age 15, schools required parents to pay for books, lunches, and transportation. These expenses caused some children to drop out of school. A lack of reliable monitoring hindered efforts to ensure that children received an education. The law requires children with special needs to attend regular classes, but schools were often unable to accommodate them. According to the country's Roma Council, less than 35 percent of Romani children attended school regularly. Poverty prevented many Romani children from attending school. Authorities provided textbooks, meal allowances, and transportation allowances for Romani children. Verbal harassment from other students and language problems also contributed to the exclusion of Roma from schools. Students in minority areas frequently faced a hostile environment. Obstruction by nationalist politicians and government officials slowed efforts to abolish school segregation and enact other reforms. Federation cantonal governments and the Ministry of Education in the Republika Srpska pressured school directors at the primary and secondary level, and several schools were directed by hard-line political figures. Laws that provided for administrative and legal unification of the 52 cases of ``two schools under one roof,'' with separate classes for Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks, did not lead to integrated classrooms, although shared extracurricular activities, school entrances, and recreation facilities sometimes resulted. In some areas of the country, local officials and parents sought to establish complete physical segregation of Bosniak and Croat students. Many schools effectively entrenched segregation and discrimination. In the Republika Srpska, non-Serbs made up less than 5 percent of the teaching staff in primary and secondary schools. In the Federation, minority teachers made up between 5 and 8 percent of all teachers, depending on the canton. Children in primary and secondary schools studied from what some NGOs described as ``divergent, ethnically specific curricula.'' Family violence against children was a problem. Police investigated and prosecuted individual cases of child abuse. Some NGOs estimated that one in four families experienced domestic violence. Municipal centers for social work protected children's rights, but lacked resources and housing for children fleeing abuse or those whom they needed to remove from abusive homes. Trafficking in children for sexual exploitation or begging in organized begging rings was a problem. Child begging was common among Romani communities, including infants (with adults). There were also cases in which Romani parents sent children as young as four out to beg on street corners, often begging 10 or more hours per day in all weather conditions. In certain Romani communities, girls married between the ages of 12 and 14. The government did not have any programs that were aimed specifically at reducing the incidence of child marriage. Rape is a crime under entity criminal laws. The prescribed sentence for rape is from one to 10 years' imprisonment (if without aggravating circumstances). The minimum age for consensual sex is 18. In entity criminal codes, the crime of ``Abuse of a Child or Juvenile for Pornography'' carried a sentence of one to five years' imprisonment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, individuals and organized crime syndicates trafficked women and children for sexual exploitation, and children and adults, particularly from the Romani community, for begging and labor. There were reports that public officials were involved in trafficking. The country was primarily a country of origin for women and girls trafficked domestically for sexual exploitation and, to a lesser extent, a destination and transit point for foreign trafficking. Some victims from Serbia, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Iraq, and Russia were trafficked into the country through Serbia or Montenegro for commercial sexual exploitation. More than half of all documented trafficking victims were minors, and the number of victims trafficked within the country far surpassed the number of foreign victims. During the year there were cases of Romani children trafficked to and within the country for forced labor or begging. There were reports that some girls, particularly Roma, were trafficked for the purpose of forced marriage. The majority of women trafficked into the country came from Serbia or other East European countries. While no reliable estimates were available, individuals and organized crime syndicates may have trafficked a number on to Western Europe. Authorities also found Bosnian victims in other parts of Europe. During the year one victim was repatriated to the country through international referral mechanisms. During the year the number of reported victims continued to decline. Police raids forced trafficking further underground, often in private apartments, motels, and gas stations. There were no reliable estimates on the number of victims trafficked during the year. The Ministry of Security registered five new foreign trafficking victims through its referral mechanism. The state Ministry of Human Rights and Refugees registered 20 domestic victims of trafficking. Out of a total of 25 victims, 11 were minors. Under the law, trafficking is a state-level crime punished with up to 10 years in prison. During the year three trafficking cases were prosecuted at the state level, and a number at the entity and cantonal level. The Ministry of Security is responsible for coordinating antitrafficking law enforcement at all levels of government, but it was understaffed and lacked the capacity to comprehensively manage antitrafficking activities. During the year the Ministry of Security changed the Office of the State Coordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings and Illegal Migration to the Department for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. The change secured funding for planning, coordinating and monitoring human trafficking. The state prosecutor has authority to decide which cases to prosecute at the state level. The Department for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, which has a mandate that includes coordination of victim protection efforts among NGOs, police, and government institutions, is part of the Ministry of Security. The chief state prosecutor chaired a nationwide interagency investigative antitrafficking strike force that included prosecutors, police, and financial investigators. Authorities did not prosecute persons identified as trafficking victims for immigration or prostitution violations. In most cases, authorities voluntarily repatriated foreign victims. There continued to be reports of police and other official involvement in trafficking, particularly at the local level. Victims' groups alleged that, because of strong local networks, local police often accepted bribes in exchange for ignoring trafficking. There were no documented cases of official involvement in trafficking during the year. During the year authorities distributed antitrafficking manuals for use by government and civil society groups involved in the rehabilitation and reintegration of trafficking victims. Authorities also supported shelters and other services. The Department for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, in cooperation with the International Center for Migration Policy Development, maintained databases that tracked victims and traffickers, including data on the prosecution of trafficking with comprehensive information on known offenders. The law provides protection for domestic trafficking victims. In practice, competing state and entity laws concerning trafficking victims often led to confusion in their implementation. The government has a formal victim referral mechanism and memoranda of understanding with four NGOs that ran shelters for victims. NGOs operated safe houses throughout the country. At the shelters, victims received medical care, psychological counseling, legal assistance, repatriation assistance, and limited vocational training. Police protected the shelters effectively. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law in both entities prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities; however, there was discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, and access to health care and other state services. Children with disabilities lacked sufficient medical care and educational opportunities. In the Federation, the law mandates that all public buildings be retrofitted to provide access to persons with disabilities and that new buildings must also be accessible. However, buildings were rarely accessible to persons with disabilities in practice. The Republika Srpska had comparable laws for public access, but few older public buildings were accessible. There was clear discrimination between different categories of persons with disabilities, although the vast majority of such persons were unemployed. Persons with disabilities resulting from service during the 1992-95 conflict were given a privileged status above civilian war victims and persons who were born with disabilities. Many individuals with disabilities lived in institutions, although a growing number of programs for children with disabilities were available in schools. One NGO estimated that 30 percent of persons with disabilities residing in institutions were capable of independent living if housing and resources were available. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Ethnic differences remained a powerful force, although mixed communities existed peacefully in some areas. Harassment and discrimination against minorities continued throughout the country, often related to property disputes. These problems most often included desecration of graves, graffiti, arson, damage to houses of worship, verbal harassment, dismissal from work, threats, and assaults. On the night of August 11, a 20-year-old male fired two shots at the Serb Orthodox church building in Sarajevo's suburb of Reljevo. Sarajevo Canton Police arrested the perpetrator the next day, who immediately admitted to having committed the crime. He was detained and criminal proceedings were initiated. The case continued at year's end. On November 20, a bomb was detonated on the doorstep of the Serb Orthodox parish priest's home in Sanski Most (in the Federation). Priest Slobodan Visekruna was standing near the door at the time of the explosion, but sustained no injuries. Police and the cantonal prosecutor immediately came to the site and carried out a crime site investigation. The investigation continued at year's end. All local officials strongly condemned the incident and called on law enforcement agencies to complete the criminal investigation as soon as possible. On August 21, two young males verbally attacked Trebinje Imam Husein Effendi Hodzic in front of Osman Pasina Mosque in central Trebinje, and threatened to return. Hodzic promptly reported the incident to the police. The case remained unsolved at year's end. Ethnic discrimination in employment and education remained key problems. In most cases, employers did not reverse the widespread firing of members of ethnic minorities during and after the 1992-95 conflict, and employers often hired members of the local ethnic majority over minorities. Many smaller enterprises were owned by politically connected individuals, usually members of the majority group in their communities, and did not employ minorities. State and entity-level officials generally did not act to prevent such discrimination. The Roma population, estimated at 40,000 persons, experienced serious difficulties in exercising the full range of fundamental human rights provided to them under the law. The BiH HCHR estimated that only 1 percent of the working-age Roma population was employed and indicated that employers usually downsized Roma first during a reduction in force. Many Roma lacked birth certificates, identification cards, or a registered residence, preventing them from accessing health care and public education services or registering to vote. In September 2008 the country joined the 12-country Decade of Roma Inclusion initiative of central and southeast European countries to raise the socioeconomic status and encourage the social inclusion of Roma over the 2005 to 2015 period. As part of the initiative, the country adopted a national ``decade action plan'' that established goals and indicators in the initiative's four priority areas: education, employment, health, and housing. In coordination with Roma representatives, the state Ministry of Human Rights and Refugees was tasked with overseeing implementation of the action plan. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--While the law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, it was not enforced in practice, and there was frequent societal discrimination against gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender persons. Gays and lesbians faced frequent harassment and discrimination, including termination from employment. In some cases, dismissal letters explicitly stated that sexual orientation was the cause of termination, making it extremely difficult for them to find another job. During the year the Q Association conducted an awareness campaign to follow up on the September 2008 ``Queer Sarajevo Festival,'' which drew harsh, often discriminatory commentary from Islamic community leaders, and was the scene of numerous threats and several acts of physical violence. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--According to government statistics, there were 156 officially registered cases of HIV/AIDS in the country at year's end. The NGO XY-Association for Sexual and Reproductive Health estimated that the actual number of cases was at least 600. There was significant social stigma against persons with HIV/AIDS, a general lack of awareness of HIV/AIDS, and extremely limited resources to identify and assist those affected. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers in both entities (including migrant workers, but excluding members of the military) to form and join independent unions, and workers did so in practice. An ineffective state-level government NGO registration system was a problem. For example, the International Labor Organization (ILO) has criticized the government for not allowing the Trade Union of BiH (SSBIH), representing approximately 260,000 workers, primarily from Federation government-owned enterprises, to register as a union at the state level since 2002. Lack of formal recognition blocked the union from engaging in social dialogue on issues pertaining to state-level competencies with partners, although the government alleged that SSBIH lacks leadership and cohesion. The law provides for the right to conduct union activities without interference; however, authorities did not impose sanctions against employers who obstructed workers from organizing. Worker rights violations continued to be a lower priority for ministry inspectors, as state officials instead focused on bolstering state revenues by cracking down on unregistered employees and employers that did not pay taxes. Some unions reported that employers threatened employees of private companies with dismissal if they joined a union. The law provides for the right to strike in both entities, and workers exercised this right in practice. In the Federation, the law has burdensome requirements for workers who wish to conduct a strike. For example, a trade union cannot officially announce a strike to the employer before an agreement on the activities, or an arbitration award on those activities, is reached between the parties. This allows the employer to avoid addressing a proposal from the trade union, thus preventing a strike. In Republika Srpska, an overly-broad list of public service workers, including those in state radio and television and basic food production, must provide a minimum level of service in the event of a strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to bargain collectively in both entities. In both entities, general collective agreements, in which the minimum wage and other conditions of work are fixed, were negotiated by the respective governments and representative organizations of employers and workers. A number of private employers refused to recognize these agreements. Workers' and employers' organizations were not skilled in collective bargaining. Antiunion discrimination is prohibited by law but was widespread in both entities. The labor inspectorates and courts did not deal effectively with the many complaints of antiunion discrimination against employers. In practice, the government did not impose fines on employers who prevented workers from unionizing, a practice that was becoming more prevalent as private sector businesses replaced former state-owned enterprises that had a traditional union culture. Barriers to employees bringing complaints against employers included high unemployment rates, a backlogged court system, and the large number of unregistered workers in the gray economy, which by some estimates represent more than 40 percent of the workforce. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's four export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that individuals and organized crime syndicates trafficked women and children within and to the country for commercial sexual exploitation and sometimes for begging and forced labor. Victims of sexual exploitation worked primarily out of private apartments and homes or were driven to clients and forced to perform sexual services. They reported working in conditions akin to slavery, with little or no financial support, where they were intimidated, verbally threatened, and subjected to physical and sexual assault to keep them in a condition of servitude (see section 6--Trafficking in Persons). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- Entity-level labor laws restrict child labor, and the entity governments enforced these laws in practice. The minimum age for employment of children in the Federation and in Republika Srpska is 15 years; minors between the ages of 15 to 18 must provide a valid health certificate in order to work. The law prohibits children from performing hazardous labor. In the Federation, minors are prohibited from ``night work,'' except in exceptional circumstances. Although child labor was not generally a problem, children sometimes assisted their families with farm work and odd jobs. Reports also indicated that children worked on construction sites, in small, family owned shops, on the streets, and cleaned cars. Trafficking in children for sexual exploitation and sometimes for labor and begging was a problem. Organized begging rings exploited Roma children in particular, of which more than half were under the age of 14 and did not attend school. Entity governments are responsible for enforcing child labor laws. Neither entity had inspectors dedicated to child labor inspections, and authorities investigated violations of child labor laws as part of a general labor inspection. Both entities' labor inspectorates reported that they had not found significant violations of child labor laws in the workplace, although they did not conduct reviews of children working on family farms. The government did not collect data on child labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The monthly minimum wage in the Federation was 343 convertible marks ($250). In the Republika Srpska, the monthly minimum wage was 320 convertible marks ($234). Neither minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. In the Federation, the minimum wage was established by a joint commission that included representation of employers, workers, and the Federation government. The commission met annually to determine the minimum wage. Labor inspection agencies at the entity level were responsible for enforcing the minimum wage. In the case of the Federation, the entity agency was responsible for large state-owned enterprises, while cantonal inspection agencies were responsible for small, private businesses. The agencies were effective at enforcing the minimum wage, largely because the wage was low and a smaller problem in comparison to employers not reporting actual salaries in an effort to avoid payment of social contributions. Many workers had outstanding claims for back payment of salaries and pensions. The law requires employers in both entities to make substantial mandatory contributions to pension and health care funds. To avoid paying high social welfare benefits, employers often did not officially register their employees, leaving employees without access to public health care and unable to officially transfer to another employer. The employer obligation to the government for large social contributions led to an increase in black market employment, as employers preferred employees that were ``off the books'' to official salaried ones. Many employers were behind, sometimes for years, in paying salaries or providing health and pension benefits to employees of public works and institutions. The legal workweek in both entities is 40 hours; however, seasonal workers may work up to 60 hours per week. The law limits overtime to 10 hours per week in both entities; the Federation has no provision for premium pay, while the Republika Srpska requires a 30 percent premium. An employee in the Republika Srpska may volunteer for an additional 10 hours in exceptional circumstances. Federation and Republika Srpska laws require a minimum rest period of 30 minutes during the workday. In the very large informal economy, no working hours, daily and weekly rest, or annual leave protections could be enforced and were generally believed to be lacking. Authorities did not adequately enforce regulations related to acceptable work conditions. While entity labor inspectorates made some effort to enforce registration of employees, they limited most inspections to conditions affecting the officially registered workforce. Since the courts only served as recourse for complaints involving registered workers, the Republika Srpska labor inspectorate had to submit fines and penalties for court approval; due to court backlogs, this system was not effective, and many workers for practical purposes worked without protections. Republika Srpska law holds employers responsible for analyzing and improving working conditions. The law provides workers the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their employment; however, this right was not effectively enforced in practice. Workers' rights extended to all official, i.e. registered, workers, including migrant and temporary workers. According to informal estimates, approximately 40 percent of the total work force was unregistered. __________ BULGARIA The Republic of Bulgaria is a parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 7.6 million. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral National Assembly (Narodno Sabranie). The country is ruled by a minority government headed by a prime minister. General elections held in July were deemed generally free and fair but were marred by numerous reports of vote buying and late changes to the electoral system that were supported only by the previous ruling coalition. While civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of law enforcement organizations, there were some instances in which law enforcement officers acted independently. There were problems with police abuse and mistreatment of pretrial detainees, prison inmates, and minorities; harsh conditions in prisons and detention facilities; and official impunity. There were some limitations on freedom of the press; discrimination against religious minorities; and pervasive government corruption in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The new government took initial steps to address corruption, and progress was made by year's end. Other problems included violence against women and children, and substandard education for Romani children; harsh conditions in state-run institutions for children; trafficking in persons; discrimination against persons with disabilities; and discrimination against minority groups. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, during the year four persons in police custody died under unclear circumstances. Three cases involved accusations that the police did not provide adequate medical attention to seriously ill detainees. In the fourth case, prosecutors charged two police officers for placing a hood over a detainee who then suffocated during his transfer to another detention center. On August 5, the military appellate court upheld the sentencing of former Blagoevgrad police officers who were convicted of beating to death Angel Dimitrov while arresting him in 2005. The case was pending a Supreme Court review at year's end. On August 10, more than 1,000 police officers and supporters protested in front of the courthouse in Blagoevgrad in support of the officers. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. Ransom kidnappings involving wealthy businessmen and their families remained a problem. In December police arrested more than 30 members of a kidnapping gang believed to be responsible for 17 to 19 kidnappings. At year's end the alleged leaders of the gang remained in jail awaiting trial. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, police sometimes beat suspects, particularly members of minority groups. Police can detain persons for 24 hours without charging them. Human rights observers noted a continuing decline of cases where police arrested suspects for minor offenses and physically abused them to force confessions. However, there were reports that this practice was more widely used with Romani suspects. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that Romani victims have been more willing to lodge official complaints against the authorities. Human rights groups continued to claim that medical examinations in cases of police abuse were not properly investigated and that offending officers were very rarely punished. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) delivered judgments that found 11 violations by the government involving the prohibition against inhuman or degrading treatment under the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally did not meet international standards, and the government did not allocate funds to make significant improvements. Conditions in some prisons were harsh, with inadequate toilet facilities and insufficient heating and ventilation. The daily food allowance was approximately 2.5 levas ($1.85). NGOs received complaints about both the quality and quantity of food. Overcrowding remained a serious problem. At year's end there were 9,071 prisoners in the country's 13 prisons, fewer than in the previous three years but still several times more than capacity. NGOs received complaints from prisoners about insufficient space and considered this a major factor contributing to brutality among inmates. Guards' mistreatment of inmates continued to be a problem. On September 9, the Bulgarian Helsinki Committee (BHC) filed a claim against the Ministry of Justice on behalf of a prisoner who was beaten by another inmate in October 2008 in the Varna prison, accusing the ministry of providing inadequate guard supervision and failing to provide physical security to prisoners. In February 2008 the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released the report of its 2006 visit to the country's prisons and detention facilities. The CPT noted that while the majority of persons with whom it met were treated correctly, numerous persons alleged physical mistreatment at the time of apprehension or subsequent questioning by police officers. Mistreatment consisted mainly of kicks, punches, slaps, and blows with truncheons or other hard objects. This abuse was combined with psychological pressure to induce a detainee to confess to a crime. All prisoners have the right to work, and two days of work reduced the prison term by three days. In practice the prison administration offered work to only a limited number of prisoners in minimum-security prisons. Prisoners alleged that the system for determining what type of prison regime one received was corrupt and lacked oversight. Two members of an organized crime group specialized in kidnapping, arrested on December 16, reportedly had participated in illegal activities while completing a previous work program. As a result, the interior minister requested an internal review of the work program. Citing financial constraints, prison authorities acknowledged difficulties diagnosing and treating the increasing numbers of drug- dependent inmates and limiting their access to narcotics. According to the prison administration, approximately 1,200 prisoners or 13 percent of the prison population were drug dependent. In 2008 the ECHR found that the government violated the rights of prisoners with substandard conditions of detention. The government took some measures to improve the conditions in detention centers. Prisoners reported substandard conditions to the prison administration, the ombudsman, and the court system. During the year prisoners filed 1,062 complaints with the prison administration claiming poor conditions and denial of rights. At year's end there were 1,024 detainees in the country's 43 pretrial detention centers. Foreign prisoners serving longer terms were held in a separate prison in Sofia to provide easier access to consular services. Men and women were held in separate prisons and generally treated the same. During the year the government generally permitted independent monitoring of prisons by independent observers, including the CPT's December 2008 visit to the country's detention facilities, as well as the BHC's periodic visits. The CPT reported severe overcrowding and understaffing, unhygienic conditions, and insufficient medical facilities. In 2008 the ECHR delivered judgments that found 40 violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, there were reports that police at times ignored these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Interior Ministry is responsible for law enforcement. On October 1, the government created organized crime task forces focused on complicated, high-level organized crime and corruption. In November the parliament passed a high-profile bill to reform the State Agency for National Security (DANS), clarifying its law enforcement role in relation to the Ministry of Interior. The bill removed organized crime, drugs, dual-use goods, and transborder crime from the agency's jurisdiction and prohibited DANS from conducting controlled delivery and undercover operations. DANS is now strictly responsible for domestic intelligence analysis. During the year media and NGOs continued to criticize DANS for lack of results and for the apparent politicization of high-profile disputes in the agency that led to the dismissal and resignation of several senior civil servants. In August the newly elected government appointed new leadership to head the agency. The National Intelligence Service and the National Protective Service, which answer to the president, continued to operate in the absence of judicial, executive, and legislative oversight. Impunity remained a problem. NGOs claimed that military judges, who were responsible for all military and Ministry of Interior appeals, were vulnerable to influence, as the defense minister had the power to confirm their appointments as well as to promote or demote them in rank. However, there were no specific reports of such pressure during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--While not required, police normally obtained a warrant from a prosecutor prior to apprehending an individual. Detainees were generally informed promptly of the charges against them. Police may hold a detainee 24 hours without charge, and a prosecutor may authorize detention for up to 72 hours without charge. Prosecutors could not arrest military personnel without the defense minister's approval. A court must approve detention for more than 72 hours; such detention could last up to two years for the most serious charges. The law provides for bail, and bail was widely used. The law provides for the right to counsel from the time of detention; however, police often failed to inform detainees of this right, and detainees often lacked timely access to a lawyer. The February 2008 CPT report of its 2006 visit stated police effectively denied suspects the right to counsel during initial interrogations. The law provides state-funded legal aid for low-income defendants, but a lack of coordination hindered the program's implementation. Long delays awaiting trial were common, and there was a large backlog of outstanding investigations. Tough statutorily mandated time limits for investigations often resulted in hasty indictments that were returned by judges for additional investigation. On April 22, the country passed an amnesty law that terminated pending cases and released an estimated 400 convicts. The amnesty law granted a reprieve for all types of crimes due to ``negligence'' for which the maximum penalty was five years in prison that were committed prior to July 2008. In practice this meant that for crimes punishable by up to five years in prison, prosecutors could only bring to court those guilty of ``intentionally'' committing a crime, a standard that was difficult to prove. Prosecutors complained the law effectively barred investigations of abuse of public office. The new government was challenging the constitutionality of this law in the constitutional court at year's end. In 2008 the ECHR delivered 25 judgments that found violations by the country of the right to a speedy trial. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, political influence, widespread corruption, inefficiency, and lack of accountability were problems. The Supreme Judicial Council appoints, disciplines, and dismisses judges, investigators, and prosecutors; investigates complaints of judicial misconduct; and recommends disciplinary action. Observers noted that the council was slow to exercise its authority and implement internal discipline. From January to October, the council dismissed seven magistrates for professional misconduct. During the year NGOs alleged that the council's decisions to replace a large number of magistrates were not merit based. Cases are reviewed through a three-tier court system, which consists of regional courts, district courts (which act both as trial and appeals courts), appellate courts, the Supreme Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Administrative Court. Administrative courts hear citizens' appeals of actions taken by the central and local government. Judicial and investigative backlogs remained a serious problem in some jurisdictions. Despite modest improvements, long delays awaiting criminal trials were common. According to practitioners, the law did not sufficiently reduce the opportunities for delaying cases. Prosecutors continued to dismiss criminal charges when the statute of limitations had been reached. From January to June, prosecutors dismissed approximately 70,000 cases. In 2008 more than 235,000 cases were dismissed. The courts often granted continuances to defense lawyers, which delayed hearings and sentencing, particularly in organized crime cases. One particularly notorious organized crime case has been postponed 27 times since 2006. In 2008 the ECHR delivered judgments that found eight violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--Defendants are presumed innocent and are allowed ample time to prepare a defense. All court hearings are public except for cases involving national security, endangerment of public morals, and the privacy of juvenile defendants. There are no juries. In cases involving serious crimes, the professional judge is joined by two lay judges. If a crime may entail imprisonment for more than 15 years, two professional judges and three lay judges hear the case. In such circumstances, verdicts are determined by majority vote Defendants have the right to be present at their trials. A defense attorney is mandatory if the alleged crime carries a punishment of 10 or more years in prison for juveniles, foreigners, persons with mental or physical disabilities, or for trials conducted in the absence of the accused. Defendants have the right to confront witnesses, to examine evidence, and to present their own witnesses and evidence. The law provides for the right of appeal, which was widely used. Trial procedures apply equally to all citizens. In 2008 the ECHR delivered judgments that found 25 violations by the government of the European Convention on Human Rights with regard to length of proceedings. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters; however, civil cases were plagued by the same long delays as criminal cases. Allegations of human rights abuses may be filed with courts and also with the Commission for Protection against Discrimination, which may impose sanctions on violators. In 2008 the ECHR delivered judgments that found 21 violations by the government of the right to an effective remedy as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Property Restitution.--In May the Jewish community was able to regain possession and physically occupy a formerly state-run hospital in central Sofia. The hospital management's appeal of the court's ruling remained pending at year's end. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these provisions in practice. During the year following the 2008 investigation of DANS, the parliament established an oversight committee for DANS that determined the organization had acted on the orders of the former DANS chairman when it obtained telephone records and possibly voice recordings of calls by members of parliament and journalists. The committee referred the case to the prosecutor general and recommended launching an internal investigation. NGOs reported that in some poor rural areas local authorities denied government services, including employment and scholarships, to individuals who lacked proof of membership in the local ruling political parties. In 2008 the ECHR delivered judgments that found seven violations by the government of the right to respect for private and family life as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, there were reports that individuals with political and economic interests intimidated journalists. NGOs reported that journalists practiced self-censorship, or took money from political and business leaders and organized crime to plant positive stories about them. Individuals criticized the government freely without reprisal. However, in rural areas offering fewer employment opportunities, individuals were more hesitant to criticize local governments. Media organizations and in a few cases political parties freely published a variety of newspapers. Private television and radio stations provided a variety of news and public interest programming. However, NGOs complained that recent acquisitions of a number of media outlets by groups affiliated with business and political interests had led to a partial monopolization of the private media and limited the variety of views available in print and on television. Both print and electronic media were susceptible to economic and, to a certain degree, political influence. Although the state-owned media presented opposition views, observers believed that the law was inadequate to protect their programming independence and left these media vulnerable to government pressure. In September 2008 four men severely beat and critically injured Frognews editor in chief Ognian Stefanov. Authorities suspected that Frognews was affiliated with the Web site opasnite.net, which was closed for reportedly publishing classified information. Following the incident, Frognews editors complained of multiple death threats. An investigation into Stefanov's beating continued at year's end. Libel is punishable under the law. Usually the courts interpreted the law in a manner that favored journalistic expression. Many defamation cases were prompted by reporting about corruption or mismanagement, and the most frequent plaintiffs were government officials or other persons in public positions. In 2008 the prosecution service determined that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Volen Siderov, leader of Attack, a far-right nationalist party, for a February 2007 incident when he and a group of 50 supporters, angered by press reports about the sources of their party's funding, broke into the offices of the 24 Hours daily and 168 Hours weekly newspapers and threatened employees. In 2008 there was one suit before the ECHR alleging denial of freedom of expression. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to the International Telecommunication Union, the Internet penetration rate was an estimated 35 percent. However, many less- developed rural areas did not have the infrastructure to support Internet services. In December 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court struck down a January 2008 decree that allowed security services to gather data on Internet users' activities. The court ruled that the decree lacked limitations on the data that the services could access. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law requires groups requesting a permit for gatherings to give 48 hours' notice (five days' notice for a demonstration). Mayors can prohibit, dismiss, or suggest an alternative site for a gathering they regard as posing a threat to public order, security, or traffic. On January 14, police arrested more than 150 protesters participating in an antigovernment rally. The mayor of Sofia shut down the demonstration after police received a bomb threat. Opposition parties and civic organizations called for the interior minister's resignation, alleging police used excessive force to disperse the crowd. The prosecution service declined to investigate these allegations, claiming that police responded properly to protesters who were throwing rocks, bottles, and firecrackers. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law prohibits groups that endanger national unity or promote racial, national, or religious hatred; violate the rights of citizens; or seek to achieve their objectives through violent means. The government generally respected the rights of individuals and groups to establish their own political parties or other political organizations. Political parties based on religious, ethnic, or racial affiliation are illegal. In practice the prohibition did not appear to weaken the role of some ethnic minorities in the political process; a number of parties in reality represented various ethnic minority groups. NGOs may not engage in political activity. The law requires a political party to have 5,000 members to register officially. During the year the government continued to prevent the Macedonian activist group Ilinden from registering as a political party, despite a 2005 ECHR judgment against the cancellation of the group's original registration. During the year Ilinden members continued to complain of hostile treatment by local authorities, including police questioning members about their affiliation with the group. During the year the Sofia Appellate Court upheld the decision of the Blagoevgrad Regional Court, which refused to register the Nikola Vaptsarov Macedonian cultural and educational society. The court decided there was no separate Macedonian ethnicity in the country, and some of the organizations' goals, as outlined in the statute, inferred the existence of such an ethnicity. c. Freedom of Religion.--Although the constitution provides for freedom of religion, the law and the government restricted this right for some religious groups not registered by the courts. An estimated 85 percent of the population was Orthodox Christian. Muslims comprised the largest minority, estimated at 13 percent. According to the Council of Ministers Religious Confessions Directorate, there were approximately 150,000 evangelical Protestants, up to 30,000 Armenian Christians, and 3,000 Jews. The law designates the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as the ``traditional'' religion and requires other religious groups to register with the government to operate and be recognized as legal entities or to conduct religious activities outside of their places of worship. By the end of the year, there were more than 100 religious groups registered. The state budget allocated approximately 3.3 million levas ($2.5 million) for registered religious groups, including the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the Muslim community, the Jewish community, the Armenian Apostolic Church, Protestants, and other groups. An estimated 2.8 million levas ($2.1 million) was allocated for the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, mostly for renovating and maintaining church property. Human rights organizations criticized the law's preferential treatment of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church and expressed concern the requirement that groups submit a statement of their beliefs constituted an infringement on freedom of religion. On January 22, the ECHR ruled that the government violated the rights of the Alternative Orthodox Synod when it expelled members from their parishes in 2004. The court gave the parties three months to negotiate mutually agreeable compensation. As of the end of the year, the parties failed to reach an agreement on compensation. The ECHR ruling on the amount of compensation was pending. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were some manifestations of public intolerance of nontraditional religious groups and religious minorities. Since 2008 there were 110 cases of vandalism against mosques, including an October 7 fire that completely destroyed the Nokopol mosque; authorities determined the fire was arson. On October 8, the government announced that it would provide 25,000 levas ($19,230) to repair this mosque and another mosque that was also damaged in a fire believed to be accidental. The investigation into the arson continued at year's end. According to the Jewish organization Shalom, anti-Semitism was not widespread, but there were increasing reports of anti-Semitic incidents prior to the July 5 national elections. On June 24, vandals broke a memorial slab in Blagoevgrad, in the southwest, before its unveiling. The memorial was dedicated to Jews from Aegean Thrace who died in the Auschwitz concentration camp. On July 13, several Molotov cocktails were thrown at the former synagogue and the Jewish school in the coastal city of Burgas. In 2008 a Jewish cemetery in Shumen was desecrated; the youths were caught and ordered by the court to attend an educational program In January anti-Semitic slogans, including ``Juden Verboten'' (Jews forbidden), were painted on the Holocaust memorial in Plovdiv. Jewish organizations expressed concern over the lack of public reaction to these incidents from the government and the lack of successful prosecutions. On May 21, the Sofia municipal council decided to name one of the capital city's streets after Bogdan Filov, a prominent scholar and former prime minister. As prime minister, Filov's government passed anti-Semitic legislation, advocated the country's alliance with Nazi Germany, and deported approximately 12,000 Jews from present-day Macedonia and Greece to concentration camps in Germany and Poland. In response to local and international outrage, then Sofia mayor and now Prime Minister Boyko Borissov submitted a report to the Sofia City Council calling for the annulment of this decision. On October 2, the Sofia City Council annulled the decision, returning the street to its original name. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The law provides for asylum or refugee status. The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, and the government has established a system for protecting refugees. The government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedoms would be threatened. The UNHCR claimed that the risk of genuine refugees being rejected was limited. Nonetheless, observers remained concerned about the institutional capacity of the government to process requests and transfer applicants to shelters. According to lawyers, the practice of sending asylum seekers who enter illegally to the Center for Temporary Accommodation of Foreigners in Busmantsi resulted in their being treated as illegal immigrants, subject to potential deportation. In Busmantsi there were numerous reports of guards mistreating detainees and of stays exceeding six months. Detainees also complained of poor living conditions and inadequate access to legal counsel. The May 15 amendments to the Foreigners Act set a maximum six-month period of detention. The law requires that persons seeking refugee status file an application within ``a reasonable time'' after entering the country. On October 6, Hassun Albaddj, a rejected asylum applicant from Syria, died in the Busmantsi detention center. He was in custody since 2006 and was reportedly one of two individuals not released after the amendments to the law. A preliminary review found no evidence of physical abuse. However, witnesses claimed that guards ignored repeated requests for medical attention. At year's end human rights groups were waiting for a response to a formal inquiry sent to the Interior Ministry requesting information on Albaddj's immigrant status and medical condition prior to his death. The government reported that the number of refugee applicants had been steadily decreasing, except for a slight increase in 2007 following EU accession. As of December, the government granted asylum in 39 cases and denied it in 358 cases of a total of 689 applications during the year. Most applications came from citizens of Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Armenia, Algeria, and the Palestinian territories. As of December, the government also provided temporary protection, described by the law as ``humanitarian status,'' to 216 persons who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol. The UNHCR expressed some concerns about the government's processing of Iraqi asylum applications. The government maintained its high rejection rate for Iraqi asylum seekers. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens generally exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage; however, the June 12 European parliament election and July 5 general elections were marred by reports of large-scale vote buying. Elections and Political Participation.--Despite persistent vote- buying allegations and the previous ruling coalition's late changes to the electoral system, the July 5 parliamentary election was widely regarded as free and fair. According to election observers, the June 12 European Parliament election was also marred by widespread reports of vote buying, which had a greater influence on the results than in the July 5 elections due to the lower voter turnout. NGOs estimated that 10 to 16 percent of the votes in the June elections were purchased or manipulated. As of October, there were two convictions on vote-buying charges, and the prosecution service was investigating another 87 cases. On April 14, parliament amended the election law, only two months before the national election, creating a mixed electoral system. Under the new system, individuals voted for both a political party and a particular ``majoritarian'' candidate. The introduction of the ``majoritarian'' element in the electoral system compromised the principle of the equality of the vote due to a significant variation in population sizes of the majoritarian districts, and it was implemented without broad consensus. Another significant type of violation, linked to the change in the election law, was the organized busing of voters from their home districts to districts in which majoritarian candidates needed extra votes, usually referred to as ``election-day tourism.'' Observers noted that the surge in vote buying was prompted by efforts of business circles and organized crime figures to enter parliament through the new majoritarian seats. Bussed voters allegedly received money, food, and a free excursion in exchange for voting outside their districts. On September 2, the parliament established a committee to investigate numerous accusations of double voting and improper registration of citizen voters living in Turkey. According to the committee, the majority of the irregularities (64.4 percent of reported cases) was unintentional and resulted from officials' incompetence or disregard of procedures to cut time for voting and processing of results. The committee recommended drafting new election legislation. The law provided immunity for candidates. This resulted in the release of parliamentary candidates who were charged with serious crimes, including leaders of organized-crime groups, from pretrial detention. Despite losing the election and immunity, two accused organized-crime figures were able to post bond and were not returned to detention. There were 50 women in the 240-seat national assembly, compared with 51 elected in 2005. A number of women held elective and appointive offices at high levels in the government, including four ministers. Women held key positions in the national assembly, including the speaker of parliament, one deputy speaker, and chairmanship of three of the 24 standing committees. The 29 members of minority groups in the--assembly included 28 ethnic Turks and one Rom. There was one ethnic Turkish minister in the cabinet. While the ethnic Turkish minority was well represented, Roma were underrepresented, particularly in appointed leadership positions. Pomaks (ethnic Bulgarians who are Muslims) held elected positions at the local level. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The new government, elected on an anticorruption platform, pressed charges against four former ministers and fired several other high- level government officials for corruption. The overly formal judicial system made it difficult for the judiciary to prosecute high-profile organized crime cases effectively. Corruption was pervasive in the country and plagued all branches of government. Corrupt practices included bribery, EU funds fraud, elaborate embezzlement schemes, legislation protecting private interests, and official protection for organized crime figures. Corruption reportedly was severe in high civil and administrative courts. In October the judicial system became mired in a scandal involving an influence broker who allegedly claimed he could sway eight to 13 of the Supreme Judicial Council votes needed to obtain a high-level judicial appointment in exchange for $200,000. A Supreme Judicial Council and prosecutor's office investigation found 31 prosecutors and judges and three Supreme Judicial Council magistrates to have been in contact with the broker. The scandal led to the resignation of five magistrates and two of the 25 Supreme Judicial Council members responsible for appointing, promoting, and dismissing members of the judiciary. In its July 22 report, the European Commission severely criticized the country for misuse of EU funds. In 2008 the EU blacklisted two government agencies handling EU assistance and stripped the country of an estimated 486 million euros (approximately $729 million) in EU funding. On September 9, the government adopted a 57-point plan to implement the EU's recommendations to reform law enforcement and the judiciary. On September 10, the EU unblocked 156 million euros ($230 million) in preaccession agriculture funds due to the new government's initial efforts to implement EU recommendations. On September 30, the trial on charges of document fraud and embezzlement of EU funds resumed for Mario Nikolov and eight other members of the Nikolov-Stoykov group; the trial had been suspended while one of the codefendants, Ivan Ivanov, unsuccessfully ran for parliament. The trial continued at year's end. On April 22, the Sofia Appellate Court upheld the acquittal of former interior minister Rumen Petkov on charges that he leaked the identity of a DANS agent. Petkov was reelected to parliament in July. On March 18, the Sofia City Court dismissed all charges of fixing soccer matches by manipulating referees against the former deputy chair of the State Sports Agency Ivan Letkov. The soccer referees who brought charges against Letkov declined to testify or provide evidence against him. On May 13, the Supreme Judicial Council officially dismissed the chair of Varna administrative court Anelia Tsvetkova for undermining the prestige of the judiciary. DANS arrested Tsvetkova in July 2008 for bribery and confiscated 150,000 levas ($115,000) from her home. Her trial on bribery charges was pending at year's end. The law mandated that government officials declare any circumstances in which they could be accused of using their position for personal profit. According to the law, high-level public officials who fail to submit a financial disclosure declaration can be fined as much as 1,500 levas ($1,100). According to the National Audit Office, during the year 71 of 6,656 officials did not submit their annual declaration within the statutory deadline, compared with 55 out of 5,952 officials in 2008. The law provides for public access to government information; however, in practice the government often restricted such access. NGOs reported that citizens increasingly appealed denials of information requests and petitioned the courts to overrule the decisions. While the courts allowed greater access to government information, court decisions were rarely implemented. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated, investigated, and published their findings on human rights cases without government restriction. Human rights observers reported uneven levels of cooperation from various national and local government officials. During the year the ombudsman received approximately 2,500 complaints of violations of citizens' rights and freedoms compared with 2,400 in 2008. The majority of complaints concerned property issues, quality of public services, and social assistance programs. By law the ombudsman reviews individuals' complaints against the government for violations of rights or freedoms. The ombudsman can request information from state authorities, act as an intermediary in resolving disputes, make proposals for terminating existing practices, and refer information to the prosecution service. Many NGOs criticized the ombudsman for focusing on administrative issues rather than actively engaging on human rights cases. During the year the ECHR issued 63 judgments against the country and ordered the government to pay 1.4 million euros ($2.02 million) for violations, including denial of fair trial rights, an unreasonably slow judicial process, substandard prison conditions, mistreatment of detainees and prisoners, and other human rights abuses. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination on the grounds of race, gender, disability, social status, and sexual orientation; however, the law does not prohibit discrimination on the basis of language. Societal discrimination continued, particularly against women, sexual minorities, and ethnic minorities. Trafficking in persons continued to be a problem. The government investigated complaints of discrimination, issued rulings, and imposed sanctions against violators. During the year the government raised public awareness and continued to implement administrative provisions of the widely used antidiscrimination law. This law allows claimants to pursue a case through the court system or through the Commission for Protection against Discrimination. During the year the commission received 1,039 complaints, compared with 714 in 2008. More than half of all complaints concerned labor discrimination. Approximately 30 percent of the cases involved complaints of multiple types of discrimination. The commission found 115 cases of discriminatory practices and imposed 61 fines on violators. In November human rights NGOs protested the government's approval of a report, which recommended reducing the members of the antidiscrimination commission from nine to five. NGOs claimed this move, justified by state budget cuts due to the financial crisis, would seriously limit the commission's capacity to review discrimination claims and ensure protection of citizens' rights. In 2008 there was one suit before the ECHR alleging discrimination. Women.--Rape is illegal but underreported due to the stigma attached to it. Spousal rape can be prosecuted under the general rape statute; however, it was rarely prosecuted in practice. Sentences for rape range from two to eight years in prison (from three to 10 if the victim is a blood relative). When rape results in serious injury or suicide, sentences range between 10 and 20 years' imprisonment. Authorities generally enforced laws against rape when violations came to their attention. According to NGOs, the social taboo experienced by rape victims discouraged them from reporting the crime, and it was a far more serious obstacle to prosecution than police reluctance to investigate. NGOs reported that domestic violence was a serious problem. Although there were no precise statistics on its occurrence, police believed that one of every four women had been a victim. The law defines domestic violence as any act of, or attempt at, physical, psychological, or sexual violence against members of one's family or between cohabitating persons. In December the parliament adopted amendments that expanded the law's scope to include emotional and economic pressure. The revisions also obliged the government to adopt annually by March 31 an action plan for the law's implementation and ensure state funding for it. The law empowers the court to deal with offenders by imposing fines, issuing restraining or eviction orders, or requiring special counseling. NGOS assessed the implementation of the law positively, and stated that the courts issued more restraining orders. In April the parliament approved amendments that criminalized violators' failure to adhere to a court restraining order. A local NGO operated a 24-hour hotline for women in crisis, and other NGOs provided short-term protection and counseling to victims in 15 crisis centers around the country. Police and social workers referred victims of domestic violence to NGO-run shelters, but NGOs complained that local authorities rarely provided financial assistance for operational costs. Prostitution is neither illegal nor specifically addressed in the law. A variety of activities associated with prostitution, such as procuring and enticement into prostitution, are illegal, but remained serious problems. Poor socioeconomic conditions contributed to a disproportionately higher number of Romani women in organized prostitution. Sexual harassment is punishable under prohibitions against coercion, which carry a punishment of up to six years in prison. Sexual harassment is also identified as a specific form of discrimination under the antidiscrimination law, and during the year the Commission for Protection against Discrimination continued to receive sexual harassment complaints, which accounted for approximately 5 percent of all complaints. However, sexual harassment remained a widespread problem, and the government did not effectively enforce the law. The government generally respected the right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Women generally had good access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth, including essential obstetric and postpartum care. Access to contraception and skilled attendance in childbirth were less available to women in poor rural areas. The law provides women with the same rights as men; however, women faced some discrimination in hiring and pay. According to trade union estimates, in 2008 women's salaries were 16 percent lower than men's, with some lower-paid sectors, such as education and services, dominated by women. A National Council on Equality between Women and Men, headed by the minister of labor and social policy under the Council of Ministers, was tasked with safeguarding the rights of women. Primarily a consultative body, the council is charged with promoting cooperation and coordination among NGOs and government agencies. Children.--The government generally was committed to protecting children's welfare; however, government efforts in education and health were constrained by inadequate budgets. Problems in state-run institutions for children, including incidents involving exploitation of children, continued to receive media attention during the year. Citizenship is derived by birth within the countryand from one's parents. Children are immediately registered upon birth in the country. Public education is compulsory until the age of 16, and free through the 12th grade, but the government did not effectively enforce attendance requirements. Children were required to pay for books after the fourth grade, which was a problem for poor families. According to the Ministry of Education and Science, 8,820 students dropped out of school during the current academic year compared with 14,000 in the previous year (2007-08). The majority of students left school due to social and family reasons. The number of school dropouts was highest in regions with large Romani populations. Education for Romani children was generally inferior, and nearly 10 percent of Roma never attended school. During the year the Supreme Court of Appeals upheld the 2005 ruling that the city of Sofia was guilty of discrimination for failing to provide equal educational opportunities to Romani children. Romani activists continued to complain that the government's 2008 delegated budgets policy, which set a standard funding allowance on a per student basis, disproportionately adversely affected Romani communities and reportedly led to the closure of 320 schools. NGOs reported that Romani parents were reluctant to allow their children to travel to new schools in other towns, and parents at schools accepting new Romani students often reacted negatively to their arrival. In November the antidiscrimination commission found that the Ministry of Education discriminated against children with disabilities by limiting their choice of education and isolating them in specialized institutions. The commission recommended that the ministry initiate legislative changes that take into account the children's specific education needs but allow for their integration into society. Violence against children was a problem. According to the national center for public opinion surveys, during the year one in every five children was a victim of violence in school. According to the National Statistical Institute, 2,606 children were victims of serious crimes in 2008, compared with 2,743 in 2007. The government often removed children from abusive homes and prosecuted abusive parents; however, once away from their families, children often fell victim to street violence or violence in specialized institutions. Although no official statistics were available, the government reported that child marriage, while rare nationwide, was common in Romani communities. The government also stated that arranged marriages and traditional Romani bride markets constituted trafficking in persons. The government reported that the number of children detained by police for vagrancy and begging was 659 in 2008, compared with 1,044 in 2007. Many believed adults exploited such children, who were primarily engaged in begging, prostitution, or car window washing. When apprehended, police generally placed such children in protective custody for up to 24 hours, unless remanded to protective custody by a prosecutor. Subsequently, many children were sent to state-run institutions. Implementation of child-care policies was decentralized. The government funded child welfare programs. Some municipalities transferred services to NGOs, improving the quality of care, but some NGOs remained concerned about the ability of poorer municipalities to manage and administer care effectively. Despite a government policy to develop alternative service providers, the country continued to struggle with a communist-era system of state-run specialized institutions for children. During the year there were 7,190 children in 138 specialized institutions. This was a decrease from 7,276 children in 140 institutions in 2008 and a 44 percent decrease from 12,609 children in 165 institutions in 2001. The majority of children in institutions were Roma. Watchdog organizations claimed the actual number was much higher, and the government manipulated the numbers by changing the terminology for the different types of institutions. Most children in state institutions were not orphans; they were institutionalized for reasons including disability, poverty, and other family problems. During the year NGOs continued to criticize the deficiencies in government-run institutions such as orphanages, educational reform boarding schools, and facilities for children with mental disabilities. They noted inadequate budgets, poorly trained staff, and insufficient oversight in these facilities. Some NGOs, including ARK Bulgaria, applauded the government's new strategy to systematize efforts to deinstitutionalize children and use EU funds to this end. There were fewer cases of abuse in children's institutions than in the preceding year, but on December 5, three children died in an institution in Krumovgrad after old ammunition exploded while they were playing with it. The director of the institution, which was reformed in 2008 after earlier being designated for closure, and two social workers were dismissed from office pending the investigation into the deaths. The facility's maintenance worker, who was suspected of providing the children with the ammunition, was released on bail and committed suicide shortly afterwards. Trafficking in Persons.--The constitution and law prohibit trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, trafficking was a serious problem. The country remained a point of origin and transit and, to a lesser extent, a destination, for trafficking, with most victims trafficked for sexual exploitation. Victims came from within the country and from Romania, Moldova, Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asia. The principal destinations of victims trafficked from and through the country were Greece, Turkey, the Czech Republic, Poland, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Western Europe. Almost all victims were women and girls trafficked for sexual exploitation, but some were also young boys. Young women between the ages of 16 and 24 years old with modest education and weak family ties were most vulnerable. Minorities, particularly Roma, and women engaged in prostitution were also at particular risk. Trafficking of pregnant women and forcing them to sell their children abroad remained a problem because the women were free to travel and could not be stopped by border police. During the year authorities reported 13 investigations into baby selling in Greece. The investigations into seven such incidents in 2008 continued at year's end. In larger cities, powerful organized crime groups controlled most trafficking for sexual exploitation. In towns smaller criminal groups and independent operators were involved. Traffickers in foreign countries generally recruited their victims through false promises of work, while victims of internal trafficking were most often recruited through close friends or acquaintances. Traffickers for sexual exploitation, both within the country and abroad, use call-girl operations, complicating law enforcement efforts. Traffickers typically used genuine travel documents for their victims. The punishment for trafficking in persons includes prison terms of up to 15 years in prison, fines of 20,000 levas ($15,000), and confiscation of a trafficker's assets. Prosecutors used other laws to prosecute persons for activities associated with trafficking, such as inducement to prostitution. The National Antitrafficking Commission is the primary antitrafficking coordination and policy-making body. During the year the commission continued to establish local commissions at destination points for internal trafficking and source locations of victims trafficked to Western Europe; it also created three information centers. In April the commission opened the first state-run shelter for adult trafficking victims in Varna. In October the commission launched an open doors initiative and hosted more than 350 students in its office to raise awareness about trafficking in persons. The commission developed and distributed a prevention CD. During the year the commission continued to partner with NGOs in delivering training for border police, social workers, and diplomats on human trafficking. Two police units focused specifically on the problem of trafficking. One was within the National Border Police and the other was within the Directorate for Combating Organized Crime. The government participated in multinational antitrafficking activities and permitted the extradition of citizens for crimes committed abroad, including trafficking. In 2008 the courts convicted 69 traffickers. Due to successful cooperation with West European counterparts, police reported a decline in the number of children sent abroad to work as beggars and pickpockets. As of June, the government reported assisting 22 repatriated children, compared with 90 in 2008. The majority of children were repatriated from Greece, Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain. NGOs alleged that some low-ranking and poorly paid officials accepted bribes to ignore trafficking, although there was no evidence of a pattern of official complicity. On June 11, two municipal councilors from Varna pled guilty and were sentenced to one and three years' imprisonment, respectively, for leading and participating in an organized crime group involved in drug trafficking, extortion, and human trafficking. This was the first time elected officials were prosecuted successfully for crimes related to human trafficking. Nine of 11 officials of the local antiorganized crime unit in Vratsa were also dismissed for alleged ties with a local trafficking ring. The government operated six shelters for child victims of violence and trafficking, each of which had the capacity to host 10 children for up to six months. The government cooperated with NGOs and international organizations in raising awareness and referring victims to services. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services; however, the government did not effectively enforce these provisions in practice. Societal discrimination against persons with disabilities persisted. The law requires improved access to buildings for persons with disabilities, and new public works projects took this requirement into account; however, enforcement of this law lagged in existing, unrenovated buildings. The law promotes the employment of persons with disabilities; however, enforcement was poor, and most persons with disabilities were unemployed primarily due to lack of access to adequate education and skills. For the most part, work places were not equipped to accommodate persons with disabilities, and many were not able to find accessible transportation. Despite some incremental improvements, conditions in institutions for persons with disabilities remained poor. During the year the BHC continued to complain that the majority of the institutions were located in remote rural areas which prevented hiring of qualified staff and hampered access to timely medical assistance. Persons with mental and physical disabilities, including very young children, were often separated from the rest of society. For example, they were placed in special schools, which lowered the quality of their education. The government operated 26 institutions for children and youth with disabilities. The constitution protects the right of all citizens to vote, and the law provides specific measures to ensure that persons with disabilities have access to the polls. However, in practice these measures were rarely enforced, and the majority of polling stations were still not wheelchair accessible. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy was responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities and worked with government-supported national representative organizations for persons with disabilities. However, human rights groups remained concerned about the lack of transparency regarding the allocation of funds from the ministry to the national representative organizations and the lack of a long-term vision for the removal of persons with disabilities from institutions and their integration into society. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Societal discrimination against Roma and other minority groups remained a problem, occasionally resulting in incidents of violence between members of different ethnic groups. Roma were estimated to constitute between 6 and 10 percent of the population, and according to a 2002 Council of Europe report, there were 600,000 to 800,000 Roma in the country. According to the 2001 census, ethnic Turks made up 9 percent of the population. Ethnic Bulgarian Muslims, often termed Pomaks, are a distinct group of Slavic descent, whose ancestors converted from Orthodox Christianity to Islam; they constitute 2 to 3 percent of the population. Workplace discrimination against minorities, especially Roma, continued to be a problem. The unemployment rate among Roma was nearly 65 percent, reaching 80 percent in some regions. The generally unfavorable attitudes towards Roma, coupled with their poor education level, made Roma less able to find jobs. Many observers noted the quality of education offered to Romani children was inferior to that afforded to most other students. Popular prejudice against Roma remained widespread. There were isolated cases of police harassment, arbitrary arrests, and violence against Roma. However, NGOs reported that while more Roma were willing to launch complaints against the authorities, the number of complaints had dropped in recent years. On September 16, 50 members of the Ilinden activist group protested in front of the ECHR in Strasburg and called for the recognition of a Macedonian minority in the country. In September the Burgas municipality destroyed 46 Romani homes, leaving at least 200 persons homeless. There were reports that municipal police used disproportionate force against the Romani inhabitants during the demolitions. Since Romani residents lacked legal titles to this land, the Burgas municipality did not provide any alternative housing for the evicted residents. Local NGOs estimated that 50 to 70 percent of Romani housing was illegally constructed and were concerned that more municipalities would initiate legal proceedings to demolish illegally built houses. In July 2008 the ECHR, acting on a complaint filed by the BHC, issued an interim injunction to halt the planned demolition of Romani housing in Sofia. The ECHR requested that the local authorities provide information regarding their plans to relocate the residents, especially children and persons with disabilities. There were no developments in the 2007 beating death of a 17-year- old Roma, Asparuh Atanasov, by a group of four teenagers. The prosecution against them was ongoing at year's end. On August 6, the European Committee of Social Rights unanimously found the country to be in violation of the European Social Charter by failing to meet its obligations to ensure than any person who is without adequate resources has access to social assistance provided by the state. The committee issued the ruling in response to 2006 and 2008 amendments to the Social Assistance Act, which limited the time citizens were eligible for assistance. The court found that these restrictions had a disproportionate effect on Roma, women, and other marginalized groups and that access to social assistance cannot be subject to time limits if the persons affected continue to meet the basic condition for eligibility for assistance. During the year human rights organizations continued to file complaints under the antidiscrimination law. Inciting racial or national enmity, hatred, or discrimination is a crime punishable by up to three years' imprisonment, and plaintiffs may also file civil claims with the court for damages inflicted by discriminatory statements. During the year the BHC and other human rights groups urged the government to punish the perpetrators of racially motivated violence against persons of African, Indian, and Arab origin. On August 20, seven persons beat an Indian national in central Sofia. On September 21, an Indian diplomat was assaulted and, on the same day, another Indian national was beaten by three men reportedly associated with the skinhead movement. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, but the government did not effectively enforce this prohibition. Reports of violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons were rare, but societal discrimination, particularly discrimination in employment, remained a problem. The gay-rights organization Gemini reported that individuals continued to be reluctant to pursue legal remedies for discrimination due to the stigma of being openly identified as gay. On June 27, the second annual gay pride parade in downtown Sofia attracted 300 to 500 participants. In contrast to the first parade in 2008, there were no violent incidents or major antigay protests, thanks in part to strong police cooperation and protection. Gemini reported that on the day of the parade, vandals broke a window in its headquarters and threw Molotov cocktails at a well-known gay club and hotel. In June 2008, police arrested approximately 60 nationalist protesters who attempted to disrupt the parade, and the Patriarch of the Christian Orthodox Church and the Muslim chief mufti condemned the march, calling it immoral and referring to homosexual activity as a disease. In February the Sofia city court fined the prosecution service for discriminating against a female prisoner who was refused early release. The prosecutor maintained the prisoner's way of life and emotional status were problematic because of her homosexual conduct. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--As of November, the Health Ministry reported 1,071 HIV-infected patients but cautioned that their actual number was at least four times higher. During the year the ministry identified 133 new HIV patients--four were pregnant women and four others were drug-dependent children. The majority of the newly identified patients contracted the disease through intravenous drug use and homosexual contacts. According to the Hope against AIDS Foundation, HIV/AIDS patients faced discrimination and inadequate medical care due to doctors refusing to provide treatment from fear of contracting the disease. Patients typically did not contest these situations in court due to the social stigma attached to being identified as having HIV/ AIDS. The NGO stated that at least four HIV/AIDS patients died due to denial of treatment. Patients reported hiding the fact that they were HIV positive to receive medical care. Women also encountered social stigma when being diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted diseases. Incitement to Acts of Discrimination.--During the year the extreme nationalistic political party Attack continued to denigrate the country's Romani, Jewish, and Muslim populations. Attack employed discriminatory rhetoric during the campaign for the July parliamentary election. It published anti-Muslim material in its newspaper and on its Web site. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right of all workers to form or join independent trade unions of their choice, and workers exercised this right in practice. No reliable statistics existed on the extent of unionization of the workforce, but experts noted that membership in unions continued to decrease as employees questioned their ability to effectively represent them and found it difficult to pay membership fees. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government generally protected this right in practice. The law also provides for the right to strike; however, key public sector employees (primarily military and law enforcement personnel) were subject to a blanket prohibition against striking. These employees were able to take the government to court as a means of ensuring due process in protecting their rights. Although the law prohibits the police from effectively striking, police held symbolic protests in December 2008 and on January 17 against low wages and poor working conditions. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides a legal structure for collective bargaining, which was practiced nationally. Labor unions alleged that some employers failed to bargain in good faith or to adhere to agreements. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination and includes a provision for a six-month salary payment as compensation for illegal dismissal. In addition, complaints of discrimination based on union affiliation could be filed with the commission for protection against discrimination, but there were no reports of such complaints during the year. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the six free trade zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, according to the government's labor inspectorate, there were some reports that such practices occurred in the agricultural and textile industries. Children sometimes were forced to work due to economic conditions or because of pressure from family members or criminal organizations. Women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, including a prohibition on forced or compulsory labor and policies regarding acceptable working conditions. The government was generally effective in implementing these laws and policies. The law sets the minimum age for employment at 16 years and the minimum age for dangerous work at 18 years. To employ children, employers must obtain a work permit from the General Labor Inspectorate under the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. The General Labor Inspectorate inspects the working conditions at all companies applying for child work permits. Employment of children without a work permit is a criminal offense and entails a punishment of up to six months' imprisonment. Child labor laws generally were enforced well in the formal sector, but NGOs reported that children were exploited in certain industries (particularly small family-owned shops, textiles, restaurants, construction, and periodical sales) and by organized crime (notably for prostitution, pick-pocketing, and the distribution of narcotics). Besides trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation, the worst forms of child labor included heavy physical labor and health hazards on family tobacco farms, particularly among the ethnic Turkish minority. The government continued programs to eliminate the worst forms of child labor, mounting educational campaigns about their effects, and intervened to protect, withdraw, rehabilitate, and reintegrate children engaged in the worst forms of child labor. The general labor inspectorate reported a decline in child labor during the year, which was primarily due to the overall unemployment rise resulting from the financial crisis. During the year the inspectorate granted 2,765 requests for employment of children between 16 and 18 years, compared with 5,807 in 2008. The inspectorate referred 58 cases of unlicensed, underage workers to the Prosecution Service, compared with 194 in 2008. The inspectorate also found 120 other violations of child labor laws, primarily involving failure to provide protective uniforms, compared with 365 such violations in 2008. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--During the year the government approved and implemented an increase in the national minimum wage to 240 levas ($180) per month. While this wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family, many workers received more wages unofficially to avoid taxes. The law provides for a standard workweek of 40 hours with at least one 24-hour rest period per week. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy is responsible for enforcing both the minimum wage and the standard workweek. The law stipulates that premium pay for overtime could not be less than 150 percent during workdays, 175 percent during weekends, and 200 percent during official holidays. The law prohibits overtime for children under age 18, pregnant women, and women with children up to age six. Enforcement generally was effective in the state sector but was weaker in the private sector. During the year the labor inspectorate found 986 violations of overtime pay rules, compared with 953 in 2008. A national labor safety program, with standards established by law, gives employees the right to healthy and nonhazardous working conditions. The labor inspectorate is responsible for monitoring and enforcement. During the year the inspectorate reported a decrease in the number of work-related incidents and noted that employers were generally more compliant in observing their obligation to provide healthy working conditions. However, conditions in some sectors, particularly construction, mining, chemicals, and transportation, continued to pose risks for workers. There were 91 workplace-related deaths during the year, compared with 161 in 2008. At least 30 percent of the deaths occurred in the construction sector. The law gives employees the right to remove themselves from work situations that present a serious or immediate danger to life or health without jeopardy to their continued employment; however, refusal to work in such situations could result in the loss of employment. __________ CROATIA The Republic of Croatia is a constitutional parliamentary democracy with a population of 4.4 million. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Sabor (parliament). The president serves as head of state and commander of the armed forces, cooperating in the formulation and execution of foreign policy; he also nominates the prime minister, who leads the government. Domestic and international observers stated the 2007 parliamentary elections, the May 2009 local elections, and the first round of the presidential election in December 2009 were in accord with international standards. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The judicial system suffered from a case backlog, although courts somewhat reduced the number of unresolved cases awaiting trial. Ineffective prosecution of some domestic war crimes trials remained a problem. The government made little progress in restituting property nationalized by the former Yugoslav communist government to non-Roman Catholic religious groups. Societal violence and discrimination against ethnic minorities, particularly Serbs and Roma, remained a problem. Violence and discrimination against women continued. Trafficking in persons, violence and discrimination against homosexuals, and discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS were also reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. In September the government reported 1,827 persons remained missing from the 1991-1995 military conflict, including an estimated 797 ethnic Serbs who went missing in 1995. During the year the government investigated 64 possible mass and individual gravesites, resulting in the exhumation of the remains of 76 persons. The government identified the remains of 86 persons found earlier. The government continued to cooperate with the International Commission of Missing Persons (ICMP) with which it exchanged 6,943 blood samples. These exchanges have led to the identification of the remains of 204 persons since 2004. To date the government has exhumed 4,543 bodies and identified 3,636 missing persons. The government handled all exhumations and identifications, while the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) monitored only the sites related to cases it investigated. The ICMP assisted in the identification of remains. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and experts from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina also monitored certain exhumations. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports government officials employed them. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) found one violation by the country of the prohibition against inhuman or degrading treatment as defined by the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention centers continued to be overcrowded. The prison system has a capacity of approximately 3,500 persons, but there were nearly 5,000 inmates in its prisons, penitentiaries, and juvenile detention institutions at the end of the year. The ombudsman for human rights made regular visits to assess prison conditions throughout the country. According to the ombudsman, while the treatment of prisoners was generally humane, the government was unable to fully meet prisoner needs for healthcare, hygiene, space and fresh air, and access to work opportunities due to the problem of overcrowding. In March the Constitutional Court handed down a verdict instructing the government to adjust prison capacity in Zagreb's main prison to meet present needs within five years. During the year the government began construction on a new prison facility in Glina; the facility is designed to provide room for an additional 420 prisoners. To address the issue of overcrowding, the Ministry of Justice in July drafted an action plan for improving the prison system, which contained plans to construct new premises in the coming years and, most important, introduced a probation system. The Probation Law, passed by parliament on December 17, provides the possibility for house arrest, release on probation with close supervision, community work, and measures aimed at reducing recidivism. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers, including the ICRC. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and the law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police have primary responsibility for national security; in times of disorder, the prime minister and the president may call upon the military to provide security. The intelligence service is under the authority of the prime minister and the president. An independent oversight board monitors intelligence service performance. Police reforms begun after two high-profile killings at the end of 2008 continued through the year. On June 19, the general police director appointed at the end of 2008 was removed from his position and appointed as a state secretary in the Ministry of Interior. While the move was technically a promotion, it was widely criticized in the press as politically motivated because the new position gives no control over daily police work. His replacement continued many of the reforms started by his predecessor, including the creation of a separate police unit to deal with organized crime and corruption cases, the National Police Office for Suppression of Organized Crime and Corruption (PN- USKOK). In September all four planned offices in Zagreb, Rijeka, Split, and Osijek were formally opened and operations continued to expand at year's end. The police reported good cooperation with Bosnian and Serbian law enforcement officials regarding investigations into the high-profile killings of Ivo Pukanic, a publisher and co-owner of the NCL Media Group and a colleague in Zagreb in 2008. The alleged perpetrator of the crime, Joca Amsterdam, was arrested in Serbia and was awaiting trial at year's end. Due to Serbian restrictions on the extradition of its nationals, Joca Amsterdam's trial was scheduled to take place in Serbia while his accomplices were arrested and were being prosecuted in Croatia. Arrest Procedure and Treatment While in Detention Police obtained arrest warrants by presenting probable cause to an investigative magistrate; however, police can make arrests without a warrant if they believe a suspect might flee, destroy evidence, or commit other crimes. The police have 24 hours to justify an arrest to a magistrate. Police must provide those arrested with access to an attorney of their choice within 24 hours of arrest. The magistrate appoints an attorney to represent an indigent detainee if the case could carry a long sentence. The government generally enforced these provisions. The investigative judge must decide within 48 hours of an arrest whether to extend detention for further investigation. Investigative detention generally lasted up to 30 days; however, trial courts could extend the period up to 12 months in certain cases. The law allows six months' pretrial detention, but a court can extend it to 12 months in certain cases, primarily war crimes and organized crime cases, at the state prosecutor's request. The courts may release detainees on their own recognizance, but most criminal suspects were held in custody until trial. The option of posting bail after an indictment is available, but detainees did not commonly exercise the right. Detention centers allowed visits by family members. A new Criminal Procedure Act came into force on January 1. Due to an extensive revision of procedures in criminal investigations and prosecutions, the act is being implemented in phases. The Office for Suppression of Organized Crime and Corruption (USKOK), operating out of the State Prosecutor's Office, began operating according to the new procedures on July 1, with regular prosecutors scheduled to implement the changes by September 2011. Under the new law, primary investigative responsibilities are to be transferred from investigative judges to state attorneys. The role of the investigative judge under the new law is to be limited to monitoring human rights issues and protecting the legal process during proceedings. They also are to supervise relations between prosecutors and defendants, judge appeals regarding detention, and rule on the use of such special investigative techniques as surveillance, wiretapping, and raids. The new law also provides for the establishment of a ``supervisor for detention,'' who will be responsible for ensuring the constitutional rights of defendants have not been violated. In April the Supreme Court overturned the June 2008 conviction of Mitar Arambasic, a U.S. citizen and former Serb police officer found guilty of war crimes against civilians and prisoners. The Supreme Court ordered Arambasic released from detention and remanded his case for retrial. Arambasic had already spent six years and eight months in detention, including incarceration during his extradition proceedings. The Supreme Court found based on the available evidence, further detention would not be proportional to the expected sentence. Amnesty.--The law permits amnesty except in cases of war crimes. In practice, when investigations failed to substantiate original charges of war crimes, courts often convicted the defendants on reduced charges, thereby making them eligible for amnesty. This practice enabled the court to resolve such cases without further investigation and allowed the defendants to go free, but it disregarded the future repercussions a criminal record could have on possibly innocent defendants, particularly with regard to their future prospects for employment. During the year prosecutors reviewed all war crimes cases in which there were indictments or ongoing investigations. For 254 of the 1,242 individuals involved in these cases, prosecutors either downgraded the charges from war crimes to armed rebellion, for which amnesty would apply, or cancelled proceedings for other reasons, such as insufficient evidence. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary and the government generally respected judicial independence. The judiciary continued to suffer from a heavy backlog of cases. In June the Ministry of Justice reported 870,538 unresolved cases, both civil and criminal, remaining before courts. The judicial system consists of municipal and county courts, commercial and misdemeanor courts, an administrative court, and the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court determines the constitutionality of laws, governmental acts, and elections. A parallel commercial court system adjudicates commercial and contractual disputes. A State Judicial Council appoints, disciplines, and, if necessary, removes judges. The parliament appoints the chief state prosecutor, who appoints chief state attorneys at the county and municipal level; the State Prosecutorial Council, a disciplinary body appointed by the parliament, appoints and disciplines deputy prosecutors. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments in which it found two violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided in the European Convention on Human Rights. The ECHR also found 11 violations of the convention's provisions concerning the length of judicial proceedings. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The legal system uses panels of judges, which in some cases include lay judges, rather than juries, to hear cases. Defendants have the right to counsel, to be present at trial, to confront or question witnesses against them, and to present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants have access to evidence relevant to their cases and enjoy the presumption of innocence and right to appeal. During the year prosecutors continued to implement the October 2008 order of the chief state prosecutor to review all pending war crimes cases and in absentia convictions, and apply standard measures to ensure uniform practices without regard to the defendant's national origin. A special provision in the new Criminal Procedure Act, which became effective in January, provided for reopening of war crimes cases tried in absentia, upon the presentation of new evidence by either the defendant or prosecutor, whether or not the defendant is present in the country. While no defendants petitioned to have their cases reopened, prosecutors asked courts to reopen approximately 20 percent of cases tried in absentia and reported receiving good cooperation in most instances from the courts. During the year, according to the Office of the Chief State Prosecutor, prosecutors requested trials be reopened for 93 of the 464 individuals convicted in absentia and courts of original jurisdiction granted requests on behalf of 48 defendants and rejected cases involving 24. On appeal the Supreme Court approved reopening of cases involving 21 defendants. The OSCE reported almost half of defendants on trial for war crimes during the year were not present at their trials. The OSCE reported during the year on the Supreme Court issuing decisions on appeal in 10 war crimes cases involving 23 individuals (16 ethnic Serbs, seven ethnic Croats). It confirmed 19 of the 23 individual decisions and reversed four, a reversal rate of 17 percent. In 2008 the Ministry of Justice, together with the UN Development Program (UNDP), implemented a program to provide support to witnesses and victims who testify in war crimes and complex criminal cases. Between May 1, 2008 and October 20, 2009, offices to assist witness and victims helped more than 2,200 persons. The Law on Courts, adopted in October 2008, allows county courts, on a pilot basis, to form specialized departments for victim and witness support in criminal proceedings. The judges working at the pilot courts reported witnesses and victims provided more coherent testimony than in the past. During the year an additional six courts joined the initial four pilot courts. The new criminal procedure law, which went into effect during the year, provides for witness/victim protection from unlawful and unauthorized pressure from other participants in the criminal procedure, and provides them with psychological and other expert support. On May 8, a court convicted parliamentarian Branimir Glavas for war crimes committed in Osijek in 1991 and sentenced him to a total of 10 years in prison. Glavas' 10-year sentence resulted from combined convictions from several cases. In one case the court found Glavas issued orders to five codefendants who killed five Serb civilians and attempted to kill an additional person. In a second case, the court found Glavas guilty because he had command responsibility and failed to prevent subordinates from torturing and murdering two civilians. Glavas fled to Bosnia and Herzegovina on May 8, the day of the verdict, where he had recently acquired citizenship. On May 13, a parliamentary committee lifted Glavas' immunity from detention, and the full parliament confirmed this decision on May 20. On May 13, Glavas was arrested on international arrest warrant in Kupres and a Bosnian court subsequently ordered him detained for a maximum of 40 days due to the risk he would flee to avoid extradition. After a day and a half in detention, a Bosnian appellate court reversed the order and lifted Glavas' detention. The appellate court found, since Glavas had a registered residence in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there were no grounds for assuming he was a flight risk. Glavas has been at liberty in Bosnia and Herzegovina since then. Glavas' five codefendants were taken into custody after the verdict. For all six defendants, the court took into account the participation of all six defendants in the Balkan wars in the early 1990s as a mitigating factor. Glavas officially remains a member of parliament, receiving salary and other benefits until his verdict is made final, although he cannot attend any parliamentary sessions without risk of arrest and detention. In May the Supreme Court confirmed the 2008 lower court verdict against Antun Gudelj, who was sentenced to 20 years for killing a police officer and two local officials. An appeal in the Olujic case, reported in 2008, was decided by the Supreme Court in July. The Supreme Court confirmed the sentences of two defendants, and slightly reduced the sentences for the three other defendants. On February 5, the Vukovar County Court announced a verdict in the case of genocide in the village of Miklusevci in late 1991 and 1992. Sentences ranging from four to 12 years' imprisonment were given to the 12 defendants convicted. Two defendants were acquitted. While 22 Serbs and Ruthenians were originally charged, prosecutors dropped charges against eight defendants during the proceedings. Since the constitutions of most of the Southeast European countries involved in the 1991-1995 conflict prohibit their citizens to be extradited, Croatia's chief state prosecutor has signed agreements with counterparts in Montenegro and Serbia to enable the transfer of evidence in such cases, allowing suspects to be tried where they live rather than where the alleged crime was committed. Croatia transferred evidence in six cases covering 15 defendants to Serbia during the year. There were no transfers of evidence to Montenegro. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, although continuing case backlogs raised concerns about judicial effectiveness and efficiency. In April the human rights ombudsman reported long administrative and court proceedings were the most frequent reason for citizens to address his office in 2008. In 2008 the Office of the Ombudsman received 1,560 complaints about protracted administrative proceedings, which often lasted several years and in many cases took as long as 10 years to resolve. The ombudsman blamed an understaffed court administration and poorly prepared laws for the courts' inefficiency. He also criticized the application of political criteria instead of competence when appointing personnel in state administration. For the second year in a row the parliament took note of the ombudsman's annual report without adopting it. Property Restitution.--During the year the government continued to work toward completion of its program to return occupied private properties to their rightful owners. However, the property law implicitly favors ethnic Croats over ethnic Serbs, who lost possession of their properties during the 1990s, by giving precedence to the rights of temporary occupants, who were mainly ethnic Croats, over those of the original owners, predominantly ethnic Serbs. In nine cases, owners could not repossess their homes and were waiting for completion of administrative procedures. Thirty-four owners of agricultural land with unclear title, mostly in the Zadar hinterland, who previously could not take possession of their plots, were able to take possession of their land in April. Restitution of property seized during World War II and the Communist era remained a problem. The law on restitution of and compensation for property taken during the time of the Yugoslav Communist government permits the restitution of property only to individuals who were citizens at the time the parliament passed the law. As a result the law does not apply to persons who had property expropriated but left the country and became citizens of other countries. Many claimants have since acquired Croatian citizenship but still cannot file claims. Restitution of communal property remained a problem for all major religious groups except the Islamic community. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. In 2008 the ECHR found one violation by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of speech and the press; however, some government influence over the media continued, and there were reports of increasing pressure from commercial interests. The law provides for no less than six months' and no more than five years' imprisonment for hate speech. Hate speech committed over the Internet is punishable by six months' to three years' imprisonment. Individuals can freely criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. A wide range of private newspapers and magazines were published without government interference. In spite of the media law, media ownership was not fully transparent, making it possible for political or other interests to conceal their influence on media outlets. The law regulates the national television and radio networks separately from other electronic media. Independent television and radio stations operated in the country, and two of the four national television channels were private. Local governments partly or fully owned approximately 70 percent of the local media, making local broadcast media particularly vulnerable to political pressure. Approximately 46 percent of local radio stations depended on the financial support of local authorities. On World Press Freedom Day in May, the Croatian Journalists Association issued a statement warning that media owners continued to intervene directly in editorial policy. In particular, the statement noted ``political pressure on media has not ceased to exist in the public, local or private media. Advertisers expect to be spared because of the media space they purchase, so the media would not report negatively about them.'' In March, during the local elections campaign, some journalists were denied access to press conferences organized by political parties. On March 17, Drago Hedl, Jutarnji List correspondent from Osijek, was denied entrance to a press conference by Branimir Glavas, a member of parliament, and an Osijek TV crew was denied entrance to the press conference by Vladimir Sisljagic, the president of a political party. As of year's end there were no arrests in the 2008 beating of investigative journalist Dusan Miljus. An investigation was ongoing and Miljus remained under police protection. In June the Ministry of Internal Affairs announced an award of 50,000 kunas ($10,000) for information leading to the arrest of Miljus' attackers. On June 16, the National Council for Monitoring Implementation of the Anticorruption Strategy held a session on the freedom of the media and the fight against corruption. The council concluded investigative journalism was rarely practiced, and the media was not effectively serving its purpose as a watch dog in the fight against corruption. At the session investigative journalist Dusan Miljus reported he had recently received another threatening letter. Journalist Hrvoje Appelt discussed his dismissal from one of the largest publishers in the country while he was under police protection after writing about organized crime. Libel is a criminal offense; in recent years there were no reports of politically motivated libel cases. However, a large number of libel cases from previous years remained unresolved due to judicial backlogs. Courts may fine, but not imprison, persons convicted of slander and libel. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. In general individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access was widely available and used by citizens throughout the country. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 51 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law, however, prohibits political protests in Zagreb's St. Mark's Square, adjacent to the parliament and government offices. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the law grants discretionary power to the Ministry of Justice over the establishment and internal governance of foundations. While authorities applied the law equally to all organizations, the law itself is restrictive and controlling. For example, the law provides that organizations may not register if their statutory goals are deemed trivial or if their property is not deemed sufficient to carry out their statutory activities. The law also permits the government to influence the appointment of an organization's management body. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of conscience and religion and free public profession of religious conviction, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. There is no official state religion; however, the Roman Catholic Church has a historic and close relationship with the state not shared by other religious groups. On September 24, the head of the Roman Catholic Church in Croatia, Cardinal Josip Bozanic, visited Jasenovac, the site of the largest concentration camp in Croatia during World War II where thousands of Serbs, Jews, and Roma were killed. Some critics accused the Catholic Church of collaborating with the pro-Nazi regime ruling Croatia at the time. Bozanic was the highest ranking church official to ever visit Jasenovac. While there, Bozanic acknowledged crimes were committed at Jasenovac by members of the Catholic Church but reaffirmed the church itself had no role in Jasenovac. He also asked for the truth to be told, not only about the victims of Jasenovac, but also the victims of fascism, Nazism, and communism. His trip was seen as a step toward reconciliation by leaders of the Jewish and Serb communities; however, he was also criticized for not offering a direct apology from the Catholic Church and for equating victims of communism with those of the Holocaust. On October 2, a ceremony was held to lay the cornerstone for a mosque in the town of Rijeka after a number of administrative delays. The cost of the mosque was estimated at 8 million euros ($11.4 million); it will serve a community of approximately 10,000 Muslims residing in the surrounding county. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Societal violence and physical abuse of religious minorities were problems. The country's Jewish community numbered approximately 2,300. Acts with anti-Semitic overtones were reported during the year. On July 25, at a concert in Biograd, controversial ultranationalist singer Thompson incited the audience to chant profascist slogans. He also accused President Stjepan Mesic, who has a reputation as a strong antifascist, of high treason. Police investigated the incident but brought no charges. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Refugees returning to the country as citizens of another former Yugoslav republic rather than as Croatian citizens encountered obstacles obtaining permanent residency status. The law permits former habitual residents who returned and applied by June 2005 to be reinstated to their prewar status as habitual residents without further requirements, and they could subsequently apply for citizenship. However, the government did not consistently apply this provision. This caused uncertainty and delayed the integration of returnees. The 2008 Law on Foreigners includes a clause exempting refugees from the republics of the former Yugoslavia from the rigid citizenship requirements under the previous law. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported positive feedback concerning the law from returnees who were able to acquire citizenship. The government took steps to recognize or ``convalidate'' legal and administrative documents issued by entities not under the country's control during the 1991-1995 conflict. In December the government reported receiving 19,185 applications for ``convalidation'' and issuing decisions in approximately 55 percent of the cases. Approximately 55 percent of the cases decided were resolved positively, while 45 percent were resolved negatively. International observers noted there were wide discrepancies between regional offices with average approval rates varying by as much as fifty percent, bringing into question the equity of the approval system. The government stated the discrepancy was due to the lack of documentation in some regions of the country. As of September the UNHCR had registered the return of 388,583 refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), 132,322 of them minority Serbs. The total includes 627 persons who returned in the first nine months of the year. The UNHCR reported 54 percent of total returns were sustainable, while the remainder were either one-time or ``commuter'' returns. International organizations listed the poor state of the regional economy, lack of employment, and delays in access to permanent housing for the former tenants of socially owned apartments, as the main obstacles to return. Additionally, many refugees have chosen to settle in their countries of refuge. To address problems experienced by returning IDPs and refugees, the government in 2008 began implementing a 60 million euro ($85.8 million) social and economic recovery project, jointly funded by the government and the World Bank. The project was aimed at revitalizing the economies of disadvantaged areas affected by the war and promoting interethnic social cohesion. International observers said the program had some success as it made possible improvements to infrastructure and social inclusion, but because of budgetary constraints, its continuation was in question. Public hostility toward returning ethnic Serb refugees diminished in most parts of the country, but sporadic incidents, mostly in Dalmatia and its hinterland, were still a cause of concern. Repossession of houses belonging to Serbs was almost complete, and reconstruction of those damaged by looting continued. As of September authorities had finished repairing damage to 275 of 456 properties eligible for repair under the government protocol for looted properties. There were cases in which persons were discovered attempting to use the courts to recover alleged investments they had made while illegally occupying the property, and 13 such cases were pending in the courts. Although the government adopted a process in 2006 to resolve the cases with investors out of court, it remained reluctant to offer settlements before the cases reached a court. The government slowly continued the program to resolve the claims of persons, mainly ethnic Serbs, who held tenancy rights in socially owned apartments prior to the war but who lost these rights during or just after the war. Individuals submitted 13,695 claims for government- provided housing under the program, 4,576 of which were in urban areas. According to the UNHCR, from 1995 through the end of September, the government had allocated 6,772 housing units, mainly in war-affected areas. The Ministry of Regional Development, Forestry, and Water Management had delivered approximately 97 percent of its 2007 target of 1,400 housing units and 80 percent of the 2008 target of 1,454 housing units, but during the year it delivered fewer than 10 percent of its target of 2,100 housing units. Despite broad cuts in the 2010 budget caused by the economic recession, the government reportedly secured slight increases in budget allocations for housing. On March 30, the UN Human Rights Committee issued a decision on a complaint brought by a former tenancy rights holder in 2006. The complainant, Dusan Vojnovic, lost his tenancy rights in 1992 when he fled the country after receiving threats due to his Serb ethnicity. The complaint stated the country violated his rights to equal treatment, home and family life, fair trial, and trial in a reasonable time, as written in the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to which the country is signatory. The committee decided, although the termination of the tenancy rights had been done in accordance with the country's law, it had been done arbitrarily, in violation of some procedural decisions of the courts, was arbitrary, and violated the principles of fair trial and equality before the courts, including a reasonable time for completion of proceedings. The committee decided the country should provide an ``effective remedy to Vojnovic, including compensation. The government was supposed to reply to the committee by October 30 describing the actions it took, but it had not responded by the end of the year. Observers noted the government's actions could potentially set a precedent for approximately 30,000 persons who lost their tenancy rights during the war. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--Authorities took an inconsistent and nonuniform approach in its treatment of minority IDPs. As of September, 2,359 IDPs were registered with the government; of this number, 1,638 were ethnic Serbs, whose numbers remained unchanged from 2008. The Serbs were either waiting to be recognized as integrated in their current places of displacement or to receive reconstruction assistance from the state. The government allowed free access to all displaced persons by domestic and international humanitarian organizations and permitted them to provide assistance. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Persons seeking protection generally considered the country a country of transit, and a significant number of asylum seekers left the country before courts had reached decisions on their claims. International observers criticized the government for delays in initial decisions for asylum seekers. In law and practice the country provided effective protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government reported 147 persons applied for asylum during the year; of these, the government granted one person subsidiary protection (protection granted to an applicant whose situation is not covered by the 1951 convention), rejected the applications of 51 persons, and dismissed the applications of 64 persons; decisions were awaited in 32 cases. Nine persons appealed the government's decisions. During the year the government granted protection to 13 persons. Of these, refugee status was granted to 11 and subsidiary protection to two. In the first group there were five persons from Russia, three from Uzbekistan, and one each from Afghanistan, Armenia, and Uzbekistan. Persons from Afghanistan and Kosovo were granted subsidiary protection. There was a reception center for asylum seekers in Kutina, near Zagreb. In May 2008 the government introduced a new appeals commission that conducts substantive reviews of the cases of rejected asylum seekers. Observers believed the new commission was an improvement over the previous appeals body because it enjoyed greater autonomy and included representatives from civil society and academia. However, international observers reported the commission did not have its own offices or proper facilities for conducting interviews and storing confidential files. Additionally, only one member of the commission, the president, was a full-time employee. The UNHCR closely followed cases of individuals whom the government deported or whom authorities returned to their country of origin. There were no reports of persons requesting temporary protection during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. Coalition negotiations following the 2007 parliamentary elections produced a government led by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), with the Croatian Peasant Party, the Independent Democratic Party of Serbs, and the Croatian Social Liberal Party represented in the new cabinet. While no significant irregularities were reported in the 2007 elections, the local NGO Citizens Organized to Monitor Elections (GONG) estimated the registrations of approximately 20 percent of voters abroad (mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina) were outdated on election day. In July Prime Minister Ivo Sanader abruptly resigned from office and was replaced by the then HDZ vice president and deputy prime minister, Jadranka Kosor. Despite slight adjustments in the cabinet, the composition of the ruling center-right coalition remained unchanged. No candidate received more than 50 percent of the vote in the December 27 presidential election, forcing a second round to be held in January 2010 between Ivo Josipovic, candidate of the center- left Social Democratic Party, and Milan Bandic, the independent mayor of Zagreb. There were 36 women in the 153-seat parliament. There were four women in the 20-seat cabinet, including the prime minister and one deputy prime minister. There were five women among the 13 Constitutional Court justices, including the president of the court, and 17 women among the 37 Supreme Court justices. The law requires representation for ethnic minorities in local government bodies if the census showed a minority group constituted at least 5 percent of the local population. Local elections held in May used updated voter lists as the basis for calculating the number of elected minority representatives, as required by law. Due to the return of refugees since the previous census in 2001, this method resulted in greater minority representation than the earlier practice of basing proportional minority representation on census figures alone. To provide adequate minority representation in local governments as required by the Constitutional Law on National Minorities, the country held special minority elections on December 6 to choose six deputy county prefects and 40 deputy mayors. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement the laws effectively and corruption remained a serious problem. During the year the government gave special attention to the legal and institutional framework used to combat corruption, including investigations, prosecution, and interagency and international cooperation. The government worked closely with civil society and the private sector to try to inculcate respect for the rule of law in society. Corruption remained a serious problem, with a nexus of institutions, primarily in health care, university faculties, the judiciary, and public-sector and commercial enterprises often at the center of corruption cases. Corruption cases in the country involved nearly all segments of society, economy, and government. The number of cases prosecuted by USKOK continued to increase substantially in comparison with previous years. During the year USKOK concluded several cases against high profile civil servants, university professors, students, judges, public servants, and other professionals. The highest ranking person to be formally investigated for corruption was former minister of defense and current member of parliament Berislav Roncevic. On July 31, criminal charges were filed against Roncevic and his former deputy and a current state secretary in the Ministry of Interior, Ivo Bacic, for alleged misuse of funds in a 2004 deal to buy 39 trucks for the Ministry of Defense. Earlier in the year, a parliamentary committee, controlled by the ruling HDZ party of which Roncevic was a member, concluded there had been no irregularities in the truck purchase. On December 14, a Zagreb court upheld all counts of a indictment filed by USKOK against former defense minister Berislav Roncevic and his former assistant Ivo Bacic. The trial was scheduled to begin in early 2010. A multiyear anticorruption operation, codenamed ``Maestro,'' concluded during the year. The investigation into the Privatization Fund resulted in the arrests in 2007 of six suspects, including three fund vice presidents. USKOK ultimately indicted 10 persons for bribery and abuse of authority and position. On March 12, the court found fund vice president Ivan Gotovac and another individual not guilty in a first, smaller trial. The verdict was being appealed at year's end. In a second, larger trial, fund vice president Matanovic was sentenced on May 15 to 11 years in prison, while fund vice president Pesa was sentenced to two years. Four other persons received sentences ranging from one to three years in prison. Two defendants were acquitted. During the year authorities continued their investigation of another large corruption case, dubbed ``Index.'' USKOK filed an indictment for the case in December 2008. On May 27, the court announced verdicts against 16 defendants including professors, students, mediators, and middlemen charged with illicit enrollment at the Faculty of Transport Sciences. The former vice dean of the faculty and the chief middleman were sentenced to two and a half and one and a half years in prison, respectively, for illegally enrolling students. The other 12 defendants in the trial, known as ``Index 1,'' including a senior lecturer, were given suspended sentences. On July 29, in a trial known as ``Index 2,'' nine professors from Zagreb's Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering and four middlemen were sentenced to prison terms ranging from six months to two years for taking bribes from students to pass examinations. The remaining 17 middlemen, students, and parents standing trial were given suspended sentences, while two were acquitted, including a teacher. All the convicted teachers were prohibited from teaching for five years. In September Supreme Court reduced the sentence of Ognjen Simic, who fled to Bosnia and Herzegovina after his conviction on corruption charges in 2008, from nine to five years. The court ruled the sentencing guidelines in force at the time the offense was committed should have been applied, rather than those in force at the time of the conviction. Simic continued to live freely in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The law requires public officials to declare their assets. Most government officials complied, although there were questions as to the thoroughness and effectiveness of the system and imprecision as to the types of assets covered. Within the government, the prosecutors and police Offices for Suppression of Corruption and Organized Crime (USKOK and PN-USKOK, respectively) are the main law enforcement bodies responsible for fighting corruption. The PN-USKOK was established in April, and its offices were formally opened on September 10. The government also created special anticorruption and organized crime departments in the four largest courts in the country, where judges are screened and receive additional training and higher pay for working on USKOK cases. The Ministry of Justice's Anticorruption Office monitors the implementation of anticorruption measures throughout the government and oversaw a large anticorruption public relations campaign in the spring and summer of the year. The law provides the right of public access to government information; however, NGOs continued to complain the government did not implement the law efficiently or effectively. On September 4, GONG published results of a survey showing a third of towns and municipalities did not have information officers as required by law. Additionally, some towns and municipalities were charging citizens for documents that should be free to the public. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were often cooperative and responsive to their views. The Office for Human Rights, the entity for cooperation with NGOs and other government ministries and offices, was active in coordinating and promoting NGO and governmental efforts on human rights and civil society. It received both UN and government funds during the year. The office was the primary government body responsible for developing, coordinating, and implementing the government's human rights policies. While the office did not have authority to investigate alleged human rights abuses directly, it cooperated effectively with NGOs and the international community to conduct awareness campaigns to promote gender equality and women's rights, encourage general tolerance, and prevent trafficking in persons. It also served as a liaison between governmental offices and citizens reporting violations and complaints. The office awarded project grants to NGOs to address various human rights problems. It was adequately funded and enjoyed the cooperation of other government agencies. In December Human Rights House--an umbrella organization for human rights NGOs--began operations in offices donated by the city of Zagreb in a reconstructed building with a five-year moratorium on rent payments. During the year the Office of the Chief State Prosecutor prosecuted war crimes committed by both ethnic Serbs and ethnic Croats; ethnic Croats were defendants in several high-profile cases, including the conviction of parliamentarian Branimir Glavas (see section 1.e.). The government cooperated with the ICTY. On December 3, ICTY Chief Prosecutor Serge Brammertz stated during his semiannual presentation to the UN Security Council that the ``central issue of concern remains the still unresolved request to locate and obtain key military documents related to Operation Storm of 1995.'' The chief prosecutor welcomed the October personal initiative of the prime minister of Croatia to establish an interagency task force aimed at locating these documents and stated that a recent report of the task force was helpful in revealing gaps in the previous administrative investigations and in identifying further investigative steps to be taken. The prosecutor concluded by saying that ``these and all other available investigative steps must be urgently undertaken in order to complete a comprehensive and credible investigation into locating the missing documents.'' An appeal in the Ademi-Norac trial reported in 2008 was still pending. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on gender, age, race, disability, language, or social status; and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a crime punishable by one to 10 years' imprisonment; however, according to NGOs many women did not report rape or spousal rape. The law provides longer sentences for sexual violence against persons with disabilities. In cases of rape under aggravated circumstances that result in death or pregnancy, or if the victim is a minor, sentences may be between three and 15 years. Due to social pressure and stigmatization, rape and sexual violence were underreported. NGOs criticized the government for allowing only police and not hospitals to have rape kits. This resulted in victims having to be examined twice. During the year the government formed a working group with NGOs to work on a protocol for conduct in cases of sexual violence, aimed at streamlining the procedures. The availability of victim assistance services, such as rape crisis centers, varied widely from community to community. In the first 11 months of the year, 75 rapes and 20 attempted rapes were reported to police. NGO officials estimated that for every reported rape, there were three unreported cases; on average 100 to 140 cases of sexual violence and rape are reported annually. The NGO Women's Room stated women frequently did not report rape and spousal rape because they lacked information about available legal protections, felt ashamed, feared reprisal, or, in case of spousal rape, were concerned over the economic consequences. Victims were often reluctant to report rape, particularly spousal rape, because it was difficult to prove in court and because medical staff, police, and judicial officials were not trained to treat victims. Women's NGOs asserted sentences for spousal rape tended to be lenient. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, continued to be a problem. The law provides for persons other than the victim, including the police, to initiate a domestic violence case, which is treated as a misdemeanor. Penalties range from fines of 1,000 to 10,000 kunas ($200 to $2,000) or up to 60 days in prison. Under the criminal law, perpetrators can face up to three years in prison for the same acts. Police officials tended to classify domestic violence against women as misdemeanors, resulting in minimal sentences. Minimum sentences were particularly common in cases of rape. Police officers in most urban areas were trained to handle family violence and to provide quick intervention, secure victims' safety, and remove perpetrators from families; in rural areas, police officers were generally less well trained in handling family violence cases. Support for victims of violence was limited. In general private donations financed most services, but the government took some steps to address the rising number of domestic violence cases. NGOs and local governments operated 17 shelters, but, according to the ombudsperson for gender equality, only five were permanent. On November 25, the government signed contracts with county, city, and civil organizations to cofinance shelters and counseling centers for victims of domestic violence. In September the ombudsman reported 550,000 kunas ($111,000) was paid during the year to NGOs running shelters for victims of domestic violence. Hotlines, counseling, and legal assistance were available to victims of domestic violence. On January 27, the ECHR ruled against the state in a law suit brought by the family of a domestic violence victim with the assistance of a local women's NGO. The court ruled the state did not take sufficient measures to prevent the death of Mignon Tomasic, who was murdered along with her daughter by her husband in 2006. The court found the state failed to conduct a thorough investigation and did not order sufficiently long psychiatric treatment after the victim reported her husband's first serious threats. The court ordered the state to pay 40,000 euros ($57,200) in compensation to the family of the deceased woman and 1,300 euros ($1,860) for court expenses. Prostitution is illegal but widespread and generally punishable by fines. Engagement in prostitution is treated as a misdemeanor, while pandering is a criminal act. Activities of clients are not criminalized. The activities of the brothel owner/operator, pimps, and enforcers are crimes and the laws were generally enforced. Women's organizations claimed prostitutes faced abuse, stigmatization, and public humiliation. There were reports that women were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. The law prohibits sexual harassment in the workplace; however, it remained a problem. According to trade unions, the problem was most pronounced in the textile and leather, trade, and catering industries. The ombudsman for gender equality and unions reported that his office worked on sexual harassment cases, although many women were reluctant to take action for fear of reprisal. The government generally respected the right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Citizens generally had the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, or violence. There was no recent data on the percentage of the population with access to contraception, although condoms are widely available and oral contraception is available with a prescription. According to the UNDP, the number of women reported to have HIV infections is significantly lower than men, but women were and men were diagnosed and treated equally. However, women who lived in rural areas and worked out of the home may not be as aware of the need for testing or where to get tested as their male counterparts. Women generally held lower paying positions in the work force. In June the Croatian Statistics Bureau released its annual report, Women and Men in Croatia. The report noted women in the private and public sectors earned 10.8 percent less than men. Women's pensions were 17 percent lower than those of men. Women were also more likely to be unemployed, accounting for 62.2 percent of all job seekers registered with the employment bureau. These disparities were present despite women generally achieving a higher level of education. In November 2008 the World Economic Forum (WEF), an international NGO based in Geneva, noted large differences in Croatian women's and men's salaries, employment and access to managerial functions as well as political representation and women's access to education and health care was regarded as commendable. The WEF measured gender equality in the fields of the economy, politics, education, and the health system. The government Office for Gender Equality criticized the report for using inaccurate data. The government cooperated with NGOs to promote gender equality. While NGOs participated in drafting legislation promoting gender equality, they believed their impact on the ultimate result was often limited. The Office for Gender Equality was responsible for implementing the law on gender equality that came into effect in 2008 and for formulating the government's gender policy; the ombudsman for gender equality monitored implementation of the law, including the submission of mandatory action plans for state institutions and public companies. The 2008 law established quotas to secure increased political representation of women. It requires women to make up at least 40 percent of the voting list for each political party by the third round of local and national elections as well as in elections for the European Parliament. Political parties, state bodies, local authorities, employers, and the media can be fined for violating the new law. Local NGOs criticized the law on the grounds the fines were too small to be a deterrent and the government rarely enforced previous laws with quotas. However, NGOs noted the Office for Gender Equality campaigned actively during the year to educate the public about the new law, especially about the provision regarding the composition of voting lists for the May 31 local elections. It funded projects by 23 NGOs aimed at informing the public about the new law. It also ran a number of television and radio ads and organized local meetings to discuss women's participation in politics, an effort that lasted for six months and consumed approximately 20 percent of the office's annual budget. The number of women on political party slates on a county level rose to 26 percent compared with 21 percent in the 2005 elections. In July the Office for Gender Equality criticized Croatian Radio Television for what it claimed was insufficient programming featuring gender issues, a position shared by the ombudsman for gender equality. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth in the country's territory (jus soli) or from one of the parents (jus sanguinis). Authorities register all births at the time of birth within the country or upon registration for births abroad. There are no reports failure to register births resulted in denial of public services, including education and health care, to children. While education is free and mandatory through grade eight, Romani children faced serious obstacles to continuing their education, including discrimination in schools and a lack of family support. The number of Romani children enrolled in preschool education for the 2008- 2009 school year rose to 595 from 509 in 2007. According to the Ministry of Science, Education, and Sports, the number of new Romani pupils increased to 3,940 from 3,786 in 2008. There was a fourfold increase over 2005. During the year the ministry reported, for the first time, the reimbursement of kindergarten fees to Romani parents. The payments made for the previous academic year totaled 130,700 kunas ($26,300) for 71 children in 13 kindergartens. The government distributed over 300 scholarships to Romani students in high school, 35 more than in the previous school year. The number of Roma students receiving scholarships for university level studies increased to 20 from 12 in the school year. In 2008 international organizations and local NGOs reported school authorities continued to provide segregated, lower quality classes for Romani students in the northern part of the country. In July the ECHR rejected a complaint of discrimination by the parents of 15 Romani children concerning the creation of separate classes for Romani students in several elementary schools in the northwestern county of Medimurje. The court found the schools did not set the children apart simply for being Roma but rather the schools separated them only until their language improved to the point where they could join a regular classroom. The ECHR agreed to reconsider the case in April; a decision was pending at year's end. Child abuse, including sexual abuse, was a problem. The Office of the Ombudsman for Children reported 1,050 new complaints of individual violations of children's rights through December. The office has seen yearly increases in the number of complaints, due in part to the greater visibility and presence of the ombudsman. In June 2008 the government launched a campaign in cooperation with the Council of Europe to prevent corporal punishment. The campaign continued through the year and targeted families, schools, children's homes and penitentiaries. However, the ombudsman for children reported in August the campaign was not visible enough and the number of cases of corporal punishment was not diminishing. In 2007 local NGOs filed suit against the country before the European Committee for Social Rights (ECSR) alleging its sexual education curriculum for school-age children violated young people's basic rights to comprehensive and adequate sexual and reproductive health education. In August the ESCR published its decision, which found ``the evidence was insufficient to justify a conclusion that the sexual and reproductive health education overall is inadequate.'' However, the committee criticized the government for homophobic material in classroom texts. The textbook in question was subsequently removed. Despite this ruling, the ombudsman for children criticized the government for not having a systematic and uniform sexual health education program throughout the country. While some areas of the country had very developed sexual education programs, others had limited information. The country has no official statistics on child marriages; however, social welfare services believed this to be a problem in the Romani community. Common law marriages between persons 16 and older were customary, many times prompted by pregnancies. These marriages were in some cases made official when partners reached adulthood. Statutory rape is a part of the penal code with the minimum age for consensual sex set at 14 years. Penalties for statutory rape range between one and eight years, but in aggravating circumstances such as sex resulting in pregnancy or repeated sexual acts, penalties range from five years to up to 40 years. Filming or photographing children for pornographic material is penalized with between one and five years of prison, while exposure of children to pornography can be punished with financial fines or up to one year in prison. During the year state prosecutors received reports of the following incidents involving children and minors: 36 reports of sexual intercourse with minors and 29 convictions for the same crime, 114 reports and 86 convictions for lewd behavior involving a child or a minor, 11 reports and nine convictions of abusing children for pornography, and 68 reported cases of child pornography on the Internet with 13 convictions for crimes committed earlier. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, the country was a source, destination, and country of transit for trafficked women and children. The country was mainly a country of transit for women and girls trafficked from countries in Eastern Europe and the Balkans to other parts of Europe for prostitution and labor exploitation. The country was also a source and destination for trafficked women and men. In December the government reported authorities identified eight trafficking victims during the year. Four victims were Croatians, two were Serbians, and two originated from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Six of the victims were women trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation and included one underage girl, while two were men trafficked for labor exploitation. The government reported the victims cooperated with police investigations and NGOs. Trends in 2008 indicated women and girls 30 years old and younger were most at risk of being trafficked. Anecdotal information indicated regional and domestic organized crime groups were responsible for trafficking. Traffickers controlled victims through violence, intimidation, withholding documents, and threats. The law defines trafficking in persons as a crime separate from slavery and provides penalties between one and 10 years' imprisonment for traffickers. The minimum penalty for trafficking crimes committed against a minor is five years' imprisonment. If a criminal organization committed the crime and it resulted in death, the penalty is five years' to life imprisonment. The law provides criminal sanctions of three months to three years in prison for using the services of trafficked persons. As of December the government had arrested and instituted criminal proceedings against nine persons. The government reported six trafficking convictions against five persons, in which the court sentenced the defendants to prison terms ranging from two to eight years, while in one case the defendant was ordered to compensate the victim with 152,196 kunas ($30,400). The government also issued five indictments against eight persons during the year whose cases were pending at year's end. The government has a national committee for the suppression of trafficking in persons. The head of the government's human rights office was also the national coordinator for trafficking issues. Various agencies are responsible for the suppression of trafficking. Police participated in international investigations through the regional center of the Southeastern European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) Bucharest, and through Interpol and Europol. Between March and November, the Ministry of Interior conducted four operations responding to sexual services advertisements on the Internet and in the media in order to identify possible trafficking victims. Police continued to cooperate with both short- and long-term advisors from Germany and Austria. In addition, police had an active role in the Mirage working group from the SECI regional center and reported strong cooperation with Europol and Interpol in combating trafficking in persons. There were no specific reports government officials were involved in trafficking. During the year the government did not deport or punish victims of trafficking, and it cooperated with NGOs and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) mission to offer all necessary assistance to victims. While the law criminalizes international prostitution and unauthorized border crossings, it exempts trafficking victims from prosecution. Similarly, the law exempts trafficking victims from deportation under laws that permit authorities to charge foreigners engaged in prostitution with a misdemeanor and initiate deportation proceedings if they do not fulfill legal requirements for their stay in the country. The government has a legal framework to provide for victim assistance, and support services were available for trafficking victims. The government continued to finance shelters for adults and minors who were victims of trafficking. The Croatian Red Cross, in cooperation with the government, operated four reception shelters. The government offered assistance to all victims and provided services jointly with local NGOs and the IOM. The law regulates the status of foreign victims of trafficking. It defines methods of identification and the scope of assistance and the respective bodies that are responsible for offering victim assistance. The Law on Foreigners was amended in March to extend the ``reflection period'' for adult victims from 30 to 60 days, while for victims who are minors it remained at 90 days. The law specifies different forms of assistance that should be offered to foreign victims, including safe accommodations, financial support, education and training, and assistance with regard to work. The law also provides for temporary residence permits for victims, initially from six months to one year, which the government can extend based on a subsequent needs assessment. The government continued to broadcast public awareness campaigns produced during the previous years and continued to support an NGO hotline, alternative shelters, and two traditional shelters. Government information campaigns targeted children and adults as potential victims, while one targeted potential clients of those who were trafficked. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services; however, discrimination occurred. The government maintained 10 counseling centers offering assistance to persons with disabilities and their families. In 2008 the government also opened a separate department for persons with disabilities at the employment agency, aimed at increasing employment rates. A total of 1,028 persons with disabilities were employed during the year, while the number of unemployed was 6,215. An estimated 67.3 percent of unemployed persons with disabilities have been unemployed for more than a year. In June 2008 parliament appointed the first ombudsman for persons with disabilities. In a report covering the second half of 2008, the ombudsman noted the majority of complaints received by his office involved welfare and pension payments. The office actively cooperated with NGOs dealing with disabled persons. During the year parliamentarian Vesna Skulic criticized the government for lagging behind in fulfilling its obligations under the National Strategy for Persons with Disabilities for 2007-2015. The government was late in introducing measures or revising relevant laws that affect the lives of persons with disabilities. Skulic continued to criticize the lack of transparency in the management of the government's fund for professional rehabilitation and employment. The number of persons with mental disabilities in institutions did not decrease, despite some efforts to develop community-based alternatives. The law provides that unemployed parents of children with disabilities be granted 2,200 kunas ($443) in monthly compensation. The law also provides compensation to foster-care families. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities; however, the government did not always enforce this provision, and the law did not mandate that existing facilities be retrofitted. As a result, access to public facilities for persons with disabilities remained limited. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--While constitutional protections against discrimination applied to all minorities, open discrimination and harassment continued against ethnic Serbs and Roma. Incidents, including looting, physical threats, verbal abuse, and spraying graffiti on Serb property, continued in the Dalmatian hinterland and the central part of the country. International organizations reported that the frequency and gravity of violent incidents against ethnic Serbs diminished in most of the country with the exception of the Zadar and Sibenik hinterland, where they remained unchanged. On July 11, police arrested two young men who broke into the house of a Serb returnee in a village near Knin, smashed the furniture and verbally and physically assaulted the owner. Human rights NGOs reported the two were a part of group that first stoned the house and then used wooden sticks and ladders to break the windows. The owner immediately called the police, who stopped the attack. The police filed criminal charges against the two attackers, 19-year-old immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, for acts of violence motivated by hatred. The Croatian Helsinki Committee subsequently issued a statement criticizing the incident and the police in Knin for repeated reluctance to report low- level violence (such as driving across cultivated fields or destroying satellite dishes) against ethnic Serbs in the area over the previous three years. On March 26, a group of eight young men threw stones at and verbally abused the local Serb population in the village of Bukovic in the Benkovac area. They threatened one of the villagers with a knife and demanded money. They smashed windows in homes and burned the haystack of another villager. The police identified all eight perpetrators and charged them with ``violent behavior'' and ``disruption of the inviolability of the home.'' Human rights NGOs reported no indictments had been issued at the year's end. On July 16, police arrested three men for smashing the windows and slashing the tires of a car with Serbian plates in front of the Hotel Plat in Dubrovnik. The three were indicted for damaging and destroying property, and authorities qualified the act as a hate crime. The case was pending at year's end. In May 2008 authorities transferred the 2007 case of two young men arrested for verbally and physically abusing two Serb returnees and attempting to burn their house with them inside, from the county court to the municipal court in Pozega. The prosecutors in Pozega revised the charges from attempted murder to inflicting grave injuries. On April 23, the court sentenced the two perpetrators to two years in prison with parole. The prosecution appealed the verdict in June; a final decision was pending at year's end. Authorities made no further progress in identifying suspects in the 2007 bombing of a Serbian-owned vehicle. Discrimination continued against ethnic Serbs in several areas, including the administration of justice, employment, and housing. Ethnic Serbs in war-affected regions continued to be subject to societal harassment and discrimination. Local authorities sometimes refused to hire qualified Serbs even when no Croats applied for a position. Seven years after the parliament passed the Constitutional Law on National Minorities (CLNM), authorities had not implemented its provision on proportional minority employment in the public sector in areas where a minority constitutes at least 15 percent of the population. Ethnic Serbs, the largest minority, were most affected by the slow implementation of the law. Difficulties with the implementation of the CLNM continued during the year. At a roundtable on minority employment organized by the Ministry of Justice in Karlovac on May 14, officials admitted that minority representation in the judiciary was not adequate. One department head cited Karlovac County as an example of an area where minorities made up 11 percent of the population but constituted only 2 percent of employees in the judiciary. The law provides that minority participation is to be taken into account when appointing judges in regions where minorities constitute a significant percentage of the population. The National Minority Council received approximately 42 million kunas ($8.5 million) for minority associations' cultural programs during the year. Societal violence, harassment, and discrimination against Roma continued to be a problem. While only 9,463 persons declared themselves to be Roma in the 2001 census, officials and NGOs estimated the Romani population was between 30,000 and 40,000. At the end of June, four skinheads verbally abused and then tried to set on fire 12 Roma sleeping on trucks parked near a temporary dump site at the outskirts of Zagreb. One of the skinheads hit a Rom with a Molotov cocktail but failed to cause any injuries. The attackers fled before being arrested. In June the ECHR ruled in favor of Darko Beganovic, a Rom beaten by seven persons in 2000, and found the state violated the European Convention on Human Rights by failing to institute criminal proceedings in the case. The court ordered the government to pay Beganovic 1,000 euros ($1,430) for damages and 6,940 euros ($9,920) for court expenses. Roma faced many obstacles, including lack of knowledge of the Croatian language, lack of education, lack of citizenship and identity documents, high unemployment, and widespread discrimination. Many Romani women in particular had only limited Croatian language skills. In 2007 Romani NGOs estimated 25 percent of Roma did not have citizenship documents and thus could not obtain social benefits, employment, voting rights, and property restitution. According to the Council of Europe, only 6.5 percent of Roma had permanent jobs, while the government estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Roma were receiving some form of social assistance. In September the government estimated over 90 percent of registered Roma lived on social aid. On a national level, the government worked to increase the employment rate of Roma by providing two years' worth of salary payments to employers who hired Romani workers. Government spending on programs for Roma increased from 17 million kunas ($3.4 million) in 2008 to 27 million kunas in 2009 ($5.4 million). During the year the government worked with the European Commission to improve conditions in major Roma settlements in the Medjimurje region, where Roma constituted 6 percent of population. The government allocated 7.5 million kunas ($1.5 million) for administrative costs related to the legalization of four Roma settlements there. In addition, the government contributed 2.5 million kunas ($503,000) to a joint project with the European Commission to reconstruct infrastructure in these settlements. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There was some societal violence and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons. There are at least two active LGBT organizations. On June 13, an antigay protest was staged during the annual Gay Pride Parade. Members of the protest carried banners with abusive language such as ``kill the faggots.'' Organizers of the parade considered the protest a hate crime and criticized authorities for having allowed it to take place. Police arrested five persons who tried to break through police lines and attack parade participants. After the parade two unidentified persons followed one parade supporter to his doorstep and severely beat him. In August the ECSR issued a statement on the sexual education curriculum in Croatian schools that criticized the government for homophobic material in classroom texts. The committee stated certain parts of the educational material were ``manifestly biased, discriminatory, and demeaning'' and served to stigmatize homosexuals ``based upon negative, distorted, reprehensible, and degrading stereotypes.'' The committee found the material had a ``discriminatory and demeaning impact'' upon persons not of heterosexual orientation throughout society and presented a ``distorted picture of human sexuality.'' The committee stated the government had failed ``in the provision of objective and nonexclusionary health education.'' Authorities removed the textbook in question. Societal discrimination against LGBT persons was frequently manifested by insults, stereotypical jokes, and societal prejudices. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Societal discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS remained a problem. The Croatian Association for HIV (HUHIV) reported dentists and general practitioners at times refused to treat HIV-positive patients and some hospitals postponed surgery because doctors were reluctant to operate on them. If an HIV patient did not go through the infectious disease hospital, he or she often waited for treatment, and doctors sometimes delayed surgery indefinitely. There were allegations transplant centers refused to put HIV patients on their lists of potential organ recipients. According to HUHIV representatives, the lack of public assistance, such as hotlines, for HIV-positive patients was a problem. According to the UN theme group on HIV/AIDS, an analysis of the country's laws indicated they contain discriminatory provisions regarding HIV. The group cited legal provisions requiring testing under medical supervision for certain professions and, in certain cases, restricted employment for prisoners and HIV-positive persons. According to the analysis, most cases of discrimination occurred outside the scope of the law or were due to insufficient enforcement of privacy laws, lack of consistent, adequate medical care, and discrimination in school or the workplace. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Workers are entitled by law to form or join unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. Unions generally were independent of the government and political parties. In July 2008 the government initiated a consultative process through the Croatian Social and Economic Council with key stakeholders: labor unions, employer associations, and economists, to provide recommendations on bringing the existing labor code into line with EU standards. The negotiations concluded in December 2009 with three amendments to the labor code which were pending in the parliament at year's end. The amendments include limiting temporary work contracts to no more than three years, establishment of a flexible eight-hour workday with overtime regulations and night-shift restrictions, and establishment of a 56-hour maximum work week. The law provides for the right to strike, with some limitations, and workers exercised these rights during the year. The law does not permit members of the armed forces, police, government administration, or public services to strike. Workers may strike only at the end of a contract or in specific circumstances mentioned in the contract after they have gone through mediation. When negotiating a new contract, workers are also required to go through mediation before they can strike. Labor and management must jointly agree on a mediator if a dispute goes to mediation. If a strike is found to be illegal, any participant may be dismissed and the union held liable for damages. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The constitution and law protect collective bargaining and the right to organize, and workers exercised these rights in practice, although some international observers reported there that small firms did not always uphold this right. Approximately 12 percent of the country's workers are on fixed-term contracts with employers. Manual labor and retail employees are primarily affected and many employers hire new workers for a trial period of typically three months. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination and expressly allows unions to challenge firings in court; however, incidents of union- related harassment and firing of employees occurred, and in general the inefficiency of the court system seriously delayed and discouraged citizens' attempts to seek redress through the legal system. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits all forced or compulsory labor, including by children, but there were incidents in which adults and children were trafficked for prostitution and labor (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). The cases of trafficking for labor involved an auto mechanic and a pickpocket. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace and provide for acceptable working conditions. While the government for the most part implemented these laws and policies effectively, child labor remained a problem. In 2008, the last year for which data were available, the State Labor Inspectorate recorded 173 violations of labor-related laws involving 86 children under the age of 17. Of these violations, two involved a child under the age of 15. Violations occurred mainly in the hospitality, tourism, retail, food, industrial, services, and construction sectors. The minimum age for employment of children is 15 years. The Ministry of Economy, Labor, and Entrepreneurship, in conjunction with the ombudsman for children and the state inspectorate, is responsible for enforcing this regulation. Minors under the age of 15 may work if they receive prior approval from the state labor inspectorate and if it is determined that the child will not suffer physically or mentally from the work. Approval is usually requested for filming movie scenes or for play rehearsals. The law prohibits workers under the age of 18 from working overtime, at night, or under dangerous conditions. The law proscribes the worst forms of child labor, including trafficking in children for purposes of sexual exploitation and labor. The national ombudsman for children coordinated the country's efforts to prevent the exploitation of children and to assist in removing children from exploitative situations. The labor inspectorate has 111 inspectors whose duties include inspection for illegal employment of minors. The inspectorate forwarded all cases of violations involving minors to the Office of the Ombudsman for Children. Criminal cases were prosecuted by the State Prosecutor's Office and often resulted in convictions. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The minimum wage as determined by the government was 2,814 kunas ($566) per month; the net wage was between 2,000 and 2,200 kunas ($402-$443), depending on exemptions, and did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Government statistics from June indicated the average wage was 5,370 kunas ($1,080), and the minimum cost of living for a family of four in rented housing was 6,316 kunas ($1,270). The government enforces the minimum wage, while the ministry of finance determines the level. Nonpayment and late payment of wages continued to be a problem, as was nonpayment for overtime and holiday work. According to the labor inspectorate, the law no longer requires that records be kept of the number of persons who did not receive payment of their salaries. However, workers have the right to bring court proceedings against employers who did not issue pay slips to their employees. Based on data that it received through various reports, the inspectorate concluded that at least 1,708 employees did not receive full payment for their work in 2008, the last year for which data were available. The inspectorate reported that it shut down 452 employers for periods of at least 30 days during 2008 for labor law violations. Violations included illegally employing local and foreign workers without work permits, employing workers not registered with the pension fund, and employing workers not registered with a health insurance agency. The labor inspectorate reported that although its officers greatly increased their inspections and reporting of violations, the courts did hand down punishment commensurate with the seriousness of the violations, and therefore the inspectorate's actions were not effective. The inspectorate pointed to the large number of violations that were not tried in court due to the expiration of the statute of limitations. In 2008 there were 4,186 such cases involving terms of employment and 948 involving work safety. The law provides for a standard workweek of 40 hours. Workers are entitled to a 30-minute break daily, one day off out of seven, and a minimum of four weeks of paid vacation annually. The law provides that workers are entitled to time-and-a-half pay for overtime and limits overtime to eight hours per week. The labor inspectorate must be notified if overtime work by an employee continues for more than four consecutive weeks, for more than 12 weeks during a calendar year, or if the combined overtime of employees of an employer exceeds 10 percent of the total working hours in a particular month. Pregnant women, mothers of children under three years of age, and single parents of children under six years of age may work overtime only if they freely give written consent to perform such work. In 2008 the inspectorate processed 14,593 violations. After processing, the inspectorate sent 5,737 violations to misdemeanor courts for proceedings. Infractions included violations related to labor contracts, payment for work, annual leave, and unpaid and unreported overtime. In 2008 authorities sent 36 criminal proceedings against employers to municipal state attorneys' offices. The government set health and safety standards, which the Health Ministry enforced; its inspectorate has jurisdiction over enforcement of health and safety laws at the workplace. In practice many industries often did not meet worker protection standards. In 2008 the inspectorate initiated 2,687 requests for misdemeanor proceedings covering 5,588 violations of safety standards. During 2008 misdemeanor courts issued 1,526 violations, of which authorities declared three were criminal acts and referred them to higher courts. Courts rejected 948 of the reported violations because of expiration of the statute of limitations. Under the law workers may remove themselves from hazardous conditions and have recourse through the courts if they believe that they have been dismissed wrongfully for doing so; however, according to the labor inspectorate, workers did not exercise this right in practice and normally reported employers only after they had left their job. __________ CYPRUS Since 1974 the southern part of Cyprus has been under the control of the government of the Republic of Cyprus, while the northern part, administered by Turkish Cypriots, proclaimed itself the ``Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus'' (``TRNC'') in 1983. The United States does not recognize the ``TRNC,'' nor does any country other than Turkey. A substantial number of Turkish troops remained on the island. A buffer zone, or ``green line,'' patrolled by the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), separates the two parts. REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS The Republic of Cyprus is a constitutional republic and multiparty presidential democracy. The area under control of the government has approximately 796,900 inhabitants. In 2006, 56 representatives were elected to the 80-seat Vouli Antiprosopon (House of Representatives) in free and fair elections, and in February 2008 President Demetris Christofias was elected in free and fair elections. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Problems were reported in some areas. There were reports of police abuse and degrading treatment of persons in custody and asylum seekers. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, and several incidents of violence against children were reported. There were instances of discrimination against members of minority ethnic and national groups. Trafficking of women to the island, particularly for sexual exploitation, continued to be a problem, and labor trafficking was also reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings during the year. In 2008 authorities completed an independent investigation of the 2005 police killing of a Syrian immigrant that the chief of police had reported was in self-defense. The attorney general initially ordered the prosecution of the police officers involved but later decided that the evidence was not strong enough to stand in a criminal trial. The district court awarded compensation to the victim's family in civil proceedings brought by them. In June 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgment that found that the government of Turkey violated the right to life as provided under Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights in the cases of Isaak v. Turkey and Solomou and others v. Turkey. The court found that Isaak was killed in 1996 during a Greek Cypriot demonstration in the buffer zone by Turkish Cypriot counterdemonstrators, including ``at least four uniformed soldiers belonging to the Turkish or Turkish Cypriot forces.'' The ECHR also found that in 1996 ``two soldiers in Turkish uniform and a man in civilian clothes'' shot and killed Solomou when he entered the buffer zone and tried to climb a flagpole with the Turkish flag on it. The court ordered Turkey to pay 215,000 euros (approximately $308,000) to Isaak's family plus 12,000 euros ($17,200) in court expenses and 125,000 euros ($179,000) to Solomou's family, plus 12,000 euros in court expenses. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. The government participated in the autonomous, tripartite (UN, Greek Cypriot, Turkish Cypriot) UN Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) as part of its efforts since 1996 to account for persons missing as a result of the intercommunal violence in 1963-64 and the conflict in 1974. As of December 30, the CMP had exhumed the remains of a total of 596 missing persons and returned the remains of 145 Greek Cypriots. Exhumations continued in different parts of the island. According to the CMP, 1,455 Greek Cypriots and 455 Turkish Cypriots remained missing. On September 21, the ECHR Grand Chamber upheld the court's original decision in the case of Varnava and others v. Turkey, filed by the relatives of nine Greek Cypriots missing since the events of 1974. The ECHR had found Turkey in continuing violation of the convention's Article 2 (right to life), Article 3 (prohibition against torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment), and Article 5 (right to liberty and security) on account of its failure to conduct an effective investigation into the whereabouts of the nine missing persons. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; there were reports, however, that police abused detainees. There continued to be reports that police engaged in heavy-handed tactics and degrading treatment of suspects. On March 10, police officers at Strovolos police station allegedly beat and used racist comments against 19-year-old Henry Taylor, a national of Zimbabwe who had lived in Cyprus for eight years, after accusing him of stealing a moped. Taylor contended he was a victim of mistaken identity, and he was later released without charge. The Independent Authority, an independent committee appointed by the Council of Ministers to investigate complaints of police bribery, corruption, unlawful financial gain, violation of human rights, abuse of power, preferential treatment, and conduct unbecoming of police officers, investigated the incident and submitted its report to the attorney general, who ordered the summary trial of the officers involved. On March 19, the criminal court acquitted the remaining 10 police officers accused in the 2005 case involving plainclothes officers stopping two cars in Nicosia and handcuffing and beating the drivers, 27-year-old students Marcos Papageorghiou and Yiannos Nicolaou. Authorities had charged 11 officers with numerous offenses, including assault and torture; one officer was subsequently cleared of the charges. The court decision caused a public uproar, including demonstrations and statements from the attorney general, who appealed the decision. The hearing on the appeal before the Supreme Court started on November 23 and was ongoing at year's end. In May the press reported on a young man who was arrested by police in Limassol in 2007 for allegedly making an indecent hand gesture to police. The man claimed that he was taken to the Limassol police station, handcuffed, and beaten by an officer while five to six other officers looked on. As a result of the beating, he allegedly suffered a concussion and other head and neck injuries and was hospitalized for five days. According to police, disciplinary charges were brought against an officer after an investigation by the Independent Authority; the officer's hearing on charges of misconduct and illegal exercise of authority had not been completed at year's end. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in prisons, detention centers, and other government institutions generally met international standards, although there have been reports of overcrowding. During the year the ombudsman and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) received complaints that police subjected inmates to physical abuse and discriminatory treatment. The ombudsman reported that during the year her office received two complaints from prisoners concerning physical violence that were being investigated. Complaints submitted to the ombudsman in previous years could not be substantiated due to insufficient evidence. The ombudsman's investigation into complaints by Greek Cypriot prisoners that prison officials tolerated and, in some cases, supported violence among inmates was inconclusive due to lack of sufficient evidence. The ombudsman reported discriminatory treatment of Turkish Cypriot inmates regarding their access to facilities at the Central Prison. A 2008 investigation by the ombudsman showed that prison authorities denied requests by Turkish Cypriot inmates for access to the Open Prison and Out of Prison Employment Center. The ombudsman recommended that the security reasons cited for the rejections be explicitly stated and fully justified on a case-by-case basis. The ombudsman received two more complaints during the year from Turkish Cypriots alleging discriminatory treatment in the Central Prison. Both complaints were under investigation at year's end. An NGO reported that foreign detainees and prisoners complained of physical violence in detention centers located in police stations and discrimination in the Central Prison. In 2008 an NGO reported that foreign inmates were tasked with heavier work and had greater restrictions on visitation rights than local prisoners. On March 15, a young Moldovan man arrested for drunk driving and a series of traffic violations was found dead in his cell at the Lycavitos Police Station in Nicosia. The state coroner found no evidence of a crime. The Independent Authority appointed two criminal investigators to the case. The investigation was ongoing at year's end. During the year overcrowding remained the Nicosia Central Prison's greatest problem, despite renovation and expansion. Prison authorities acknowledged that many of the prison buildings, constructed prior to 1960, needed renovation. Construction work was underway to increase capacity and improve sanitary conditions. In September the ombudsman complained via the media that such overcrowding created problems for prisoners' health and welfare. The prison's capacity was 340, but at times it housed up to 750 inmates. Approximately 73 percent of the detainees were foreigners imprisoned for illegal entry, stay, and employment, as well as theft, burglary, false pretenses, and other offenses. The ombudsman reported that, due to overcrowding, convicted criminals were not separated from pretrial detainees, and both long- and short-term prisoners were kept together. In a report issued during the year concerning drug use in the Central Prison, the ombudsman recommended separate detention for drug users. In September the ombudsman also complained via the media that the prison lacked a health center, even though her office had requested the creation of one 10 years earlier; at year's end, the Central Prison still lacked a health center. The government permitted prison visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits, unrestricted and unannounced, occurred during the year. The ombudsman, the law commissioner, and the commissioner for the protection of personal data visited Central Prison on a regular basis. The parliamentary human rights committee also visited the prison and examined the living conditions of the detainees. In May 2008 the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) conducted one of its periodic spot checks; representatives visited several sites, including the Central Prison, the psychiatric unit in Athalassa, and several police stations, and privately interviewed detainees and prisoners. The CPT's report on the visit had not been released by year's end. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The police enforce the law and combat criminal activity. The Greek Cypriot National Guard (GCNG), backed by a contingent of Greek military forces called Elliniki Dhinami Kyprou (Hellenic Force in Cyprus), protects national security. The GCNG reports to the Ministry of Defense, which reports to the president. The police report to the Ministry of Justice and Public Order. The president appoints the chief of police. The police force is composed of a headquarters with six functional departments, six geographic district divisions, including one inactive district for the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, and seven police units that provide specialized services. One case alleging serious police corruption was before the court. The Independent Authority appoints independent investigators from a list submitted by the attorney general. In 2008 the committee received 110 complaints, a 14.6 percent increase compared with 2007. Of those, 16 were deemed outside the scope of the committee's responsibility, four were withdrawn, three were rejected because the plaintiffs failed to provide a written statement, eight were sent to the police chief for further investigation, and four were still under investigation at the end of 2008. The committee completed investigations of 42 complaints and carried out preliminary investigations of 33 cases. In eight of the 42 completed investigations, the committee recommended the criminal prosecution of specific officers. Of those eight, the attorney general ordered the criminal prosecution of three and decided against the prosecution of three, and his decision was pending on the remaining two. During the year the Independent Authority ordered criminal investigations of 14 members of the police force. In January two Paphos police officers were suspended on suspicion of extorting and blackmailing illegal immigrants. They were scheduled to be presented to court in January 2010. In February a Sri Lankan man complained to Limassol police that three police officers blackmailed him and his two Sri Lankan roommates, who were residing illegally in the country, into paying 700 euros (approximately $1,000) each. The alleged victim identified three officers, who were arrested together with a 35-year-old mechanic. The trial of the four was scheduled for January 2010. In June the killing of police officer Stavros Stavrou attracted media attention due to Stavrou's alleged involvement in illegal dealings. In the past, police had allegedly investigated Stavrou for involvement in cabarets, drugs, electronic gambling, and an arson attack, although they were reportedly unable to gather enough evidence to make a case against him. An administrative investigation into possible illegal dealings of the deceased officer did not reveal any incriminating evidence. His killing remained under police investigation at year's end. In 2008 the attorney general ordered a criminal investigation of a member of the police for allegedly assaulting a civilian. The investigation concluded that there was no evidence of a criminal offense. Of the 14 cases against police officers pending before the courts at the end of 2007, four resulted in convictions, four were pending at the end of 2008, and one was dropped by the court; the attorney general suspended charges in two cases and dismissed the remaining three cases. Two of the pending cases were set for hearing at the end of 2009, and the other two were scheduled for hearing at the beginning of 2010. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires judicially issued arrest warrants, and authorities respected this requirement in practice. Persons may not be detained for more than one day without referral of the case to a court for extension of detention. Most periods of investigative detention did not exceed 10 days before formal charges were filed. The attorney general generally made efforts to minimize pretrial detention, especially in cases of serious crimes. Prior to May 2008, however, authorities indefinitely detained aliens arrested for illegal entry into the country without identity documents when they did not know where to deport them. Attorneys generally had access to detainees. Bail was permitted. The government claimed the right to deport foreign nationals for reasons of public interest, regardless of whether they had been charged with, or convicted of, a crime. Following a series of demonstrations by eight long-term detainees (all of whom were immigrants who had been denied asylum and were awaiting deportation), their families, and a local asylum-rights NGO, the minister of interior announced in May 2008 that the government would no longer hold such persons long term in detention centers. Instead, if deportations could not be executed in a reasonable amount of time--generally six months--the government would release undocumented migrants and rejected asylum seekers and give them residence permits for a limited period of time, provided they had not been found guilty of a crime. An NGO reported, however, that the released detainees did not have access to health care or social benefits and were not entitled to permanent residency permits unless they had a job. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law and constitution provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected this provision in practice. Most criminal and civil cases begin in district courts, from which appeals may be made to the Supreme Court. There are no special courts for security or political offenses. There are military tribunals that have jurisdiction over members of the GCNG. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The constitution provides for public trials, and defendants have the right to be present and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. Jury trials are not used. An attorney is provided for those who cannot afford one, and defendants have the right to question witnesses against them and present evidence or witnesses on their behalf. The law also provides that defendants and their attorneys have access to government- held evidence related to their cases. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have a right of appeal. The government generally respected these rights in practice. During the year there were three ECHR judgments that found the country in violation of the right to a fair hearing within a reasonable time, as provided by Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. On January 13, the ECHR ruled in Charalambides v. Cyprus that six years of criminal proceedings for charges of forgery and fraud constituted an unreasonably excessive length of proceedings in violation of Article 6. The court similarly found in Michael Theodossiou Ltd. v. Cyprus that the country had violated Article 6 because the applicant company was a party to property expropriation proceedings initiated by the government that lasted more than 11 years. On July 16, the ECHR ruled in Christodoulou v. Cyprus that the country violated Article 6 because it took the government almost six years to adjudicate a commercial dispute with the applicants over the value of rental property. In 2008 the ECHR found one violation by the country of Article 7 (no punishment without law), and it issued judgments that found three violations by the country of the right to a fair trial and two violations involving length of proceedings under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In January 2008 the ECHR ruled in Kafkaris v. Cyprus that the country violated the Article 7 rights of the applicant, who was given a life sentence for murdering a family of three. The court found that at the time the applicant committed the offense, the law was not formulated with sufficient precision so as to enable him to discern the scope of the penalty of life imprisonment and the manner of its execution. In March 2008 the ECHR issued a final judgment in the case of Panovits v. Cyprus and found that the country violated the applicant's Article 6 right to a fair trial based on the lack of legal assistance provided to the applicant during police questioning, the use of his confession during trial, and the court's mishandling of a confrontation with the applicant's defense counsel during the trial. The applicant had been arrested in 2000 as a minor and confessed guilt during an interrogation by the Limassol police conducted outside the presence of his guardian or an attorney. In July 2008 the ECHR ruled in Douglas v. Cyprus that the country violated the applicant's Article 6 right to a fair hearing within a reasonable time. The applicant's legal proceedings, related to a postdivorce dispute over property distribution, lasted more than eight years. Similarly, in December 2008, the ECHR ruled in Mylonas v. Cyprus that the country violated Article 6 because the applicant's legal proceedings, stemming from a family dispute over property, lasted more than 10 years. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, permitting claimants to bring lawsuits seeking damages for or cessation of human rights violations, and citizens successfully availed themselves of it. Property Restitution.--On January 15, the ECHR ruled in Michael Theodossiou Ltd. v. Cyprus that the country violated the applicant's Article 1 property rights under the convention because it failed to compensate the applicant for its property in a timely manner over the course of expropriation proceedings that lasted for more than 11 years. Turkish Cypriots have filed a total of 57 court cases, eight of them during the year, to reclaim property located in the government- controlled area, and the Supreme Court issued judgments in two cases concerning Turkish Cypriot properties that are under the guardianship of the Ministry of Interior. According to the law, these types of properties cannot be returned unless the owners resettle permanently in the government-controlled area. In one case the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the applicant and declared null and void a decision by the guardian to turn down the owner's request for restitution of his property. In the second case, the Supreme Court upheld the decision of the guardian rejecting the owner's request for restitution. On April 28 the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled in favor of the plaintiff in the case of Apostolides v. Orams, in which the Greek Cypriot plaintiff sought to enforce a Cyprus court order regarding property located in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots by applying the court order against the defendants' assets in the United Kingdom. The ECJ ruled that the fact that the Cyprus court judgment concerns land situated in an area of the state over which the government does not exercise effective control does not mean that the judgment is unenforceable under EU law. The case was seen as setting a precedent for the enforcement in EU member states of Cyprus court judgments concerning property in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. On November 13, the British Court of Appeal concluded a two- day hearing on the case; the ruling was not announced by year's end. On January 20 and 27, the ECHR issued judgments in favor of Greek Cypriot applicants in 12 property cases brought against Turkey. In all the cases, the court held that Turkey violated and continued to violate the applicants' property rights under Article 1 of Protocol 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights. On September 22, the ECHR issued judgments in favor of the Greek Cypriot applicants in 18 additional property cases. Turkey was found responsible for 18 violations of Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 (protection of property), nine violations of Article 8 (right to respect for private and family life), and two violations of Article 3 (prohibition against torture and inhuman or degrading treatment). In April 2008 the ECHR endorsed a friendly settlement brokered by the Turkish Cypriot ``property commission'' in 2007 between Greek Cypriot Michael Tymvios and Turkey. The settlement would exchange Tymvios's property in the northern part of the island for Turkish Cypriot property in the government-controlled area and a payment of one million dollars. In August 2008, however, Tymvios complained that the government, citing the guardianship law, refused to transfer ownership of the Turkish Cypriot property in the government-controlled area to him despite the ECHR ruling. On November 26, Tymvios filed a lawsuit against the attorney general, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Education, and the Larnaca School Commission for refusing to turn over to him the Turkish Cypriot property awarded to him by the ``commission.'' On July 28, the ECHR endorsed a friendly settlement brokered by the Turkish Cypriot ``property commission'' between a Greek Cypriot, Evgenia Alexandrou, and the government of Turkey. Alexandrou filed a case against Turkey in 1990 seeking damages for loss of use of 63 plots of land in Kyrenia. In January the ECHR found Turkey in violation of Alexandrou's right to property but did not establish compensation. In 2008 Alexandrou applied separately to the ``commission'' for compensation of approximately 10 million euros ($14.3 million) for loss of use of her property. In April the Turkish government and Alexandrou informed the ECHR of the settlement, which called for withdrawal of the case from the ECHR, restitution of part of Alexandrou's property, and 1.5 million British pounds ($2.4 million) in compensation to Alexandrou. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found two violations by the country of the right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In October 2008 the ECHR found that the country violated Article 8 in Kyriakides v. Cyprus and Taliadorou and Stylianou v. Cyprus. Both cases involved police officers who had been dismissed and later reinstated following allegations of torturing suspects. The domestic court originally found that significant injury had been caused to the applicants' moral and psychological integrity and awarded damages for moral injury, but this award was reversed on appeal. The ECHR found that the appeals court did not provide adequate explanation for the reversal of the award for moral damages, in violation of Article 8. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not attempt to impede criticism. Independent newspapers and periodicals proliferated. Several private television and radio stations competed effectively with government-controlled stations; government-owned stations accounted for approximately 18-20 percent of the viewership for television news and 30 percent of the general radio audience. International broadcasts, including telecasts from Turkey and Greece, were available without interference throughout the island. In 2006 the Council of Ministers rejected a 2005 decision by the board of the Cyprus News Agency to appoint Christoforos Christoforou as its new director. Some newspapers and opposition parties attributed the rejection to Christoforou's authorship of articles criticizing government policies regarding the UN efforts in 2004 to reunify the island. The Cyprus Journalists' Union called on the government to reverse its decision and approve the appointment. Christoforou appealed to the Supreme Court, which ruled in his favor in June 2008. In July 2008 the Attorney General's Office appealed the Supreme Court decision. The appeal was pending before the court at year's end. The government imposed significant restrictions on Turkish (as opposed to Turkish Cypriot) journalists crossing the green line to cover news events in the government-controlled area. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including e-mail. The Internet was easily accessible and widely available to the public. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, more than 38 percent of the country's inhabitants were users of the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were generally no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events, but certain oversight efforts threatened academic independence and activities. The government continued to exert political pressure on universities to refrain from any contact with universities in the Turkish Cypriot community because the government considered them illegal. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law and constitution provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law and constitution provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law and constitution specify that the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus, which is not under the authority of the Greek Orthodox Church of Greece, has the exclusive right to regulate and administer its internal affairs and property in accordance with its holy canons and charter. The law also states that the Turkish Cypriot religious trust, the Vakif, the Muslim institution that regulates religious activity for Turkish Cypriots, has the exclusive right to regulate and administer its internal affairs and property in accordance with Vakif laws and principles. No legislative, executive, or other act may contravene or interfere with the Orthodox Church or the Vakif. The law and constitution also recognize as official religious groups the Armenian Orthodox, Maronite Christians, and Roman Catholics. The government required other religious groups to register as nonprofit companies in order to maintain bank accounts or engage in other financial transactions. The ombudsman reported receiving complaints during the year from Muslim inmates in the Central Prison that they were unable to practice their religion in prison. The complaints were being investigated at year's end. In September an imam from the mosque in Nicosia complained through the media that the Muslim community had difficulty obtaining visas for clergy from unspecified countries. Another religious community reported delays in obtaining visas from the government for clergy from Southeast Asia. In May two NGOs reported that some Buddhist groups encountered government obstacles in obtaining property to use as houses of worship for their respective congregations. The limited number of active mosques available for the growing Muslim population was a problem. The single functioning mosque in Nicosia was particularly overcrowded. Missionaries have the legal right to proselytize; in contrast to 2008, there were no reports during the year of the government monitoring missionary activity. It is illegal for a missionary to use ``physical or moral compulsion'' to make religious conversions. Police may investigate missionary activity based on a citizen's complaint. Police can also open an investigation if missionaries are suspected of involvement in illegal activities threatening the security of the government, constitutional or public order, or public health and morals. No detentions or arrests were reported under these laws during the year. The government required children in public primary and secondary schools to take instruction in the Greek Orthodox religion. Parents of other religions may request that their children be excused from such instruction and from attending religious services. This exemption is not allowed for children whose parents are Greek Cypriot, regardless of their religious affiliation or lack thereof. Conscience and Peace Tax International reported that the length of alternative service for conscientious objectors was punitive compared with military service. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--In February vandals attacked a Muslim cemetery in the Limassol suburb of Kato Polemidia, destroying headstones and causing other damage. Police investigated the incident and questioned several persons but reported they did not find any leads. In February the ombudsman issued a report on the case of a group of youths who attacked foreign residents in Ypsonas village in Limassol in June 2008, causing serious bodily injuries to some and material damage to their properties. Police arrested 12 young men between the ages of 15 and 18. The trial was ongoing at year's end. In her report, the ombudsman noted that the racist motives of the attack were never investigated and that there has never been a conviction in the country based on the law against racism and discrimination. In May 2008 the NGO Action for Equality, Support, and Antiracism in Cyprus (KISA) reported that it continued to receive complaints from recognized refugees of Muslim origin that they had difficulty securing employment because of their religion. KISA also reported that police often beat asylum seekers of Muslim origin and that such asylum seekers faced difficulties securing residence permits. The NGO alleged that the ``general climate'' was not amenable for asylum seekers from countries where Islam is prevalent and that citizens in general demonstrated ``aggressive behavior'' toward Muslim asylees. Some asylum seekers reportedly had difficulty securing employment, and one asylee alleged that he could not secure housing because of religious discrimination. The ombudsman received one complaint during the year alleging physical violence due to ``religious racism.'' An investigation was ongoing at year's end. Turkish Cypriots continued to claim that unused mosques in the government-controlled area had been vandalized. The government routinely carried out maintenance and repair of mosques in the area under its administration. There were approximately 2,000 persons in the Jewish community, which consists of a very small number of native Jewish Cypriots and a greater number of expatriate Israeli, British, and other European Jews. The Jewish community in Larnaca reported an increase in anti- Semitic incidents following the start of Israel's military operations in the Gaza Strip in late December 2008. The Chabad House in Larnaca reported instances of rock and egg throwing that continued throughout the year, as well as harassing telephone calls. There were also several instances of anti-Semitic graffiti, including at bus stops along one of the main roads in Nicosia. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within government-controlled areas, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The government did not restrict Greek Cypriots from traveling to the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, but it generally advised them against spending the night at Greek Cypriot properties, gambling in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, or buying or developing property there. The government in many cases prohibited Turkish nationals from crossing from the area administered by Turkish Cypriots to the government-controlled area in the south. The government allowed EU citizens and citizens of other countries not subject to a visa requirement, who entered from ports of entry in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, to cross the green line into the government-controlled area; the government maintained, however, that all ports of entry in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots are illegal. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots were required to show identification cards when crossing the green line. Members of each community were required to obtain insurance coverage in the community where they planned to drive their vehicles. Turkish Cypriots flew in and out of Larnaca and Paphos airports without obstruction. The government issued 4,308 passports to Turkish Cypriots during the year. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--Although Greek Cypriots displaced as a result of the 1974 division of the island fall under the UN definition of IDPs, the government considered them refugees. At the end of the year, these individuals and their descendants numbered 200,847. Depending on their income, IDPs and their descendants are eligible for financial assistance from the government. They have been resettled, have access to humanitarian organizations, and are not subject to attack, targeting, or mandatory return under dangerous conditions. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In contrast to previous years, NGOs and refugees reported that the Asylum Service was better staffed and processed applications more quickly. Of the 37,750 applicants who filed from 2002 to the end of 2009, 257 were granted full refugee status and 2,013 were granted subsidiary protection status. During the year the government did not deport any refugees, and authorities granted full refugee status to 49 persons. The law forbids the detention of minor asylum seekers. In contrast to previous years, refugees and NGOs did not report any asylum cases being closed without consideration or receiving a government response. NGOs and asylum seekers alleged that the Nicosia District Welfare Office continued to be inconsistent in the delivery of benefits to eligible asylum seekers. The ombudsman examined many such complaints and reported that, in many cases, the allegations were well founded, and her office made suggestions for remedial action. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees and beneficiaries of subsidiary protection to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In contrast to previous years, KISA reported that police rarely violated the law and the human rights of asylum seekers by carrying out illegal arrests, detentions, and deportations. The group claimed that in some cases authorities treated asylum seekers as illegal immigrants or economic migrants and jailed or deported them. Similarly, the ombudsman reported that she did not receive any complaints from asylum seekers that police physically or psychologically abused them. The government granted individuals determined to be refugees permission to stay and gave them temporary work permits, but it did not grant permanent resettlement rights. Prior to October 2008 NGOs and asylum seekers filed complaints with the ombudsman alleging that the government permitted the exploitation of asylum seekers as cheap labor by restricting their employment to the agricultural sector. In October 2008 the law was amended to allow asylum seekers to be employed in fisheries, the production of animal feed, waste management, gas stations and car washes, freight handling in the wholesale trade, building and outdoor cleaning, distribution of advertising and informational materials, and food delivery. Asylum seekers whose cases were awaiting adjudication were allowed to begin working only after residing six months in the country but were limited to the areas previously outlined; during the six-month period, asylum seekers had access to a subsistence allowance and could live in the reception center for refugees located in Kofinou, the sole reception center for asylum seekers. There were complaints regarding the remoteness, limited capacity, and lack of facilities at Kofinou; conditions reportedly improved, however, after the government entered a private-public partnership with a university in 2008 to operate the center. Asylum seekers who refused an available job could be cut off from state benefits. To obtain welfare benefits, asylum seekers had to have a valid address, which was impossible for many who were homeless. KISA reported that asylum seekers who were eligible for benefits received their checks only sporadically, and that in June 2008 more than 100 affected asylum seekers conducted a protest in response. It also reported that the Labor Office refused to approve labor contracts for asylum seekers outside the farming and agriculture sector, despite the October 2008 increase in the available areas for employment. According to NGOs, asylum seekers reported discrimination in the provision of state medical care. In January a 28-year-old asylum seeker died after allegedly waiting two days for treatment at a private clinic in Nicosia, and later at the Nicosia general hospital, following an accident at the horse farm where he was working. According to press reports, the private clinic did not offer the man treatment during the first 24 hours he was there, despite his having suffered a head injury. Police opened a case against the employer for illegal employment and a second case relating to the death of the asylum seeker. Both cases were presented to court and were pending trial at year's end. The coroner's investigation had not been completed. In August the UNHCR complained through the media that a Kurdish child was denied government funding to travel abroad for medical treatment because of his refugee status, in contravention of the country's refugee law which provides refugees access to the same medical treatment as Cypriots and other EU citizens. Although the Health Ministry agreed to cover the travel costs on humanitarian grounds, the child was never taken for treatment abroad. The government provided funding to two local colleges to support educational services to help recognized refugees integrate into society and to a local NGO to help torture victims. The government provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees to 1,320 persons during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law and constitution provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. In national elections, only those Turkish Cypriots who resided permanently in the government-controlled area were permitted to vote and run for office. In the elections for the European Parliament, all Cypriot citizens have a right to vote and run for office, including Turkish Cypriots who live in the area administered by the Turkish Cypriots. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2006 free and fair elections were held for the 56 seats assigned to Greek Cypriots in the 80-seat House of Representatives. On June 6, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. In 2006 Ali Erel and Mustafa Damdelen, two leading members of the group of 78 Turkish Cypriots not residing in the government-controlled area who had been denied the opportunity to run, sued the government for failure to fully reinstate the Turkish Cypriot community's rights to vote and run for office. In 2007 the Supreme Court dismissed their application, and they subsequently applied to the ECHR for redress. Political parties operated without restriction and outside interference. Women held seven of the 56 seats filled in the House of Representatives and one of 11 ministerial posts. They also held senior positions in the judicial branch. There were no members of minorities in the House of Representatives, and the 24 seats assigned to Turkish Cypriots went unfilled. The small Armenian Orthodox, Maronite Christian, and Roman Catholic communities elected special nonvoting observer representatives from their respective communities to the House of Representatives. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, which vary depending on the charges, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption. While the government generally investigated and prosecuted cases of corruption, cases usually moved at a slow pace, and the evidence law, which prohibits wiretapping and electronic surveillance, made obtaining convictions challenging. On October 15, the attorney general ordered an investigation into allegations that the minister of agriculture had attempted to influence the procedure to appoint personnel in one of the ministry's departments. The complaints were made by a senior agriculture ministry inspector. On July 31, the attorney general brought criminal charges against four police officers and the director of the central prison in connection with the December 2008 escape of double murderer and rapist Antonis Procopiou Kitas from a Nicosia private hospital, where he had been staying for seven months while serving a life sentence. The minister of justice and public order resigned over the escape, and the government appointed independent criminal investigators to investigate the possible involvement of police and government officials. Separate investigations were also ordered into how Kitas acquired a new passport and why he was allowed to stay at the hospital for such an extended period of time. The four officers charged in July were suspended from their duties; a court hearing was set for October 19. On November 18, the attorney general dropped the charges against the police officers. State and public officials are required by law to declare their assets, but asset declarations are not public documents. Officials who fail to submit declarations are subject to a fine. In June the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the law requiring public officials to declare their assets. The attorney general appealed the decision. The constitution provides citizens the right of access to government information, yet there are no specific laws that ensure public access. Civil servants were not allowed to provide access to government documents without first obtaining permission from the relevant minister. During the year there were no reported cases of the government denying individuals access to government information. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. There is a government ombudsman, whose portfolio includes human rights, and a legislative committee on human rights. A number of NGOs considered themselves to be human rights groups. Most were concerned exclusively with alleged violations of the rights of Greek Cypriots by Turkey. Other NGOs included groups promoting migrant support and awareness of domestic violence and those concerned with allegations of police brutality. Domestic NGOs were numerous but had limited impact on public opinion or specific legislation. Few international NGOs were active in the country. The UN, through the CMP, continued its efforts to account for persons missing after the intercommunal violence in 1963-64 and the conflict of 1974. During the year the ombudsman received complaints from citizens and foreigners living on the island who believed their rights had been violated by the government. During her independent investigations, the ombudsman generally enjoyed good cooperation with other government bodies. The ombudsman's annual reports focused on police misconduct, treatment of patients at state hospitals, treatment of asylum seekers and foreign workers, and gender equality in the workplace. The Office of the Ombudsman was well respected and considered effective. In November 2008 the ombudsman stated that the government had complied with 80 percent of her office's recommendations. The legislative committee on human rights, which most local NGOs considered effective, is made up of 10 members of the House of Representatives, who serve five-year terms. The committee discussed wide-ranging human rights problems, including trafficking in persons, prison conditions, and the rights of foreign workers. The executive branch did not exercise control over the committee. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government effectively enforced these prohibitions. Women.--The law criminalizes rape and spousal rape with a maximum sentence of life in prison. Most convicted offenders received considerably less than the maximum sentence. Police indicated that 29 cases of sexual assault were reported during the year. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was reported, and there has been a sharp increase in recent years in the number of reported cases. The law establishes clear mechanisms to report and prosecute family violence and provides that the testimony of minors and experts, such as psychologists, may be used as evidence to prosecute abusers. The law provides for prison terms for the abuse of family members. Doctors, hospital workers, and education professionals are required to report all suspected cases of domestic violence to police. Many victims refused to testify in court, however, and by law spouses cannot be compelled to testify against each other. Courts were obliged to drop cases of domestic violence where the spousal victim was the only witness and refused to testify. During the year, 540 cases of domestic violence were reported to police. Police initiated criminal investigations of 290 of these. In 80 percent of the cases, the victims were female. An NGO working with domestic abuse victims reported a slight increase in the number of telephone calls to its hotline from 2008 to 2009. The NGO reported that 1,148 callers, of whom 83 percent were women, 8.4 percent children, and 8.6 percent men, claimed to be victims of domestic violence. The NGO also operated a shelter in Nicosia that served 125 victims of domestic violence during the year. In September the media reported that five NGOs accused the government of deliberately minimizing the number of domestic violence victims by failing to collect accurate data using EU definitions. By their estimates, 80,000 Greek Cypriot women were directly subjected to domestic violence, and an estimated 4,000 foreign housemaids suffered violence at the hands of their employers. The law does not prohibit prostitution. It is illegal to live off the profits of prostitution, however, and police routinely arrested pimps under this section of the law. Procuring a woman for prostitution is a misdemeanor. Police reported the arrest and investigation of 22 individuals for suspected involvement in 11 cases of prostitution during the year; at year's end, authorities continued to investigate five of the cases, four cases were awaiting trial, and two cases had been otherwise resolved. The law prohibits sexual harassment in the workplace, but there were reports that it was a widespread problem, with most incidents unreported to authorities. In September a Cyprus University of Technology (TEPAK) report showed that 6 percent of employees in the country had experienced sexual harassment in their workplace and that one in two persons believed that some victims deserved the harassment. During the year the Labor Office received 54 complaints regarding sexual harassment, 52 by foreign housekeepers. The Labor Office's initial investigation revealed that most of the cases were unfounded pretexts used to justify a change of employer before the expiration of a housekeeper's contract. Only one complaint was found to be valid and was scheduled for further investigation. In 2006 authorities investigated and prosecuted one of the country's ambassadors, Costas Papademas, for sexually harassing two female employees at the overseas mission he headed. In 2007 the court found him guilty and sentenced him to seven months' imprisonment. In May 2008, however, the Supreme Court acquitted Papademas, ruling that the main witnesses' testimony was unreliable. He served four months in prison during the interim. Although the case was widely reported in the press, reaction to his acquittal was muted. Couples and individuals were generally able to freely decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women generally have the same legal status as men under family and property law and in the judicial system. The National Mechanism for Women's Rights under the Ministry of Justice and Public Order is tasked with the promotion, protection, and coordination of women's rights. Laws requiring equal pay for men and women performing the same work were enforced effectively at the white-collar level. Despite a strong legal framework, the Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance's enforcement was ineffective at the blue-collar level. Research by one NGO suggested that remuneration for female blue-collar workers was 25 to 30 percent less than for their male counterparts. During the year an NGO representing divorced mothers worked with police to encourage efforts to collect delinquent child support payments. The courts may garnish wages and assets and ultimately imprison persons to enforce child support payments. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis), and there is universal birth registration at the time of birth. During 2008 the ombudsman's office received a complaint regarding discriminatory treatment of Romani children in public education. The ombudsman's investigation was still ongoing at year's end. Child abuse was a problem. The Welfare Department reported an 8.8 percent increase in cases of child abuse during the year compared with 2008. The Welfare Department stated that some cases of abuse were linked to domestic violence, alcohol abuse, psychological illness, and cultural perceptions. Police reported that 32 cases of child abuse were prosecuted during the year. Of those, eight resulted in convictions, one in acquittal, 20 were pending trial at year's end, and three were withdrawn, suspended, or interrupted. In 2008 there were two reports that girls were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation; there were no reports of such trafficking in 2009. The minimum age for consensual sex is 17, and sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 17 is a criminal offense. Sexual intercourse with a person between 13 and 17 is punishable with a maximum of three years' imprisonment. Sexual intercourse with a person under 13 is punishable with up to life in prison. Possession of child pornography is a criminal offense punishable by a maximum of 10 years' imprisonment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; there were widespread reports, however, that persons were trafficked to, through, and within the country. During the year there was a sharp increase in the number of victims of labor trafficking. Police continued to identify victims of sex trafficking and labor trafficking. The police antitrafficking unit remained understaffed, although in September a new member was added to its four-member staff. On February 1, the government abolished the use of ``artiste'' category work permits for women from non-EU countries working in the cabaret industry. Previously, individuals from non-EU countries wishing to work in Cyprus as ``artistes'' could apply for work permits as creative artists (writers, composers, etc.) or performing artists (dancers, singers, actors, etc.) and provide evidence of their qualifications, experience, and international renown. The country was primarily a destination for women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. Although the government generally acknowledged its trafficking problem, some authorities continued to tolerate the situation despite the 2005 adoption of a national action plan to combat trafficking in persons and sexual exploitation of children. The country was a destination for women trafficked from the Philippines, Moldova, Morocco, Bulgaria, the Dominican Republic, Hungary, Ukraine, and Romania. Within the previous three years, there was evidence that women coming from China on student visas engaged in prostitution and, in some cases, were victims of sexual exploitation. NGOs reported that female domestic workers from South and Southeast Asian countries were forced to work long hours, and there were allegations of labor trafficking, especially in the field of elder care. There were no reliable statistics on the number of victims trafficked for sexual purposes, but 18 women filed charges during the year. There were no reports of children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation during the year. Traffickers fraudulently recruited victims and often rotated victims among different cabarets and cities. In some cases, women reportedly were arbitrarily denied all or part of their salaries, forced to surrender their passports, raped, beaten, threatened, involuntarily detained, or forced into providing sexual services for clients. Contacts in the cabaret industry alleged that the ``artistes'' often owed money upon their arrival and had a verbal understanding with the cabaret owners to pay back the cost of their travel and lodging. Some NGOs alleged that government officials with oversight and policing responsibility over the sex industry frequented cabarets and nightclubs. It is a felony to engage in the exploitation and trafficking of persons, but the conviction rate for trafficking offenses remained low. As of year's end, seven persons had been convicted. A court may order persons convicted of trafficking to pay all or part of the expenses incurred for the provision of protection, temporary shelter, medical care, and psychiatric care for victims, as well as compensation to the victim, including repatriation expenses. The ministries of interior, labor and social insurance, justice, health, and education and the attorney general shared responsibility for combating trafficking as part of the Multidisciplinary Team against Trafficking (MDAT), with the Ministry of Interior as the lead government agency. The MDAT also included two NGOs. In February the Council of Ministers appointed three independent criminal investigators to examine the events surrounding the 2001 death of 20-year-old Oxana Rancheva from Russia. Rancheva fell from a fifth- floor balcony when she tried to escape from the apartment of the brother of her cabaret-owner employer. The police attributed her death to an accident. The investigation was ongoing at year's end. Through the end of the year, police arrested 68 individuals involved in cases related to prostitution and trafficking. Of those, 46 individuals involved in 15 cases were arrested specifically on trafficking charges. Of those cases, 11 concerned sexual exploitation, two cases concerned both sexual and labor exploitation, and two cases concerned labor exploitation. Police statistics indicated that 14 cases were prosecuted and pending trial, and one case was otherwise disposed of. Of the 42 trafficking cases pending investigation and trial at the end of 2008, one resulted in a four-year sentence, one case involving four individuals resulted in 15-month sentences for each of the persons accused, one resulted in a five-month sentence, and, in one case, the accused was fined 3,500 euros ($5,000). Of the remaining cases, 28 were pending trial, five resulted in acquittals, and two were otherwise disposed of. The prosecution of three cases had been suspended by year's end. On November 5, police arrested a 38-year-old Cypriot man in connection with a suspected case of labor trafficking and exploitation of approximately 160 Romanian workers. Approximately 110 of the workers were reportedly living in squalid conditions in prefabricated structures owned by the suspect, who allegedly underpaid them, gave them insufficient money for food, and withheld their travel documents. The case was under investigation at year's end. The same man had been arrested and released on bail in December 2008 in connection with a Romanian trafficking ring that similarly brought victims to Cyprus to work for a fee, then seized their passports and identification documents in order to extort more money. According to press reports on that ring, police recovered 200 passports and 78 identity cards in a Nicosia apartment during the investigation, and several suspects were arrested in Romania. Police participated in or assisted with 42 international trafficking investigations and requested assistance from Europol and Interpol in six trafficking investigations. There were allegations of corruption and xenophobia related to trafficking in the police force, the Ministry of Interior, and the Attorney General's Office. In April 2008 four bishops from the Greek Orthodox Church alleged during parliamentary hearings that ``certain government officials'' were collaborating with traffickers. During the hearings, the newspaper Alithia reported that police submitted a confidential report to a parliamentary committee stating that individuals involved with trafficking in persons ``have influence on government officials, which makes the arrest and prosecution of traffickers more difficult.'' Under the law, persons identified as victims of trafficking are granted at minimum a one-month residency permit to give them time to recover and decide whether they wish to cooperate with the police in the investigation and to testify at trial. The law obligates the government to protect and support trafficking victims with financial assistance, shelter, medical and psychiatric care, and psychological support, as well as legal aid and access to government-funded training and educational programs. The government is obligated to facilitate the victims' repatriation under safe and dignified conditions. Through October 31, police identified 107 victims of trafficking, all of whom filed charges against their traffickers. The majority, 89, were victims of trafficking for labor exploitation, while 18 were victims of sexual exploitation. Government welfare services provided financial aid, counseling, and temporary shelter to 215 victims. Despite the legal protections in place, NGOs reported that trafficking victims who had provided court testimony in antitrafficking cases were excluded from the government's witness protection program, leaving them vulnerable, weakening antitrafficking cases, and providing a disincentive for future witnesses to testify. In response, the government contended that witness protection was available if requested, but no requests for protection had been made. There were also allegations that the Attorney General's Office downgraded trafficking cases and systematically placed antitrafficking cases in lower courts rather than the assize courts, which are reserved for more serious crimes and penalties. NGOs alleged that the district courts were not as well equipped to deal with antitrafficking cases, leading to a lack of convictions on trafficking charges and more lenient sentences. The government reported that all pending trafficking cases were before the assize courts. There were reports that cabaret owners and agents for dancers used attorneys to bribe potential witnesses and pressured women to withdraw complaints or not to follow through with testifying in court. Of the 18 women who requested police protection during the year, the government reported all were waiting to testify. On average victims waited approximately one year before the commencement of their trials, which NGOs alleged resulted in weaker cases because of inconsistent testimony and because victims often left the country. NGOs that protect the rights of women and immigrant workers were available to assist trafficking victims and reported that they received one to two requests for assistance per month. The NGO Stigma in Limassol operated a shelter for trafficking victims until the end of 2008, when it closed down due to financial difficulties. Stigma continued to actively locate victims and offered a wide range of services, including counseling, psychological, and financial support, and assistance to victims in finding alternate employment or in repatriation in cooperation with NGOs in victims' home countries. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services, and in practice the government generally enforced these provisions. The law mandates that public buildings and tourist facilities built after 1999 be accessible to all; government enforcement of the law was ineffective, however, and older buildings frequently lacked access for persons with disabilities. There were no appropriate institutions for adults suffering from mental disabilities who were in need of long-term care. The amended People with Disabilities Law, which extended the ombudsman's authority to cover discrimination based on disabilities in both the private and public sectors, had not been fully implemented by year's end. Problems facing persons with disabilities included narrow or nonexistent sidewalks and lack of transport, parking spaces, accessible toilets, and elevators. The ombudsman examined a number of complaints concerning access to goods, services, and employment. Many of the complaints were found to be justified and the ombudsman made recommendations for the elimination of such discriminatory policies and practices. There were no long-term care facilities specifically for persons with mental disabilities, but many such persons were housed at the Athalassa Psychiatric Hospital. In 2007 an association representing approximately 300 families with children with Down syndrome complained that the government did not respond to its repeated calls for the creation of a specialized center for the treatment of children with Down syndrome, particularly those in need of temporary hospitalization. Some were housed at the hospital, where they allegedly received inadequate care. The parents claimed that the children were left naked, locked in their wards for excessive amounts of time, and placed under the influence of sedative medication. On December 9, the same association complained that the government rejected its request in the spring for a subsidy to cover its operating expenses, and as a result it had to close down its office. In February 2008 the president of the Cyprus Mental Health Commission, Christodoulos Messis, stated that, in order to reduce numbers, patients in the Athalassa psychiatric unit were being released into nursing homes for the elderly regardless of their age, with no plan for their rehabilitation within the community. He criticized the mental health services for not creating appropriate halfway houses and boarding schools to host psychiatric patients wishing to reintegrate into society and return to active employment. The Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance's Service for the Care and Rehabilitation of the Disabled was responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. In addition the minister chaired the Pancyprian Council for Persons with Disabilities, which included representatives of government services, organizations representing persons with disabilities, and employer and employee organizations. The council monitored action for the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities and served as a forum for persons with disabilities to contribute to public policy. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There were reported incidents of government and societal discrimination against members of minority national and ethnic groups, particularly Turkish Cypriots, Roma, Filipinos, Pontian Greeks, and Sri Lankans. The 1975 Vienna III Agreement remains the legal source of authority regarding the treatment of Turkish Cypriots living in the government- controlled area. The government generally effectively enforced the agreement, which provides for the voluntary transfer of populations, free and unhindered access by the UNFICYP to Turkish Cypriots living in the south, and facilities for education, medical care, and religious activities. In January the ombudsman complained through the media that foreigners were being subjected to humiliating and discriminatory treatment by authorities at passport control at Larnaca Airport. The ombudsman reported that she was not aware of any changes to these practices by year's end. The Maronite religious group complained to the ombudsman that the government failed to take effective measures to protect the use of the Maronite language. The ombudsman found the complaint to be justified and made recommendations to the government. In October the European Network Against Racism Cyprus issued its 2008 ``shadow report'' on racism in Cyprus. The report noted a significant rise in racist violence and called for the government to adopt and implement an action plan covering all areas where discrimination and racism persist. It also called on the government to develop and enact a comprehensive migration policy that would include an integration policy for migrants. In March a Cypriot citizen of Lebanese origin accused the Limassol Hospital of denying him treatment unless he spoke to doctors and staff in Greek. During a police operation in the early morning hours of September 25, police took 150 individuals to police stations, reportedly to confirm their immigration status. Authorities arrested 36 for ``illegal residence'' and 12 for involvement in violence that took place earlier at Nicosia's only functioning mosque. The minister of interior was critical of the operation, noting that his ministry was responsible for implementation of immigration policy; the minister of justice defended the operation, stating that police were simply doing their job. Ombudsman Iliana Nicolaou, acting as head of the Authority against Racism and Discrimination, said such practices fed xenophobic attitudes and racist stereotypes and had nothing to do with the country's immigration policy. She expressed her deep concern over the police action and opened an investigation that was still in progress at year's end. In December 2008 the press reported that a large group of schoolchildren beat a 15-year-old Cypriot girl of African descent after a school volleyball game. The attackers shouted racist slogans and did not stop the beating until police arrived. The girl was treated for severe injuries at the hospital. The girl's father and KISA complained that police did not take the girl to the hospital but kept her in a room at the school until her father arrived. Police subsequently turned the father away three times when he attempted to file a complaint and made no arrests in connection with the attack. A number of senior government officials publicly criticized the attack. The teachers' union, OELMEK, denied that there was any racism in the schools, however. The ombudsman opened an investigation into the incident. In May the ombudsman publicly criticized some Ministry of Education officials for presenting the attack as an incident of school violence rather than of racism. The ombudsman's investigation found that the police neglected to act efficiently in this case and failed to file criminal charges against the offenders within the antidiscrimination law. The attorney general reviewed the case and decided that there were no grounds for criminal court proceedings. Many foreign workers reported that they almost always faced delays in the renewal of work visas despite the fact that they followed proper and timely procedures. In many cases, this left them vulnerable to detention and deportation by immigration police. Some Turkish Cypriots living in the government-controlled area reportedly faced difficulties obtaining identification cards and other government documents, particularly if they were born after 1974. Turkish Cypriots made few formal complaints to the UNFICYP about their living conditions in the south. Complaints most often concerned the lack of affordable accommodation. After complaining repeatedly about the lack of a Turkish-language school in Limassol, the Turkish Cypriot teachers' union filed suit, seeking a declaration from the Supreme Court that a 2005 decision by the Council of Ministers to operate a mixed elementary school in Limassol with a specialized program and staff to serve the needs of the Turkish-speaking students was null and void. The union argued that, under the 1960 constitution, the Council of Ministers had no competence in matters relating to the education of Turkish Cypriots. In March 2008 the Supreme Court rejected the union's appeal. The government stated that, according to surveys of Turkish Cypriots in the government- controlled area, none had requested a Turkish-language school. The ombudsman received complaints that the government denied automatic citizenship for children of Turkish Cypriots married to Turkish citizens. Instead of granting citizenship automatically, the Ministry of Interior routinely sought approval from the Council of Ministers before confirming the citizenship of such children. During the year the Council of Ministers approved 365 cases. The ombudsman's office had no authority to examine the complaints because the Council of Ministers' decision to apply different criteria for granting citizenship to children born to one Turkish parent was a political one. Children of Turkish Cypriots married to Turkish citizens and living outside of Cyprus were automatically granted citizenship, however. In June 2008 the Turkish Cypriot press reported that Turkish Cypriot Emirali Parlan and seven Turkish Cypriot colleagues working at a construction site in Paralimni alleged that Greek Cypriot police attacked and beat them. Parlan said that police officers pointed their revolvers at the workers, handcuffed them to each other, made them lie on the ground, beat them, and made them stay on the ground under the sun for half an hour. Parlan claimed that he showed his Republic of Cyprus identification to police but that they dropped it on the ground and later left laughing as if nothing had happened. The Independent Authority investigated the incident and found that the officers had committed no offense. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Despite legal protections, gays and lesbians faced significant societal discrimination, and few lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) persons were open about their sexual orientation. According to a report during the year by the Gay Liberation Movement of Cyprus (AKOK) and the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans- and Intersex Association (ILGA), there was no significant LGBT movement in the country, and a general stigma against homosexuality was present in society. The organization reported that some local religious figures and politicians frequently stated in public that homosexual individuals were ``immoral persons, bodily and mentally perverted.'' The groups also noted that there was no specific LGBT antidiscrimination law and that the lack of awareness-raising efforts and education about LGBT issues significantly contributed to the stigmatization of LGBT persons. In January the ombudsman publicly claimed that authorities at passport control at Larnaca Airport asked some foreign nationals were asked about their sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--An NGO reported complaints of discrimination toward persons with HIV/AIDS and asserted that HIV-positive persons faced social exclusion and termination from employment. In June the media reported that a Congolese asylum seeker faced deportation while awaiting a third HIV test at Nicosia General Hospital, following an earlier positive test. According to press reports, the Immigration and Asylum Services claimed that the man had voluntarily withdrawn his asylum claim and asked to be sent back home. The man was eventually granted subsidiary protection status and remained in the country. Incitement to Acts of Discrimination.--The government continued to use textbooks at the primary and secondary school levels that included language biased against Turkish Cypriots and Turks or that refrained from mentioning the Turkish-Cypriot community altogether. This was a particularly serious concern with history textbooks. Anecdotal evidence indicated that teachers used handouts and held discussions that included inflammatory language in the classroom. A special government committee was established in 2008 to look at issues of education reform, including updating history textbooks. In July National Guard training officers at two sites reportedly forced conscripts to chant anti-Turkish slogans. The defense minister stated that the National Guard chief ordered the immediate withdrawal of the training officers when he became aware of the problem, calling on new conscripts to disobey orders and report to superiors if they are ordered to shout slogans not been ordered by the head of the National Guard. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--All workers, except members of the police and military forces, have the legal right to form and join independent unions of their own choosing without prior authorization, and workers did so in practice. Police officers were only permitted to join associations that have the right to bargain collectively but not to go on strike. More than 70 percent of the workforce belonged to independent unions. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government generally protected this right in practice. All workers, including migrant and foreign workers, have the right to strike; authorities have the power to curtail strikes in ``essential services,'' but this power was used rarely in practice. The law provides that members of the armed forces, police, and gendarmerie do not have the right to strike, but the right is recognized for all other providers of essential services. An agreement between the government and essential services personnel provides for dispute resolution and protects workers in the sector. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right in practice; collective bargaining agreements were not legally enforceable, however. Collective bargaining agreements covered all workers, citizen and foreign, with the exception of housekeepers and cabaret workers; approximately 60 percent of workers were covered by such agreements. Antiunion discrimination is illegal, but union leaders contended that private sector employers were able to discourage union activity because the enforcement of labor regulations was sporadic and penalties for antiunion practices were minimal. There are no special laws for or exemptions from regular labor laws in the export processing zone at the port of Larnaca. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The government prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; there were reports that women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and domestic labor, however, and NGOs reported isolated cases of asylum seekers trafficked for forced labor in agriculture (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). The Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance experienced a substantial increase in the number of complaints of labor exploitation. Foreign workers, primarily from Eastern Europe and East and South Asia, were reportedly forced to work up to 13 hours a day, seven days a week, for very low wages. NGOs and the ombudsman confirmed that employers often retained a portion of foreign workers' salaries as payment for accommodations. Many domestic workers were reluctant to report contract violations by their employers out of fear of losing their jobs and consequently their work and residency permits. An NGO reported that there were cases of domestic workers whose travel documents were withheld by their employers. In one case, a housemaid who accused her employer of rape was not allowed to change employers until the completion of her employer's trial. In addition, police filed two criminal cases against her for working illegally. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits the employment of children, defined as persons under 15, except in certain cases such as a combined work-training programs for children who have attained the age of 14 or employment in cultural, artistic, sports, or advertising activities, subject to certain rules limiting work hours. Nighttime work and engagement of children in street trading is prohibited. The law also permits the employment of adolescents, defined as persons between the ages of 15 and 18, provided it is not harmful, damaging, or dangerous, and also subject to rules limiting hours of employment. Employment of adolescents between midnight and 4:00 a.m. is not permitted. The minimum age for employment in an ``industrial undertaking'' is 16. The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance inspectors are responsible for enforcing the child labor laws and did so effectively. There were isolated examples of children under 16 working for family businesses. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The minimum wage was 791 euros (approximately $1,130) per month for shop assistants, nurses' assistants, clerks, hairdressers, and nursery assistants. The minimum wage rose to 840 euros ($1,200) per month after six months of employment. For asylum seekers working in the agricultural sector, however, the minimum monthly wage was either 425 euros ($608) with accommodation and food provided or 767 euros ($1,100) without accommodation and food. Neither amount provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The law provides that foreign and local workers receive equal treatment. Workers in almost all other occupations, including unskilled labor, were covered under collective bargaining agreements between unions and employers within the same economic sector. The wages set in these agreements were significantly higher than the minimum wage. The wages set for unskilled workers not covered by the collective bargaining agreements, i.e., non-EU performers (previously called ``artistes'') and domestic workers, were typically lower than the legal minimum wage. The Ministry of Interior's Migration Service set the starting salary for foreigners working as housekeepers at a minimum of 290 euros (approximately $415) per month, plus a minimum of 120 euros ($172) for lodging if the worker was not a live-in, and an additional 16 percent for social insurance, which employers were required to pay directly to the government. The ministry reported the current gross monthly wage of domestic workers to be 422 euros ($603). Medical insurance, visa fees, travel, and repatriation expenses are covered by the employers. Cabaret performers' contracts typically stipulated that workers receive at least 205 euros ($293) per week for 36 hours of work. Foreign workers were allowed to claim pensions, and in some cases there were bilateral agreements that allowed workers to claim credit in their home countries. Unions and labor confederations were generally effective in enforcing negotiated wage rates (collectively bargained rates), which were generally much higher than the minimum wage. The Migration Service was responsible for enforcing the minimum wage for foreign workers but did not actively do so. The legal maximum workweek was 48 hours, including overtime. Unions and employers within the same economic sector collectively determined the actual working hours. In the private sector, white-collar employees typically worked 39 hours a week and blue-collar employees worked 38 hours a week. In the public sector, the workweek was 38 hours in the winter and 35 hours in the summer. The law does not require premium pay for overtime or mandatory rest periods; this is usually stipulated in the contracts of workers and in the collective agreements in larger sectors. The same conditions applied to foreign workers. Labor ministry inspectors are responsible for effectively enforcing these laws; labor unions, however, reported problems in their enforcement in sectors not covered by collective agreements. They also reported that certain employers, mainly in the building industry, exploited illegal foreign workers by paying them wages that were much lower than those provided for in the collective agreements. In May eight seamen from Burma claimed through the media that they worked for a Paphos shipping company 11 to 16 hours per day for eight consecutive months without a single day off. The seamen earned between 120 and 137 euros ($172 to $196) per month, which was significantly less than the terms agreed to in the contract they signed prior to leaving their home country. After leaving their employment, the merchant shipping department accused the men of being ``escapees'' and the immigration police arrested them, although they were later released. On June 10, following mediation by the merchant shipping department, the employer was obliged to pay their salaries in full as well as their repatriation expenses. The seamen had filed a case with the Supreme Court, which they withdrew following the resolution of the dispute. There were reports of mistreatment of maids and other foreign domestic workers. Such reports usually involved allegations that maids, primarily from East or South Asia, were mistreated by their employers or fired without cause in violation of their contracts. Some domestic workers, particularly live-in maids, reported working excess hours for employer families at all times, night and day, without additional compensation or time off. Although the law protects domestic workers who file a complaint with the Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance from being deported until their cases have been adjudicated, NGOs reported that many domestic workers did not complain to authorities about mistreatment due to fear of deportation. Health and safety laws apply to places of work in all economic sectors and were enforced by government inspectors. Factory inspectors processed complaints and inspected businesses to ensure that occupational safety laws were observed. Their inspections were supported by close government cooperation with employer and employee organizations. However, the law does not apply to private households where persons are employed as domestic servants. Workers have the right to remove themselves from work situations that endanger health or safety without jeopardy to their continued employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right. THE AREA ADMINISTERED BY TURKISH CYPRIOTS Since 1974 the northern part of Cyprus, with a population of approximately 265,000 persons, has been run by a Turkish Cypriot administration that proclaimed itself the ``Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus'' (``TRNC'') in 1983. The United States does not recognize the ``TRNC,'' nor does any country other than Turkey. Mehmet Ali Talat was elected ``president'' in 2005 in free and fair elections. Elections to the ``Assembly of the Republic'' in April were also free and fair and resulted in the formation of a single-party ``government'' of the UBP (National Unity Party). The 2006 municipal elections were generally free and fair. The ``TRNC constitution'' is the basis for the ``laws'' that govern the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. Police and security forces were ultimately under the operational command of the Turkish military, per transitional article 10 of the ``TRNC constitution,'' which cedes responsibility for public security and defense ``temporarily'' to Turkey. There were problems in some areas. Police abuse of detainees and prison conditions were particular problems. There were restrictions on the rights of asylum seekers and no regulatory infrastructure to handle asylum applications or to protect the rights of asylum seekers. Trafficking in persons continued to be a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that authorities or their agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. Authorities participated in the autonomous, tripartite (UN, Greek Cypriot, Turkish Cypriot) UN Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) in Cyprus as part of its continuing efforts to account for persons who remained missing after the intercommunal violence in 1963-64 and the conflict of 1974. In 2006 the CMP began its project to exhume, identify, and return remains. By December 2009 the CMP exhumed the remains of a total of 596 missing persons and returned the remains of 47 Turkish Cypriots to their families. Exhumations continued in different parts of the island. According to the CMP, 1,455 Greek Cypriots and 455 Turkish Cypriots remained missing. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The ``law'' prohibits such practices; there were reports that police abused detainees, however. The ``law'' does not refer to ``torture,'' which falls under the section of the criminal code that deals with assault, violence, and battery. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions did not meet international standards. Inmates complained of overcrowding at the prison, but the authorities claimed that they addressed the problem. During the year inmates also raised complaints via the media of unsanitary living conditions, brutality, and prison authorities' negligence. In the prison, which had a former capacity of 291 inmates, the introduction of a bunk-bed system raised official bed capacity to 427; of the 299 prisoners held there at year's end, 57 percent were foreigners, mostly Turkish citizens. More than 40 percent of the prisoners were awaiting trial. On October 14, inmates went on a hunger strike to protest poor living conditions, corruption, and mistreatment by custodial staff, as well as negligence by the authorities. In October an opposition ``member of parliament'' visited the prison and told the press afterward that prison conditions were unsatisfactory. In November a riot broke out in the prison. The media reported that inmates set a section of the prison on fire to protest the warden and ``government's'' failure to improve conditions. One inmate allegedly told his lawyer that the riot police who raided the prison set the mattresses on fire. In November the head of the Prison Wardens Union alleged that visitors, lawyers, and civilian workers often entered the prison unchecked and supplied inmates with drugs and cell phones. In September 2008 the media reported that a number of inmates were on a hunger strike to protest poor living conditions. In October 2008 a group of inmates set their beds on fire to protest what they considered to be severe punishment in the prison. In September an anonymous 17-year-old former prisoner, who had been convicted of theft and was recently released from the Nicosia prison, told the media that custodial staff and inmates mistreated and physically intimidated inmates convicted of rape. The youth also claimed that police beat him when he was arrested and forced him to sign a false police-drafted testimony. In response to a 2007 riot, prison authorities summoned the special riot police to restore order; the riot police, however, allegedly targeted not only rioters but the general prison population, beating scores of prisoners with truncheons. After obtaining permission from the ``Ministry of Interior,'' the Turkish Cypriot Doctors Association examined prison inmates in May 2008; of a random sample of 60 prisoners, 54 had heavy bruising on their legs consistent with blows from truncheons. The ``prime minister'' subsequently announced that the police intervention would be investigated; however, at year's end, there had been no effective investigation of the events. Juveniles were not held separately from adults. During the year authorities permitted prison visits by local journalists. In 2007 a group from the Turkish Cypriot Doctors Association visited the prison to observe and investigate. A group from the Turkish Cypriot Bar Association and another from the Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Association visited the prison in 2008. According to authorities, a number of foreign diplomats visited the prison during the year to inspect prison conditions and to evaluate the situation of some foreign prisoners. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The ``law'' prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and authorities generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Police are responsible for law enforcement. The chief of police reports to a Turkish Cypriot general, who is nominally under the supervision of the ``Prime Ministry,'' holding the ``security portfolio.'' The police and security forces are ultimately under the operational command of the Turkish military, however, per transitional article 10 of the ``TRNC constitution,'' which ``temporarily'' cedes responsibility for public security and defense to Turkey. Security forces were generally cooperative with civilian authorities and effective in matters of law enforcement. The police are divided into eight functional divisions and five geographic divisions. The ``Office of the Attorney General'' continued to work with the inspection division (or occasionally the criminal investigative division) to investigate allegations of police misconduct. In contrast to previous years, there were investigations of five officers concerning the abuse of detainees during the year. The investigations were pending at year's end. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Judicially issued arrest warrants are required for arrests. No person may be detained for more than 24 hours without referral of the case to the courts for a longer period of detention. Authorities generally respected this right in practice. Detainees were usually promptly informed of charges against them, although individuals believed to have committed a violent offense were often held for longer periods of time without being charged. Judges could order that suspects be held for investigative detention for up to 10 days before formal charges are filed, or up to three months for those accused of serious crimes. According to ``legislation,'' any detained person must be brought before a judge within 24 hours. The person can then be detained in police custody for a period of up to three months, but a judge reviews the detention every eight days. Bail was permitted and routinely used. Detainees were usually allowed prompt access to family members and a lawyer of their choice. The authorities provided lawyers to the destitute for violent offenses only. Particularly at the time of arrest, police sometimes did not observe legal protections. Some suspects were not permitted to have their lawyers present when giving testimony, in contravention of the ``law.'' Suspects who demanded the presence of a lawyer were sometimes threatened with stiffer charges or physically intimidated. In June the Chair of the Turkish Cypriot Bar Association told the media that police commonly mistreated suspects and used violence to coerce suspects to provide testimony. In October the president of the Nicosia Regional Bar suggested that surveillance cameras be placed in police stations and detention centers in order to deter torture and coercion. The president also complained that arrested suspects were not granted access to their lawyers during questioning and that this was left to the discretion of the police. He insisted that the criminal code in use since the colonial period must be revised and updated to meet international standards. In June the lawyer for three defendants in the Yucel Erol murder case arrested in May alleged that police repeatedly tortured his clients in order to obtain confessions. The lawyer maintained that the defendants, Mustafa Cavga, Hasan Nur, and Emin Ozbeyit, were subjected to severe beating and threats while in detention. The judge ordered the suspects to undergo a medical examination to substantiate the claim. The NGO Torture Prevention Platform lobbied the ``attorney general'' to investigate the claims but reported at year's end that no effective investigation was conducted. In December there were media reports that a former detainee claimed to have witnessed Hasan Nur being tortured. At year's end, the case was still underway. In August 2008 three Iranians arrested in Famagusta for possession of opium complained in court that narcotics police tortured them to force a guilty plea. The lawyers for two of the three suspects complained that their clients were stripped naked and beaten in detention and pressured to sign a statement. The judge ordered the suspects to undergo a medical examination, which did not substantiate the defendants' claims, and the trials proceeded. In June the ``Torture Prevention Platform,'' associated with the Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation, filed an official complaint with authorities related to the case. As of year's end, no results had been reported. In September 2008 the lawyer representing Ferhat Beyoglu and Metin Taskin, both accused murder suspects, claimed in court that police were using torture to pressure his clients to plead guilty. The judge ordered a medical examination, which did not substantiate the defendants' claims, and the trials proceeded. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The ``law'' provides for an independent judiciary, and authorities generally respected judicial independence in practice. Most criminal and civil cases begin in district courts, from which appeals are made to the ``Supreme Court.'' There were no special courts for political offenses. In 2007 ``legislation'' was passed transferring jurisdiction from military to civilian courts for cases in which civilians are accused of violating military restrictions, such as filming or photographing military zones. In January the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled against Turkey and in favor of an applicant, Yasir Amer, who claimed that he had not been provided with a translator and, therefore, had been denied the right to a fair trial as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Amer had been sentenced to life in prison for murdering a businessman in the northern part of Cyprus. The ECHR ruled that there had been a violation of the convention on account of the excessive length of the criminal proceedings; the court awarded Amer 5,000 euros ($7,150) in nonpecuniary damages and 2,000 euros ($2,860) for costs and expenses. Trial Procedures.--The ``law'' provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The ``TRNC constitution'' provides for public trials, the defendant's right to be present at those trials, and the defendant's right to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. Authorities provide lawyers to indigent defendants only when charged with violent offenses. Defendants are allowed to question witnesses against them and present evidence and witnesses on their behalf. The ``law'' also requires that defendants and their attorneys have access to evidence held by the ``government'' related to their cases. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have a right to appeal. Authorities generally respected these rights in practice. In September 2008 the head of the Nicosia Bar, Baris Mamali, complained via the media that protections of detainees' rights were not sufficiently implemented, contravening articles 16-18 of the ``TRNC constitution.'' Mamali confirmed that legally granted rights, such as the right to remain silent and the right to a lawyer, were not uniformly respected. Mamali also stated that arbitrary and unjust arrests took place at times. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There was generally an independent and impartial judiciary for civil matters, permitting claimants to bring lawsuits seeking damages for human rights violations. There were generally no problems enforcing domestic court orders. Property Restitution.--During the year Greek Cypriots continued to pursue property suits in the ECHR against the Turkish government for the loss since 1974 of property located in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. Under ECHR rules, an appellant does not have standing to bring a case before the ECHR until that appellant exhausts all local remedies, unless no adequate local remedy exists. In response to the ECHR's 2005 ruling in the Xenides-Arestis case that Turkey's ``subordinate local authorities'' in Cyprus had not provided an adequate local remedy, Turkish Cypriot authorities established a ``property commission'' to handle claims by Greek Cypriots; later in 2006, the ECHR ruled that the commission had satisfied ``in principle'' the ECHR's requirement for an effective local remedy. The ``property commission'' had reportedly received 437 applications by the end of 2009. By the end of December, 132 cases had been completed; four applicants received restitution of their properties outright (plus compensation), one received restitution pending a future settlement of the Cyprus problem, one accepted partial restitution, and 76 accepted compensation in lieu of restitution. Two property exchange (plus compensation) decisions were also issued. Two applications were rejected and 46 revoked. At year's end the commission had paid over 38 million British pounds (approximately $62 million) in compensation. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The ``law'' prohibits such actions; there were reports, however, that police subjected Greek Cypriots and Maronites living in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots to surveillance. Although the authorities reported otherwise, a Maronite representative asserted that 13 houses in the village of Karpasia were occupied by the Turkish military during the year. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The ``law'' provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the authorities generally respected these rights in practice, but journalists were at times obstructed in their reporting, fined, and threatened with more serious charges. Individuals were generally able to publicly criticize the authorities without reprisal. In November 2008, however, two youths were arrested for forming a group on Facebook that involved ``gross personal insults'' against ``TRNC president'' Mehmet Ali Talat. The youths were detained for three days and released pending trial. A trial was scheduled for January 2010, when the youth will face defamation charges. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. International media were generally allowed to operate freely. Bayrak Radyo Televizyon Kurumu is the only ``government''-owned television and radio station. In August a well-known Nicosia independent bookstore, Isik Kitabevi, was damaged by an apparent arson attack. ``President'' Talat, ``prime minister'' Dervis Eroglu, several ``members of parliament,'' and NGOs criticized the attack. The bookstore moved shortly after the attack to a new location and continued to operate. At year's end, no perpetrator had been identified, and the investigation had not yielded any results. In March, in the run-up to the April 19 general elections, the ``Ministry of Finance,'' then controlled by the ruling Republican Turkish Party (CTP), demanded that the highest-circulation newspaper, Kibris, immediately pay its tax debt of 11 million Turkish lira ($7,310,000) to the ``government.'' According to the Kibris editor in chief, Resat Akar, the ``government'' also demanded that he resign or take a leave of absence until after the elections. After negotiations with the ``ministry,'' the management of Kibris agreed to pay the debt in several installments. Eventually, Akar did leave his position during the elections; it is unclear whether this was in response to the ``government's'' alleged demands. Internet Freedom.--The authorities did not restrict access to the Internet, and there were no reports that they monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. The Internet was easily accessible and widely available to the public. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The authorities did not restrict academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The ``law'' provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. On November 23, riot police used pepper spray to disperse a group of trade unionists protesting against the ``government'' and arrested 16 of the demonstrators. The Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation issued a statement condemning the ``government'' and the police for using brutality to suppress the demonstration, for wrongful arrests, and for subsequent abuse of some of those arrested. A trial was scheduled for February 2010. c. Freedom of Religion.--The ``law'' provides for freedom of religion, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. Greek Cypriots and Maronites were prohibited from visiting religious sites located in military zones. Greek Cypriots and Maronites were required to apply for permission to conduct church services anywhere other than the seven churches designated by the authorities. Some religious groups complained that authorities often took several months to respond to requests for permission and faced restrictions, such as limits on the number of visitors. There were anecdotal reports of permission being denied in some instances. In September formal religious information and morality lessons, based on Sunni Islam, became compulsory in the secondary school system. The several-thousand member Alevi community in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots stated they would like Cem assembly houses to be recognized as official places of worship. Representatives from the Alevi community complained that ``state'' funding was spent exclusively on building mosques. Missionaries have the legal right to proselytize, but authorities closely monitored such activities. Conscience and Peace Tax International noted that authorities enforced conscription into military service with no provision for conscientious objection. One local NGO stated that this continued to be a significant problem. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Greek Cypriots living in the government-controlled area continued to assert that vandals damaged vacant Greek Orthodox churches and removed religious icons in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots in previous years; there were no reported investigations of these incidents. Greek Cypriot claims in 2008 included alleged Turkish Cypriot misuse of a Greek Orthodox church in the village of Trimithi as a ceramics showcase. Turkish Cypriot authorities denied the claim that using the church in this manner constituted misuse. The church remained locked and unused. In March the Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage, one of the bicommunal committees appointed by the two Cypriot leaders to support their efforts to reach a Cyprus settlement, finalized planning and agreed on a budget for a pilot project to restore the Arnavut mosque in Limassol and the church of Archangelos Michael in Lefkoniko village. The project was awaiting financing at year's end. In October Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot members of the committee worked jointly to clean a mosque in the government-controlled area and a church in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. The Jewish community was very small and composed primarily of nonresident businesspersons. A synagogue that opened in 2008 in Kyrenia held services regularly. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The ``law'' provides for freedom of movement within the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and authorities generally respected these rights in practice. Cooperation between the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Turkish Cypriot authorities was handled through an intermediary NGO, due at least in part to complications arising from the unrecognized status of the ``TRNC.'' No law exists regarding the handling of asylum applications; therefore, the UNHCR representative in Cyprus conducted such procedures. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots were required to show identification cards when crossing the green line. Greek Cypriots and foreigners crossing into the area administered by Turkish Cypriots were also required to fill out a ``visa'' form. In September, confusion surrounding procedures to allow worshipers to pass through the normally unused Limnitis/Yesilirmak crossing to attend a mass at St. Mamas Church in the Turkish Cypriot-administered area prevented some Greek Cypriot worshipers from attending. Nevertheless, the mass took place, and hundreds of Greek Cypriots who had entered through other crossing points participated. In 2006 the immigration ``law'' was amended, and authorities reported that all illegal immigrant workers were registered. According to the new ``law,'' all employers who wish to import foreign workers need official permission from the ``Department of Labor'' to register them. As a result of the new ``law,'' the number of illegal workers, and thus illegal immigrants, in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots decreased dramatically. Authorities deported illegal immigrants found without work permits. All illegal immigrants without work permits were prohibited from entering the ``TRNC'' at the ports of entry. Asylum seekers were generally treated as illegal immigrants and were either deported or denied entry. Authorities no longer maintained general restrictions on visitors to the 358 Greek Cypriots and 121 Maronites living in enclaves in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, although there were reports that specific refugees from the enclaved villages were barred from returning to them. Turkish Cypriots had difficulty traveling to most countries because only Turkey recognizes travel documents issued by the ``TRNC.'' Some Turkish Cypriots used Turkish travel documents, but many obtained travel documents issued by the Republic of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots born after 1974 to parents who were both Republic of Cyprus citizens before 1974 obtained passports relatively easily, compared with Turkish Cypriots born after 1974 to only one Cypriot parent. Children of Turkish Cypriot mothers and Turkish fathers were usually denied citizenship by Republic of Cyprus authorities. Children of Turkish Cypriot fathers and Turkish mothers reportedly also faced some obstacles. According to a September 2008 interview with the Kibris newspaper, a Republic of Cyprus official stated that non-Cypriot spouses of Turkish Cypriots would not be eligible for passports if their marriage ceremony took place in the ``TRNC'' and that any children resulting from such marriages would also be ineligible to receive Republic of Cyprus passports. The ``law'' prohibits forced exile, and the authorities did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--Although they would fall under the UN definition of IDPs, Turkish Cypriots considered persons displaced as a result of the division of the island to be refugees. These persons and their descendants numbered approximately 90,000 to 100,000 in the north. They were resettled, had access to humanitarian organizations, and were not subject to attack, targeting, or return under dangerous conditions. Protection of Refugees.--The ``TRNC'' is not a party to the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, but the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is incorporated into Turkish Cypriot domestic ``law,'' as were all other laws adopted during pre-1963 British colonial rule and later ``ratified'' by the Turkish Cypriot administration. Authorities admitted that they had no ``law'' or system in place for dealing with asylum seekers or the protection of refugees and stated that asylum applications were systematically rejected. Potential asylum seekers who attempted to enter the area administered by Turkish Cypriots illegally were almost always arrested, taken to court, and deported after serving their sentence. In practice authorities did not provide protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. Individuals who requested asylum were supposed to be directed to the UNHCR or its local implementing partner, the Refugee Rights Association (RRA). However, authorities often refused to grant asylum seekers access to the RRA, refused their entry, treated them as illegal immigrants, and denied them the opportunity to apply for asylum through the UNHCR. The UNHCR's implementing partner, the RRA, was affiliated with the Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. Only the UNHCR representative can consider applicability of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees; the RRA's mission was to monitor and identify individuals who want to apply for asylum, to refer them to the UNHCR, to advocate to the Turkish Cypriot administration not to deport such individuals but instead to provide protection for the prospective applicants, and to facilitate accommodation and employment for these individuals. During the year four persons were able to apply for asylum. All asylum applicants were already residing in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. According to the RRA, at year's end, a total of 10 asylum seekers and refugees were residing and working (for below-minimum wages and sometimes in exchange for food) in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. They could not travel abroad because they would be unable to return due to their lack of status, which rendered them illegal according to Turkish Cypriot immigration rules. The UNHCR did not provide financial assistance to the asylum seekers except in exceptional cases. There were no reliable estimates of the number of asylum seekers crossing into the government-controlled areas, since irregular crossings go unrecorded. In February Kivanc Aktug, the head of the NGO Human Relief Mission, the former implementing partner of the UNHCR in the area administered by the Turkish Cypriots, was arrested by Turkish Cypriot ``police'' for smuggling asylum seekers into the government-controlled area. According to media reports, Aktug was working as part of a ring of human smugglers. Following the arrest, the UNHCR Representative's Office publicly stated that it had stopped working with the NGO as its implementing partner at the end of 2008. Aktug was detained for three days and released on bail pending trial. An investigation of the case was ongoing at year's end. In September a Palestinian couple successfully applied to the UNHCR for asylum with the help of RRA. They reside in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. In November a Palestinian residing in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots applied to the UNHCR for asylum. The RRA stated that, despite its efforts, authorities at ports often denied entry to asylum seekers, and those trying to enter the ``TRNC'' illegally were usually detained and subsequently deported. The RRA complained that authorities usually denied asylum seekers access to the RRA's lawyers and vice versa. During the year several Iraqis and Palestinians were denied entry and deported back to Turkey or Syria. On July 30, two Palestinian Iraqis, ages 17 and 19, entered the ``TRNC'' with ``visas'' and applied to the UNHCR for asylum with the help of the RRA but were deported on September 5. In July two Cameroonians were resettled to Sweden. In November three refugees were resettled to Finland. In September the chair of the Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation complained through the media about systematic deportation of asylum seekers and refugees despite laws against such treatment in the Turkish Cypriot ``legislation'' and accused authorities of negligence and using the unrecognized status of the ``TRNC'' as an excuse for not abiding by international rules and practices. In 2007, 17 Iraqis and Palestinians were arrested for trying to illegally enter the ``TRNC'' in a fishing boat and were handed over to the UNHCR. There continued to be fewer media reports of Syrians and persons of other nationalities utilizing ferry links between Syria and the ``TRNC'' to reach the island with the intent of later crossing illegally into the government-controlled area. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The ``law'' provides Turkish Cypriots the right to change their ``government'' peacefully, and they exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Turkish Cypriots choose a leader and a representative body every five years or less. The 2009 ``parliamentary'' elections, which were free and fair, resulted in the formation of a single-party ``government'' of the National Unity Party (UBP). Greek Cypriots and Maronite residents were prohibited from participating in Turkish Cypriot ``national'' elections; they were eligible to vote in Greek Cypriot elections but had to travel to the government-controlled area to exercise that right. In 2006 Greek Cypriot and Maronite communities in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots directly elected municipal officials for the first time; previously, the Republic of Cyprus appointed these representatives. The Turkish Cypriot authorities did not recognize these officials. Authorities did not restrict the political opposition, and membership or nonmembership in the dominant party did not confer formal advantages or disadvantages; there were widespread allegations, however, of societal cronyism and nepotism. There were four women in the 50-seat ``parliament.'' There were no minorities represented in the ``parliament.'' Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The ``law'' provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, authorities did not implement the ``law'' effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Corruption, cronyism, and lack of transparency were generally perceived to be serious problems in the legislative and executive branches. The ``government'' stated several times since April that once it formed a regulatory board for corruption matters, it would investigate corruption allegations regarding the Evkaf Foundation, the Electricity Authority, the ``ministries'' of finance and health, and the cooperative central bank. In August the ``government'' drafted and passed ``legislation'' to create a ``regulatory commission'' to investigate corruption allegations; in October, the law was referred to the ``Constitutional Court'' by ``President'' Talat and found ``unconstitutional.'' Some lawyers criticized the ``government'' through the media for stalling necessary investigations and waiting for the board to be established instead of tasking the ``Attorney General's Office'' to investigate corruption allegations. In November 2008, after a lengthy trial, a public servant was sentenced to four years in prison for defrauding the state electricity authority from 1998 to 2000. During the year six additional public servants from the Electricity Authority were convicted and sentenced to various prison terms in the same case. Several of them appealed, and in September the appeals court overturned the conviction of Senel Ortan, who had been sentenced to six years in prison. In August 2008 the media reported that 116 corruption and abuse cases documented by the Court of the Exchequer since 1986 were still awaiting review by the ``parliament.'' In 2007 recurrent and serious allegations of corruption led to the dismissal of the ``minister of economy and tourism,'' who represented the junior coalition partner. The ``minister'' was replaced by a ``member of parliament'' from the same party. Many accounts claimed that the ``minister'' was soliciting bribes from individuals and companies that applied for licenses, land allocation, and other services. The details and scope of the corruption were unknown. No investigation was carried out regarding the allegations by year's end. Opposition parties continued to claim that the ``government'' primarily hired supporters of the ruling party for public sector jobs during the year. The ``constitution'' provides for the right of free access to ``government'' information, and the ``Right of Access to Information law'' provides for public access. In practice, however, civil servants were not allowed to provide access to ``government'' documents without first obtaining permission from their directors or ``minister.'' There were some complaints by NGO representatives about being denied access to ``government'' information during the year. ``Member of parliament'' Mehmet Cakici unsuccessfully attempted to follow the steps prescribed by the ``law'' to gain access to information and statistics regarding alleged mismanagement of the public employees' retirement fund. He finally took the case to the ``attorney general's office,'' where it was pending at year's end. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic human rights groups operated, although one NGO asserted that it faced restrictions when investigating human rights cases. Minority Rights Group International was also active in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, conducting research and capacity- building and advocacy campaigns under an EU grant. Authorities' cooperation with NGOs was inconsistent. In contrast to previous years, local human rights groups broadened their focus beyond alleged violations of Turkish Cypriot rights by Greek Cypriots, and many were concerned with improving human rights conditions in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. NGOs included groups promoting awareness of domestic violence; women's rights; rights of asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants; trafficking in persons; torture; and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons' rights. These groups were numerous but had little impact on specific ``legislation.'' A few international NGOs were active in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots, but many were hesitant to operate there due to political sensitivities related to working in an unrecognized area. The UN, through the CMP, continued its efforts to account for persons who remained missing after the intercommunal violence beginning in 1963-64 and the conflict of 1974. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The ``law'' prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status. Authorities generally enforced these prohibitions. Women.--The ``law'' provides no minimum sentence for individuals convicted of rape, including spousal rape; the maximum sentence is life imprisonment. The authorities and police effectively handled and prosecuted rape cases, including cases of spousal rape. There were no NGOs whose specific mission was to support rape victims. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was a problem. The ``law'' prohibits domestic violence under a general assault/violence/ battery clause in the criminal code. Even though allegations of domestic violence were usually considered a family matter and settled out of court, 29 domestic violence cases were tried during the year; of these, 27 were in progress at year's end. The two cases that were completed resulted in fines but no prison sentences. An additional four cases were under preliminary investigation. Authorities considered a case credible only if there was at least one witness in addition to the victim. In May a Turkish national was sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment for abducting and raping a 19-year-old university student in Famagusta. Justice Gulden Ciftcioglu called the ``law'' ``insufficient'' for describing rape as a crime against morality and stated that it is also a crime against personal freedom. In December an academic expert complained that domestic violence was not defined specifically in the ``law'' and that certain requirements for the protection of women's rights--such as rights to education, rehabilitation services, and special units in police and health departments--were not met. The ``law'' does not specifically prohibit prostitution; encouraging or forcing a person to engage in prostitution is illegal, however, and procurement of a prostitute is a misdemeanor. The ``law'' regulating the hiring of women at nightclubs and cabarets provides penalties for women and employers who ``partially or completely earn a living from prostitution.'' The ``law'' does not specifically prohibit sexual harassment, but victims could pursue such cases under other sections of the ``law.'' Sexual harassment was not discussed widely, and any such incidents largely went unreported. Couples and individuals were able to freely decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and had access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and obstetric and postpartum care. Women generally have the same legal status as men under property ``law,'' family ``law,'' and in the ``judicial system.'' ``Laws'' requiring equal pay for men and women performing the same work were generally enforced at the white-collar level; however, women working in the agricultural and textile sectors were routinely paid less than their male counterparts. There were several NGOs, but no specific ``government'' agency, that worked to protect women's rights. Children.--``Citizenship'' is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis), and there is universal birth registration at the time of birth. Turkish Cypriot authorities continued to screen all textbooks sent to the Rizokarpasso Gymnasium, a Greek Cypriot school, but did not send textbooks deemed as derogatory back to the government-controlled area. One NGO and the media reported that child labor was a growing problem. According to reports, exploited children were mostly from mainland Turkey. There were some media reports of child abuse, most commonly in the form of sexual battery or rape. As with domestic violence, there were social and cultural disincentives to seek legal remedies for such problems, which observers believe were underreported. The criminal code penalizes sex with underage girls. The maximum penalty for sex with a girl under the age of 13 is life imprisonment. The maximum penalty for sex with girls older than 13 but younger than 16 is three years' imprisonment. There are no ``laws'' regarding child pornography. Trafficking in Persons.--The ``law'' does not prohibit trafficking in persons, and there were widespread reports that women were trafficked to and within the area administered by Turkish Cypriots for the purpose of sexual exploitation. There were also reports of men and women trafficked for labor exploitation. The green line reportedly served as a porous crossing point for traffickers to move victims into the south. Authorities issued special entertainer ``visas'' to women, primarily from Eastern Europe, permitting their entry into the area administered by Turkish Cypriots to work in nightclubs and cabarets. There were credible reports that many of these women engaged in prostitution and that some women were coerced. The authorities were uneven in acknowledging the existence of trafficking; when they did, however, they often confused it with human smuggling or illegal immigration. According to researchers, women working in nightclubs and cabarets often were sold by agencies that had advertised for models, babysitters, or elder caregivers. They also reported that large casinos had offered women as ``gifts'' to their richest customers. One NGO reported a growing problem with labor trafficking in the agricultural and domestic help sectors and claimed that authorities were not responsive. The NGO claimed that entire families, almost all from Turkey, were forced to work in agriculture, while males, including children, were employed in the manufacturing sector. The ``Ministry of Labor'' was generally unsuccessful in identifying victims and providing numbers, so the scope of the problem remains largely unknown. After conducting approximately 80 personal interviews with foreign workers, one NGO stated that several were trafficking victims, who had their passports confiscated by employers, had been threatened with firing or violence, and were subjected to debt bondage. The workers lived and worked in unsafe conditions, with some agricultural workers sleeping in the fields and construction workers sleeping in building sites. A growing number of women from Turkmenistan and the Philippines were being brought in as domestic workers and for child care by travel and recruitment agencies, including via the Internet; there were some claims of trafficking regarding these women. By year's end, authorities had concluded several prostitution- related cases that were pending from the previous year, resulting in fines and prison sentences that typically ranged between one and three months. There were no new prostitution cases as of year's end, but authorities reported that several investigations were underway. Authorities did not examine the extent of the trafficking problem and offered limited assistance to victims. The 157 hotline, which was only briefly operational, was discontinued. The police reported that they had assisted international trafficking investigations through Turkish authorities. There were two NGOs available to provide assistance to trafficking victims. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The ``law'' prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other ``state'' services, and in practice the authorities effectively enforced these provisions. The ``government'' employed 617 persons with disabilities and provided financial aid to another 3,472 of the approximately 3,900 known persons with disabilities in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots. The ``law'' does not mandate access to public buildings and other facilities for persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The ``law'' prohibits discrimination, and the 1975 Vienna III Agreement remains the legal source of authority regarding the treatment of Greek Cypriots and Maronites; authorities' noncompliance with some of the agreement's provisions made life difficult for the 358 Greek Cypriot and 121 Maronite residents, however. Under the Vienna III Agreement, the UNFICYP visited the enclaved Greek Cypriots weekly and the Maronites twice a month; any additional visits had to be preapproved by the authorities. Although the Vienna III Agreement provides for medical care by a doctor from the Greek Cypriot community, the authorities only permitted such care by registered Turkish Cypriot doctors; enclaved persons also traveled to the government-controlled area for medical care. Greek Cypriots and Maronites were able to take possession of some of their properties but were unable to leave any of their properties to heirs residing in the government-controlled area. A Maronite representative asserted that Maronites were not allowed to bequeath property to their heirs who do not reside in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots and possess ``TRNC'' identification cards. The authorities allowed the enclaved residents to make improvements to their homes and to apply for permission to build new structures on their properties. Maronites living in the government-controlled area could use their properties only if those properties were not under the control of the Turkish military or allocated to Turkish Cypriots. A majority of foreign workers in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots were Turkish. One NGO reported that Turkish workers were often targeted by police investigations during the year. The same NGO also reported that many Turkish workers lived in derelict buildings in Nicosia, with up to 20 persons sleeping in one room. Those working in the agricultural and construction sectors were reportedly forced to sleep on the ground, and those working at restaurants were seen sleeping after hours on chairs in the establishments where they worked. During the year, many Turkish women were employed as cleaners without being registered for social insurance. A growing number of families employed women from Turkmenistan and the Philippines as domestic workers and for child care. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Male homosexual activity is criminalized in the area administered by Turkish Cypriots under a general sodomy statute that excludes female homosexual activity. The maximum penalty is 14 years' imprisonment. Homosexuality remained highly proscribed socially and rarely discussed. Very few LGBT persons were publicly open about their sexual orientation. In 2008 members of the LGBT community, including some NGOs, started a group, called the ``Initiative Against Homophobia,'' aimed at legal reform and reducing homophobia. There were no reported impediments to its operation or free association, and it was officially accepted and registered as an association in March. An informal LGBT group, called ``The Short Bus Movement,'' organized cultural activities, such as film screenings. During the year neither police nor ``government'' representatives condoned or perpetrated violence against the LGBT community. While there were no recorded cases of official or societal discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, statelessness, access to education, or health care, some members of the LGBT community explained that an overwhelming majority of LGBT persons hide their sexual orientation to avoid such problems. They also complained that there is no specific antidiscrimination law for LGBT persons. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--All workers except members of the police and military forces have the legal right to form and join independent unions of their own choosing without prior authorization, and workers did so in practice. Fewer than 1 percent of private sector workers (total 63,300), more than 70 percent of semipublic sector workers, and nearly half of public sector workers belonged to labor unions. The ``law'' allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the authorities generally protected this right in practice. Although the ``law'' provides for the right to strike, employers have an unrestricted right to hire replacement workers in the event of a strike, which limited the effectiveness of this right in practice. The ``law'' does not ensure due process for essential service workers and states that judges and members of the police and armed forces do not have the right to strike. Authorities have the power to curtail strikes in ``essential services.'' Although this power was rarely used in practice, in 2007 the ``government'' invoked its right to postpone a strike for 60 days at the ``state'' university, citing the crucial need of students to continue their education without interruption. During the summer the ``government'' did not invoke its right to postpone strikes conducted by the customs officers union and by the teachers union. It threatened to postpone a strike by ``parliamentary'' workers but did not act upon the threat. In September the ``government'' postponed a strike by a public servants labor union (Kamu-Sen). In October the ``government'' postponed a strike at Ercan Airport, where workers had announced a one-day general strike to protest against new ``legislation'' lowering salaries for new public sector hires. Some companies pressured workers to join unions led or approved by the company. Officials of independent unions claimed that the authorities created rival public sector unions to weaken the independent unions. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The ``law'' provides for collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right in practice. Collective bargaining agreements were not legally enforceable, however. According to the ``State Planning Department,'' the total number of union members was over 25,000. The 28,000 public and semipublic employees who made up approximately 30 percent of the work force benefited from collective bargaining agreements. The ``law'' does not prohibit antiunion discrimination, and union leaders claimed that private sector employers were able to discourage union activity because the enforcement of labor regulations was sporadic and penalties such as reassignment to an undesirable location or denial of promotion for antiunion practices were nominal. There are no special ``laws'' for or exemptions from regular labor ``laws'' in the export processing zone at the port of Famagusta. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The authorities prohibited forced or compulsory labor, including by children, but there were reports that such practices occurred. Women were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). Migrant workers in the construction and agricultural sectors were subjected to reduced wages and nonpayment of wages, beatings, and threat of deportation. One NGO asserted that there were cases of forced labor in the agricultural and domestic service sectors. At year' end, the NGO was assisting five women from the Philippines, who had worked 17-hour days at a restaurant in Kyrenia without leave. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The ``laws'' generally provide protection for children from exploitation in the workplace. In contrast to previous years, NGOs alleged that authorities did not always effectively enforce these ``laws'' and that children, mainly from Turkey, were being used for labor, primarily in the agricultural sector along with their families and in manufacturing. According to accounts by the Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation, child labor in the urban informal economy was a problem, albeit to a lesser extent than in the agriculture and in manufacturing sectors. The minimum age for employment in an ``industrial undertaking'' is 16, and children may be employed in apprentice positions at 15. Labor inspectors generally enforced the ``law'' effectively. It was common in family-run shops for children to work after school, and children as young as 11 worked in orchards during school holidays. The ``Ministry of Labor'' is responsible for enforcing child labor ``laws'' and policies, and they were generally enforced in practice. The ``ministry'' held monthly inspections and kept statistics of its findings. During the year inspectors identified approximately 200 workers without work permits. The authorities fined employers, companies, and employees for failures to comply with the ``law'' but were generally perceived to be insufficient in their enforcement of rules and requirements. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--In September the minimum wage was raised to 1,237 lira ($800), which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Migrant workers often were offered substandard accommodation as part of their compensation or were made to pay for accommodation. The ``Ministry of Labor and Social Security'' is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage; however, it was widely reported that illegal foreign workers were generally paid below the minimum wage. The legal maximum workweek was 38 hours in the winter and 36 hours in the summer. Labor inspectors generally enforced these ``laws,'' except in the case of migrant workers, who worked irregular hours and at times were reportedly required by their employers to work up to 14 hours per day, seven days a week. The ``law'' requires overtime pay, but it was not uniformly enforced. Authorities sporadically enforced occupational safety and health regulations. Although factory inspectors processed complaints and inspected businesses to ensure that occupational safety ``laws'' were observed, workers who filed complaints did not receive satisfactory legal protection and could face dismissal. Workers did not have the legal right to remove themselves from situations that endangered health or safety without risking their continued employment. __________ CZECH REPUBLIC The Czech Republic is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 10.2 million. Legislative authority is vested in the bicameral parliament, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecka snemovna) and Senate (Senat). The president, whom parliament elects every five years, is head of state; he appoints a prime minister from the majority party or coalition. In February 2008 the parliament elected Vaclav Klaus as president for a second term. The coalition government, led by the center-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS) and Prime Minister Mirek Topolanek, fell on March 24, and an interim government led by new Prime Minister Jan Fischer took office on May 8. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. European authorities reported that the government castrated some convicted sex offenders without their free and informed consent. Other notable human rights problems included official corruption, trafficking of persons for commercial sexual exploitation and labor, neo-Nazi and nationalist extremism directed at Roma and other minorities, and societal discrimination against Roma. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, in January a Vietnamese man died in police custody in Brno. According to press reports, police beat the man, a suspected heroin dealer, in his apartment and encouraged a neighbor to kick him. On December 18, the Brno prosecutor brought charges against three police officers and the victim's neighbor in the Brno Regional Court. The three policemen were charged with abuse of power and face up to three years in prison. The neighbor was charged with the crime of bodily harm and faces up to 12 years in prison. On July 17, the regional court in Prague sentenced 20-year-old Jiri Fous, a member of a local neo-Nazi group in Pribram, to 12 years and six months in prison for killing a member of an antifascist organization in February 2008. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice; however, compensation for coerced sterilizations and surgical castration of male prisoners convicted of sexual offenses were ongoing issues. According to a 2005 report by the National Defender of Rights (ombudsman), there were many allegations that doctors at state hospitals forcibly sterilized mainly Romani women in the 1973-91 period. In 2008 the nongovernmental organization (NGO) Group of Women Harmed by Sterilization (WHS) reported that its field research uncovered two cases of coerced sterilization in November 2008 and in 2007. The alleged instance in 2008 involved a 19-year-old Romani woman from Karvina; at year's end authorities had not opened an investigation into the allegation. In the 2007 case, a social worker allegedly told the victim that if she did not undergo sterilization two of her children would be placed in state care. In August police began investigating the case. In August the Budapest-based European Roma Rights Center provided and funded legal representation for the victim. At year's end the case was pending at the Prosecutor's Office in Frydek-Mistek. The WHS also identified 18 new cases of women, both Roma and non-Roma, who alleged they had been sterilized without their informed consent, some before 1989 and others in the 1990s. At year's end authorities had not opened investigations into the cases. The Ostrava Regional Court ruled in October 2008 that a local hospital was liable for a wrongful sterilization performed on a Romani woman, Iveta Cervenakova, 11 years prior and recognized her right to compensation of 500,000 thousand korunas ($27,600) and an apology. The hospital appealed to the Olomouc High Court, which ruled in November 2008 that Cervenakova was not entitled to financial damages because the deadline for making such claims had passed. However, the High Court upheld the requirement that the hospital apologize, which it did. In April Cervenakova appealed the decision to the Supreme Court in Brno. At year's end there were no further developments in this case. On October 23, the Supreme Court dismissed a claim by another Romani woman, Helena Ferencikova, who demanded financial compensation from a hospital that performed an unwanted sterilization on her. In 2005 Ferencikova's case was the first involuntary sterilization case to reach the courts. On November 23, the interim government officially expressed regret over unauthorized sterilization of (mostly) Romani women, but interim prime minister Fisher stated that the issue of possible financial compensation should be left to the government formed after 2010 parliamentary elections. In March and April 2008, a delegation from the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) visited psychiatric hospitals to follow up on concerns over the government's program of surgical castration of sex offenders, which continued during the reporting period. According to the Health Ministry, 94 sex offenders underwent surgical castration in the 10 years prior to April 2008. Six more reported between April 2008 and November 2009. The CPT believed patients did not give free and informed consent to surgical castration and that in most cases sex offenders requested castration because they feared long-term imprisonment as an alternative. The CPT reported that in 50 percent of the cases it reviewed, surgical castration was carried out on individuals who had committed nonviolent offenses, for example, repeated exhibitionism. Calling the practice ``degrading,'' the CPT called upon the government to end it immediately. The CPT delegation criticized the government for withholding medical records and for providing inaccurate information on a number of occasions before, during, and after the visit. In response the government stated that, according to the law, all patients must request the castration in writing and have their cases approved by an independent expert commission. It did not, however, address actual practice. The government did not consider the CPT's findings sufficient reason to abandon the sterilization program. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. During its follow-up visit in March and April 2008, the CPT visited Section E of Valdice Prison, which accommodates persons sentenced to life imprisonment as well as troublesome or dangerous high-security prisoners. It found that the treatment and conditions of detention of these prisoners continued to raise serious problems. These included concerns about physical and sexual abuse of vulnerable prisoners, failure to integrate prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment with the general prison population, the lack of a process for prisoners to appeal their placement in Section E, and an unresponsive staff. In reply the government stated it replaced a substantial part of its prison staff in mid-2008 and said positive changes had resulted. In July the prison service announced that the prison population was 130 percent of the intended capacity of the facilities. There were an estimated 22,000 prisoners in the country's prisons, 1,500 more than in 2008. The government permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights groups and the media. According to the Czech Prisons Service, there were numerous media visits to prisons during the year. All requests for visits were granted. In 2008 the government built 355 additional prison cells in four prisons with the goal of increasing the average prison cell size from four square meters (43 square feet) per prisoner to six square meters (65 square feet). Given the increase in the prison population, however, the goal was not met. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining public order. While law enforcement bodies were generally effective, corruption remained a problem. The Interior Ministry oversees police actions and is responsible for investigating allegations of police misconduct. Observers believed that the ministry often whitewashed wrongdoing or prematurely terminated investigations of units under its control. Investigations that led to successful prosecution rarely resulted in lengthy sentences. According to the Ministry of the Interior, police conducted 18 bribery investigations in the first eight months of the year and investigated 58 public officials for abuse of authority. According to ministry records, in the first half of the year courts convicted 21 public officials of crimes relating to abuse of power, but none was sentenced to prison. On June 25, three members of the ``Berdych'' gang, including a former member of the Slovak rapid response police, were sentenced to six to 14 years in prison. The long-running and complex legal case against the gang involved a conspiracy between criminal elements and members of the government's organized crime task force to kidnap, assault, and ransom wealthy businessmen. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police arrest persons accused of criminal acts using warrants issued by a judge. The accused person must be turned over to a court within 24 hours, and a judge has an additional 24 hours to determine whether to prolong the individual's detention. Police may arrest a person without a warrant under a number of circumstances: when they believe a prosecutable offense has been committed; when they consider it necessary to prevent further offenses or destruction of evidence; when they need to protect a suspect; or when a person refuses to obey police orders to move. Suspects arrested without a warrant must be informed promptly of the reason for their arrest, questioned, and either released within 48 hours or turned over to a court. If turned over to a court, a judge must decide whether to charge the individual within 24 hours. Only a person who has been charged with a crime may be held in custody. A defendant in a criminal case has the right to choose a lawyer or have one provided by the state. The court determines whether attorneys' fees will be partially or fully covered by the state. The law provides for bail except for serious crimes or to prevent witness tampering. The authorities respected these rights in practice. Lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. Under the law, pretrial detention may last no longer than two years except for ``exceptionally grave'' offenses. According to prison service data for the first six months of the year, the average length of pretrial detention was 98 days. A suspect may petition investigating authorities at any time for release from detention. Amnesty.--The president granted amnesty to 69 persons for humanitarian reasons in the first 11 months of the year. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice; however, judicial effectiveness was hampered by complicated procedural rules that often delayed judgments for years. Political influence, structural deficiencies, and a lack of specialized judicial training and resources also contributed to delays and undermined effectiveness. The court system consists of district, regional, and high courts. The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal, and a separate Constitutional Court adjudicates the legality of legislation. Judges are nominated by the minister of justice and appointed for life by the president. The Senate confirms constitutional court judges. Defendants may appeal decisions of the district courts through appellate layers to the Supreme Court. Civil cases are handled by the administrative court system, the highest court of which is the Supreme Administrative Court. During 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) found 12 violations by the country of the right to a fair trial and one violation of the right to an effective remedy under Articles 6 and 13, respectively, of the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--The laws provide for the right to a fair trial, and the independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public. Juries are not used. In serious cases a panel of judges rules on the guilt or innocence of the defendant, while a single judge hears less serious cases. Defendants have the right to be present at trial and to consult an attorney; the government provides an attorney without charge to defendants who cannot afford one. Defendants may confront adversarial witnesses and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants and their attorneys are entitled to access government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Convicted persons have a right of appeal. The law extends these rights to all persons. There were case backlogs throughout the judicial system, a problem compounded by numerous judicial vacancies. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides for a separate, independent judiciary in civil matters, and there is access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations; however, inefficiency and inadequate resources caused significant delays in case resolution. Available remedies include monetary damages, equitable relief, and cessation of harmful conduct. Administrative remedies are also available. Property Restitution.--The law provides for restitution of properties confiscated under the Communist regime as well as restitution of, or compensation for, Jewish property wrongfully seized during the Nazi era. While it was still possible to file claims for artwork, the claims period for other types of property had expired. Two claims for Jewish communal property in Brno were before the courts at year's end. The Liberec regional government refused to return one property in Turnov without providing a reason. The comprehensive compromise settlement reached in 2007 between the government and the churches, which offers restitution of properties of religious orders and financial compensation to churches for loss of their properties, had not been ratified by parliament at year's end. Protracted litigation between the government and the Catholic Church over the ownership of St. Vitus Cathedral continued, pending the outcome of an appeal by the church against earlier court rulings that declared the cathedral to be the property of the state. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Independent media actively expressed a variety of opinions without outside restriction. In November 2008 a Prague district court fined journalist Sabina Slonkova 20,000 korunas ($1,100) for refusing to reveal her sources in a court case regarding a leaked video published on the Web site aktualne.cz. The video showed a presidential advisor meeting with a lobbyist in a hotel before the February 2008 presidential elections. On February 6, an appeals court upheld the fine. On April 1, a law criminalizing the publication of information obtained from police wiretaps went into effect. The law also criminalizes the publication of names of victims of serious crimes and the names of all victims younger than age 18. Journalists violating the law face fines of up to five million korunas ($276,000) and prison sentences of up to five years. The International Press Institute criticized the law, asserting that its provisions are unclear, may inhibit investigative journalism, and provides no exception for the public interest. The law mandates prison sentences of six months to three years for persons who deny Communist-era crimes or the Nazi Holocaust. Speech inciting hatred based on race, religion, class, nationality, or other group affiliation is also illegal and carries a sentence of up to three years in prison. On April 24, the government arrested former U.S. Ku Klux Klan grand wizard David Duke and charged him with denying the Holocaust and inciting hate. The group National Resistance had invited Duke to speak at Charles University. After university officials canceled the speech, a small group of supporters gathered at a Prague restaurant, where police arrested Duke. The government ordered Duketo leave the country the following day. On September 29, the State Prosecutor's Office in Prague dismissed the charges due to lack of evidence. As the result of a televised election advertisement that referred to a ``final solution of the Gypsy question,'' the Prague Municipal State Attorney's Office filed charges in September against a member of the unregistered, ultranationalist National Party for inciting hatred based on race. In November a Prague district court gave a representative of the National Party a one-year suspended sentence and three years' probation for the advertisement. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could and did engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 58 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The government may legally restrict or prohibit gatherings, including marches, demonstrations, and concerts, that promote hatred or intolerance, advocate suppressing individual rights, or jeopardize the safety of participants. Protesters are required to have permits for demonstrations, but police generally did not interfere with spontaneous, peaceful demonstrations. On August 18, the law on assembly was amended, giving local governments additional time (three working days instead of three calendar days) to review demonstration applications. In June the government distributed a handbook to local governments designed to help local officials accurately apply the law regarding public gatherings. In July police in Plzen arrested two persons on suspicion of supporting and promoting a movement aimed at suppressing human rights and freedoms. The arrests stemmed from a gathering of approximately 50 neo-Nazis for a celebration at a local restaurant. Police stated that when the party began to perform a song celebrating the National Resistance organization, they shut down the music, verified the identities of the persons present, and arrested the two individuals who were running the production. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law, however, requires organizations, associations, foundations, and political parties to register with local officials or the Ministry of the Interior. In September the government again proposed to dissolve the far- right Workers Party, with mostly neo-Nazi membership. The government first proposed dissolving the party in March, but the Supreme Administrative Court said the proposal was poorly prepared and did not present sufficient evidence that the party represented a threat to democracy. At year's end the new, more comprehensive proposal was before the Supreme Administrative Court. In August the Interior Ministry refused to register the Czech Sudeten German Association. The association demanded the abolition of President Edvard Benes' post-World War II decrees that led to the expulsion of Sudeten Germans from what was then Czechoslovakia and confiscation of their property. The Interior Ministry justified its refusal by citing a 1995 ruling of the Constitutional Court, which held that the post-war confiscation decree was legal and legitimate at the time. The ministry also referred to the 1997 Czech-German declaration in which the two countries' governments pledged not to burden their relations with the past. The association filed an appeal with the Prague Municipal Court. At year's end the case was pending. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Although registration is not obligatory for assembly or worship, the Ministry of Culture administers a two-tier system of registration for religious groups. Tier one status confers no benefits, but the larger and longer-established religious groups in tier two enjoy certain benefits, including the right to receive state subsidies and to apply to teach religion classes in schools. To register, a group must submit a short description of the group and its teaching and goals, along with the signatures of 300 members. Examples of registered groups include the Roman Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren, and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church. Thirty-one groups are registered, 10 in tier one and 21 in tier two. Of the 21 tier two groups, 10 have official permission to teach in state schools. Organizations from both the Jewish and Muslim communities were registered. The Muslim community of approximately 10,000 members generally operated freely and maintained two mosques in Prague and Brno. The Brno Muslim community's plan to build a second mosque in the city led to protests, including a small demonstration organized by the National Party on August 29. The local and national leadership of the Christian Democratic Party (KDU-CSL) also opposed the second mosque. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There continued to be reports of societal harassment and discrimination against religious groups. In 2008, according to the OSCE's annual report on Hate Crimes in the OSCE Region, the police recorded 217 hate crimes, prosecuted 215 persons, and sentenced 97 persons. Prosecutions in the pretrial stage involved 41 persons. Although estimates varied, the Jewish population was thought to number approximately 10,000. Public expressions of anti-Semitism were generally rare, but small, fairly well organized, ultranationalist groups with anti-Semitic views were active around the country. The Interior Ministry continued to counter such groups, monitoring their activities, increasing cooperation with police from some neighboring countries, and shutting down unauthorized rallies. In 2008, according to the OSCE's annual report on Hate Crimes in the OSCE Region, the government recorded 27 criminal offences with an anti-Semitic motive, two of them violent. The Federation of Jewish Communities reported 44 anti-Semitic incidents, including one attack on a person and two on property. Several groups advocating violence against Jews and other minorities were active. The number of rallies and demonstrations of extreme right groups increased during the year. In January vandals damaged the monument to Holocaust victims in Teplice. Police began an investigation of the case but closed it for lack of evidence. On October 12, a court sentenced three men convicted of stealing bronze plaques from 824 tombstones of Holocaust victims at the Terezin National Cemetery in April 2008. The court handed town sentences of up to three and a half to four and a half years in prison; however, two of the three were sentenced in absentia. The crime appeared not to have been anti-Semitic, since the plaques were stolen to be sold as scrap metal. In November the Ministry of Defense discharged two military officers with no severance or pension after reports surfaced that they had worn symbols of SS units on their helmets while serving in Afghanistan. Their immediate supervisors retired. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees and asylum seekers. The constitution and law prohibit forced exile, and the government did not employ this practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The laws provide for the granting of refugee status or, for those who do not qualify for refugee status but are deemed in need of international protection, subsidiary protection, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Because the law defines ``safe countries of origin,'' from which applicants are unlikely to be granted refugee status, the Interior Ministry no longer accepts asylum applications from ``safe'' countries. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The Interior Ministry makes the initial determination on granting international protection. Applicants whose cases are denied may appeal to a single-judge regional court. Appeals of regional court decisions are reviewed by a five-judge panel composed of judges serving on the Supreme Administrative Court. The five-judge panel first determines if the case presents new problems or if the regional court made a grave error. If so, the panel reviews the substance of the claim. The law provides that the government must conduct asylum hearings in a language comprehensible to applicants or provide them with an interpreter. The law allows the government to detain asylum applicants for up to 120 days in reception centers. This provision particularly affected applicants lacking identity documents. According to the UNHCR, regional courts are obliged to review these cases expeditiously but in practice did not do so. According to Interior Ministry statistics, 622 asylum claims were filed in the first eight months of the year. During the same period, the ministry granted refugee status to eight asylum seekers, and one person was granted subsidiary protection. A pilot resettlement program was established in October 2008, when a group of 39 Burmese refugees were brought from Malaysia. On April 10, a resettlement agreement between the government and the UNHCR went into effect. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The most recent national elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the lower chamber of parliament, took place in 2006. In October 2008 elections were held for one third of the seats in the Senate and for regional governments. Both elections were considered free and fair. On March 24, the coalition government led by the center-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS) fell, and on May 8 an interim government led by Prime Minister Jan Fischer took office. Parliament agreed to hold early national elections for the Chamber of Deputies on October 9-10, but the Constitutional Court canceled the elections, stating the method parliament used to call the elections was unconstitutional. On June 5-6, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Individuals and parties freely declared their candidacies and stood for election, and political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. There were 35 women in the 200-seat Chamber of Deputies and 14 women in the 81-seat Senate. There were three women in the 16-member interim cabinet and five women on the 15-member Constitutional Court. Two women were elected as governors in October 2008 regional elections. One justice on the Constitutional Court and one member of the interim cabinet were ethnic Slovaks. Few of the country's estimated 200,000 Roma were integrated into political life. No Roma were members of parliament, had cabinet portfolios, or sat on the Supreme Court. Some Roma were appointed to national and regional advisory councils dealing with Romani affairs. Four Roma served in leadership roles in the Ministry for Human Rights and National Minorities. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. However, the government did not always implement the law effectively, and investigations suggested officials at times engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The World Bank considered corruption to be a problem in the country. The police anticorruption unit, as well as NGOs, stated that corruption in public procurement was a major problem. Political pressure and ineffective police investigative tools contributed to the infrequency of prosecution of high-level corruption. According to the police anticorruption unit, a major barrier was the lack of a ``crown witness'' process, where immunity can be offered to persons willing to testify against coconspirators. Although public figures must disclose the state of their finances each year, disclosure of the origin of financial assets is voluntary. There was a virtual absence of successful prosecutions of corruption. Law enforcement agencies are responsible for combating government and private corruption. The police anticorruption unit investigated corruption allegations concerning high-level officials and major regional and local cases. It also investigated private individuals and companies accused of corruption. Other police units investigated lower- level cases. As of October 9, the anticorruption unit initiated 52 new cases during the year. Of these, six involved judges of whom two were cleared for lack of evidence, and the remaining four were under investigation at year's end. The government eliminated the anticorruption unit of the military police as of October 1, redistributing the unit's responsibilities to other offices. The government cited budgetary reasons for the cuts, but allegations persisted that the unit was disbanded because it was successfully fighting corruption. The police anticorruption unit stated that it continued to work well with military police anticorruption officials despite the disbandment of the military unit. The press continued to report allegations of corruption. On September 26, a national newspaper alleged that a reporter with a hidden camera posed as a casino owner and, purportedly in exchange for opposing a proposal to introduce a new fee on gambling machines, offered one million korunas ($55,200) to several members of the major political parties. Only the Green Party member refused the offer outright. Two leaders of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSCM), Jiri Dolejs and Cenek Milota, resigned their party leadership positions after indicating to the reporter they were willing to take the bribe. Dolejs, who was also a member of parliament, did not resign from parliament. Ladislav Sustr, a member of parliament who had switched his allegiance to a new political party, TOP 09, also agreed to the bribe and resigned from parliament as a result. Members of the other parties deferred but did not directly refuse the bribe. The police anticorruption unit was investigating the case at year's end. In October the media reported that the law school at the University of Western Bohemia in Plzen awarded numerous degrees in recent years to persons who did not earn them, including politicians, law faculty, police, customs agents, other state officials, and family members of mafia figures. Some allegedly obtained five-year law degrees in two months. The head of the country's accreditation commission, Vladimira Dvorakova, alleged that organized crime established the system with the goal of controlling these officials once in office. Dean Jiri Pospisil, brought in to address the scandal, fired former dean Jaroslav Zacharias and Vice Dean Ivan Tomazic from the faculty, and Vice Dean Milan Kindl resigned. The accreditation commission temporarily suspended the doctoral program in November, and in December an internal university investigation found that 14 of 63 doctoral degrees had serious shortcomings. The internal commission recommended that independent experts review the doctoral theses in the 14 cases. An investigation by the United Kingdom's Serious Fraud Office into overseas bribery allegations against BAE Systems continued, including allegations that the British-Swedish aerospace joint venture BAE Systems/Saab bribed several members of the Czech parliament and ministry officials in 2002 to gain their approval for a multimillion- dollar contract to replace the country's fighter-jet fleet. Three persons who were members of parliament at that time acknowledged that they were approached and offered large bribes but maintained that they refused. In November the police anticorruption unit suspended its investigation of the Czech officials implicated in the case because investigators did not find any evidence of a criminal act. Several ministries have anticorruption hotlines for citizens to report allegations. The Interior Ministry's anticorruption hotline, administered by the country branch of the NGO Transparency International (TI), received 3,049 calls in the first six months of the year, of which 235 were first-time callers. In 166 cases, TI identified corruption complaints, 14 concerning police corruption and 152 concerning public tenders at the local level. Credible allegations of corruption throughout the judiciary persisted, as did allegations of high-level political interference in sensitive public corruption cases. A number of legal cases involving judicial misconduct were ongoing during the year. In August the Regional Court in Tabor suspended the trial of former bankruptcy judge Jiri Berka, arrested in 2005 on charges of criminal conspiracy and fraud. The court said it needed more evidence. The case filed against former supreme state prosecutor Marie Benesova for calling six top-level judicial officials a ``judicial mafia'' was pending at year's end. On October 22, the Constitutional Court returned the case to the original judge, who had held that Benesova did not have to apologize to the officials. The case was pending at year's end. In the first nine months of the year, the Justice Ministry received 18 calls on its anticorruption hotline, 120 e-mail complaints, and 572 written complaints. Of this total, 10 communications alleged corruption on the part of judges and three alleged corruption on the part of prosecutors. One case concerning a judge was submitted to the police for investigation. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government generally provided such access in practice to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Applicants whose requests are denied have 15 days to appeal. They may also appeal if authorities exceed the time limit for processing a request. The Open Society Foundation, an NGO focusing on free access to information, reported that four cases regarding public access to information from local governments reached the courts during the year. Courts were receptive to the requests for information by the plaintiffs. In one case, the Regional Court in Usti nad Labem held that the regional governor's office must cover expenses for refusing to provide information to the NGO Children of the Earth about the office's rising budget. In another case, the Supreme Administrative Court held that the Czech energy company CEZ is a public institution that must provide information upon request. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups operated without government interference, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to human rights inquiries. The ombudsman made regular visits to government facilities, examining the treatment of individuals and monitoring respect for fundamental rights. He issued quarterly and annual reports on his office's activities in addition to reports on topics of special concern. He operated without government or party interference, had adequate resources, and was considered effective. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on sex, age, disability, race, ethnic origin, nationality, sexual orientation, religious faith, or personal belief. However, the government did not effectively enforce these provisions, and significant societal discrimination against Roma and women persisted. Trafficking in persons also remained a problem. On June 17, parliament overrode the president's May 2008 veto of antidiscrimination legislation and adopted a comprehensive Antidiscrimination Act that harmonized the country's law with EU requirements. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape, and the government effectively enforced this prohibition. The law provides penalties of two to 15 years in prison. Although experts considered rape to be underreported, they noted an upward trend in the number of rape convictions since 2001. They attributed this trend to improved police training, public awareness campaigns, and greater interaction between police and NGOs. In the first 10 months of the year, 411 rapes were reported, 273 of which were investigated. In the first six months of the year, courts convicted 67 offenders, giving suspended sentences to some offenders and prison sentences to others. Experts believed that violence against women was more widespread than suggested by the number of cases reported to authorities, due to the stigma associated with reporting such abuses. Domestic violence is punishable by up to three years in prison, with longer sentences under aggravated circumstances. In 2008 police obtained the authority to remove violent abusers from their homes for 10 days. According to a report released by the NGO Bily Kruh Bezpeci (White Circle of Safety), a total of 778 offenders, including women, were removed from their homes during the year. In the first 10 months of the year, Interior Ministry statistics indicated that 441 cases of domestic violence were reported and 330 investigations were completed; authorities continued to investigate additional cases. In the same period, authorities prosecuted 275 cases of domestic violence. Justice Ministry statistics indicated that in an eight-month period one person was sentenced to one year in prison, six persons were sentenced to two to five years, and three were sentenced to 15 years. While most prosecutions resulted in conviction, the majority of convictions did not involve incarceration. Alcohol played a major role in many domestic violence cases. Koordona, an association of 13 NGOs dealing with domestic violence, provided specialized training manuals for health care workers and distributed materials informing victims of their rights. Police continued to train personnel selected to handle cases and to work with social service agencies. Several hot lines and crisis centers offered psychological counseling to victims of rape and domestic abuse. In the first six months of the year, for example, the Dona hotline received 1,277 calls related to domestic violence, compared with 995 calls in the same period in 2008. The law does not prohibit prostitution, but local governments may limit or regulate it. Pimping is illegal. Prostitution in border areas and major urban areas declined due to the economic slowdown and a crackdown by local governments. Sex tourism, which used to flourish in border areas, declined for the same reasons. An Interior Ministry report for the first six months of the year noted that there was a general trend of declining interest in commercial sexual services, especially in the regions bordering Germany and Austria. Due to the activities of local municipalities, street prostitution was forced out of public places. For example, the city of Cheb near the German border used a camera system to deter street prostitution. Cities in the interior also made progress reducing sex tourism. Prague, Brno, Plzen, and other cities adopted by-laws banning prostitution in public places. The number of erotic clubs or nightclubs decreased, and many were on the brink of closure. The law prohibits sexual harassment. However, the government did not effectively enforce it, and sexual harassment remained a problem. The law places the burden of proof on the defendant. Those convicted can be fined up to 70,000 korunas ($3,860), dismissed from work, or sentenced to prison. According to a study conducted by the Gender and Sociology Section of the Czech Academy of Sciences in February, 25 percent of female respondents experienced sexual harassment at work. Couples and individuals had the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and had the information and means to do so without discrimination, coercion, and violence. However, involuntary sterilization of Romani women continued to be a problem. In 2007 and 2008 there were reports that doctors had forcibly sterilized two Romani women. Access to contraception was widespread, and the prevailing practice was to have skilled attendance at childbirth, including obstetric and postpartum care. According to NGOs, women and men were equally diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV. The law grants men and women equal rights, including in family and property law matters. According to Eurostat data for the first quarter of the year, the employment rate of women was 56.7 percent and women constituted 49.4 percent of the workforce. Women's salaries for similar work lagged behind men's by almost 24 percent, and women were more likely to work in professions with lower median salaries than those chosen by men. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether the salary gap was the result of discrimination against women, lack of access to proper professional training and preparation, or a possible preference among women for more flexible, family-friendly jobs. The Council for Equal Opportunities for Men and Women monitored gender issues and advised the government on enforcing equal gender rights. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents. While the government provided free, compulsory education through age 15, Romani children were subject to discriminatory treatment. Romani children were enrolled at disproportionately high rates in remedial school systems, which effectively segregated them into a substandard education. According to the Ministry of Education, approximately 27 percent of Romani children, compared with 2 percent of non-Romani children, attended these ``practical'' schools during the year. In regular schools, Romani children were often segregated from the majority population, both due to their place of residence (often in a Romani majority neighborhood) and because school officials in regular schools at times separated Romani children for remedial instruction. During the year the government continued to address discrimination in the education of children. Early in the year the Ministry of Education finalized two studies, one on education opportunities of children from excluded communities and the other analyzing teachers' individual approaches to students with special educational needs. Both studies pointed to unequal educational opportunities for Romani children. Sixty-five percent of Romani children from practical elementary schools enrolled in vocational high schools, many of which do not have final examinations in their curricula, and only 0.93 percent enrolled in regular high schools. The remaining 34 percent did not continue their education. Since the examinations offered at the completion of regular high school are required in order to enter a university, the large majority of Romani students who were in vocational schools without final examinations were effectively precluded from a university education. The Ministry of Education created a new Department for Equal Opportunities in Education to address these issues. Although the law permits Romani curricula, no elementary school in the country used the curricula. The Romani language was taught as a foreign language at two secondary schools and several universities. While the law prohibits family violence, sexual abuse, and other forms of mistreatment of minors, child abuse remained a problem. According to an ongoing 15-year study conducted by sexologists at the medical school of Charles University in Prague, 10 percent of children in the country have experienced sexual abuse. Seven percent were sexually abused at least once, while three percent were sexually abused repeatedly. Social protection agencies reported that authorities remove approximately 1,800 children from their homes annually due to mistreatment. According to a report by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs in January, as many as 22,000 children were living in institutions, including more than 9,000 placed in care pursuant to a court decision. Prison sentences for child abuse ranged from five to 10 years. In February the regional court in Hradec Kralove sentenced Antonin Novak to life in prison for the sexual assault and murder of a nine-year-old boy in 2008. Novak had already served more than four years in prison for previous sexual offenses. He had been released and ordered to attend outpatient treatment, which he failed to attend. Although some members of the Romani community married before reaching the legal age of 18, underage marriage was not a significant problem. Some children were engaged in prostitution for survival without apparent third-party involvement. NGOs reported that many teenagers in prostitution were runaways or products of orphanages and the foster care system. NGOs working with high-risk children attributed the problem largely to deficiencies in the foster care system, which often failed to provide adequate job skills and promote the adoption of unwanted children by capable parents. According to the Ministry of Interior's statistics, police investigated 26 cases of forced child prostitution in the first nine months of the year. The minimum age for consensual sex is 15. Sexual relations with a child younger than age 15 is punishable by a prison term up to eight years. The law prohibits the possession, manufacture, and distribution of child pornography, which is punishable by imprisonment for up to six years. In October police broke up the largest network of distributors of child pornography in the country's history. The distributors operated in Prague and parts of southern and northern Moravia. Of 160 suspects, 32 persons were detained. One quarter of the suspects were women. In November three civilian employees of the Ministry of Defense were detained. The operation involved approximately 1,000 police throughout the country. More than 300 computers containing pictures and videos with child pornography were confiscated. The perpetrators ranged in age from 20 to 80. At year's end the investigation was ongoing, with additional arrests possible. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, trafficking to, from, and within the country for sexual exploitation and forced labor continued to be a problem. Most women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation came from Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia, and other republics of the former Soviet Union. NGOs also assisted trafficked women from Brazil and Vietnam. Destination countries included the Netherlands, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and Germany. Major traffickers of women for commercial sexual exploitation were mostly foreigners who recruited women in their home countries through employment agencies by promising them jobs as models, maids, waitresses, and dancers. Traffickers coerced victims' compliance by stealing their travel documents, exploiting their isolation and any drug and alcohol dependence, employing violence or threats of violence to the victims or their families, and threatening victims with arrest and deportation. The women also had to pay back fictitious ``debts'' arising from their travel and the cost of visas and housing. Romani women were at the highest risk of internal trafficking; girls raised in state homes were also at high risk. According to government authorities, women already working in prostitution were particularly vulnerable to traffickers. Penalties for trafficking range from two to 15 years in prison and are generally similar to penalties for rape and sexual assault. Authorities may also prosecute traffickers for organized prostitution and pimping, which are punishable by up to 12 years in prison. In the first six months of the year, police investigated 13 trafficking cases involving seven Czech citizens and six foreigners. One person received a suspended sentence for trafficking. During the same period, authorities conducted 21 investigations into suspected pimping. The courts sentenced 44 persons for pimping; 11 persons received prison sentences of up to five years while 33 persons received suspended sentences. Since the government often utilized other criminal statutes to prosecute traffickers, it was difficult to develop an accurate estimate of the total number of trafficking prosecutions and convictions that were related to trafficking. Police investigated one case of trafficking in children in the first nine months of the year. An organized crime unit within the national police was dedicated to combating trafficking. It worked closely with its counterparts in Interpol, Europol, and foreign governments. A separate organized crime unit within the national police focused on labor trafficking. The government continued implementing its third national strategy against trafficking to cover the period 2008-11. The Justice and Interior Ministries organized several training sessions on trafficking issues for judges and prosecutors, and the Interior Ministry continued offering specialized training to police. The Interior Ministry and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs trained consular officers on trafficking issues, focusing on procedures leading to identification of victims of trafficking. The government cooperated with NGOs to provide services to trafficking victims and to train police and investigators in handling trafficking cases and referring victims for counseling. The government provided psychological and social assistance to trafficking victims for 60 days after they were discovered. During this time foreign victims had to decide whether to cooperate with authorities or return to their home countries. Victims choosing to cooperate are eligible for residency visas for the duration of the criminal proceedings and may thereafter apply for permanent residency on humanitarian grounds. Trafficking victims no longer have to testify against their traffickers in order to obtain permanent residence. According to an Interior Ministry report, 13 victims participated in the government's victim protection and assistance program during the year. Eight of the participants were victims of trafficking for labor, and five were victims of trafficking for commercial sex. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services, and the government generally enforced these provisions. However, persons with disabilities faced a shortage of public accommodations and were unemployed at disproportionately high rates. The ombudsman is required to make regular visits to all governmental and private workplaces of persons with physical restrictions to examine conditions, ensure that fundamental rights are respected, and advocate for improved protection against mistreatment. He made these visits throughout the year. Through its program to aid persons with disabilities, Mobility for All, the government provided 112.5 million korunas ($690,000) during the year to cosponsor 56 projects in towns and cities throughout the country, building barrier-free sidewalks, crossings, crossroads, and handicapped elevators in government institutions; purchasing barrier- free buses; and providing barrier-free access to government institutions, schools, libraries, galleries, and museums. Approximately 60 percent of Prague's metro stations were accessible to persons with disabilities, and most buses and new tramcars have been configured to accommodate them. However, of 15 major metro stations in the city center, only five were barrier-free. There were 294 barrier- free high schools across the country as well as 50 barrier-free institutions of higher learning, including universities. In prior years news reports and the UN Human Rights Council denounced the use of ``cage beds'' for young persons with severe mental and physical disabilities in several social care homes in the country. During unannounced visits to eight psychiatric institutions in the first half of the year, the ombudsman found that restraint beds were used in six geriatric psychiatric units. He found that in two of them net beds were used without approval of the physician. In his report the ombudsman cited lack of personnel as a major cause for the use of these beds. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Minority groups in the country included Roma, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Vietnamese, Poles, Russians, and Germans. Roma faced high levels of poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy as well as widespread discrimination in education, employment, and housing. Latent societal discrimination against the Romani population occasionally manifested itself in violence. Members and sympathizers of neo-Nazi organizations were the most frequent perpetrators of acts of interethnic violence, particularly against Roma. Ultranationalists were also active. The Interior Ministry estimated there were 4,000 active right-wing extremists in the country. During the year neo-Nazi and skinhead rallies or marches took place in several cities. Although the organizations operated separately, both the Workers Party and the National Party periodically announced they would be ``patrolling'' Romani neighborhoods or Romani gatherings to ensure no laws were being broken. In 2008, according to the OSCE's annual report on Hate Crimes in the OSCE Region, 195 persons were charged with crimes motivated by racial or similar hatred. The two largest categories of crimes were assault (30) and incitement to hatred (35). In May unknown persons attempted an arson attack against a Romani home in the village of Zdiby. No one in the home was injured. Police were investigating the case at year's end. In August police arrested four men for throwing Molotov cocktails into the home of a Romani family in the town of Vitkov on April 19. The ensuing blaze injured three persons, including a two-year-old girl who was treated for second- and third-degree burns over 80 percent of her body. Police believed the attack was racially motivated and premeditated. The men, charged with attempted murder, face between 12 and 25 years in prison if convicted. The case against the men was pending at year's end. In November 2008 an estimated 1,000 police officers used force to prevent an estimated 500 well armed, right-wing rioters in Litvinov from attacking Roma. Approximately 300 Romani men who gathered to defend their community were also involved in the melee. In January the state prosecutor dropped rioting and assault charges against 15 protestors. The only persons convicted in the confrontation were two Roma sentenced to 400 hours of community service for physically and verbally assaulting members of the Workers Party. Starting October 1, the government stepped up police presence in Roma neighborhoods, including an increase from 21 to 31 officers in Janov, the Litvinov Roma neighborhood. Police arrested a number of right-wing extremists during the year. On June 9, the special police unit for investigating organized crime (UOOZ) charged 10 neo-Nazis with supporting and promoting movements aimed at suppressing the rights and freedoms of the individual. Those arrested faced prison sentences of three to eight years if convicted. They remained in custody and their cases were pending at year's end. On October 21, UOOZ arrested 24 individuals on similar charges. Police President Oldrich Martinu said that several of the arrestees were linked to the neo-Nazi organization White Justice and had been trained by Lukas Sedlacek, a member of the Czech military. In response, the Ministry of Defense discharged Sedlacek with no severance pay or pension. Other arrestees were linked to the National Resistance, the Workers Party, and the Resistance Women Unity group. At year's end their cases were pending. In both June and October, extremists gathered to protest the arrests. Eight men were on trial at year's end for a series of attacks on Roma in November 2008 in Sumbark, a neighborhood in Havirov with a large Romani population. Some of the alleged attackers were described as members of the group Thugs Havirov and one as a member of the National Resistance. One attack victim was severely beaten. The trial was adjourned to February 2010. The government proceeded with plans to build a memorial for Romani Holocaust victims near the site of a World War II concentration camp for Roma in Lety. It allocated 21.5 million korunas ($1.2 million) for the memorial and purchased property from three nearby municipalities. Because the site is currently a pig farm, Romani Holocaust survivors and activists strongly rejected the government's plan and insisted that the pig farm be removed. The government rejected acquiring the pig farm as prohibitively expensive. The law prohibits employment discrimination based on ethnicity; however, Roma continued to face discrimination in employment. Some employers refused to hire Roma and requested that local labor offices not send them Romani applicants. According to a 2008 joint study by the government and the World Bank, 55.8 percent of Roma of working age did not participate in the labor market (they were neither employed nor actively seeking employment), 5.2 percent were unemployed, and 12.2 percent did not have a job but reported income during the survey period. Roma faced widespread discrimination in access to housing and other accommodations. While housing discrimination based on ethnicity is prohibited by law, NGOs stated that some municipalities still apply municipal regulations in a way that discriminates against certain socially disadvantaged groups, primarily Roma, including basing housing decisions on the reputation of the applicant and family in previous residences. A 2006 Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs study found that more than 330 ghettos in the country were almost exclusively inhabited by Roma. The study put the combined population in these ghettos at 80,000, more than one third of the Romani population. The study found that the ghettos were blighted by substandard housing and poor health conditions. The author of the 2006 study, Ivan Gabal of the Gabal Analysis & Consulting research firm, believes the ghettos continue to grow. Beyond housing discrimination, reasons for the growth in Romani- dominated ghettos include unaffordable rents elsewhere and urban gentrification. Lack of transportation limited work opportunities for Roma outside the ghettos and made Roma less likely to accept jobs far from home. Restaurants, bars, and other public places at times refused to serve Roma. The government continued implementing a long-term integration plan for Roma that provided state-paid advisers to assist Roma in finding employment and special stipends for Romani secondary school students. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs worked with NGOs to increase services to the Romani community. The Interministerial Commission for Romani Community Affairs continued to take an active role in resolving disputes between Romani communities and their non-Romani neighbors and promoting antidiscrimination initiatives in housing and education. The Agency for Social Inclusion in Roma Localities, created in 2008 to coordinate and evaluate social integration efforts, is now operating in 15 communities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender organizations operated freely. In June in the town of Tabor, members of the Workers Party attempted to disrupt a second annual gay pride march held by gay rights advocates. Police, including members of an anticonflict team, kept Workers Party members mostly separated from the march. The government did not keep statistics regarding incidents of violence directed at individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. A report by a government working group on issues involving sexual minorities indicated that physical and verbal attacks occur, although are often not reported. There were some reported cases of discrimination against persons based on sexual orientation. A gay registered partner of a parent may not adopt the partner's child, although a gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender person not in a registered partnership may adopt. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--As of June 1, the country requires citizens of certain countries who request long-term resident status to provide a medical record attesting that they are not HIV-positive. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law protects workers' right to form and join unions of their choice without authorization or excessive requirements, and workers, including foreign and migrant workers, generally exercised this right in practice. Although the law applies equally to Czech and foreign workers, the latter generally did not join unions due to the short-term nature of their work or the lack of social interaction with Czech employees. An estimated 17 percent of the workforce was unionized, a decrease of approximately 8 percent from 2008, according to the Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions (CMKOS), a national umbrella organization. Approximately 75 percent of nonagricultural union members were affiliated with CMKOS. Agricultural workers made up 3 percent of the workforce; 60 percent of agricultural workers were members of the Trade Union of Agricultural Workers. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference. While regulations entitle union members to conduct some union activities during work hours, the amount of time to which workers are entitled is not specified, leaving room for wide interpretation on the part of employers. CMKOS reported cases in which employers did not allow union members sufficient paid time to fulfill union responsibilities. Workers generally have the legal right to strike if mediation efforts fail. However, unionized workers in certain professions may not strike. These professions include judges, prosecutors, police, and members of the military and other security forces. The law limits the right to strike for workers in health care, nuclear energy, oil and gas pipelines, air traffic control, firefighting, and telecommunications. Workers in these industries do, however, have access to mediation. The law requires unions to provide employers with a list of strikers at least one day before a strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, which generally was carried out by unions and employers on a company basis. The scope for collective bargaining was more limited for civil servants, whose wages are regulated by law. Under the law only trade unions may legally represent workers, including nonmembers of trade unions. During the year trade unions affiliated with CMKOS negotiated collective agreements that covered 22 percent of the workforce, a 1.5-percent decrease from 2008. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination. Despite this, CMKOS reported that in 2008 some employers pressured workers to give up their trade union activities by threatening either to fire them or to reduce their wages. A leading hotel group, CPI Hotels, indicated to all members and officers of the CMKOS-affiliated Trade Union of Catering, Hotel and Tourism workers (OSPHCR) that employment at the newly acquired Cernigov Hotel in Hradec Kralove would be conditional on their leaving the union. The local OSPHCR organization subsequently terminated its activities in March of that year. The OSPHCR reports that as of the end of the year, the Cernigov Hotel Trade Union chapter was not reconstituted. Moreover, during the year chapters operating in other hotels recently acquired by CPI Hotels also yielded to pressure from the new employer and terminated, or were planning to terminate, their activities. Nevertheless, no formal complaint against CPI was lodged. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that women were subject to conditions of forced commercial sexual exploitation. According to labor legislation, all workers with a valid working permit are treated equally. The State Bureau for Labor Inspection (SBLI), which enforces regulations on labor conditions, undertakes regular checks and deals with accusations of labor infringements. In 2008 SBLI undertook 108 checks of work agencies employing migrant workers. This reflected a 71 percent increase from 2007. According to SBLI, the result of checks undertaken included inconsistencies in work agreements, rejected salary bonus payments, and inconsistencies in working hours and overtime. No systematic discrimination based on citizenship, gender, age, or health status was proved. In 2008 the government established an interministerial group to coordinate government efforts against trafficking and forced labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. Under the lead of the Ministry for Human Rights, the government adopted a strategic document in 2008 called ``National Strategy of Prevention against Violence against Children for the Period 2008-2018.'' The document identifies several priorities such as zero tolerance of violence against children, support of primary prevention, professionalism of experts, and accessibility of services for endangered children. In April the ministry led a conference on promoting children's rights during the country's EU presidency term. A second conference in June focused on child violence and injury prevention and child mental health promotion. The law sets a minimum working age of 15 years, although children with disabilities who have completed special training may work at the age of 14. Employment conditions for children ages 15 to 18 were subject to strict safety standards. One exception in the regulations allows children to obtain permits from the Labor Office to work up to 12 months in specific artistic, cultural, sports or advertising activities. Nevertheless, the subject work must be age-appropriate, safe, and compatible with full-time school attendance. The work cannot hinder the child's development. Such activities cannot take place between 10:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. The SBLI effectively enforced these regulations in practice. Infringement of child labor rules is subject to fines of up to 2 million korunas ($110,000). In 2008 SBLI reported only four minor cases of violations relating to the issuance of work permits. No fines, however, were imposed due to the relatively minor nature of the offences. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs establishes and enforces minimum wage standards. During the year the national minimum wage was 8,000 korunas ($440) per month and provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family when combined with social benefits for low-paid workers. The minimum wage is determined by the government, following negotiations with employers and trade unions. The last update to the minimum wage occurred in January 2007. The minimum wage is enforced by the SBLI and is one of the main targets of the SBLI's checks, in response to reported violations of labor law, as well as regular and ad hoc controls. The law provides for a 40-hour workweek, two days of rest, and a paid break of at least 30 minutes during the standard eight-hour workday. If the employee agrees, employers may establish up to eight hours per week of overtime; the local employment office may permit additional overtime. Premium pay for overtime, equal to at least 25 percent of the average earnings, is governed by the provisions of the labor code. According to the International Organization for Migration, the standard conditions of work were not always observed in situations involving migrant workers. Low-qualified foreign workers coming from less developed countries are sometimes dependent on job intermediaries to find and retain work. The job intermediary is usually someone from their home country who has developed professional ties in the Czech Republic. According to trade unions and NGOs, there have been cases of violations of labor conditions, as well as inhumane treatment of migrants, generally perpetrated by job intermediaries. Most commonly, salaries are paid to job intermediaries who garnish wages, resulting in subminimum wage or overtime without proper compensation for workers. Generally, such treatment occurs within migrant communities as a result of voluntary decisions by the migrant workers. There has been neither formal evidence nor formal complaints, and thus local authorities have few tools with which to intervene. The SBLI effectively enforced health and safety standards. In 2008 numerous checks focused on health and safety standards, and occurred primarily (but not exclusively) in the construction, manufacturing, agricultural, and forestry sectors. Fines totaling 46 million korunas ($2.5 million) were imposed for cases of substantial law infringement. Workers have the right to refuse work endangering their life or health without risking the loss of their employment, and they exercised this right in practice. __________ DENMARK Denmark, with a population of approximately 5.5 million, is a constitutional monarchy with democratic parliamentary rule. Queen Margrethe II is head of state. A prime minister, usually the leader of the majority party or coalition, is head of government and presides over a cabinet, which is accountable to the unicameral Folketing (parliament). The minority center-right coalition government led by the Liberal Party (Venstre) won a plurality of seats in the 2007 elections, which were deemed free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Reports of religious and ethnic discrimination against minority groups have remained relatively constant over the past several years, while domestic violence against women and trafficking in women and children continued to be reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. Police shot and killed three persons in the line of duty, but preliminary investigations showed that none of these killings were arbitrary or unlawful. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards; however, authorities often held pretrial detainees together with convicted criminals. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--By law police are allowed to begin investigations and make arrests either without a warrant based upon visual evidence or on the basis of indictments filed by public prosecutors with the courts. In November parliament enacted permanent legislation in advance of the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen that, among other provisions, extended from six to 12 hours the length of detention permitted without being brought before a judge and charged. A court may summon the accused to appear or order police to arrest the accused based upon an application filed by a public prosecutor. Apprehended persons were brought before an independent judiciary. If an individual is taken into custody, the law provides for an initial appearance before a judge within 24 hours; however, noncitizens may be detained for up to 72 hours before being given a court appearance. Authorities generally respected the right to a prompt judicial determination. Detainees were informed promptly of charges against them. The country does not have a bail system; rather, a judge decides within 24 hours of detention either to release the detainee on his or her recognizance or to keep the detainee in jail until trial. According to the Office of the Director of Public Prosecution, of the total number of pretrial detainees in 2007, 89.5 percent served less than three months in pretrial custody. A Ministry of Justice circular to police provides detailed rules and procedures concerning the rights of detained persons. They include the right to inform next of kin of their arrest, to contact a lawyer, and to have access to medical treatment. The circular specifies that arrested persons should generally be given access to a lawyer from the time they are brought to a police station. The government provided counsel for those who could not afford legal representation. The law does not allow any visitors during the first 24 hours of detention except for legal counsel. However, depending upon the charges, police generally did not restrict visitor access in practice. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. The judicial system consists of local courts, which hear cases in the first instance; two regional high courts, which address appeals; and the Supreme Court, which is the highest and final court of appeal. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty. Trials are public. Juries are required for criminal cases in which the maximum penalty is greater than four years' imprisonment. The law provides for defendants' right to timely consultation with an attorney, at public expense if needed. Defendants have the right to question witnesses against them and to present their own witnesses. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government evidence relevant to their case. The right of appeal is automatic and encompasses both procedural matters and sentences imposed. The law provides that criminal sentences can be increased when bias is proved as a motive. Bias can be based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or religion. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, including access to the court system to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. There were no reported problems enforcing domestic court orders. In addition to judicial remedies, administrative remedies are also available. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Individuals were able to criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal. The law prohibits any public speech or dissemination of statements or other pronouncements by which a group of persons is threatened, derided, or degraded because of their race, skin color, national or ethnic background, faith, or sexual orientation; offenders may be fined or imprisoned for up to two years. The law also prohibits ``blasphemy'' and provides that a person who publicly mocks or insults a legally existing religious community's tenets of faith or worship may be fined or imprisoned for up to four months. In a submission to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination published in August, authorities reported that in 2008 prosecutors brought charges of violating these prohibitions in four cases; two cases were settled with a fine and two had not been decided. Information released by the Danish Security and Intelligence Service explained that one of the cases involved a person in possession of flyers advocating beating to death immigrant Pakistanis and another concerned the hanging of a sign with offensive remarks about the Prophet Muhammad. Authorities continued to provide protection to cartoonist Kurt Westergaard, whose caricatures of the Prophet Mohammed in 2005 led to demonstrations in Denmark and in many Muslim countries. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. However, some observers contended that a system designed to block child pornography mistakenly blocked other sites. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 84 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Government statistics published in July indicated that 86 percent of the population had Internet access in their homes. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. On December 12, a large demonstration during the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen threatened to become violent. Using the new 12-hour detention authority, police detained nearly 1,000 persons involved in the demonstration; most were released without charge the following day. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the official state church and enjoys some privileges not available to other faiths, such as receiving state subsidies directly through voluntary tax payments. Members of other faiths, notably Catholics, have asserted that the system is unfair and that, although the government provides religious freedom, it does not provide religious equality. Allowing other religious organizations to be given the same status and privileges as the Evangelical Lutheran Church would require changes to the constitution. While the government does not require the licensing of religious groups, government recognition is required for religious ceremonies, such as weddings, to have civil validity or for religious groups, which numbered more than 100 at year's end, to receive tax exemptions. Religious history, with special emphasis on the Evangelical Lutheran faith, was taught in public schools, but students could withdraw from religious classes with parental consent. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were isolated incidents of societal abuses and discrimination, including anti-immigrant (mainly Muslim and African) graffiti, desecration of ethnic minority gravesites, and low-level assaults, as well as some denial of service and hiring on racial grounds. Societal discrimination against religious minorities was difficult to distinguish from discrimination against ethnic minorities. The government condemned the incidents, investigated several, and brought some cases to trial. Reports continued of desecration of graves of the religious majority and those of ethnic and religious minorities; however, centrally compiled statistics are no longer available. The Jewish population was estimated at 7,000 persons. There were isolated incidents of anti-Semitism, apparently perpetrated primarily by immigrants, according to victims' reports. Most incidents involved vandalism, such as graffiti, and nonviolent verbal assaults. In 2008 there were nine reported cases of religiously motivated crime, at least one of which involved anti-Semitic graffiti. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution and law prohibit forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In May the government concluded an agreement with the Iraqi government under which Iraq would take back those of its citizens who had been denied asylum based on safe country of origin. Authorities arrested and deported a few such individuals during the summer, while a group of approximately 70 Iraqis occupied a church in protest against their imminent deportation. Following consultations with a visiting Iraqi delegation, police entered the church on August 13, detained some Iraqis, and let others go. By the end of December, authorities had deported 47 of 242 rejected asylum seekers; 66 of the rejected asylum seekers remained in detention awaiting deportation, and 129 either went into hiding or left the country. The government also provided temporary humanitarian protection to certain individuals who fell outside the definition of the 1951 convention and its 1967 protocol. The government provided such protection to 367 persons in 2008 and 242 such persons through September. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. The territories of Greenland and the Faroe Islands have democratically elected home rule governments, whose powers encompass all matters except foreign and national security affairs, police services, and monetary matters. Greenlanders and Faroese have the same rights as other citizens. Each territory elects two representatives to the parliament. On June 21, Greenland's new Self-Governance Agreement, which further expanded the area of competency of the Greenland self- government, entered into force. Elections and Political Participation.--Free and fair parliamentary elections took place in 2007; they resulted in a continuation of a center-right coalition. In April Lars Loekke Rasmussen was named prime minister, replacing Anders Fogh Rasmussen. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. Based on the parliamentary elections in 2007, there were 67 women in the 179-seat parliament and eight women in the 19-seat cabinet. Following the November 17 municipal and regional elections, the percentage of women as members of municipal councils increased from 27.3 percent in 2005 to 32.1 percent. This was the first time that the number of women on municipal councils exceeded 30 percent nationwide. The election also increased the number of female regional council members from 33.7 percent in 2005 to 35.1 percent. Four citizens of non-Danish origin were elected to the parliament. No ethnic minorities are in the 19-seat cabinet. The number of politicians of non-Danish ethnic origin who were elected to municipal councils dipped slightly in the November elections to 65 from 67 in 2005. Section 4. Official Government Corruption and Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented the law effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. One instance involved Peter Brixtofte, a former mayor of the town of Farum, who was sentenced to two years in prison for abuse of office after it was uncovered that he had used public funds to finance his personal wine consumption during his time as mayor. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws, but government officials are not allowed to work on cases in which they have a personal or economic interest, or to represent someone, or have close relations to someone, with a special interest in the case. Officials are obligated to inform superiors of any possible disqualification issues related to a case. The Ministry of Justice and the State Employer's Authority in the Ministry of Finance are responsible for combating government corruption. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government granted access to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. The government cooperated with, and permitted visits by, UN and other international governmental organizations. There were no such visits this year because Copenhagen was home to permanent branches of several international organizations, including the World Health Organization, UN Development Program, World Food Program, UNICEF, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. The government generally responded to the reports of international organizations. For example, on March 13, the Council of Europe published the government's response to a 2008 visit by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture. Parliament had an ombudsman who investigated complaints regarding national and local public authorities and any decisions they made regarding the treatment of citizens and their cases. The ombudsman could, at his initiative, independently inspect any facility within his authority, such as prisons, detention centers, and psychiatric hospitals. The country also had a European ombudsman, who ensured compliance with EU basic rights, and a consumers ombudsman, who investigated complaints related to discriminatory marketing. These ombudsman services enjoyed the government's cooperation, operated without government or political interference, had adequate resources, and were considered effective. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced the law effectively. However, there were incidents of violence against women, child abuse, and trafficking in persons. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense, and the government effectively prosecuted persons accused of such crimes. In 2008, 475 reports were received; charges were brought in 340 cases, resulting in 57 convictions. During the year there were 418 reports of rape. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a problem. According to the Ministry for Gender Equality, an estimated 28,000 women and 22,000 children experienced domestic violence every year. The National Organization of Shelters for Battered Women in 2008 provided safe haven in 3,287 cases, while alternative solutions were provided in 626 other cases where shelters did not have capacity. Under the law, any assault on another person is illegal. This also applies to domestic violence and rape. Penalties include imprisonment for up to 12 years, depending on the magnitude of the offense. The government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) operated 24-hour hotlines, counseling centers, and shelters for female victims of violence and embarked on nationwide information campaigns and police training on gender-based violence. Honor killings in the country are a relatively new phenomenon. In 2007 the national police force formally published a strategy to identify and combat such crimes. In April police held a nationwide seminar to train officers. Twelve honor-related murders have been officially identified since 2002. In 2008 police reported over 157 separate cases involving honor-related crimes such as forced marriage and threats. Prostitution is legal, but subject to restrictions; procuring, coercion into prostitution, solicitation of prostitution from a minor, and trafficking are illegal. According to a report released during the year by the National Board of Social Services, the latest police estimate of the number of persons involved in prostitution is approximately 5,500. The law prohibits sexual harassment and provides monetary compensation for victims of sexual harassment. The government effectively enforced the law. There were few reported cases during the year. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Health clinics and local health NGOs were permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Public Health. There were no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives, and the government provided free childbirth services. Women also used nurses and midwives for prenatal and postnatal care unless the mother or child suffered more serious health complications. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women have the same legal status as men, including under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. The law requires equal pay for equal work. However, the latest figures from the country's National Statistics and the Ministry for Gender Equality indicated that, as an average percentage of income, women earned 93 percent of a man's salary as an employee of the state, 84 percent as an employee of the local community, and 79 percent when employed in the private sector. Women did not experience economic discrimination in access to employment, credit, or owning or managing businesses. Women held positions of authority throughout society although they were underrepresented in senior business positions and as university professors. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in early September released statistics indicating that women occupied 13 percent of the management positions in the labor market. It called for the existing requirement--that employers with more than 35 employees report wages paid by gender--be extended to companies with fewer employees. The EU in 2008 also asked the government to address this problem. Children.--Citizenship at birth is primarily derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Citizenship is automatically given to children of married parents if one is a citizen and to children of unwed citizen mothers. Citizenship for a child of an unmarried citizen father and a foreign mother can only be transmitted if the child is born in the country. Anyone born in the country, who would otherwise be stateless, has the right to obtain citizenship either at birth or by application at a later date. The law requires that all persons practicing medicine in the country register the births of the children they deliver. In the first three quarters of the year, police received 101 reports of the sexual abuse of children, compared with 155 such reports in 2008. Female genital mutilation (FGM)--with or without consent from the victim or her parents--is illegal and carries a penalty of six to 10 years' imprisonment. The law applies to nationals or residents, regardless of whether the act was committed within the country or abroad and regardless of whether the act was a criminal offense under the law of the state where it was committed. On January 29, a court convicted a 49-year-old woman of Sudanese background of conducting FGM on two daughters. It sentenced her to two years in prison, of which 18 months were suspended and the remaining six months corresponded to time served. The husband was acquitted. The government conducted information campaigns targeting the problem of FGM. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to and through the country. The country was both a destination and a transit point for women and children trafficked from the Baltic countries, Eastern Europe, Southeast Asia, West Africa, and Latin America for the purposes of sexual exploitation and occasionally to work in petty crime. The country has an active sexual service industry made up of both trafficked and voluntary persons. The National Board of Social Services estimated that there were more than 5,567 male and female prostitutes working nationwide. An estimated 37 percent were foreigners, some of whom were believed to be trafficking victims. According to Copenhagen police, women were recruited in their native countries, transported to Denmark, and then forced into prostitution. However, no reliable figures are available with regard to how many persons were being trafficked. In 2008 the police met with 431 women suspected of association with trafficking and 72 were confirmed to be victims. Through March police met with 202 women, resulting in identification of 22 confirmed trafficking victims. Authorities suspected that traffickers had ties to organized crime. The law criminalizes trafficking and provides for a maximum prison term of eight years for those convicted. In 2008 police investigated and prosecuted 30 trafficking cases, compared with 23 cases in 2007; the number of convictions dropped from eight in 2007 to seven in 2008. Police also conducted 24 investigations into trafficking procurement in 2008, compared to 23 in 2007, laying charges in 51 cases in 2008, compared to 31 cases in 2007. There were 12 procurement convictions in both 2007 and 2008. The national commissioner for police maintained an internal task force on trafficking in persons, assisted local police constabularies with investigations, and trained officers to recognize and investigate trafficking cases. The government cooperated with international investigations of trafficking and exchanged information with neighboring countries. Persons identified as trafficking victims by the country's immigration service were not prosecuted for immigration violations. Women who accepted the offer of assisted voluntary return received help from local NGOs and the International Organization of Migration. The government funded two NGOs that provided social, medical, and legal services to trafficking victims. Government funding was also used for conferences, media campaigns, and NGO outreach programs as well as for hotlines to support victims, prevent trafficking, and gather data on the extent of the problem. The Ministry of Social Welfare subsidized a hotline and Web site and organized antitrafficking seminars for NGOs, police, and foreign embassies to provide information on legislation, identifying trafficking victims, and providing assistance. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services or other areas, and the government effectively enforced these provisions in practice. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced these provisions in practice. Responsibility for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities falls under the Ministry of Social Affairs and is implemented by the municipal governments. The Danish Disability Council, a government-funded organization, monitored the status of persons with disabilities and advised the government and the parliament on issues relating to disability policy. The Equal Opportunities Center for Disabled Persons is a government-funded entity that documented and alerted the government to inequalities in society that affect persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The Security and Intelligence Service (PET) reported 175 hate crimes in 2008. The number of cases was roughly a five-fold increase over the number of hate crimes reported in 2007. Police attributed the increase to a new, broader definition used by PET of what constitutes a hate crime. For the first time, PET combined its hate crime cases with those from the various regional and national police registries. The new definition was expanded to cover crimes motivated by political issues, skin color, nationality, ethnic origin, religious beliefs, and sexual orientation. Reported cases included hostile actions by persons against ethnic and national minorities and involved graffiti, vandalism, theft, and racist Internet and written messages. The government effectively investigated and dealt with cases of racially motivated violence. According to police, hate crime victims were ``Jews and people of an ethnic origin other than Danish'' (usually meaning both African and Middle Eastern ethnic groups). Members of other minority groups were sometimes the perpetrators of the incidents. The government effectively investigated and dealt with cases of racially motivated violence. The presence of ethnically and racially diverse refugees and immigrants (mostly Iraqis, Palestinians, Moroccans, Pakistanis, Sri Lankans, Somalis, and refugees from the former Yugoslavia) caused some tension between citizens and immigrants, which was documented in press reports. A report released by the EU Human Rights Agency in December stated that every third Somali in the country experienced some form of racist harassment. Indigenous People.--The law protects the rights of the indigenous Inuit inhabitants of Greenland. Greenland's legal system seeks to accommodate their customs, provides for the use of lay persons as judges, and sentences most prisoners to holding centers (rather than prisons), where they are encouraged to work, hunt, or fish during the day. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The country has one major lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) organization, the Danish National Association of Gays and Lesbians, which was founded in 1948. It operated independently of political interference to promote LGBT interests in Denmark. The annual Copenhagen Pride parade was held on August 1 and was followed by a ``pride show'' in Copenhagen's main town square. During the year Copenhagen also sponsored the World Outgames, which occurred without incident and without police or government interference. There were no reports of official or societal discrimination based on sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law states that all workers, including military personnel and police, may form or join independent unions of their choosing without previous authorization or excessive requirements. These laws were effectively enforced. Approximately 80 percent of wage earners belonged to unions. Unions could conduct their activities without government interference. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right during the year by conducting legal strikes. In some cases, when a strike occurs, not all union members may strike. In April the nurses union went on a national strike for a raise in pay, but almost a third of its members were not able to participate due to the legal minimum staffing levels required at hospitals. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Collective bargaining is protected by law and was freely practiced. Approximately 85 percent of the workforce was covered by collective bargaining agreements. These agreements indirectly influenced wages and working conditions for the rest of the workforce. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and that children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and occasionally to work in petty crime. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits the exploitation of children in the workplace, and the government effectively enforced it in practice. The minimum legal age for full-time employment is 15 years. The law sets a minimum age for part-time employment of 13 years; however, school-age children are limited to less strenuous tasks. The law limits work hours and sets occupational health and safety restrictions for children. In the period from January 2008 to the end of March, the Red Cross and the Danish Antitrafficking Center reported meeting with 15 minors suspected of having been trafficked, but none was identified as a victim. Child labor law is enforced by the Danish Working Environment Authority (DWEA), an autonomous arm of the Ministry of Labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The law does not mandate a national minimum wage; minimum wages are negotiated between unions and employer associations. According to statistics released on March 1, the average minimum wage for all private and public sector collective bargaining agreements was 103.15 kroner ($20) per hour, exclusive of pension benefits. The wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Migrant workers are also entitled to minimum wage and must also adhere to the same employment regulations as Danes. Workers generally enjoyed a 37-hour workweek that was established by contract rather than by law. Workers received premium pay for overtime and were not subjected to compulsory overtime. Working hours were determined by collective bargaining agreements that adhered to the EU directive that an average workweek not exceed 48 hours. The law prescribes conditions of work, including safety and health; the DWEA ensured compliance with labor legislation. During the year the DWEA conducted 25,569 company screenings, visits, and inspections and made 36,374 requests for additional information or required improvements concerning working environment problems. If required improvements are not carried out within the given time frame, the DWEA has the authority to take the case to police or the courts. Workers may remove themselves from hazardous situations without jeopardizing their employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right in practice. Similar work conditions were found in Greenland and the Faroe Islands, except that there the workweek was established by contract at 40 hours. __________ ESTONIA With a population of 1.34 million, Estonia is a multiparty constitutional parliamentary democracy with a unicameral parliament, a prime minister as head of government, and a president as head of state. Parliamentary elections held in 2007 were generally free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Problems were reported in some areas. There were allegations that police used excessive force during the arrest of suspects; authorities investigated and brought charges against alleged offenders. Conditions in detention centers generally remained poor. Lengthy pretrial detention continued to be a problem. Domestic violence, inequality of women's salaries, child abuse, and trafficking of women were also reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated or other disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police used excessive physical force and verbal abuse during the arrest and questioning of suspects. During the year authorities processed 30 criminal cases related to police officers' excessive use of force. They dropped charges in 19 cases and sent one to the prosecutor's office for further action. At year's end 10 cases were pending. In July the Tartu County Court brought charges against a guard in the Tartu prison for using excessive force. The prison guard had beaten a prisoner on several occasions. On September 30, the court found the prison guard guilty and sentenced him to two years and six months in prison. He did not appeal the court's judgment. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in detention centers were poor; however, there were some improvements. Following visits in 2008 to detention centers in Jogeva, Haapsalu, Tartu, Paide, and to the Tallinn Prison, the legal chancellor, the country's human rights ombudsman, reported poor living conditions in all detention centers, inadequate staffing in Jogeva detention center and Tallinn Prison, and insufficient access by detainees to legal information and opportunities to study and work in Tallinn Prison. In September the legal chancellor called for improved procedures for inmates seeking services and noted the need to determine the extent of medical services available in detention centers. The legal chancellor emphasized the state's obligation to monitor and provide security to detainees in detention centers. The trial continued of the former acting director, the former security chief, and a former warden of Murru prison on charges of negligence in a case that led to the deaths of two inmates at the hands of other prisoners in 2006. The trial began in January 2008. At year's end the country's prisons and detention centers held 3,563 persons, including 2,706 convicted prisoners and 855 pretrial detainees. Women made up 5.5 percent of the prisoners, and persons under the age of 18 accounted for 1 percent. The government permitted prison visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred. There were no visits by the International Committee of the Red Cross during the year. In 2007 the Council of Europe's Committee on the Prevention of Torture visited the country; the results of the visit were not available by year's end. The opening of a 1,000-bed prison in Viru County eliminated overcrowding in prisons (as opposed to detention centers). The new prison also contained a detention facility with a capacity of 150 persons. The Kohtla-Jarve detention center, known for its poor conditions, closed in 2008. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and laws prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police, security police, tax and customs board, and national border guard. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Under the law authorities in most cases must possess warrants issued by a court in order to make arrests. They must inform detainees promptly of the grounds for their arrest. There is a functioning bail system. Authorities may hold a person for 48 hours without charge; further detention requires a court order. Police rarely violated these requirements. Detainees must be given immediate access to legal counsel, and the government pays for legal counsel for indigent persons. Authorities may hold a person in pretrial detention for six months. In a particularly complex criminal case, the judge responsible for the preliminary investigation may extend the length of detention at the request of a chief public prosecutor. Lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. Approximately 24 percent of the incarcerated population was in pretrial detention; the average length of pretrial detention was seven months. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have a right of appeal. Trials are public. Juries are not used. A single judge, a judge and public assessors, or a committee of judges hear cases. Defendants have the right to be present and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. In criminal proceedings an attorney is available to all defendants at public expense, although individuals often preferred to hire their own attorneys. In civil proceedings an attorney is provided for indigents. Defendants may confront or question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. The law extends these rights to all residents, whether or not they are citizens. The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. There is access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Administrative as well as judicial remedies are available for alleged wrongs. There were no problems with enforcing civil court orders. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and the press. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. During the year approximately 69 percent of the population used the Internet, and 63 percent of households had Internet access in the home. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for this right, and the government generally respected it in practice. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for this right for citizens, and the government generally respected it in practice. The law specifies that only citizens may join political parties, but noncitizens are free to join other civil groups. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law prohibits activity that publicly incites hatred, violence, or discrimination on the basis of a variety of characteristics, including religion if it threatens a person's life, health, or property. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Relations between the various religious communities were generally amicable; however, the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church and the Estonian Orthodox Church under the Moscow Patriarchy continued to have differences over the disposition of Orthodox Church property. Criminal proceedings continued against two individuals charged in 2008 with damaging 44 gravestones, including four crosses in the old Haapsalu cemetery that were under protection as historic memorials. The Jewish community was estimated to have approximately 2,500 members. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. The government took a number of steps to associate itself with commemoration of the Holocaust and to encourage best practices in teaching about it in schools. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/ d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The government has a ``safe country of origin or transit'' policy; it regarded countries that were parties to the 1951 refugee convention as safe countries, but authorities granted interviews to all individual asylum seekers. In practice the government provided protection against expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government granted refugee status or asylum to three individuals. The government provided temporary protection to one individual who did not qualify as a refugee. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship derives from one's parents (jus sanguinis). According to government statistics, at the end of the year, 101,041 persons, or 7.4 percent of the population, were of undetermined citizenship or de facto stateless. The UNHCR recorded 110,315 stateless persons as of January, 2009. A majority of stateless persons were long-term residents and, as such, could vote in local but not parliamentary elections. The government has statutory procedures in place that offer opportunities to gain legal residence status or citizenship. Individuals of undetermined citizenship were eligible to apply for naturalization. Authorities have adopted policies, such as funding citizenship and language courses and simplifying the process for persons with disabilities, to facilitate acquisition of citizenship by those stateless persons who wish it. Children whose parents are residents of undetermined citizenship and have lived in the country for five years are eligible to acquire citizenship at their parents' request. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2007 the country held parliamentary elections, considered free and fair, that led to the formation of a three-party coalition government. In May the government dismissed one of the junior parties in the ruling coalition and continued under Prime Minister Andrus Ansip's leadership as a two-party minority government. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. On June 4, the country held elections to the European Parliament, and on October 18, there were nationwide municipal elections. Both were considered free and fair. Only citizens may vote in parliamentary elections and be members of political parties. Noncitizens who reach the age of 18 by election day, whose address in the corresponding rural municipality or city is entered in the population register, and who reside in the country on the basis of a long-term residence permit, may vote in local elections. Resident noncitizens may not run for office. EU citizens who have established permanent residency may also vote in local elections, and those EU citizens who are registered in the country's population register may vote in elections to the European Parliament. There were 23 women in the 101-seat parliament. The speaker and deputy speaker of the parliament were women. There was one female minister in the 13-member cabinet. There were nine members of ethnic minorities in the 101-seat parliament. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were several reports of government corruption during the year. On November 12, the trial of a former minister charged with illegally approving the exchange of protected land in nature preserves for other state properties began in the Harju County Court. State prosecutors also charged two well-known politicians, the head of a state agency, and a group of businessmen with involvement in the illegal exchange. On May 19, the Harju County Court found a businessman, a lawyer, and a former minister guilty of attempted bribery in connection with the sale of a building belonging to the Ministry of the Environment. The former minister received a suspended jail sentence of two years and three months for demanding a bribe, while the court fined the lawyer and businessman, one for acting as intermediary and the other for promising a bribe. On November 20, on appeal, the Tallinn District Court allowed the county court verdict to stand. All defendants appealed to the Supreme Court. Public officials are subject to financial disclosure laws. The Justice Ministry is responsible for coordinating anticorruption activities. The law provides for public access to government information and allows for monitoring of the public sector's performance. The government provided access for citizens and noncitizens in practice, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were usually cooperative and responsive to their views. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and permitted visits by UN representatives. The legal chancellor, an independent official with his own staff of 30 persons, performs the role of human rights ombudsman. The legal chancellor reviews legislation for compliance with the constitution and oversees observance by authorities of fundamental rights and freedoms and the principles of good governance. The legal chancellor also helps resolve accusations of discrimination based on gender, race, nationality (ethnic origin), color, language, religion, social status, age, disability, and sexual orientation. The legal chancellor makes recommendations to ministries and local governments, requests responses, and has the authority to appeal to the Supreme Court. The legal chancellor compiles an annual report for parliament. Public trust in the office was high, and the government was responsive to the reports and decisions issued by this office. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced the prohibitions. However, violence against women and child abuse were problems. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and authorities prosecuted rape cases. The penalty for rape is up to 15 years' imprisonment. During the year the police reported 108 rapes and 16 attempted rapes. In 2008 courts convicted 30 persons of rape. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was a problem. According to nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), one woman in four has suffered physical, sexual, or emotional domestic violence, and NGOs considered domestic violence a serious problem. The law prohibits physical abuse but does not differentiate between acts committed against men and women. Domestic violence is punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to three years and up to five years in the case of longstanding and unremitting violence. During the year police reported more than 4,500 cases of physical abuse, including domestic violence, and 63 cases of longstanding and unremitting violence. During 2008 courts convicted 1,544 persons of physical abuse. Victims of domestic violence may obtain help, including counseling and legal assistance, from local social workers and specialized NGOs. The law does not prohibit prostitution, and it was common, but pimping is illegal. There were reports that women were trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation. The law prohibits sexual harassment. Sexual harassment in the workplace occurred but was not considered a serious problem. According to the law, disputes over sexual harassment are resolved in court, in an administrative hearing by the legal chancellor, or by the gender equality commissioner. An injured party may demand compensation for damages and termination of the harmful activity. During 2008 a local branch of the Labor Inspectorate handled five harassment cases involving four women and a man who filed complaints against their supervisors. The maximum compensation for damages is 50,000 kroon ($4,490). The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning. There are no restrictions on access to contraceptives. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Although women have the same legal rights as men under the law and are entitled to equal pay for equal work, these rights were not always observed in practice. While the average educational level of women was higher than of men, women's average pay was generally lower, and there continued to be female- and male-dominated professions. According to government statistics, the difference between the salaries of men and women was 30.3 percent in 2007. Children.--Citizenship derives from one's parents. Children born to members of the country's large population of stateless persons were automatically stateless unless a long-term resident parent applied for the citizenship of the newborn. Child abuse was a problem. In 2008 police reported 762 cases of violence against children, including domestic and school violence. During the year there were 42 reports of rape, and five cases of attempted rape, of minors. Police registered 159 cases of sexual abuse of persons under 18 years of age, including 69 cases involving victims under the age of 14. In 2008 courts convicted 36 persons of sexual assault against minors. There is no legal minimum age for consensual sex. The law prohibits child pornography; the punishment ranges from a fine to as much as three years in prison. On September 16, in a report issued following an October 2008 visit to the country, the UN special rapporteur on the sale of children, children in prostitution, and child pornography emphasized that the age of consent for children should not be below 18 years of age. The rapporteur recommended assigning the role of ombudsman for children's rights to the legal chancellor. Trafficking in Persons.--There is no specific law criminalizing all forms of trafficking; however, authorities prosecuted traffickers under laws prohibiting enslavement, abduction, and pimping. Individuals were trafficked from and within the country. Women were trafficked to Norway, the United Kingdom, and Finland for the purpose of forced prostitution. In December 2008 the Parnu County Court found two individuals guilty of enslaving a resident of the country to sell drugs. Travel-friendly regulations in the Schengen zone, short distances, low travel costs, and the draw of legitimate employment lowered the barriers to trafficking to Nordic and other EU countries. Traffickers included individuals, small groups, and organized criminals who ran the prostitution industry and lured victims with the promise of legitimate employment or the opportunity to live and study abroad. Traffickers tended to befriend victims or attempted to pass themselves off as legitimate job mediators. Due to generally liberal travel regulations in the region, false documentation was not always necessary. Penalties for trafficking-related offenses (enslavement, abduction, procurement for prostitution, labor fraud, and other trafficking- related crimes) range from five to 15 years' imprisonment; fines may also be imposed. The ministries of Interior, Social Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Education and Research, Finance, and Justice have responsibilities for combating trafficking. Authorities cooperated actively with regional and international efforts to fight trafficking, including participation in the work of the Nordic Baltic Task Force against Trafficking in Human Beings. The law provides protection, as well as legal and medical compensation rights, to victims of all crimes, including trafficking. During 2008, 55 women received assistance within the framework of a Nordic-Baltic pilot project for victims of trafficking and sexual exploitation. Authorities repatriated three victims. Shelter facilities, as well as psychological, social, and legal counseling services were available to women identified through the initiative. The project, a three-year (2006-2008) initiative aimed at building shelter facilities and providing public outreach, targeted women who had previously been victims of trafficking and sexual exploitation, primarily prostitution. Each county assigned an assistant to provide trafficking victims access to public assistance. These assistants received specific training on trafficking in persons issues from NGOs during the year. The government continued to support an NGO-operated hotline that provided information on trafficking risks to persons interested in working abroad. The hotline received more than 600 calls during the year. During the year the Ministry of Social Affairs and NGOs engaged in educational outreach programs to governmental organizations, NGOs, and individuals by sponsoring lectures and seminars and preparing training materials. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report may be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services. The government generally enforced these provisions. The law does not mandate access to buildings for persons with disabilities; older buildings were inaccessible, although new or renovated buildings were generally accessible. The Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--While there is no specific law prohibiting hate crimes, the law prohibits incitement to hatred, violence, or discrimination on a variety of grounds, including nationality, race, skin color, language, and social origin. The government provides for the protection of the cultures of minority groups. However, some observers alleged that a law related to minority cultural autonomy is discriminatory because it has not been successfully used to support the large Russian population. To receive the status of cultural autonomy, an NGO must represent a significant fraction of that minority's population; however, no one NGO represents the required fraction of the 343,000 ethnic Russians, so they do not enjoy this status. Ingrian Finns and Coastal Swedes were the only two groups to achieve recognition as culturally autonomous. The government funds language and cultural programs for a number of other minority groups, including Russians. In districts where more than one-half of the population speaks a language other than Estonian, the law entitles inhabitants to receive official information in that language, and the law was effective in practice. Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians are the largest ethnic minorities, together making up 29 percent of the population. The government encouraged social integration through a policy that promotes learning Estonian and naturalization. Knowledge of Estonian is required to obtain citizenship, and all public servants and public sector employees, service personnel, medical professionals, and sole proprietors must know the Estonian language. Proficiency is usually determined through examination; however, citizenship applicants who have previously passed the basic-level language proficiency examination or the basic school final examination for Estonian as a second language do not have to take the citizenship language examination. Largely for historical reasons, Russian speakers are disproportionately employed in blue-collar industries and continued to experience higher unemployment than that faced by ethnic Estonians. Some noncitizen residents, particularly ethnic Russians, alleged that the language requirement resulted in job and salary discrimination. Many Russian speakers believed they would face job discrimination even if they possessed adequate Estonian. The country's Human Development Report for 2008, prepared by a local NGO, noted that Russian speakers who possess equal human capital (fluent Estonian, higher education, and Estonian citizenship) faced greater difficulty finding positions as managers and professionals than did ethnic Estonians. Over 100 schools, 58 of them high schools, provided instruction in the Russian language. The government continued to implement its plan to provide 60 percent of all instruction in the Russian-language high schools in the Estonian language by 2011. Many Russian-language high schools have implemented this transition more rapidly than required by the governmental plan. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination based on sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right of workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements; however, some workers reportedly found it difficult to exercise this right in practice. The Confederation of Estonian Trade Unions (EAKL) continued to report frequent violations of trade union rights in the private sector. Less than 10 percent of the total workforce belonged to trade unions; unions were present in the energy, transportation, teaching, public service, media, and services sectors, among others. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right in practice. Public servants at the state and municipal levels do not have the right to strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--According to the EAKL, collectively bargained contracts covered approximately 11 percent of workers, including some nonunion members. The law provides for collective bargaining and collective dispute resolution, and collective bargaining was freely practiced. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, EAKL continued to report that antiunion behavior was rife in the private sector. According to the EAKL, labor inspectorates were not efficiently enforcing the law. Some enterprises advised workers against forming trade unions, threatened them with dismissal or a reduction in wages, or promised them benefits if they did not join unions. Both employees and employers have the right to request that labor dispute committees or the courts resolve individual labor disputes, and these mechanisms functioned effectively throughout the year. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that men were trafficked within the country for forced labor (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The law sets the minimum age for employment at 18, although children who are 15 to 17 years old may work with the consent of a parent or guardian. Minors who are seven to 12 years old are allowed to do light work in the areas of culture, art, sports, or advertising. In order to enter into an employment contract with a minor who is seven to 14 years old, an employer must apply to the labor inspectorate for consent. Children under the age of 18 may not perform hazardous or dangerous work. The law limits the hours that children may work and prohibits overtime or night work. The labor inspectorate was responsible for enforcing these laws and did so in practice. There were no separate inspections regarding the age of child workers. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national monthly minimum wage of 4,350 kroon ($391) did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family; however, approximately 84 percent of the workforce earned more than the minimum wage. The standard workweek is 40 hours. The law requires a minimum rest period of 11 hours in sequence for every 24-hour period. Reduced working time is required for minors and for employees who perform underground work, work that poses a health hazard, or work of an otherwise special nature. The law requires overtime pay of not less than 150 percent of the hourly wage of the employee. These requirements were effectively enforced. The government set occupational health and safety standards. The labor inspectorate, health protection inspectorate, and technical inspectorate were responsible for enforcement of these standards and made efforts to enforce them. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered health or safety without jeopardizing their continued employment, and they exercised this right in practice. In 2008, 4,059 occupational accidents occurred, a ratio of 618.3 occupational accidents per 100,000 employees. __________ FINLAND Finland is a constitutional republic of 5.3 million persons with a directly elected president and a unicameral parliament (Eduskunta). The prime minister is head of government. Parliamentary elections in 2007 were free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of military and security forces. Human rights problems included police failure to provide detainees timely access to legal counsel, questionable contributions to political campaigns, violence against women, trafficking in persons, and societal discrimination against foreign-born residents and Roma. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated or other disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law and constitution prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law and constitution prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the military and the national police force, which are under the centralized control of the Ministry of Defense and Ministry of the Interior respectively. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires police to have a warrant issued by a prosecutor to make an arrest. If an individual is arrested while committing a crime, a warrant must be obtained within three days; arrested persons must receive a court hearing within three days. Detainees must be promptly informed of the charges against them, and lawyers must be provided for the indigent. Authorities generally respected these rights in practice. There is no system of bail, but most defendants awaiting trial were eligible for conditional release based on personal recognizance. There were no reports of preventive detention, which the law allows only in exceptional circumstances such as during a declared state of war or for narrowly defined offenses including treason, mutiny, and large-scale arms trafficking. On January 20, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on the 2008 visit of a CPT delegation to the country. The report noted that in most cases a detainee's access to a lawyer was delayed until an investigator's first formal interview of the detainee, often by ``a considerable time'' after the initial arrest. The report also stated the delegation heard several allegations that access to a lawyer was only granted after a detainee signed a confession or a statement, or at the beginning of the court hearing. The delegation also heard complaints that detainees were not allowed freely to choose their lawyers and that authorities imposed on them ex officio lawyers who were said to be ``working with the police.'' At the Helsinki City Center Police Precinct, a senior police officer, citing the Pretrial Investigation Act, told the CPT delegation that, in cases of minor offenses, police staff were not obliged to provide access to a lawyer and were not required to inform detainees of their rights. Many of the persons interviewed by the CPT delegation were only verbally informed of their rights at the first formal interview with an investigator. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty. The law does not provide for trial by jury. Defendants have a right of appeal, to be present at trial, and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner; attorneys are provided at public expense if defendants face serious criminal charges that can result in imprisonment or significant fines. Defendants can confront and question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. The law extends these rights to all citizens and legal residents. Irregular migrants have the same rights as citizens except that they may be removed from the country or deported for legal cause. An alien and his or her family residing in the country are given a hearing before removal. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides all citizens with a fundamental right to live under the rule of law and to have the law applied equally and without discrimination. The country has an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, and there was access to courts to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. Between October 2008 and October 2009 the European Court of Human Rights issued seven judgments against the government for violating the rights of accused persons as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The independent media were active and generally expressed a wide variety of views without restriction, with the exception of hate speech. Publishing hate material and public speech intended to incite discrimination or violence against any national, racial, religious, or ethnic group are crimes. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, more than 82 percent of the country's inhabitants use the Internet. Courts can fine persons found guilty of inciting racial hatred on the Internet, and there were reports of court decisions in 2008 against persons for publishing and distributing hate material via the Internet. On March 17, the Helsinki District Court found a municipal politician in Turku guilty of circulating hate material and fined him 615 euros (approximately $920). The court found the defendant's remarks during the 2007 election campaign to be derogatory and slanderous toward immigrants. The Helsinki District Court also found an independent member of the Helsinki City Council guilty of writing hate material on his blog and fined him 330 euros (approximately $470). During the year the Kouvola Court of Appeals upheld the conviction of a man for posting anti-Roma hate material on the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. According to the law, the Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELC) of Finland and the Finnish Orthodox Church are established state churches. Citizens who belong to one of the two state churches pay a 1-2 percent church tax as part of their income tax but may opt out by officially leaving the ELC or Orthodox Church. Other registered religious communities that qualified by having 200 or more members may receive state funds to help defray operating costs. Religious instruction in Lutheran or Orthodox doctrine is a part of the public school curriculum; however, students could substitute philosophy or world religion courses. In some urban communities, students may receive Islamic religious instruction in public schools. The Ministry of Defense stated that between seven and 12 persons annually refuse to perform military service, and it estimated that 30 to 40 persons also refuse to perform civilian service. In April the NGO Union of Conscientious Objectors (a member of NGO War Resisters' International) reported that 11 conscientious objectors were in prison for refusing to perform either compulsory military service or alternative civilian service. The 2009 Amnesty International USA report on the country put the number of imprisoned conscientious objectors between October 2007 and September 2008 at 18. Some of those imprisoned stated their objection to military or civilian service was based on religious conviction. However, there was no evidence that the government singled out any individuals for prosecution because of their religious beliefs or their membership in a religious minority. The law specifically exempts Jehovah's Witnesses from military service. Regular military service is between 180 and 362 days. The period prescribed for nonmilitary service is 362 days. There is no obligation to repeat the service. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--According to Statistics Finland, the country's Jewish community numbered approximately 1,500. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. The Ministry of Education continued to integrate tolerance and antibias courses and material into the public school curriculum. Students begin studying the Holocaust and the phenomenon of anti- Semitism in the eighth grade. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law and constitution provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. However, the government automatically denied asylum to anyone who previously was denied asylum by another EU state. According to the Finnish Immigration Service, the average processing times for asylum applications in the first part of the year were 7.6 months (normal procedure) and 3.4 months (accelerated procedure), compared with 5.9 months and 1.9 months in 2008. During the first nine months of the year, the government provided temporary protection to 19 individuals who might not qualify as refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to a country where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. There were reports of societal discrimination against foreign-born residents, including refugees and asylum seekers, and there was violence aimed at asylum applicants. On June 15, an explosion occurred in the yard of the Finnish Red Cross reception center housing 21 asylum seekers in Suomusjarvi in the southwest. There were no reports of injuries, but the blast was strong enough to cause minor damage to the property. The police have not determined if the act was racially motivated. There are also reports of individual attacks against asylum seekers, including a knife attack on June 30 by two men against an asylum seeker at a reception center in Kemi, fighting at a refugee center in Pudasjarvi, and an assault originating in Takajarvi on a male asylum seeker who was thrown into a lake. On July 1, the Ministry of the Interior responded to the attacks by stating it would more closely monitor the security situation at refugee centers. Officials have tried to reduce tension by writing about refugees in local newspapers, inviting refugees to participate in local sporting events, and increasing opportunities for direct contact between locals and immigrants. The ministry stated it is concerned about the recent attacks against asylum seekers but has not planned to take official action to deal with the attacks. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Municipal elections were held in October 2008. Due to the malfunction of electronic voting machines in three districts, the Supreme Administrative Court in April ordered a rerun of elections; the repeat elections were held in the three districts on September 9. Parliamentary elections in 2007 were considered free and fair. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. There were 84 women in the 200-seat parliament and 12 women in the 20-member Council of State (cabinet). The president is a woman. There were 13 members of minority groups in parliament and two in the cabinet. The autonomous region of the Aland Islands elects one representative and has its own parliament. The indigenous Sami minority enjoys semiautonomous status and has its own parliament. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. In May the first phase of campaign finance law reforms proposed by a nonpartisan governmental working group was approved and implemented. There were allegations of improper campaign contributions during the year. Starting in May 2008 the press began publishing stories about questionable campaign donations made to a large number of candidates in the 2007 parliamentary elections--mainly but not exclusively involving the governing parties. The largest source of questionable donations was a business development association that received funds from a now- bankrupt real estate developer. State-owned enterprises also gave donations. The majority of the recipients were members of the prime minister's Center Party, including the prime minister himself. During the year, the Center Party, the National Coalition Party, the Social Democratic Party, and individual politicians returned campaign donations from the real estate company. Late in the year controversy became more heated and led to calls from the opposition for the resignation of the prime minister. On October 1, the government survived a no-confidence vote over the issue in parliament. By the end of the year police initiated one pretrial investigation. This investigation is focused on the former chairman of the board of the state-owned Finnish Slot Machine Association. This person resigned from his post on September 29 after media reported that he had received campaign donations from a foundation that receives financial support from the Slot Machine Association. The former chairman was a member of parliament for the Center Party from 1983 until he lost his bid for a seat in the 2007 elections. All citizens, including public officials, are subject to public disclosure laws; by law, income and asset information from all tax forms must be made public each year. The Office of the Chancellor of Justice has responsibility for oversight of government activities and prosecuting cases of possible corruption. The law provides for public access to government information, with the exception of national security information and documents covered by privacy laws, and the government provided such access in practice. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. On September 1, the Porvoo District Court opened the trial of Francois Bazaramba, a 58-year-old Hutu man accused of committing war crimes in Rwanda in 1994. Finnish authorities had detained Bazaramba, who came to the country in 2003 as a refugee, since 2007. On February 20, the government declined an April 2008 request from the Rwandan government to extradite Bazaramba to Rwanda. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government effectively enforced these prohibitions. However, there were reports of violence against women and children, trafficking in persons, and societal discrimination against foreign-born residents and Roma. On September 3, the government released a report on human rights policy. The report noted that women, children, persons with disabilities, sexual minorities, and indigenous persons face the greatest risk of discrimination in the country. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, and the government enforced the law effectively. The maximum prison sentence for rape is six years but can be as much as 10 years in cases of aggravated rape. A total of 668 cases of rape were reported to police for the year. In 2008, the most recent period for which government figures were available, 110 persons were convicted of rape. The 2009 Amnesty International USA report on the country, which covered the period from October 2007 through September 2008, stated that less than 10 percent of rape cases were reported and that only one in seven rape cases resulted in a conviction. Officials at the Ministry of Justice estimated that the actual number of rape cases was higher and that, of the unreported cases, as many as 75 percent were committed by an assailant known to the victim. Police and government officials actively encouraged victims to report rape cases through various public awareness campaigns. Societal violence against women, including spousal abuse, continued to be a problem. Domestic abuse may be prosecuted under various criminal laws, including laws prohibiting rape, assault and battery, harassment, and disturbing the peace. The penalty for physical domestic violence ranges from a minimum of six months to a maximum of 10 years in prison. During the year a survey by the National Research Institute of Legal Policy implicated domestic violence in an estimated one in three homicides in the country. According to the survey, domestic violence accounted for 12 percent of all violence reported to the police. The survey asserted that the number of domestic violence cases reported to police has risen as a result of training police to identify potential domestic violence and greater public awareness of the problem. Police may refer potential perpetrators or victims of domestic violence to government social welfare agencies that have programs aimed at reducing domestic violence by promoting cooperation between cohabiting partners through support to victims, as well as anger management and other counseling services for perpetrators. The government encouraged women to report domestic violence and abuse and provided counseling, shelters, and other support services to victims of domestic violence and rape. The government also funded NGOs that provided additional services, including a telephone hotline and crisis center. According to regional and municipal officials who operated shelters, most women who sought shelter from violence were between the ages of 25 and 35 and married or in a cohabiting relationship; nearly one-fourth of those seeking shelter were reported to be immigrants, although shelter logs often omitted victims' origin to protect them. Foreign-born residents who were not proficient in Finnish, Swedish, Sami, or English experienced some difficulty accessing domestic violence services. Prostitution is legal, but pimping, pandering, selling, and purchasing sexual services in public is illegal. Prostitution was generally limited to private apartments and nightclubs in larger cities. Sexual harassment is prohibited by law, and the government generally enforced the law in practice. The prosecutor general is responsible for investigating sexual harassment cases. Employers who fail to protect employees from harassment are subject to fines or a maximum of six months' imprisonment. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to do so free of discrimination, coercion, and violence. Women have access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth, including obstetric and postpartum care, and are equally diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections. Women have the same rights as men under family and property laws and in the judicial system. The government maintained three government organizations devoted to gender equality issues: the ombudsman for equality, the Gender Equality Unit, and the Council for Equality. The law stipulates that men and women must receive equal pay for equal work. However, allegations of wage discrimination against women continued to be reported. In 2008 the equality ombudsman's office received 370 complaints (52 percent of all cases) alleging discrimination and unequal treatment. According to the Office of the Ombudsman for Minorities, one of the authorities that track gender-related issues in the country, situations of inappropriate treatment in the workplace in 2008 were associated with grievances relating to working conditions (ambiguities in working hours and pay) or other unsatisfactory treatment such as name-calling or isolation in the work community. On average women earned approximately 18 percent less than men for substantially similar work. Statistics Finland data from October 2008, the most recent information available, indicated that in the private sector the average monthly wage for men was 3,500 euros (approximately $5,000), but only 2,700 euros (approximately $3,900) for women. These averages, accounting for more than 635,000 private sector employees, demonstrate the gender wage disparity in the private sector. This disparity is attributed to the fact that men tend to work in more senior or skilled positions than women. An exception is in the field of medicine. The Finnish Medical Association, representing 94 percent of physicians living in the country, reported in December 2008 that 52 percent of its 22,951 physicians were women. Furthermore, women accounted for 72 percent of all physicians under the age of 30. In other occupations, women remained overrepresented in lower-paying occupations, while men tended to dominate the upper ranks in industry, finance, and some government ministries. The law provides that individuals may receive compensation for lost wages in cases where gender-based discrimination is proven. Children.--Citizenship at birth is generally derived through the child's parents. A child can also acquire citizenship at birth if he or she is born in the country and meets certain other criteria, such as if the parents have refugee status in the country or if the child is not eligible for any other country's citizenship. A local register office records citizens' births in the Population Information System. There were no reports of unregistered births during the year. During the year 1,078 cases of suspected child sexual abuse were reported to police, approximately the same number of cases as in 2006 and 2007. According to Statistics Finland, 1,321 cases of child sex abuse were reported to the police in 2008. Information on violence against children was not collected comprehensively. In 2008 a child victim survey by police indicated that children and young persons experienced violence more frequently than adults. Approximately 20 percent of boys and 15 percent of girls indicated they had experienced some form of assault or battery over the previous year. Children were subjected to violence at home, school, and leisure. Adults were responsible for the violence against children in one in 10 cases. In general, girls tended to experience violence at home, while boys were subjected to violence outside the home, usually by another boy. The government has established a national action plan to train law enforcement, judicial, and social welfare officials in methods of identifying, protecting, and assisting child victims of sexual abuse. However, according to a survey conducted during the year by the National Institute of Legal Policy, there was still a need for better central planning and information sharing among national and local officials and judges in order to streamline judicial procedures to combat child abuse. The country has laws against statutory rape, with the age of sexual consent set at 16 years. The minimum age for a sex worker is 18. A person whose age cannot be determined but who can justifiably be assumed to be under the age of 18 is regarded as a child. Sexual abuse of a child has a maximum sentence of four years' incarceration while aggravated sexual abuse of a child carries a maximum sentence of 10 years. Manufacturing, selling, renting, importing, or exporting sexually obscene pictures or recordings of a child carries a maximum prison sentence of two years while aggravated distribution of sexually obscene pictures of children has a minimum sentence of four months and a maximum sentence of six years. There were no reports that child sex tourism was a problem in the country. If a citizen engages in child sex tourism overseas, the country's laws provide for extraterritorial prosecution for such acts, and the citizen could be investigated and prosecuted by local law enforcement. The country has prosecuted sex tourism under child pornography laws. There is a government ombudsman for children's issues under the Ministry for Social Affairs and Health. During the year the ombudsman continued to work to raise public awareness of child abuse and to promote the government's child, youth, and family policy program. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, through, and within the country. The country continued to be a transit and destination point for trafficked men, women, and children; however, there were no reliable estimates available on the actual incidence of trafficking. Many of the trafficking victims were believed to be women of Russian origin, although Azerbaijani, Moldovan, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian women were also trafficked to and through the country to Western Europe for commercial sexual exploitation. Increasing numbers of Asian women, most of whom were believed to be Chinese or Thai, were trafficked through the country to other parts of Europe. Men and women were also trafficked to provide forced labor. Many of these workers were trafficked from China, Vietnam, India, and, to a lesser degree, Pakistan and Bangladesh, and employed by other Asians, who frequently had family or clan ties to the victims. According to government and NGO reports, Russian organized crime syndicates were the principal traffickers of women into the country. Many of the trafficked women were aware that they would work as prostitutes. Economic incentives for women seemed to play a larger role than physical coercion in the recruitment of trafficked women by crime syndicates. However, after arriving, they were pressured and coerced into working longer hours and accepting lower wages. In some cases traffickers stole victims' passports and used violence or the threat of violence to ensure their compliance. Many trafficking victims entered the country with valid visas obtained at Finnish consulates abroad. The Schengen Agreement, which allows travelers already within the Schengen area to travel to any other Schengen country without inspection, facilitated the transit of trafficked persons from Russia and the Baltic countries to Western Europe. The maximum prison sentence for trafficking in persons is six years, and for aggravated trafficking in persons, 10 years. Other laws used to prosecute traffickers include laws against organized prostitution, dissemination of child pornography, coordination of illegal entry into the country, and the marketing of sexual services. During the year the police, the border guards, and the National Bureau of Investigations successfully prosecuted one conviction of human trafficking, 98 convictions of the arrangement of illegal immigration, 16 convictions of aggravated arrangement of illegal immigration, and 46 convictions of abusing a person who is the object of the sex trade. In addition there were 85 convictions of employers for improperly hiring aliens and 1,466 convictions of aliens for working illegally. In December 2008 a court handed down prison sentences to three men and two women on human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and fraud charges. The sentences ranged from two to five and a half years. The ministries of foreign affairs, interior, justice, labor, education, and social welfare were involved in combating trafficking. The parliamentary human rights caucus, the National Bureau of Investigation, the border guards, customs and immigration, and municipal police also were involved in antitrafficking efforts. The government provided specialized training for law enforcement personnel and prosecutors in antitrafficking measures. In January the parliament designated the ombudsman for minorities as a national rapporteur on human trafficking. The ombudsman reports regularly to the government and independently monitors the country's international commitments. The government participated in multilateral and regional efforts to combat trafficking through organizations such as the Council of Baltic Sea States, the Nordic Baltic Task Force against Trafficking in Human Beings, the Council of Ministers, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. The government was also involved in antitrafficking efforts with the EU and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. The state-owned airline, Finnair, continued to train new flight attendants to identify and report potential trafficking victims, particularly children and unaccompanied minors, on its international flights. The government provided the majority of funding for antitrafficking NGOs. However, critics questioned the overall effectiveness of the trafficking awareness campaigns and their ability to target relevant NGOs, authorities, and victims. Although there were no NGOs dedicated to assisting trafficking victims, several focused on women's rights and general assistance to victims. NGOs and government facilities operated by the Ministry of Employment and the Economy provided trafficking victims with shelter, subsistence, medical services, and psychological counseling. Law enforcement and social workers identified trafficking victims and referred them for necessary care. The government generally respected the rights of trafficking victims and did not penalize them. Authorities allowed some victims to apply for a temporary residence permit. In October the Office of the Prosecutor General and police cosponsored a two-day antitrafficking education seminar for police officials, prosecutors, and judges. The Ministry of the Interior operated a cross-administrational trafficking-in-persons intelligence group that was permanently assigned in March to work on international exchange of information, participate in national and international working groups, coordinate national operations, and monitor and compile statistics with regard to trafficking. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. Laws mandating access to buildings for persons with disabilities were generally enforced, although many older buildings remain inaccessible. Most forms of public transportation were accessible, but problems remained in some geographically isolated areas. The Ministry for Social Affairs and the Ministry of Employment and the Economy are responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There was some societal tension between ethnic Finns and minority groups, and there were reports of racist or xenophobic incidents. The most common reported race-related crime was assault. In 2008, the year for which the most recent data are available, the police received 859 reports of race-related crimes and misdemeanors. This represents a 19 percent increase over the 698 race- related crimes reported in 2007, but at least a portion of this increase is likely due to an increased awareness of this type of crime resulting from additional training and an improvement in the collection of statistics. There were occasional reports of fighting between ethnic Finns and foreign-born youths of African and Middle Eastern descent as well as fighting between rival ethnic immigrant groups. However, none of the cases that led to court proceedings was prosecuted as a hate crime. According to the minority ombudsman, discrimination against the approximately 10,000 Roma in the country extended to all areas of life, resulting in their de facto exclusion from society. The Romani minority was the most frequent target of racially motivated crimes. According to government figures, 60 percent of discrimination cases involved Roma, followed by Russian-speakers, Somalis, Turks, Iraqis, and ethnic Thai. Ethnic Finns were also occasionally victims of racially motivated crimes for associating with members of minority communities. The government strongly encouraged tolerance and respect for minority groups and sought to address racial discrimination. All government ministries included antiracism provisions in their educational information, personnel policy, and training programs. The government also monitored the treatment of national, racial, and ethnic minorities by the police, the border guards, and teachers. The government's minority ombudsman monitored and assisted victims of discrimination. The ombudsman for minorities supervises compliance with the prohibition of ethnic discrimination. Indigenous People.--The law provides for the protection of the Sami language and culture, and the government financially supported these protections. The Sami, who constitute less than 0.1 percent of the population, have full political and civil rights as citizens, as well as a measure of autonomy in their civil and administrative affairs. A 21-member Sami parliament (Samediggi) popularly elected by the Sami is responsible for the group's language, culture, and matters concerning their status as an indigenous people. The Sami parliament can make initiatives to officials and adopt resolutions. It is an independent body but operates under the purview of the Interior Ministry. Despite constitutional protections, members of the Sami community continued to protest the lack of explicit legislation to safeguard Sami land, resources, and economic livelihood. The government owns 90 percent of the land in the Sami home region. Sami have alleged for decades that the government used their land for logging and other purposes without consulting them. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--No person may be discriminated against on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics. The government generally respects these rights, and law enforcement authorities have mechanisms to investigate and punish violations against these human rights. The national human rights and sexual equality-oriented NGO Seta and its members participate actively in national decision-making processes, and the organization provides a forum for public discussions of these subjects. In addition, several foundations, social platforms, and government-funded offices offer advising services, support, and hotlines related to sexuality issues. There were no incidents of violence or human rights abuses specifically targeting individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. Gays in legal partnerships are not allowed to donate blood or organs for national use. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join unions of their choice, and workers exercised this right in practice. According to statistics from the Ministry of Employment and the Economy, approximately 71 percent of the workforce was unionized during the year. According to a survey by the University of Turku published in January, approximately 30 percent of the foreign labor force in the country is unionized. The law grants employees the right to strike, with some exceptions for public sector employees who provide essential services. Workers exercised this right in practice. An official dispute board can make nonbinding recommendations to the cabinet on ending or limiting the duration of strikes when national security is threatened. Employees prohibited from striking can use arbitration to ensure due process in the resolution of their concerns. The national conciliator assists the negotiating partners in settling labor disputes if a collective agreement cannot be reached without outside help. The national conciliator can also assist central labor market organizations in drawing up comprehensive income policy agreements. A strike is legal when an employment contract is not in effect and the action is pursuant to new contract negotiations. Strikes are considered illegal after a contract agreed to by all parties is in effect. Fines may be imposed for illegal strikes. The constitution provides for the right to trade union freedom. The statute regulating work agreements extends these rights to both the employee and the employer. Any restriction or obstruction of these rights is prohibited. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively, and the government protected this right in practice. Collective bargaining agreements usually were based on wage policy agreements among employees, employers, and the government. All unionized workers were covered by such agreements. Employers of nonunionized workers were required to compensate employees at a wage equal to that stipulated by existing collective bargaining agreements. The law requires all employers, including nonunionized employers, to pay minimum wages that are collectively agreed. This means that in theory workers for the same job will all receive the same wages, regardless of whether they are a member of a labor union. The government sets occupational health and safety standards, and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health enforced them effectively. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that such incidents occurred. Men, women, and children were subjected to forced prostitution and forced labor in the construction industry, restaurants, and as domestic servants. They often worked long hours for low pay and were reluctant to approach authorities for cultural reasons or out of fear of reprisal. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were reports that children were subject to commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. The law allows children older than 15 to enter a valid employment contract as long as work does not interrupt compulsory education. Such employment is restricted to no more than nine hours per day and 48 hours per week with mandatory minimum daily rest of 12 hours. Additionally, young workers may not work at night after 10 p.m. or in certain conditions that risk health and safety. Children as young as 14 may work only under more limited circumstances. The Ministry of Employment and the Economy enforces child labor regulations; there were no reports of children engaged in work outside the parameters established by law. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no national minimum wage law; however, the law requires all employers, including nonunionized employers, to pay minimum wages agreed to in collective bargaining agreements. These agreements covered almost all workers. The negotiated minimum wages provided a decent standard of living for workers and their families. The Ministry of Employment and the Economy is responsible for labor policy strategy and implementation, improving the viability of working life and its quality, and promoting employment. The ministry's tasks also include arbitration in industrial disputes, ensuring nondiscrimination, certain services for seamen, and matters related to wage security. The standard workweek established by law is eight hours per day with no more than 40 hours of work per week. Only seamen, household workers, road-transport workers, and workers in bakeries are subject to separate working time regulations. Employees working shifts or during the weekend are entitled to one 24-hour rest period per week. Workers are entitled to premium pay for overtime work. The law limited a worker to 250 hours of overtime per year and to 138 overtime hours in any four-month period. The government sets occupational health and safety (OSH) standards, and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health enforced them effectively. Occupational safety and health inspectorates monitor compliance with occupational safety and health legislation. OSH inspectors have the right to enter workplaces and carry out health and safety inspections there. They also receive from the employer information and analyses necessary for inspection purposes. The employer is informed of the inspection in advance, unless a surprise inspection is necessary for enforcement purposes. A subsequent inspection report gives the employer written advice on how to remedy minor defects. In the case of more serious violations, the inspector issues an improvement notice and monitors the employer's compliance with it. When necessary, the OSH authority--the office of the OSH Inspectorate--may issue a binding decision and impose a fine. If the hazardous situation involves a risk to life, the inspector may halt work on the site or issue a prohibition notice concerning the source of risk. Workers have the right to refuse dangerous work situations without penalty, and the government enforced this right in practice. Compliance with collective agreements is monitored by the labor market organizations concerned. OSH authorities monitor unorganized employers' adherence to generally applicable collective agreements. The labor and occupational safety law is applied to all employees in the country, regardless of their nationality. If an employer's response to an employee complaint is not satisfactory, unionized employees may forward the matter to the relevant trade union. Nonunion employees may contact the OSH Inspectorate for advice and guidance. __________ FRANCE France is a multiparty constitutional democracy with a population of approximately 64.3 million\1\. The president of the republic is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and Nicolas Sarkozy is the incumbent. The upper house (Senate) of the bicameral parliament is indirectly elected through an electoral college while the lower house (National Assembly) is directly elected. Parliamentary and presidential elections took place in 2007 and were free and fair. The Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) is the majority party in parliament. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- \1\ The country includes 11 overseas administrative divisions covered in this report. Four overseas territories in French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Reunion, have the same political status as the 22 metropolitan regions and 100 departments on the mainland. Six divisions are overseas ``collectivitie.'': French Polynesia, Mayotte, Saint-Barthelemy, Saint-Martin, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis and Futuna. New Caledonia is a special overseas collectivity with a unique status between an independent country and an overseas department and will hold a referendum on independence in 2014. Following a March 29 referendum, Mayotte will become the 101st department in 2011. Citizens of these territories periodically elect deputies and senators to represent them in parliament, like the other overseas regions and departments. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The following human rights problems were reported: overcrowded and dilapidated prisons, lengthy pretrial detention, protracted investigation and trial proceedings, restrictions on religious wear in public institutions, anti-Semitic incidents, discrimination against Muslims, societal hostility towards immigrants and Roma including ``Travellers,'' societal violence against women, child abuse and child marriage, and trafficking in persons. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, two deaths of detainees while in police custody were under investigation at year's end. On September 24, 31-year-old Hakim Djelassi died of a heart attack while under arrest in a police van. On November 12, Mohamed Boukrourou, a 41-year-old Moroccan citizen, died during a police arrest in Valentigney. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were occasional accusations of police discrimination and degrading treatment. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) found that authorities failed to prevent the suicide of a man in pretrial detention. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers. Both credible nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and government officials, however, reported overcrowding and unacceptable hygienic conditions in some facilities that prompted President Sarkozy to commit to improve what he described as the state of the country's prisons as ``the shame of the nation.'' Prison overcrowding was a problem. As of December 31, the Ministry of Justice reported that 61,800 persons were incarcerated in the country's 185 prisons, exceeding prison capacity by almost 7,500 inmates. The law allows neither men and women to be held together nor minors to be held with adults in prisons and detention centers unless they are detained along with their parents. In practice there were no reports of violation of requirements for separate detention facilities for men, women, and minors. Although there were no known deaths in prison due to mistreatment or adverse conditions during the year, prison suicides continued to be a problem. According to penitentiary officials, there were more than 81 prison suicides during the year, while credible NGO sources reported 129 prison suicides. In five separate lawsuits, local courts in Lyon, Rouen, Nantes, Bordeaux, and Strasbourg ordered the state to compensate victims and their families an average of 15,000 euros ($21,400) per plaintiff in the case of prison suicide and 5,000 euros ($7,150) per plaintiff for poor detention conditions, including the lack of basic hygiene and privacy for inmates. In December 2008 a Paris appellate court acquitted then-Rennes regional prison director Alain Jego of involuntary homicide, overturning an April 2008 ruling that held Jego liable for neglecting to prevent an inmate's suicide. Authorities maintained administrative holding centers for foreigners whom they could not immediately deport. There were 26 holding centers on the mainland and three in the overseas territories. The government permitted prison visits by independent local and foreign human rights observers. In November-December 2008 the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) visited prisons in French Guiana. The CPT reported cases of low standards for hygiene facilities as well as overcrowding. On October 13, the president signed into law a bill to make the detention system more humane, with less time spent in isolated special punishment cells and greater parole opportunities for inmates serving short sentences. The government aimed to triple the use of electronic tags and planned to release prisoners fitted with the devices four months before the end of their sentence. To reduce overcrowding the government opened seven new prisons and created an additional 5,000 places during the year, with a long-term goal of gradually reaching national capacity of 80,000 beds by 2017. The government earmarked 30 million euros ($42.9 million) for use during the year to renovate 165 jails, 15 million euros ($21.5 million) to monitor short-term imprisonment, and 10 million euros ($14.3 million) to purchase real estate for future corrections-related facilities. On August 18, the Ministry of Justice instituted an action plan to combat suicides that included such preventative measures as increasing prison guard training, ``humanizing'' inmate living conditions, providing at-risk inmates with ``protective kits'' of tearable sheets and blankets and flame-retardant mattresses, and implementing a solidarity and alert policy among prisoners. For the first time, the government now publishes prison suicide statistics biannually. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. However, lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. The government provided financial compensation in 82 cases of wrongful incarceration in 2008. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Under the direction of the Ministry of the Interior, Overseas France, and Local Authorities, a civilian force of 146,000 national police and a quasi-military national gendarmes force of 99,509 maintained internal security. In conjunction with specific gendarmes units used for military operations, the army is responsible for external security under the Ministry of Defense. Police and gendarmes were generally considered effective. During the year, 24 ``neighborhood police'' (``police de proximite'') units worked to curb juvenile delinquency and petty crime in neighborhoods with high levels of youth crimes. Official impunity was not widespread. The inspector general of the national police (IGPN), the inspector general of police services (IGS), and the Office of Judicial Police investigated and prosecuted allegations of civil law enforcement brutality by all police forces and the gendarmes. The National Commission on Security Ethics (CNDS) investigated allegations of misconduct by municipal police, gendarmes, and private security forces and reported its findings to the prime minister and parliament. According to the 2008 CNDS report, the most recent year for which data was available, the number of complaints increased by 26 percent during 2007 to 147 cases, compared with 117 in 2006. Created in 2000, the CNDS investigates claims regarding impropriety by law enforcement officers and ensures the compliance of ethical standards for all persons responsible for implementing the law. In July 2008 the independent CNDS merged into a larger body called the Defender of Rights, which Amnesty International criticized during the year as a less effective organization. Drawing on cases from 2008 and earlier, Amnesty International in April criticized police for brutality and improper procedures and oversight organs for inadequate monitoring of police behavior. During the year there were occasional reports that police used violence during counterriot operations. On July 13, police fired a ``flash-ball'' too close to a crowd during a riot in Montreuil, causing a protester to lose an eye. On April 4, demonstrators filmed police throwing stones at protestors during an anti-NATO protest and released the footage to the local newspaper. At year's end, the IGS and IGPN were investigating both incidents. Police corruption was generally not a problem. The IGS, IGPN, and the Inspectorate of the National Gendarmerie (IGN) actively investigated and prosecuted allegations of police and gendarme corruption. However, Amnesty International accused the government of failing to punish properly all cases of police misconduct and corruption. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires police to obtain warrants based on sufficient evidence prior to detaining suspects, but police can immediately arrest suspects caught in the act. Individuals have the right to a judicial ruling on the legality of their detention during the first hour, and authorities generally respected this right in practice. Authorities must inform detainees of charges against them once they are in police custody. A system of bail exists and was utilized. Detainees generally had access to a lawyer, and the state provides legal counsel if the detainee is indigent. In cases involving terrorism or drug trafficking, the law allows longer periods of detention before notification to counsel. Authorities may hold such suspects for up to 96 hours without charge or access to a lawyer and may petition a judge to extend detention by an additional 48 hours. After a maximum of six days, suspects must either be charged or released. However, in cases involving terrorism or drug trafficking, the law allows for longer periods of detention before notification to counsel. Authorities can hold terrorism suspects for up to 96 hours without charge or access to a lawyer and may petition a judge to extend detention by an additional 48 hours. After a maximum of six days, suspects must either be charged or released. On August 19, police invoked the antiterrorism law to prolong the detention of three suspected members of the terrorist organization Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA). During the year alleged railway saboteur Julien Coupat spent six months in preventive detention following four days in police custody. In November Amnesty International criticized the country's system of multiple periods of detention during investigation of an alleged crime and accused authorities of inadequate investigations of complaints. Long delays in bringing cases to trial and lengthy pretrial detention were problems. Pretrial detention was generally allowed only if the suspect could be sentenced to more than three years in prison for crimes against property. However, a few suspects spent many years in detention before trial, a practice that officials attributed to changing judicial laws and insufficient government resources. According to government statistics for 2007, the most recent year for which they were available, the average length of pretrial detention was 5.7 months, an increase of 10 percent since 2001. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. However, delays in bringing cases to trial were a problem. During the year the government lost six cases in the ECHR for improper arrest, lack of fair hearing, and unreasonable length of the judicial process. The Tribunal of the Armies, in Paris, is a military court for acts committed outside of the country. The court tries only military personnel. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have the right to appeal. Except for those involving minors, trials are public and usually held before a judge or tribunal of judges. In cases where the potential punishment exceeds 10 years' imprisonment, a panel of professional and lay judges hears the case. Defendants are able to question the testimony of prosecution witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence in their defense. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relative to their cases. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters and access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. A 2008 report by the independent government agency, the National Commission on Security Ethics (CNDS), described a quasi-systematic practice of strip searches during secondary inspection by the national police. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. There were some limitations of freedom of speech and of the press. Strict antidefamation laws prohibit racially or religiously motivated verbal and physical abuse. Written or oral speech that incites racial or ethnic hatred as well as denial of the Holocaust and crimes against humanity are illegal. On October 27, comic Dieudonne M'Bala M'Bala was fined 14,300 euros ($20,400) by a Paris court for lauding a renowned Holocaust denier, Robert Faurisson, during a show. Authorities may deport a noncitizen for publicly using ``hate speech'' or constituting a threat of terrorism. Beginning on March 4, the law prohibits primetime advertising from state-funded television networks and authorizes the president to name the head of public broadcasting. The board of the public television network began voluntarily implementing the prohibition in December 2008 and was compensated 450 million euros ($644 million) by the government for the loss of profit during the year. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 68 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of faith. However, some Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Sikh leaders remained concerned about the prohibition against ``conspicuous'' religious symbols by employees and students in public schools, including Muslim head scarves and burkas; Jewish skullcaps; and large crosses, as a possible restriction of religious freedom. During a June 23 speech, President Sarkozy asked parliament to consider a prohibition on the burka, stating that burkas ``were not welcome in France.'' Lawmakers established a burka factfinding mission on June 24 with nonbinding recommendations due in January 2010. On August 1, a Muslim woman wearing a ``burkini'' bathing suit that fully covered her head and body was denied entry into a public pool. Regional public officials stated that she was not in compliance with strict public health regulations which prohibit swimming in street clothing for hygienic reasons. Groups of religious believers that did not seek status as a religion were free to meet and conduct religious practice. Under the law, a religious group must disclose certain management and financial information when applying to the local prefecture for tax-exempt status as an association of worship. As of year's end, the ECHR had not ruled on the Jehovah's Witnesses' appeal of the government's denial of tax- exempt status, which made donations to the church subject to a 60- percent tax. Government action against fraudulent organizations was limited by an amendment to the About-Picard law on May 12, which blocked the government's ability to ban an organization and its legal activities in the country as the maximum penalty for a fraud conviction. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Representatives of the Church of Scientology continued to report cases of societal discrimination. On October 27, a Paris court found the Church of Scientology and its top officials in the country guilty of organized fraud. The court fined the organization 600,000 euros ($858,000), and two of the top officials were fined 30,000 euros ($42,900) each. The Church of Scientology in France appealed the verdict. The Jewish community was estimated to number 600,000 persons. There were reports of a number of anti-Semitic incidents during the year, including slurs against Jews and attacks on synagogues and cemeteries. According to the Ministry of Interior, Overseas France, and Local Authorities, there were 832 anti-Semitic incidents, nearly double the 474 reported in all of 2008. The ministry noted that 354 of the incidents occurred during the January conflict in the Gaza Strip. The report of the Protection Service of the Jewish Community (SPCJ) covering the year tallied 658 acts involving graffiti and threatening gestures and 174 incidents of vandalism and violence. In the months that followed the Gaza conflict, the number of reported incidents decreased to a rate of 43 per month, which roughly reflected the monthly average for 2008. Jewish leaders credited the government's strict enforcement of anti-Semitism laws with preventing more violence after the initial response to the Gaza conflict. Despite the decrease in the average number of anti-Semitic acts after January, both Jewish and Muslim leaders indicated the tension between the two groups, particularly among their youth, was reduced but unresolved. The Jewish Agency for Israel reported that 1,909 French Jews emigrated to Israel during the year, 36 percent fewer than the 3,000 in 2006. In the agency's view, the last time tension between the Jewish and Muslim communities in France reached a similar high was after the war between Israel and Hizballah and the murder of Jewish youth Ilan Halimi. On July 10, a Paris court sentenced Youssouf Fofana to life in prison with no possibility of parole for 22 years and convicted 26 members of the ``gang of barbarians'' for the kidnapping, torture, and killing of a 23-year-old Jewish man, Ilan Halimi. Two of Fofana's most active accomplices received sentences of 15 and 18 years in prison, and others received sentences ranging from six months to nine years. Fofana appealed the verdict. Members of the Arab Muslim community continued to experience acts of harassment, particularly against immigrants of North African origin. According to the 2008 National Consultative Commission on Human Rights (NCCHR) report, there were 467 actions and threats of racist or xenophobic nature in 2008, an increase from 321 in 2007. According to press reporting throughout the year, mosques in Castres, Maubeuge, Montjoie-Saint-Martin, and Estevelles, among others, were desecrated with xenophobic slogans and anti-Islamic graffiti. On November 10, police in Nantes arrested four students at the construction site of a new mosque for vandalism. According to the NGO Human Rights First, on August 20, three persons were detained for allegedly vandalizing a mosque in Toul with depictions of pork meat, racist slogans, and Nazi inscriptions. According to representatives for the Jehovah's Witnesses community, there were 55 acts of vandalism against the group in 2008, the most recent year for which data was available, including Molotov cocktails thrown at Jehovah's Witnesses' property. No individuals were targeted during that year. The government promoted interfaith understanding to combat racism, anti-Semitism, and anti-Islamic sentiment through public awareness campaigns and by encouraging dialogue among local officials, police, religious leaders, and citizen groups. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/ index.htm. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. The law requires persons engaged in itinerant activities with a fixed domicile to sign a declaration that must be renewed periodically. Itinerant persons without a fixed abode must possess travel documents which are renewed every three months and must choose a city of residence for administrative purposes. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The system for granting refugee status was active and accessible. Although asylum application forms submitted to the Office for the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Refugees (OFPRA) must be completed in French, application instructions were available in English, Albanian, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Turkish, Tamil, and Arabic. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of persons to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Authorities take into account the ability of the state concerned to offer protection to the person in danger from persecution by nonstate agents. However, in October and December, human rights groups criticized the government's expulsion practices, pointing out that the government was deporting illegal Afghan immigrants back to a war-torn country. During the year, 29,000 illegal immigrants were deported, according to Minister of Immigration Eric Besson. On August 31, Paris mayor Bertrand Delanoe asked Prime Minister Francois Fillon to provide services for the estimated 300 homeless Afghan youths in the 10th district of Paris. Fillon committed city resources to providing lodging and medical care for up to 700 unaccompanied foreign minors and identified 70 Afghan exiles for the Welcome Center for Asylum Seekers. In November the NGO Human Rights Watch criticized the government for substandard treatment of unaccompanied minor children arriving at the country's international airports. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees but who may be exposed to certain serious risks if they returned to their country of origin. Temporary protection was granted to 11,441 persons in 2008, according to OFPRA. Individuals may renew their status for a period of one year. Stateless Persons.--According to UNHCR statistics, there were 1,006 stateless persons in the country at the end of 2008. Stateless persons in receive benefits from OFPRA, which is charged with the implementation of international conventions on refugees and stateless persons. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Political parties generally operated without restriction or outside interference. Travellers (an itinerant group of individuals that may also include Roma if they do not have fixed abodes) were permitted to vote in municipal elections only after a three-year period of ``attachment'' to a municipality. Romani groups asserted that this requirement, which is based on special legislation applying only to itinerant groups, was discriminatory, since other French and EU citizens, including homeless persons, were able to vote after only a six-month attachment period. Elections and Political Participation.--The 2007 national parliamentary and presidential elections were free and fair. On June 6-7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. As a result of the September 2008 senatorial elections, 182 women sat in the two chambers of the 920-seat parliament, 107 in the National Assembly and 75 in the Senate. As of December 31, there were 13 female ministers in the 37-member ministerial cabinet. Women made up 47 percent of regional council members, 13 percent of departmental council members, and 35 percent of municipal council members. They held one presidency of the 22 regional councils, four presidencies of the 96 mainland departmental councils, and 8 percent of mayoral positions. The law requires political parties to present voting lists containing equal numbers of male and female candidates or face fines. The law prohibits the government from collecting information on the racial or ethnic background of residents of the country. As a consequence, no statistics on minority participation in the government were available. With the exception of parliamentary representatives from some of the overseas territories where the populations were predominantly of non-European origin, minorities appeared to be significantly underrepresented in the government. As of year's end, there was only one black member of the National Assembly. During his tenure, President Sarkozy has appointed three female minority officials to his cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were some reports of government corruption during the year. On December 16, former president Jacques Chirac was questioned by Paris judges about alleged corruption when he was mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995. On October 27, a Paris court fined former minister of interior and senator Charles Pasqua 100,000 euros ($143,000) and sentenced him to a year in prison for accepting bribes in an arms deal with Angola in 1994. In addition he was sentenced to 18 months of suspended custody for corruption in authorizing the construction of a casino in 1994. Former Henin-Beaumont mayor Gerard Dalongeville was removed from office on May 2 for corruption and was under investigation for the period of 2001-09. On May 20, a Paris court ruled that Pierre Bedier, the former president of the General Council of Yvelines, was ineligible for reelection due to corruption and the misappropriation of public goods in 2003. On June 8, the Council of State found Serge Dassault, senator and former mayor of Corbeil-Essonnes, guilty of paying constituents for votes in the municipal election in 2008. The president, parliamentarians, members of the European Parliament, ministers, regional and departmental council heads, mayors of larger communities, and directors of state-owned companies (post office, railway, and telephone) are required to declare their personal assets to the Commission for the Financing Transparency of Political Life at the beginning and the end of their terms. The commission issued periodic reports on officials' financial holdings on a discretionary basis at least once every three years. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government provided access in practice for citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of domestic and international human rights organizations generally operated, investigated, and published their findings on human rights cases without government restrictions. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The High Authority for the Struggle against Discrimination and for Equality (HALDE) is the independent administrative authority that judges all discrimination, direct or indirect, that is prohibited by law or an international agreement to which the country is a party. The National Consultative Commission on Human Rights (CNCDH) serves in an advisory role to the government on human rights and produces an annual report on racism and xenophobia in the country. A member of the Council of Europe, the country is subject to the rulings of the independent judicial body, the ECHR. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, and the government generally enforced the law effectively. The penalty for rape is 15-years' imprisonment and may be increased due to the age of the victim or the nature of the relationship of the rapist to the victim. The government and NGOs provided shelters, counseling, and hotlines for rape victims. The Ministry of the Interior, Overseas France, and Local Authorities reported that the number of reported rapes increased by 1.4 percent from 10,132 in 2007 to 10,277 in 2008. According to the NGO Observatory of Violence towards Women, as many as 177,750 cases of rape occur each year. Violence against women was a problem. The law prohibits domestic violence against women, including spousal abuse, and the government generally enforced it. The penalty for domestic violence varies according to the type of crime and ranges from three years in prison and a fine of 45,000 euros ($64,400) to 20-years' imprisonment. The government sponsored and funded programs for female victims of violence, including shelters, counseling, hotlines, and mobile phones. The government also supported the work of 25 associations and NGOs dedicated to the fight against domestic violence by labeling them a ``great national cause.'' The government funded a media campaign denouncing domestic violence. There was a 6 percent decrease from 2007 to 2008 in the number of women killed by their spouses in domestic violence (from 166 to 156). According to estimates by the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE), 675,000 women were victims of domestic violence during the two years that ended December 31. The law prohibits female genital mutilation (FGM) as ``violence involving mutilation or permanent infirmity.'' It is punishable by up to 10 years in prison and a fine of 150,000 euros ($215,000). The sentence increases to 15 years if the crime involves a minor under 16 years of age. According to the association Group for the Abolition of Sexual Mutilations, 65,000 adult and minor women were either victims of FGM or under threat of it, while the INED reported that 53,000 women were under threat of FGM during the year. The majority of victims were recent sub-Saharan African immigrants or their children. One study concluded that FGM had become less prevalent due to awareness campaigns, but prevention and information efforts were needed to cover children at risk during family visits to their countries of origin. The government provides reconstructive surgery and counseling for FGM victims. The government launched a media campaign in April to fight against FGM domestically and internationally with leaflets and posters. Prostitution is legal; however, the law prohibits procuring, aiding, assisting, maintaining, publicly soliciting, or profiting from the prostitution of another. Enforcement of these laws varied, and criminal activity related to prostitution remained a problem. Sex tourism to other countries remained a problem. The government created a Web site where individuals could report cases. It also funded campaigns on child prostitution on all major television channels. The Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Employment, which is responsible for tourism, mandated that all tourism students complete courses designed to develop awareness of the problem of sex tourism. The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs researched indicators of child sex tourism abroad in order to warn tourists of child sex tourism sites and monitored sex tourism data. The law includes extraterritorial provisions that apply domestic law to sexual offenses committed abroad by citizens or residents of France. On March 11, a Colmar court sentenced two men to seven years in prison for sex tourism with minors in Cambodia and Thailand. During the year the past activities of Minister of Culture Frederic Mitterrand became a public issue. In his 2005 literary work, Mitterrand admitted to engaging in sex tourism in Thailand in the 1970s. However, he has publicly denied paying for sex with minors. The law prohibits gender-based job discrimination and harassment of subordinates by superiors, but it does not apply to relationships between peers. Sexual harassment was not widely considered a problem in the workplace. Both the government and NGOs widely publicized the laws, and the government enforced them effectively. According to the Ministry of the Interior, Overseas France, and Local Authorities, the number of reported sexual harassment cases dropped by 12 percent from 2006 to 2007, the most recent year for which data was available; the statistics did not specify the gender of the victims. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Couples and individuals were free to decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and had both the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Under the constitution and law, women have the same rights as men in family law, property law, and the judicial system. The secretary of state for solidarity is responsible for the legal rights of women. The constitution and law provide for equal access to professional and social positions. The law requires that women receive equal pay for equal work. However, various governmental organizations and NGOs estimated that there was a gender-based pay discrepancy of approximately 25 percent in practice. Although they made up 58.5 percent of the state sector's workforce, women were underrepresented in managerial jobs and continued to face difficulties attaining positions of responsibility. According to a survey of the top 40 companies in the country released during the year, 10.5 percent of executive-board members were women. Although approximately 22 percent of government cabinet ministers were women, women were generally underrepresented in the legislature and other levels of government leadership. In the third quarter of the year, the unemployment rate was 9.5 percent for women compared with 8.8 percent for men. Children.--Citizenship is derived both by jus sanguinis and jus soli. Children born within the country's territory to at least one French citizen parent automatically acquire citizenship at birth. A child born in the country to foreign parents may acquire citizenship at birth if stateless or acquire the right at age 18 with five years of residence. There are strict laws against child abuse by parents or guardians, and the government generally enforced the law effectively and prosecuted abusers. The law provides for a government children's advocate, a position charged with defending and promoting children's rights as defined by law. Child abuse was generally not considered a problem. The government provided counseling, financial aid, foster homes, and orphanages for abuse victims. Various NGOs also helped minors seek justice in cases of mistreatment by parents. Child marriage was a problem, particularly in communities of African or Asian origin. Although such marriage ceremonies took place primarily outside of the country, authorities took steps to address the problem. Parents may be prosecuted. Women and girls could seek refuge at shelters if their parents or guardians threatened them with a forced marriage. The government offered some educational programs to inform young women of their rights. The High Council for Integration stated it was important to distinguish between arranged and forced marriage. The minimum legal age of marriage is 18. In April the government launched a media campaign to fight against forced marriages. According to human rights observers, 70,000 teenagers between the ages of 10 and 18 were at risk of being forced into a marriage. The law criminalizes statutory rape of minors under age 16, the minimum age of consensual sex, and the government generally enforced the law effectively. The penalty for statutory rape is 15 years' imprisonment and may be increased due to the age of the victim or the nature of the relationship of the rapist to the victim. The government and NGOs provided shelters, counseling, and hotlines for statutory rape victims. The law prohibits child pornography, and the maximum penalty for its use and distribution is five years' imprisonment and a 75,000 euro ($107,000) fine. Trafficking in Persons.--The constitution and law prohibit trafficking of persons for all purposes. However, trafficking of women, men, and children for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, and petty crime was a problem. Antitrafficking laws were used to address exploitative labor practices in cases involving both males and females. The country was a destination for victims, primarily women, trafficked from Africa (notably Cameroon and Nigeria), Central and Eastern Europe (notably Bulgaria and Romania), the former Soviet Union, and increasingly Asia (notably China) for prostitution and domestic servitude. Officials in French Guiana reported two trafficking investigations in the territory during the reporting period, one involving the possible forced labor of Chinese victims and the other a sex trafficking case involving a Brazilian minor. Traffickers operated principally in small criminal networks, some of them linked to larger international trafficking gangs, particularly from Bulgaria, Albania, and West Africa that included both citizens and foreigners. They used various methods to recruit and retain victims including force, fraud, theft of identification document, cultural isolation, and physical and psychological abuse. Some victims came to the country willing to work in prostitution and were subsequently exploited by pimps and traffickers. In other cases, traffickers kidnapped or ``bought'' women and girls elsewhere and sold them to larger prostitution networks that trafficked them into the country. In 2008, the most recent year for which data was available, authorities initiated more than 500 court cases for soliciting and dismantled more than 23 pimping networks. During that year, 822 victims were identified, compared with 1,218 in 2007. In July a Clermont court charged two French citizens and a Swiss national with operating a prostitution ring of 1,700 Central and East European women via the Internet. Apart from social assistance, trafficking victims may be given a provisional residence permit on the condition that they cooperate with police in securing the arrest of the person who controlled them. Trafficking victims involved in prostitution, who turned in their pimps or the trafficking ring in which they were involved could receive a one-year temporary residence card with permission to work and a 10-year residency card once the case went to trial. However, immigration laws were not always applied consistently due to public officials' lack of familiarity with them and did not adequately address the difficulty that victims faced finding alternate employment. Trafficking in persons is punishable by up to seven years' imprisonment and a fine of up to 150,000 euros ($215,000). The penalty increases to 10-years in prison and a 1.5 million euro ($2.2 million) fine if the victim is a minor, pregnant, or a ``vulnerable person.'' Exploiting foreign laborers and exposing them to inhumane conditions are criminal offenses under other statutes and are punishable by up to three years' imprisonment or substantial fines. Prosecutors were increasingly using the antitrafficking law to prosecute these cases; however, charges in the majority of cases were under antipimping statutes. Several law enforcement agencies were involved in combating trafficking. The government cooperated with other countries, particularly source countries, and with international institutions such as the European Police Agency to investigate, track, and dismantle trafficking networks. The government continued to screen and to refer victims to counseling centers and safe houses for comprehensive services. The government assumed child victims to be in danger and provided immediate shelter while assessing the minor's best interests. Numerous NGOs dealt with trafficking in persons and prostitution. Social Aid to Children, the national social service's branch for childcare, was responsible for caring for and assisting victims under the age of 22. In December 2008 the government set up an interministerial trafficking working group led by the Central Office for the Suppression of Trafficking in Human Beings (OCRTEH). On February 5, the government asked prefects to deliver the right of residency to victims of human trafficking or sexual exploitation. It also continued an awareness campaign regarding female prostitutes who may be victims of trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government generally enforced these provisions effectively. During the year, according to INSEE, 18 percent of persons with disabilities were unemployed, more than twice the national unemployment rate. The law requires companies with more than 20 employees to ensure that persons with disabilities make up 6 percent of the company work force. Noncompliant companies can face criminal fines that benefit the National Association for the Professional Integration of the Disabled, a certified joint collecting body of workers and employers unions that funds training for disabled professionals. However, many companies admitted to being unaware of their legal obligations. For those companies subject to the law, the average employment rate of persons with disabilities was approximately 5 percent. The law provides compensation to persons for the consequences of a disability and requires their access to buildings, education, and employment. The law requires that any new building with public or community space and any existing public building be accessible for persons with disabilities. Many existing buildings as well as transportation systems did not yet meet these requirements. The law also requires the establishment of centers in each administrative department to assist persons with disabilities with receiving compensation and employment assistance. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Societal violence and discrimination against the country's large immigrant population remained a problem. The problem continued to be particularly severe on the island of Corsica, where attacks caused some families to move to the mainland or to return to their countries of origin. While ethnic tensions have been a problem in Corsica in recent years, there were signs of improvement. In 2007, the most recent year for which data was available, a total of 187 attacks took place in Corsica, a 20 percent decrease from the 235 attacks that occurred in 2006. The government publicly criticized and addressed incidents of violence against immigrants. On September 11, Brice Hortefeux, the minister of the interior, overseas France, and local authorities made allegedly racist comments about Arabs on camera. Following the incident, the NGO Movement against Racism and for Friendship between Peoples (MRAP) lodged a complaint with HALDE, and the minister's comments were under investigation at year's end. On September 9, the prefect and local coordinator for Reunion, Paul Girot de Langlade, was forced to resign after an official inquiry found him guilty of racism, based on a complaint by a security employee of Caribbean origin at Orly Airport. Many observers expressed concern that discriminatory hiring practices in both the public and the private sectors prevented minorities from sub-Saharan Africa, the Maghreb, the Middle East, and Asia from equal access to employment. According to a 2008 survey by INSEE, the unemployment rate of immigrants was twice as high as that of nonimmigrants (13.2 percent versus 6.8 percent). The unemployment rate among legal immigrants varied with the country of origin. Immigrants from Algeria and Turkey faced a three times higher risk of unemployment than did nonimmigrants, while unemployment among immigrants from such EU countries as Spain, Italy, and Portugal was only 1 percent lower than that of the nonimmigrant population. INSEE attributed those variations to differences in professional qualification. Romani organizations alleged that both itinerant Roma and Roma with fixed abodes faced discrimination in education, housing, and access to government services. Housing and other discrimination problems were particularly acute for itinerant Roma and ``Travellers,'' as some mayors denied school registration to children whose parents lived in illegal campsites. An October 2007 report of the National Institute of Educational Research noted that Roma and Travellers benefited from a special status that authorizes children discontinuous school attendance without justification. School registration rates for Roma and Travellers were 66.7 percent in kindergarten, 81.8 percent in primary schools, and 78.8 percent in high school, but absenteeism and breaks within the education system were frequent. Travellers and itinerant Roma were subject to laws that did not apply to residents with permanent residences. Individuals over the age of 16 not settled in one place must have a periodically renewed travel permit. Any delay in renewal entails a maximum fine of 1,500-euro ($2,150) fine. Authorities did not consider itinerant Roma or Traveller caravans to be housing. As a result, they were not entitled to housing assistance. The law requires municipalities of more than 5,000 inhabitants to provide a camping site with facilities and access to water and electricity. As of year's end, more than half of the municipal authorities had established 16,000 campsites. However, there was still a shortage estimated at over 20,000 sites (according to authorities) or up to 60,000 sites (according to NGOs). According to NGOs the government imposed administrative barriers to employment of itinerant Roma and Travellers. Although citizens of member states of the EU, Travellers, itinerant Roma, and other itinerant groups must obtain special authorization from their local prefecture in order to work in the country; this application process can take up to nine months and can cost over 700 euros ($1,000), according to the NGO the Voice of the Roma. Citizens may report cases of discrimination based on national origin and ethnicity to the HALDE. In 2008 the HALDE received 7,788 discrimination claims, half of which regarded employment. The government attempted to combat racism and discrimination through programs that promoted public awareness and brought together local officials, police, and citizen's groups. Some public school systems also managed antidiscrimination educational programs. The 2008 plan Hope for Suburbs combined security, employment, housing, and education measures into a package of initiatives to improve living conditions and opportunities for the citizens, particularly youth, of the country's multiracial suburbs. The government allocated 12 billion euros ($17 billion) during the year to fund the plan, whose implementation began in June 2008. However, implementation continued to be slow. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender, and there are laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment or service, public or private. Authorities pursued and punished perpetrators of violence against lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender persons (LGBT). The NGO SOS Homophobia reported 1,248 homophobic acts in 2008, a 3 percent decrease from 2007. In 2007 there were 132 instances of physical assault. After the NGO Inter-LGBT claimed that homosexual minors were frequently targeted for violence, the Ministry of National Education responded by asking schools to introduce lessons on tolerance and diversity. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was no societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution and law provides workers, including migrant workers, the right to form and join unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice on the mainland as well as in the overseas territories. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Workers, including civil servants, have the right to strike except when a strike threatens public safety. Workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. Illegal migrant workers in Paris .''sans-papiere.'') also conducted strikes without reprisal throughout the year in order to protest their employment conditions. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to bargain collectively, and workers exercised this right freely. Approximately 8 percent of the workforce maintained formal union membership, while approximately 90 percent of workers in the formal economy operated under collective bargaining agreements negotiated by trade union representatives. There are no special laws or exceptions from regular labor laws in the country's three export-processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children. However, there were reports that such practices occurred. Men, women, and children continued to be trafficked for the purpose of forced labor, including domestic servitude, many from Africa. The Committee against Modern Slavery reported that there were 164 cases of forced labor in 2008. There were press reports that undetermined numbers of undocumented immigrants experienced substandard pay and working conditions. Forced or compulsory child labor occurred. Although there are strict laws against trafficking in persons for domestic labor, the press reported cases of forced child labor in households, but no government statistics substantiated the claim. The press reported that some African boys were victims of trafficking and lured into forced labor within the professional soccer industry. The Committee against Modern Slavery received 200 complaints in 2008. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits most forms of child employment, and the government generally implemented laws and policies to protect children in the workplace effectively. Child labor was generally not a problem. Persons under the age of 16 are prohibited from working, with a few exceptions for those enrolled in certain apprenticeship programs or working in the entertainment industry. They may not work after 8:00 p.m. Persons under the age of 18 are generally prohibited from performing work considered arduous or working between 10:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. Labor inspectors from the Ministry of Labor, Labor Relations, Family, and Solidarity investigated workplaces and generally enforced compliance with child labor laws. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--In July the Council of Ministers raised the national minimum wage to 8.82 euros ($12.61) per hour. The Ministry of the Economy, Industry, and Employment enforced the new wage. The minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Salaries below the minimum wage were permitted for certain categories of employment, such as persons in subsidized jobs and internships, which must conform to separate, clearly defined standards. Employers, except those in the informal economy, generally adhered to the minimum wage requirement. The official workweek is 35 hours. Companies may negotiate opt-outs with employees and increase the maximum number of working days for white-collar workers to 235 per year from 218 in 2008. Maximum hours of work are fixed at 10 hours per day, 48 hours per week, and an average of 44 hours per week over a 12-week work period. Employees were entitled to a daily rest of at least 11 hours and a weekly break of at least 24 hours total, not including the daily rest period. Employers were required to give workers a 20-minute break during a six-hour workday. Premium pay of 25 percent was mandatory for overtime and on weekends and holidays. These standards were effectively enforced. The law sets basic occupational health and safety standards. The Ministry of Ministry of Labor, Social Relations, the Family, Solidarity, and Urban Affairs is responsible for enforcing the law and did so effectively. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their employment, and the government effectively enforced this right. __________ GEORGIA The constitution of the Georgian republic provides for an executive branch that reports to the president, a unicameral Parliament, and an independent judiciary. The country has a population of approximately 4.6 million. President Mikheil Saakashvili was reelected in January 2008 in an election that international observers found consistent with most Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) democratic election commitments; however, the OSCE also highlighted significant problems, including widespread allegations of intimidation and pressure, flawed vote-counting and tabulation processes, and shortcomings in the complaints and appeals process. These and other problems continued into the parliamentary elections in May 2008, which international observers concluded were uneven and incomplete in their adherence to international standards. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The main human rights abuses reported during the year included at least one suspected death due to excessive use of force by law enforcement officers, politically motivated kidnappings and assaults, poor prison conditions, abuse of prisoners, including juveniles, arbitrary arrest and detention, politically motivated imprisonment, excessive use of force to disperse demonstrations, pressure that appeared politically motivated on owners of property, lack of due process, government pressure on the judiciary, and senior-level corruption in the government. Respect for media freedom declined, and there were cases of government interference with the rights of assembly and association. While three months of protests by the nonparliamentary opposition were generally held peacefully, there was a clear imbalance in protest-related incidents--crimes against government officials were investigated and solved quickly, while this was not the case for crimes committed against nonparliamentary opposition activists. There were some cases of restrictions on religious freedom and a lack of progress on such religious problems as the determination of ownership of disputed churches and the unequal status of non-Georgian Orthodox religions. Abuse of women and children, trafficking in persons, and societal discrimination and prejudice against persons based on their sexual orientation were also reported. Significant human rights achievements included the passage of a reformed criminal procedure code providing for fair trial protections and for the introduction in Tbilisi of a limited jury trial system; and passage of an amended election code calling for the first direct election of the Tbilisi mayor. De facto authorities in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, supported by several thousand occupying Russian troops, remained outside the control of the central government. In August 2008 Russia officially recognized the independence of both territories. Pursuant to ``bilateral'' agreements between Russia and the de facto authorities, Russian border guards began controlling the administrative boundaries of the two regions in May and restricted the movement of the local population. A cease-fire remained in effect in both Abkhazia and South Ossetia, although incidents of violence occurred in both areas. Deprivation of life, abduction, and arbitrary arrest and detention continued to be serious problems. Except where otherwise noted, figures and other data do not include the separatist regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The de facto authorities in Abkhazia continued to restrict the rights, primarily of ethnic Georgians, to vote, to participate in the political process, and to exercise basic rights such as property ownership, business registration, and travel permission. Ethnic Georgians also suffered harassment by Abkhaz and Russian forces, forced conscription in the Abkhaz ``army,'' a lack of funding for basic infrastructure maintenance, and limitations on Georgian-language instruction in the Gali district schools. In August 2008 the de facto authorities in South Ossetia adopted a policy of refusing to permit ethnic Georgians driven out during and after the conflict return to South Ossetia unless they renounced their Georgian citizenship and took the ``citizenship'' of the ``Republic of South Osseti.''; in practical terms this often meant accepting a Russian passport. With the exception of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), international organizations were not allowed regular access to assess the condition of the local population or to provide humanitarian assistance. respect for human rights Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom from: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--Georgian government officials and de facto authorities accused one another of committing attacks that resulted in arbitrary and unlawful killings in the separatist regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia during the year. Georgian and Russian officials also traded such accusations (see section 1.g.). In May 2008 patrol police officers Vakhtang Abuashvili and Levan Jinikashvili were pursuing a vehicle that was speeding in Tbilisi. The driver of the vehicle, Giorgi Gamtsemlidze, stopped the car, got out, and began to run. Abuashvili shot and killed Gamtsemlidze; Abuashvili stated that he thought that Gamtsemlidze, who was unarmed, had a weapon. Witnesses stated that Abuashvili did not give a proper verbal warning prior to firing his weapon. On January 16, the court convicted Abuashvili and sentenced him to four years in prison for deprivation of life as a result of negligence. The Public Defender's Office stated that the investigation was not handled properly and that Abuashvili should have been prosecuted for intentional murder. In August 2008 Roin Shavadze, a member of the armed forces, left for work at the Khelvachauri military base. His wife later received a call that he had not arrived at work and was seen being forced into a car. She contacted local police. In the evening, in response to a telephone call, she went to the emergency room where she found her husband dead. His body had numerous injuries and bullet wounds. According to Kobuleti district police inspector Mamuka Tkhiliashvili, Shavadze was found dead on the Kobuleti-Kakuti highway. Adjara prosecutor Vasil Roinishvili told Shavadze's widow that he was shot and killed by police while he was fleeing from the scene of a drug-related crime. When Shavadze's widow stated she would press for more details about her husband's case, the prosecutor reportedly threatened her. Some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that Shavadze's widow was not recognized as a ``victi.''; only recognized victims or their legal successor can request information and pursue matters through the court system. The Ministry of Justice strongly disagreed with the allegation made by Shavadze's widow against the prosecutor and stated that in the course of the investigation the court had accorded her special protective measures. According to the Ministry of Justice, in August 2008 the criminal case was transferred to the Investigative Division of the Prosecution of Adjara, and at year's end the investigation continued. In 2006 the Prosecutor General's Office opened an investigation to determine whether law enforcement agents acted in accordance with the law during a prison riot in Tbilisi Prison Number 5 that year. During the riot seven prisoners were killed and 22 injured; two Special Forces Task Force officers were wounded. According to information provided to the Public Defender's Office by the Office of the Prosecutor General, the investigation into the incident continued at year's end. Tbilisi Prison Number 5 was demolished in 2008. In 2007 authorities submitted a criminal case to the Kutaisi City Court regarding the 2006 death of Varlam Pkhakadze, who was allegedly shot and beaten by police investigating a break-in. The court found officer Ivane Kapatadze guilty of murder and official negligence and sentenced him to five years in prison. The court convicted three other officers who had been at the scene. Davit Minashvili was charged with official negligence, sentenced to three years in prison, and fined 2,000 lari ($1,180). The other officers involved, Avalo Gabrichidze and Kakha Bunia, were sentenced to two years in prison and fined the same amount. After the Kutaisi Court of Appeal upheld the decision, the counsel for Minashvili and the victim appealed the decision to the Supreme Court. In March 2008 the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeals. While serving his prison sentence in Prison Number 2, Minashvili committed suicide in August 2008. An investigation into the suicide was pending at year's end. Former police officer Roland Minadze appealed his 2006 conviction in absentia of falsifying and fabricating evidence, exceeding authority, and the illegal release of a suspect, in connection with the fatal beating of Khvicha Kvirikashvili. The Tbilisi City Court of Appeals upheld the decision in September 2008. On May 27, the Supreme Court declined to hear any further appeals. The criminal case against Akaki Bartaia, Kakhaber Azariashvili, and Giorgi Kurdadze for allegedly fabricating evidence in the 2004 death of Amiran Robakidze continued at year's end. On December 1, parliament voted down a proposal to create a parliamentary commission to investigate the allegations of a police cover-up in this case. During the year four deaths and 25 injuries from land mines and unexploded ordnance were reported. Many of the incidents involved old explosives from the Soviet era. Limited information about incidents in Abkhazia and South Ossetia made it difficult to confirm reports of incidents in those regions. In some instances when media reports attributed deaths to land mines, observers believed they were more likely due to unexploded ordnance. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances perpetrated by the government. However, some nonparliamentary opposition parties asserted that a number of their members had been kidnapped and beaten by unknown assailants for their political activity. On August 1, unidentified assailants attacked well-known karate and wrestling champion Amiran Bitsadze and his friend David Bendeliani. Bitsadze was a member of the nonparliamentary opposition party Democratic Movement-United Georgia (DMUG). The DMUG reported that Bitsadze and Bendeliani were driving in Tbilisi when they came across a minibus blocking the road. They reported that 15 to 18 masked assailants dragged them out of the car and beat them. Bendeliani was left on the street, but Bitsadze was taken away in a car. The DMUG said that Bitsadze was later found on a highway with two bullet-like wounds on his back, a broken leg, and a broken arm. The DMUG claimed that the wounds on Bitsadze's back came from rubber bullets similar to those the government used and that Bendeliani had described the vehicle as similar to those used by police special forces. The DMUG claimed that the motivation for the attack was Bitsadze's affiliation with the party. An investigation by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the ministry under which all police departments fall, was underway at year's end. Disappearances and kidnapping occurred during the year in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, although reliable information from these separatist regions, which remained outside of government control, remained difficult to obtain. In some cases the missing individuals turned out to have been detained by Russian or de facto authorities (see section 1.d.). On August 13, the local media reported that several workers from the Enguri hydroelectric power station in the predominately ethnically Georgian Gali District of separatist Abkhazia were abducted by Russian and Abkhaz forces and taken to the capital, Sukhumi. The abductors reportedly told local villagers they arrested the workers for refusing to accept Russian passports. On August 7, the Ministry of Internal Affairs reported that unidentified individuals took five local shepherds by force from the village of Koshka, in undisputed Georgian territory, across the administrative boundary into separatist South Ossetia. The shepherds were later released unharmed. The shepherds said that they were told that the motive for their abduction was their illegal entry into separatist South Ossetian territory. Please see section 1.g. for information on disappearances and kidnappings during the August 2008 conflict. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were reports that government officials continued to employ them with limited accountability. On May 12, according to the Human Rights Center, law enforcement authorities severely beat Nugzar Otanadze, whom they had detained because he was related to Koba Otanadze, accused of leading a mutiny at the Mukhrovani military base (see section 1.d. and 1.g). The Ministry of Internal Affairs charged Nugzar Otanadze with resisting arrest, and a court placed him in pretrial detention for two months. The Human Rights Center alleged that authorities broke Otanadze's arm and caused him to lose consciousness during the alleged beating. The Public Defender's Office also reported the incident and requested that the Prosecutor's Office initiate a criminal case, which it did. At year's end the investigation continued. On July 7, representatives of the Public Defender's Office went to Kutaisi Jail and Strict Regime Institution number 2 to investigate an incident involving 12 juveniles that took place the previous day. The representatives reported that at about 2 a.m. on July 6, masked unidentified officers that they characterized as coming from a special unit entered the juveniles' cell area and demanded that the prisoners come outside. The juveniles, who had been housed in three cells, were then taken out into the corridor, forced to put their hands on the wall, and assaulted verbally and physically. The Public Defender's Office reported that the juveniles were beaten with open palms, wet towels, and padlocks. The prisoners said the officers threatened to urinate on their heads or expose them to possible sexual assault if they moved. The Public Defender's Office reported that the juveniles spent about five hours with their hands in this position. Reportedly the officers also made them put on police caps, salute, and say, ``We are serving Georgia.'' The prisoners stated that the officers focused on the inmates of cell number 102; one of them, L.L., lost consciousness and collapsed. The juveniles also reported being forced to pass through a so- called corridor, where the employees of the institution and the officers beat and spat on them, after which they were transferred to the quarantine block. The Public Defender's Office reported that penitentiary authorities claimed that no one was hurt during the incident. However, representatives of the Public Defender's Office inspected the juveniles and noted that they bore injuries of different types and sizes. According to the Ministry of Justice, an investigation that begun on July 7 concluded that the juveniles in question destroyed their cells and incited other juveniles to riot for several hours until brought under control by a special task force unit of the Penitentiary Department of the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance. During these events 11 juvenile prisoners reportedly received minor injuries. On July 16, the Prosecutor's Office opened a criminal investigation, which continued at year's end, into the allegation of excessive of use of force by prison staff. The juveniles were transferred to Prison Number 5 for Juveniles and Women in Tbilisi. According to the Public Defender's Office and human rights monitors, the incidence of abuse in police stations remained low, due to continued, unannounced, random monitoring of stations. The office reported that abuse at temporary detention facilities was practically eliminated by the end of 2007, but some cases of physical abuse were reported directly to the police stations. In June 2008 the Public Defender's Office reported that torture had become rare and that there had been efforts to improve laws, discuss complaints publicly, and raise awareness of the problem. (The penalty for torture was increased from five to 15 years in prison in 2008.) Despite the changes, intimidation of suspects remained a problem. In the first half of the year, according to the Public Defender's Office, there were three possible incidents in which law enforcement officials beat persons in detention awaiting trial. During protests in the spring, the Public Defender's Office received 32 complaints of police mistreatment from protest activists. According to the Ministry of Justice, during the year 17 cases were opened into claims of torture, six cases into inhuman or degrading treatment, one case into giving evidence under duress, and one case into premeditated less grave injury to health. Five of the claims of torture were terminated for lack of cause, and one was submitted to the court for criminal proceedings; the accused was convicted. Of the claims of inhuman or degrading treatment, two were submitted to the court for criminal proceedings, and in both cases there was a conviction. Both the case involving evidence obtained under duress and the case of premeditated, but less grave injury to health were terminated for lack of cause. In 2008 there were 39 investigations opened into claims of torture or degrading treatment against Ministry of Internal Affairs personnel. Eight cases were carried over from 2007. Of these, 23 investigations were terminated for lack of cause, two cases went forward to criminal proceedings, and five persons were found guilty. Of the five found guilty, one was given a conditional sentence of five years and fined 10214.80 lari($5,920),one was sentenced to 18 years in prison, and three were sentenced to 22 years in prison. NGOs reported victims often did not report abuse, fearing police retribution against them or their families. NGOs also continued to claim that close ties between the Prosecutor General's Office and police hindered their ability to substantiate police misconduct and alleged that the judiciary's lack of professionalism and independence made it unresponsive to torture allegations. As a result, despite implementation of positive reforms, NGOs claimed law enforcement officials could still resort to torture or mistreatment with limited risk of exposure or punishment. NGOs also believed a lack of adequate training for law enforcement officers, as well as low public awareness of the protections afforded citizens, impeded improvements. The Public Defender's Office noted that monitoring groups found no instances in which police officers had incorrectly registered a detainee upon arrival at the police station, which previously had been a means for police officers to conceal abuse. All law enforcement officers and representatives of the Prosecutor's Office--except for officers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs police from special units including the Special Operatives Department, the Constitutional Protection Department, and the counterterrorism center--were required to wear identity badges during meetings with detainees and prisoners. Special police units were exempt to protect members' anonymity. NGOs believed this prevented accountability for any abuse by the units. In 2008 the Public Defender's Office noted 112 detainees who were admitted at pretrial detention facilities with injuries, of whom eight claimed to have been injured by police. Three detainees claimed that they had been pressured by police officers. The Public Defender's Office reported that 132 complaints of police mistreatment of detainees had been filed in 2008. Mistreatment included verbal and physical abuse. In 2008 five Ministry of Internal Affairs personnel were found guilty of torturing or administering degrading treatment to persons in their charge. There were reports of indiscriminate military force by the parties to the August 2008 conflict in South Ossetia resulting in civilian injuries (see section 1.g.). In January 2008 Zugdidi police officers Data Gvinjilia and Davit Nadaraia arrested Gocha Ekhvaia near ``Engurkalakkombinad'' in Zugdidi. Police reported making the arrest, for hooliganism, near the train station. Ekhvaia alleged that police forcibly took him from his home after questioning him on the whereabouts of a missing person, beat him, and drove him around before testing him for drugs. Ekhvaia was placed in isolation for seven days of court-ordered administrative detention; in February 2008 he lost consciousness and was hospitalized. The Zugdidi regional prosecutor's office began an investigation into allegations that police tortured Ekhvaia in February 2008. In May 2008 Ekhvaia told the Zugdidi court that he would be unable to identify his abusers, and the prosecutor's office was unable to identify the officers who committed the offense. The investigation continued at year's end. During the year law enforcement authorities closed their investigation into alleged police mistreatment of Teimuraz Gorgisheli in July 2008 because they were unable to contact Gorgisheli to continue the investigation. The Prosecutor General's Office continued to investigate the allegation by former chief of the State Audit Agency, Sulkhan Molashvili, that he was tortured while in pretrial detention in 2004. According to information the public defender obtained from the Ministry of Justice, the investigation was still pending, and there were no suspects or charged individual(s) identified at year's end. According to the Ministry of Justice, Molashvili was unable to identify the offenders. Molashvili was pardoned and released in January 2008. In 2007 a presidential decree created an Interagency Anti-Torture Council to address torture and mistreatment in prisons and closed facilities. The council consisted of representatives from the Public Defender's Office, the Prosecutor General's Office, the Ministries of Justice, Internal Affairs, Education, Foreign Affairs, Health, and Defense, the Penitentiary Department, domestic NGOs, and three nonvoting international observers. In June 2008 a multifaceted action plan proposed by the council was approved by presidential decree; the plan addressed torture, mistreatment, and medical care. On November 27, 2009, the president amended his decree creating the interagency council to provide for periodic updates to monitor the implementation of the action plan and to allow the council to create working groups for the completion of specific objectives in the action plan. Under a new National Prevention Mechanism, the Public Defender's Office was the lead on monitoring allegations of torture and mistreatment of detainees. On July 16, parliament amended the law ``On the Public Defender'' to give the Public Defender's Office greater responsibility for monitoring prisons and closed facilities, including by involving external experts in monitoring. In this role the Public Defender's Office will be the ``national prevention mechanism'' as required by the country's acceptance of the UN's Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture (OPCAT)and is responsible for communicating its reports to the UN Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (SPT). The Public Defender's Office continued to seek an amendment to allow its monitors the authority to use recording tools to document evidence such as detainees with injuries during the monitoring process. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in many prison and pretrial detention facilities generally remained poor and did not meet international standards. The Public Defender's Office, the OSCE, the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT), and many NGOs, including Human Rights Watch (HRW), continued to report that while newly constructed facilities met international standards, old facilities still in use were inhumane and presented life-threatening conditions, including poor facilities, overcrowding, and inadequate health care. Most prison and pretrial detention facilities lacked adequate sanitary facilities. According to Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance data, 92 convicts died in prison during the year, compared with 94 in 2008, and 98 in 2007. The Public Defender's Office reported that it frequently petitioned prison officials to obtain necessary medical treatment for inmates. Human rights monitors, including the public defender, witnessed sporadic prisoner hunger strikes to protest poor conditions and alleged due process violations. In 2006 Shalva Ramishvili of independent TV 202 filed an application with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) challenging the legality of his arrest and treatment in detention. During his incarceration he was moved from his regular cell to a small disciplinary solitary confinement cell, which he alleged lacked necessary ventilation and sanitary facilities. On January 27, the ECHR ordered the government to pay Ramishvili 6,000 euros ($8,580) for nonpecuniary damage and 7,347 euros ($10,540) for costs and expenses. In its judgment the ECHR stated that the ``inhumane and degrading conditions in which he was detained in the punishment cell at Tbilisi Prison number 5'' constituted a violation of Ramishvili's rights. On August 26, Ramishvili was released after completing his four-year prison term. Many prisons were severely short of medical facilities, including equipment and medicine. Following the merger of the Ministry of Justice and the General Prosecutor's Office in 2008, the Penitentiary Department was transferred to the Ministry of Correction and Legal Assistance. At that time the unit within the General Inspection of the Ministry of Justice that was responsible for the monitoring of penitentiary establishments was transferred to the General Inspection of the new Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance, which also received a new Department of Health Care. The Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance created a plan for the development of a new health-care system in penitentiaries intended to integrate civil and penitentiary health-care systems, improve the level of service in penitentiary facilities, raise the needed qualifications of medical staff, develop a computerized system, and comply with international medical standards. On June 25, the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance and the Ministry of Labor, Health, and Social Protection issued a joint decree setting out a strategy for the treatment of inmates infected with hepatitis C. According to the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance, as of January prison health care was no longer outsourced to a private insurance company because of the inadequate services it provided. In January the Department of Health Care was charged with administering and monitoring all health care in penitentiary establishments. According to the Public Defender's Office, the distribution of doctors within the system was disproportionate and unequal. Apart from the Institution of Medical Care for Prisoners, no psychiatrist was employed in any of the penitentiary institutions. A total of 172 nurses were employed at the penitentiary system, 38 percent of whom worked at the Central Hospital for Prisoners. According to Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance, the overall inmate population at the end of the year was 21,239, compared with 18,528 in 2008. The law defines three categories of penitentiaries: common regime, strict regime, and prison. Inmates were assigned to facilities depending on their crimes, with first-time offenders and persons convicted of less serious crimes assigned to common regime establishments, while recidivists and those who committed more grave crimes were assigned to strict regime establishments or prisons. The law sets the standard living space per prisoner as 22 square feet in common and strict regime establishments, 27 square feet in prisons, 32 square feet in the women's colony, 37 square feet for juveniles, and 32 square feet in medical facilities. According to the Public Defender's Office, six facilities were overcrowded in the first half of the year. According to the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance, four of their 12 ``strict regime'' facilities, including a juvenile education institution and inmate medical institutions, were overcrowded during the year. The ministry also reported that four of their eight prisons were overcrowded during the year. International organizations who monitor prison conditions pointed out that the country's space requirements for prisoners did not meet international standards. The Presidential Administration sought to use early release of certain convicts to reduce the high numbers of the prison population. According to Ministry of Justice figures, 990 prisoners were pardoned during the year (848 were released and 142 had their sentences reduced), compared with 2,804 in 2008. In April 2008 authorities closed Tbilisi Prison Number 5 and subsequently demolished it; Prison Number 5 had been criticized for poor conditions and abysmal overcrowding. A working unit of the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance continued to oversee implementation of a code of conduct for penitentiary employees modeled after European practices. According to the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Affairs, there were 263 cases of disciplinary violations by officers in various penitentiaries during the year, 15 of which resulted in dismissal. This compared to 179 cases in 2008 that resulted in the dismissal of 10 officers and lesser punishments for 169. Possible punishment included notice, reprimand, and severe reprimand and warning. During the year the Ministry of Justice and donor organizations organized and conducted at least 20 seminars and training programs for 1,252 participants, compared with 12 in 2008 with, 738 participants. These programs focused on international human rights standards, juvenile justice, trafficking and domestic violence, and professional training in preparation for implementation of the new criminal procedure code. Prior to November 2008, local monitoring councils were appointed to work in eight penitentiaries to monitor conditions, develop recommendations, and submit quarterly reports. Council members were selected on the basis of their desire to work, qualifications, and reputation, and were approved by the minister of justice. Some observers questioned the objectivity of the councils, and NGOs noted that more than half the councils existed only on paper and had stopped functioning because members' terms had expired and they had not been replaced. Council members also had difficulty getting passes to enter prisons. The councils ceased functioning when their mandate expired in November 2008. Despite the creation of a new Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance and the appointment of a minister to head it on February 2, monitoring councils had not been reestablished. The new national prevention mechanism established under the Public Defender's Office was intended to replace the councils. The ICRC had full access to detention facilities throughout the country, including those operated by the de facto authorities in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, to monitor conditions of detention and treatment of all detainees. The ICRC also provided support to health programs in prisons and detention centers. Prison conditions in the two separatist regions were chronically substandard, although overcrowding reportedly was not a problem. The CPT visited Abkhazia from April 27 to May 4. Its December 23 report on the visit contained several recommendations concerning Dranda prison, the sole establishment for convicted prisoners in Abkhazia. They recommended that measures be taken to prevent prisoner-on-prisoner intimidation, to supply hygiene products and drinking water to prisoners on a regular basis, to remedy the absence of panes in the cell windows, and immediately to bring the electrical power supply network up to standard. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention; however, the government did not consistently observe these prohibitions. During the year the number of alleged cases of arbitrary arrest and detention increased. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of Internal Affairs has primary responsibility for law enforcement. During times of internal disorder, the government may call on the Ministry of Internal Affairs or the military. The ministry controls the police, which are divided into functional departments and a separate, independently funded, police protection department that provides security and protection to both infrastructure sites and private businesses. A new criminal procedure code (CPC) was adopted and signed into law on October 9. Most provisions of the code were scheduled to become effective on October 1, 2010. The new CPC encourages accountability and professionalism in the police force by barring the use of illegally seized evidence and legally seized evidence that stemmed from an initial illegal action by police (see section 1.e.). A law establishing an investigative service under the Ministry of Finance went into effect on December 1. Previously, the special investigative unit, which functioned as the ``financial police,'' was under the revenue service at the Ministry of Finance and essentially had all of the same roles and responsibilities as this new investigative service. This new service is directly under the finance minister. There was a low incidence of police corruption at the patrol level. As a result of reforms, the relatively high salaries for police officers provided an incentive to refrain from using their positions to extort money from citizens and from mistreatment or abuse of detainees. During the nonparliamentary opposition protests between April and July, police reportedly used excessive force against protesters on several occasions (see section 2.b.), and in most cases investigations into such allegations were unresolved at year's end. Also unresolved at year's end were continued allegations from the Public Defender's Office and NGOs that police planted evidence, engaged in inhumane and degrading treatment, abused official authority, and exceeded the limits of official authority. During the year nonparliamentary opposition activists claimed that they were especially targeted for such action by police officials (see section 1.e.). According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, during the year its General Inspection Service imposed disciplinary punishment, including reprimands, demotions, and dismissals, in 566 cases. The ministry also reported that during the year 29 police officers were arrested for committing various crimes, including taking bribes (seven), drugs (five) ``swindling'' (eight), illegally carrying firearms (five) and abuse of power (four). The General Inspection Service issued two reprimands, five ``severe'' reprimands, and discharged six officers for physical and verbal assaults. In 2007 officials from the Ministry of Internal Affairs reportedly arrested Lasha Khorguiani, Gocha Mildiani, and Khvicha Mildiani, planted drugs on them, unlawfully detained them, and tortured Khorguiani. The arrests were allegedly made at the behest of Irakli Kodua, the head of the ministry's Special Operatives Department. Gocha and Khvicha Mildiani were released later that month. Khorguiani was released after two months of detention and a 5,000 lari (2,960 dollar) fine. No charges were brought against ministry officials, and there were no new developments as of year's end. Authorities arrested or administratively disciplined police officers; according to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, there were 838 such cases during the year. The Human Rights Protection Unit in the Office of the Prosecutor General issued regular updates on the status of cases, trials, and investigations of human rights violations. However, NGOs maintained that the incidence of abuse was higher than the number of cases investigated by the prosecutor general and that the failure to conduct systematic investigations and pursue convictions of all alleged abusers contributed to a culture of impunity. Human rights NGOs also asserted that many instances of abuse went unreported by victims due to fear of reprisal or lack of confidence in the judicial system. The Prosecutor General's Office was in charge of all criminal investigations into allegations of torture and mistreatment. Prosecutors were required to investigate police use of force when a detainee with injuries sustained during arrest was registered. The law required the office to open an investigation when it received information about a possible violation, even if from an anonymous source. If prosecutors concluded after investigation that charges were not warranted, the decision could be appealed to a higher level within the office. Any person subjected to abuse was able to pursue a civil action against the abuser. In some cases the Prosecutor General's office continued investigations indefinitely without issuing any findings. In most cases that were completed, the office confirmed that the use of force by police was reasonable. A 2006 police code of ethics obliges police officers to uphold the human rights of all persons and to use force only when strictly necessary for the performance of their duties; the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Prosecutor General's Office are responsible for implementing the code. The General Inspection Service is responsible for investigating suspected duty infractions by police officers, receiving complaints from citizens who call in on the ministry hotline, via the public defender, or from the main unit of the Human Rights and Monitoring Department of the ministry. Infractions may be addressed to the police officer's supervisor, who can also initiate an inquiry. There are seven categories of disciplinary measures: reproach, condemnation, severe condemnation, deprivation of the ministry badge, demotion, demotion by one grade, or dismissal. If there is suspicion that a police officer committed a criminal act, the officer is suspended, and if the allegations are confirmed, the inquiry materials are transferred to the Prosecutor's Office for criminal investigation. During the year the Police Academy included additional training on human rights in the basic course for patrol police and conducted additional specialized training on human rights in cooperation with international partners such as the Council of Europe. The Police Academy curriculum for 2,047 patrol, regional inspectors, and junior police officers included training on the legal basis for the use of coercive force, tactical training on negotiation skills for managing critical situations with the goal of using coercive force as a last resort, police ethics, and role playing to illustrate these points. The minister of internal affairs required that all officers be retrained periodically in the use of force and human rights, and during the year 854 officers underwent such training. During the year some members of religious minority groups reported that police officers did not respond satisfactorily when called out to cases of harassment against them (see section 2.c.) Konstantine Chrelashvili alleged that Ministry of Internal Affairs officials tortured him in order to force a confession in 2004. In 2006 the accused officials, B. Khvhistani, K. Sopromadze, and J. Jankhoteli, were found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment. In 2008 Chrelashvili filed a civil case against the Ministry of Internal Affairs requesting compensation for the victim from those who committed the crime. In 2008 the Tbilisi City Court found in favor of Chrelashvili and awarded him 9,000 lari ($5,325). Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The new CPC, scheduled to take effect in 2010, includes better-defined rights and due process protections for those arrested and measures intended to increase the speediness of trials, thus potentially reducing time in detention (see section 1.e.). The new CPC provides that the term of the defendant's initial arrest shall not exceed 72 hours, and the arrested person shall be presented with the indictment within 48 hours from the moment of arrest. Upon arrest, the defendant is to be advised of all legal rights, and any postarrest statements made prior to the advisement of rights will be inadmissible and excluded from evidence in the criminal case. Under the existing CPC, police, investigators, and prosecutors may arrest a person upon suspicion and without a warrant.(The new CPC permits law enforcement officers to arrest a person without a warrant only in exceptional cases.) The law stipulates that detainees must be brought before a magistrate judge within 72 hours. Those not charged within this period must be released. The Prosecutor General's Office is the only body authorized to engage directly with the courts. At year's end there were no reported cases of detainees kept longer than 72 hours without being charged. During the year the Public Defender's Office did not document any case where this time limit was violated. During the year law enforcement officers reportedly planted drugs or weapons in order to arrest and charge individuals in a number of criminal cases, many of which were considered politically motivated. The following common factors were present in many of these cases: Charges were often only supported by police officer testimony; forensic or ballistic evidence to corroborate police testimony was typically not presented in these cases; and police commonly did not conduct searches with a warrant. While such additional evidence was not legally mandated, its absence, especially given allegations of political motivation, raised concerns among observers (see section 1.e.). During the year there were also reports that authorities detained individuals solely because they were family members of a criminal suspect despite the lack of evidence of any ties to the alleged crime. The public defender and NGOs reported that in the early hours of May 20, police officers from the Ministry of Internal Affairs' detained at least 11 relatives of Koba Otanadze, accused of being one of the leaders of the Mukhrovani mutiny (see sections 1.g. and 1.c.). The family members included Otanadze's brothers, Jimsher and Nugzar Otanadze, as well as Jimsher's wife, Gulo Zaridze, and Jimsher's son, Giorgi Otanadze. Authorities did not formally register their detention of these individuals, and the public defender could not determine their whereabouts. They were released 21 hours later after the arrest of Koba Otanadze. On May 22, the Ministry of Internal Affairs confirmed the detention of some family members under the status of ``suspects'' or ``witnesses.'' Charges of resisting arrest were filed against Nugzar Otanadze (see section 1.c.), but no other formal charges had been filed at year's end, either against detained family members or against those responsible for such detentions. In 2007 the law was amended to lower from 14 to 12 years the minimum age at which children may be held criminally responsible for certain violent crimes, such as first degree murder and rape. HRW and others criticized the change. The criminal code states that as of July 2008 juveniles who commit violent crimes will be punished with fines until the government opens a juvenile correction facility that meets international standards. A detainee has the right to request immediate access to a lawyer and the right to refuse to make a statement in the absence of counsel. An indigent defendant has the right to counsel provided at public expense. The ministry in charge of the proceedings appoints the counsel upon the defendant's request. If a defendant requests an attorney after arrest, the investigator or prosecutor who is handling the case is responsible for contacting and engaging the attorney. The law provides for attorneys to be furnished free of charge to all persons charged in criminal cases. In 2007 former defense minister Irakli Okruashvili gave a televised press conference in which he declared his opposition to the government and accused President Saakashvili of several serious crimes, including ordering him to kill prominent businessman Badri Patarkatsishvili. Police arrested Okruashvili and charged him with corruption later that month. Opposition leaders expressed concern that Okruashvili's arrest was politically motivated, constituted an attempt to intimidate the political opposition, and was part of a series of attacks on human rights by the government. Okruashvili was released on bail in after making a videotaped confession to some of the charges against him and retracted his charges against Saakashvili. Okruashvili left the country that year and, in subsequent interviews from abroad, stated that his confession, retraction, and departure from the country had been forced. In 2007 Okruashvili was arrested in Germany and later returned to France, his original entry point into Europe. In March 2008 Okruashvili was tried in absentia in Tbilisi, found guilty of large-scale extortion, and sentenced to 11 years in prison. In April 2008 he was granted political asylum in France. In September 2008 the French appellate court ruled against Okruashvili's extradition to Georgia. Members of Okruashvili's political party alleged that close associates or family members of associates were arrested because of their party affiliation. Human rights NGOs claimed the government detained 60 to 100 soldiers after the armed conflict in August 2008. Some attributed the detentions to their failure to report to their units during the war. Others maintained that the detentions were for suspected drug use or some other charge. The press reported that soldiers were arrested for speaking out against the government. Many were released on bail or pardoned. NGOs could not confirm that any of these soldiers remained in detention at year's end. Defense counsel has the right to meet persons accused of a crime without hindrance, supervision, or undue restriction; however, some attorneys alleged that audio and video equipment in police stations, which was intended to record interrogations of suspects by law enforcement or investigators, was used improperly sometimes to monitor privileged attorney-client conversations. Officers must notify detainees' families of their location within five hours of their arrest and record the circumstances of the notification in the case record. Monitoring boards regularly reviewed these records during their visits to police stations. Police are also required to inform detainees orally of their rights and to provide them a copy of the arrest and search form, signed by police and detainees, to acknowledge that detainees have been fully informed of their rights. The Public Defender's Office and NGOs reported that police often failed to inform detainees fully of their rights and that, if informed of their rights, detainees often did not understand them. Under the current code of criminal procedure, preventive measures of restraint include pretrial detention, bail, personal guarantee, placement of a juvenile defendant under supervision; placement of a military serviceman under commander's supervision. The new CPC expands on these to include more alternative options to detention such as the following: the obligation to appear in court at a set time or upon summons; the prohibition to undertake certain activities or pursue a certain profession; the obligation to report to the court, police, or other state agency daily or periodically; supervision of an agency appointed by the court; electronic monitoring; the obligation to be present at a certain place; the prohibition to leave or enter a certain location; the prohibition to meet certain persons without special authorization; and the obligation to surrender passport or other identification document. Since January 2007 the judiciary has sought to use bail rather than pretrial detention. NGOs noted that, due to economic hardship, some defendants were not able to pay bail even when it was granted and ended up in pretrial detention. According to Ministry of Justice data for the first 11 months of the year, bail was used in 4,727 cases, custodial bail used in 2,031 cases, pretrial detention used in 6,957 cases, release under supervision in 174 cases, and other measures of restrain in 35 cases. A property bond is also permitted. As a result of multiple surveys, the judiciary established that in all three court levels, the average trial time was 12.6 months. The duration of trials at the court of first instance did not exceed three to five months. The courts strictly adhered to the requirements of the constitution, according to which pretrial detention must not exceed nine months, and initial investigations must be finalized within 72 hours after a person's detention. One cause of delays in scheduling trials has been the failure of prosecutors and defense lawyers to show up for hearings. Both prosecutors and defense lawyers used this tactic if they were not prepared to conduct their case on the day in question. The new CPC includes sanctions that the court can impose for such misconduct by the trial lawyers. This provision was scheduled to go into effect on October 10, 2010. As discussed below, the extensive professional training of judges causing some court vacancies also caused some trial delays. Once the verdict is rendered, the prison sentence begins immediately regardless of any appeal process underway. There is a maximum three-month appeal process for the appellate court and a maximum of six months for the Cassation Court in the Supreme Court. If all appeals are exhausted, a prisoner can be held for a maximum of 18 months. There are no time constraints once the trial begins for the first instance court to render a verdict. During the year there were many cases of individuals detained in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia for charges related to their ``illegal'' crossing of the administrative boundary line. Russian border guards, who began administering the boundary lines in May, carried out many of those detentions by enforcing boundary- crossing rules imposed by de facto authorities but then generally handed custody of the individuals over to the de facto authorities. In most cases the individuals were released within a few hours or days; in some cases the individuals were held considerably longer. Georgian authorities detained a number of individuals near the administrative boundary lines on various charges, including illegal entry into the country. Such individuals often carried only Russian passports with no evidence of authorization to enter Georgia. In February Ika Bigvava, a resident of Otobaia in Abkhazia, was detained briefly by Abkhaz de facto forces. Several members of his village reportedly helped him flee across the administrative boundary line out of Abkhazia. According to the EU Monitoring Mission (EUMM) and the UN Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG), on the next day at least 20 and possibly as many as 40 or more villagers, including some children, were detained or blocked from their residences by Abkhaz forces demanding the return of Bigvava or the retraction of allegations he made about his mistreatment while in Abkhaz detention. The detained individuals were released within a day. In August six individuals were detained in the Akhalgori region of South Ossetia and charged with attempting to smuggle wood. According to the EUMM, the charges were later reduced to ``illegally'' crossing the boundary line but then changed back to smuggling. Despite efforts by the Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights to negotiate their release, they remained in the custody of the de facto South Ossetian authorities at year's end. In October, 16 individuals chopping down wood were detained by Russian border guards near the South Ossetian administrative boundary line. Although the Russian officials, South Ossetian de facto authorities, Georgian officials, and the EUMM all agreed that the incident occurred within a short distance of the boundary, the de facto South Ossetian authorities kept the individuals in custody for four days on charges of ``illegally'' crossing the boundary before releasing them. Amnesty.--Article 77 of the criminal code states that Parliament declares amnesty in regard to a group of individuals recommended by a parliamentary committee; the Amnesty Act can absolve a convict of criminal responsibility, meaning that the defendant is freed of the charges, or the designated sentence could be reduced. The Amnesty Act permits the criminal record of the convict to be expunged. In contrast, article 78 states that a pardon is carried out by the president in regard to a specific individual; the Act of Pardon can absolve a convict of the responsibility to serve out a sentence or the designated penalty could be reduced or modified with a lighter sentence; the Act of Pardon can expunge the criminal record of the convict. There appeared to be inconsistencies regarding the government's interpretation of these provisions for the expunging of a convict's criminal record. During the year according to Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance statistics, there were three tranches of presidential orders pardoning a total of 687 convictsThe law allows the President to unilaterally pardon an inmate, bypassing the parliamentary committee. On March 12, one of the president's three tranches of pardons halved the prison sentences for the four men found guilty of murdering Sandro Girgvliani in 2006. The four men were among a reported 45 convicts who received a pardon in this tranche. At the time of the crime, the four men, Gia Alania, Avtandil Aptsiauri, Aleksandre Gachava, and Mikheil Bibiluri, were employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They were sentenced to eight and seven-year prison terms in 2006 for inflicting injuries that resulted in Girgvliani's death. Two opposition members of parliament (MPs) resigned from the parliamentary commission on pardons to protest the president's pardon, which bypassed the commission. Since the four had already served almost half of their original sentences, on September 6 they were released along with 384 other convicts, whose imprisonments were replaced with probation terms. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary. However, reports persisted that the executive branch continued to exert pressure on judicial authorities. According to the public defender's report for the first half of the year, in criminal cases the courts did not adequately implement the right to a fair trial provided by the European Convention of Human Rights. The report also stated that the majority of ECHR decisions against the country referred to the violation of this right. Many NGOs complained that judicial authorities continued to act as a rubber stamp for prosecutors' decisions and that the executive branch exerted undue influence. NGOs also expressed concern that recent judicial appointees lacked the experience and training to act independently. Much of the public viewed the judiciary as the country's most corrupt institution. Under the existing CPC, judges may question witnesses, which results in the court directing the investigation. As a result, judges were viewed as assisting the prosecution, a perception that contributed to the low ratings of the judiciary in public trust polls. The CPC scheduled to take effect in 2010 mandates an entirely new role for the judge--that of an objective arbiter and decision maker, who has no role in prosecuting or defending the case. The high number of judicial vacancies at the trial court level may have contributed to some delays scheduling trials. The High Council graduated a total of 33 new judges during the year. The speed at which the judiciary could add new judges was affected by a new 14-month training program that each judicial candidate was required to pass. Judges serve 10-year terms, a limited term that some observers viewed as militating against the independence of judges. The ECHR ruled on October 27 that a 1999 trial of three men was unfair because the Criminal Bench of the Supreme Court, which had tried them, was not a ``tribunal established by law,'' since it included two lay judges who were not legally competent to exercise the functions of a judge. The country abolished the institution of lay judges in 2005. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to a fair trial under the European Convention on Human Rights. The court also found one violation by the country with respect to length of proceedings. According to Ministry of Justice data for the first 11 months of the year, the government initiated criminal proceedings against 18,048 persons, of whom 15,415 were convicted. Some NGOs and nonparliamentary opposition alleged that in cases involving opposition activists, the courts tended to rule in favor of the government. Following constitutional amendments in 2006, the High Council of Justice, the body that disciplines judges, operated as an independent institution with a majority of its members from the judiciary. In 2007 parliament passed further changes to the law on common courts, reorganizing the High Council of Justice and removing the minister of justice as a member, the last such executive branch official. Eight judicial members whom the Conference of Judges elected and the chairman of the Supreme Court constitute the majority of the 15-member High Council of Justice. The president appoints an additional two members of the council, and parliament appoints three. The head of the legal committee of parliament, currently a member of the ruling party, is an ex officio member of the High Council of Justice. A July 2008 amendment required that--of the three MPs elected to the Council of Justice--one must be from a faction other than the parliamentary majority. Nikoloz Laliashvili from the Christian Democratic Movement occupied this position during the year. Following the constitutional amendments, the authority to appoint or dismiss judges was moved from the president to the High Council of Justice, and the chairman of the Supreme Court was made chairman of the council to increase the transparency of the judicial appointment process. During the year NGOs and observers called for increased transparency in the selection, appointment, and disciplinary processes for judges. Despite the use of objective written examinations to create a pool of potential qualified appointees and publication of the names of all potential candidates for public comment, the judicial appointment process was not sufficiently transparent. Oral interviews of appointees were held behind closed doors with no public knowledge of what criteria were used for selection. During the year the Supreme Court and the High School of Justice unveiled a 14-month intensive training program for prospective new judges. This program was expected to shift towards a more merit-based selection and vetting process and help eliminate unqualified judicial appointees. The new training program included exams and performance measures that provided objective criteria for ranking the performance of the judicial candidates. In 2007 parliament passed legislation on ex parte communications, prohibiting prosecutors, defendants, investigators, and any interested third parties from contacting judges outside the courtroom during cases to influence their judgments. The legislation, which went into effect in 2007, also repealed Soviet-era laws that punished judges, both criminally and administratively, for making incorrect rulings, provisions that many observers believed the government could use to limit judicial independence. The law requires judges to immediately report in writing any ex parte communication to the chairman of the court, who must review the report within 14 days and can impose a fine up to 2,000 lari ($1,180) or forward the matter to the secretary of the Council of Justice. The secretary then has one month to review the report and forward it to the appropriate regulatory body, such as the prosecutor general for prosecutors, the Georgian Bar Association for defense attorneys, or the relevant agency heads for investigators for disciplinary action. The High Council of Justice may appeal a decision of the regulatory bodies not to impose a disciplinary sanction according to the general rule for appealing administrative rulings. According to the judiciary, there were no disciplinary actions taken related to ex parte communications during the year. There were four violations in 2008, three of which did not appear to involve public officials, reported to the High Council of Justice. In September 2008 a Zestaponi District judge received a telephone call from a person who introduced himself as a minister of justice and asked him to consider ruling in favor of a party on a civil case, who was his friend. The judge reported this communication to the chairman of the court, who forwarded this report to the law enforcement agencies. According to the Ministry of Justice, the caller was identified through an investigation and in October 2008 was fined 2,000 lari ($1,180). The Prosecutor's Office is responsible for disciplinary action for violations of the ethics code for prosecutors adopted in 2006. The Office of the Prosecutor General conducts an inquiry into such facts and presents this information to the prosecutor general with a recommendation for disciplinary action. The code was actively implemented during the first half of the year, with 201 prosecutors receiving disciplinary actions ranging from notice to reprimand. Disciplinary violations involved deficient prosecutorial supervision and ethics violations, while criminal violations involved abuse of official power. The Inspection Department of the Office of Chief Prosecutor initiated disciplinary proceedings against 55 prosecutors during the year. Disciplinary punishment was imposed upon 42 prosecutors, five prosecutors were punished for a violation of the code of ethics, while the two others were found disciplinarily liable on the basis of the ruling of the courts. Seven disciplinary proceedings were pending at year's end. On December 12, officials arrested a prosecutor and accused him of accepting a 2,000 lari (1,180 dollar) bribe to secure a favorable sentence for a defendant. Officials also arrested the defense attorney for his alleged role in the incident. This allegation reflected a manner of bribery wherein the defense attorney secured a retainer or fee to defend his client, while using some portion of his fee to pay the prosecutor for a favorable case resolution. It was unclear from the allegations whether the prosecutor was accused of extorting the money from the defense attorney, or whether the defense attorney approached the prosecutor with the offer of a bribe. This case continued at year's end; the prosecutor faced up to a nine-year prison sentence if convicted. The new CPC scheduled to go into effect on October 1, 2010, provides for due process and fair trial protections. It was extensively vetted through parliamentary committee hearings and diverse working groups that included NGOs. The central philosophy of the new CPC is to establish the legal foundations for adversarial court proceedings: hearings and trials that balance the interests of the state with the rights of the accused, with the judge serving as a neutral and detached magistrate tasked with ensuring fair proceedings. The current CPC allows judges to question witnesses, which results in the court directing the investigation. As a result, judges were viewed as assisting prosecution contributed to the judiciary. The new CPC mandates the entirely new role for the judge of an objective arbiter and decision maker, who has no role in prosecuting or defending the case. The new CPC also includes presumption in favor of pretrial release instead of pretrial detention for the accused; clearer terms and defendant protections governing the negotiation, conclusion, and court approval of plea agreements; and more progressive bail and other mechanisms to guarantee the defendant's presence at pretrial proceedings and trial, all of which will help to lessen the number of defendants incarcerated pending trial. The new CPC increases the ability of the prosecution and defense to have equal rights to collect and present evidence. The prosecution is compelled to disclose all evidence to the defendant and must disclose the evidence five days prior to the pretrial hearing. The new CPC also enhances due process guarantees. These include well-defined detainee and defendant rights to be informed of their rights upon arrest; to receive a speedy, fair, and continuous trial; to be presumed innocent until proven guilty; and to be assured that the judge will refrain from conducting his/her own investigation and will only examine evidence presented by the parties to the case confirming the guilt or innocence of a person. The new CPC protects the privilege against self-incrimination and allows reasonable time and means for defense to examine evidence obtained by the prosecution. A provision for voluntary rather than compelled witness interview during preliminary investigation is not scheduled to enter effect until 2012. Case investigations will be bound by statute of limitations. Covert investigation will be conducted on the prosecutor's determination, other than wiretapping, visual recording, and other types of interception that require a judge's preapproval. Prosecutors can seize evidence in exigent circumstances without court approval (i.e., evidence about to be destroyed, tampered with, etc.), but they must go to the court within 12 hours of the warrantless seizure to explain the underlying urgency to the court's satisfaction. Under the new CPC, jury trials will be introduced in Tbilisi City Court only for aggravated murder cases starting in October 2010. The judge will select and screen the jury members from a 100-person pool with the participation of the parties, opening statements of parties shall commence the proceedings, direct and cross-examination will follow, the jury is allowed to conduct a preliminary deliberation in the event that they require clarification from the court regarding the law of the case, and final arguments shall be made. Juries have three hours to reach a unanimous verdict; unanimous verdicts shall be required in any case where life imprisonment could result as a possible punishment. If in nonlife imprisonment cases a verdict is returned within six hours, it shall be made by a 9/10 majority of the jurors. If the jury fails to reach a verdict after a total of 12 hours of deliberation, then a mistrial will be declared. The new CPC provides that the defendant may ask that his/her pretrial (investigative) confession be suppressed and excluded from the main trial without providing a rationale or requiring any showing of prejudice or any wrongdoing by police. If the defendant does not seek to exclude his/her confession, no conviction will stand if it is based solely on the confession of the defendant; there must be a body of additional corroborative evidence in addition to any pretrial admissions by the defendant before a conviction can be maintained. Furthermore, prior convictions shall not be admissible in the trial against the defendant. A new standard requires the prosecution to demonstrate a ``high probability'' of guilt at the pretrial stage. If the prosecutor cannot meet this burden, the court must dismiss the prosecution's case and release any detained defendant. Courts will instruct juries that guilt must be established using the high standard of beyond a reasonable doubt. Courts will also instruct juries that the defendant is presumed innocent and that the prosecutor alone bears the burden of providing evidence to demonstrate guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. The new CPC provides added safeguards for ensuring a speedy trial through a new series of strict timeframes: The pretrial hearing must occur within 60 days of the defendant's arrest. If no pretrial hearing has commenced within these initial 60 days, the defendant shall be released. The main trial shall then begin within 14 days of the pretrial hearing. The total time allowed for detention of a defendant is reduced to nine months, within which main trial proceedings must be initiated. Extensions of these timeframes are permitted on the defendant's motion. The prosecution is limited in its ability to seek relief from these speedy trial timeframes. For example, the prosecutor may only move to continue the pretrial hearing once, while the defense has no such restriction if additional time is needed to prepare for trial. Similarly, the nine-month limit on overall detention of the defendant can be extended by the defendant to prepare for trial, while the prosecutor has no such remedy. These provisions are designed to force the prosecution to have cases fully investigated and prepared for trial within a strict and narrow timeframe (74 days). The prosecution's case must be dismissed when these timeframes have not been honored. Under existing law defendants must confirm in court any statement they gave while in pretrial detention before it can be accepted as evidence. NGOs reported that this provision had little impact, either because detainees feared reprisal if their statement was not ratified in court, or they were not aware of the law. The law provides penalties of up to five years in prison for witnesses and victims who obstruct justice by giving substantially contradictory testimonies. NGOs contended that the provision made witnesses more vulnerable to prosecutorial pressure because it discouraged them from recanting incriminating statements given to the prosecutor during pretrial investigations. Prosecutors supported the provision on the ground that it discouraged witnesses from changing their testimony due to pressure from the defendant or his or her associates. The law does not punish defendants for perjury. Witnesses are legally obliged to give evidence. Protection from criminal liability for failing to follow this rule applies only if there is risk that witnesses will self-incriminate or do not want to incriminate their close relatives. Both torture and the extortion of evidence represent criminal offenses under the criminal code. Throughout the year the prosecutor general issued guidelines for prosecutors on torture investigations in order to streamline initiation of the investigations and charging process on torture cases. The guidelines also restricted prosecutors from concluding plea agreements with persons accused of committing such violations. Under the new CPC persons who have suffered property damage, physical, or moral injuries from crime have the right to file a civil claim under the civil rocedure code. The compensation for physical injuries covers the costs of burials, medical treatment, prosthetic devices and medicine, insurance, the compensation of financial aid, and pension. Compensation for moral injuries can be monetary. The general rule of seeking compensation and redress for the injuries received as a result of crime through civil action equally applies to all crimes, including torture, extortion of testimony, and illegal arrest. The High Council of Justice administered a three-tiered court system composed of regional (city) courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court. Regional (city) courts hear routine criminal, civil, and administrative law cases. The Supreme Court acts as the court of final appeal. During the year the High Council established a new system of magistrate courts and integration of regional (city) courts. This is a means to alleviate heavy court caseloads and spread work more evenly amongst the various trail courts. During the year the monthly salaries of judges at all levels continued to rise, reducing the incentive for corruption. Judicial salaries were 4,400 lari ($2,600) for Supreme Court judges, 2,500 lari ($1,480) for appellate-level judges, and 2,300 lari ($1,360) for lower court judges. In 2007 the Conference of Judges adopted a code of ethics for judges that defines rules of judicial ethics to strengthen the independence, impartiality, and integrity of the judiciary. The Disciplinary Board of the Common Courts discussed 44 disciplinary cases involving 32 judges during the year, 19 new cases and 25 held over from 2008. Of these, the board recognized violations and imposed disciplinary sanctions on 18 judges, three of which were dismissed. In 2008 the board discussed 22 disciplinary cases against 17 judges. The board recognized violations and imposed disciplinary sanctions on 10 judges. Of these, one case involved an ethics violation. The Constitutional Court arbitrates disputes between branches of government and rules on individual human rights violation claims; it generally demonstrated judicial independence. The power of constitutional review is vested solely in the Constitutional Court. The court generally interpreted its role in human rights cases narrowly, agreeing to rule only on cases in which human rights were violated as a result of specific articles of law. Trial Procedures.--Defendants have the right to a public trial, except where national security, privacy, or protection of a juvenile is involved. While the criminal procedure code during the year did not provide for a jury trial, other amendments expanded defendants' rights in criminal procedures. Defendants have the right to be present at their trial and to consult an attorney. In 2007 parliament established a Free Legal Aid system to provide free legal assistance to the indigent. With a total of 178 staff members Legal Aid offices operated in Tbilisi and 11 other cities. The 2009 State budget allocated 2.9 million lari ($1.71 million) for the Legal Aid Service. Initially established under the Ministry of Justice, the Legal Aid Service was moved to the newly created Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance when the Prosecution Service and the Ministry of Justice merged in 2008. As of January the right to receive free legal aid was linked to the database of socially vulnerable persons. Despite such efforts, many defendants in criminal pretrial hearings, where decisions are made on arrest or bail, did not enjoy the benefit of counsel. To ensure the independence, transparency, and effectiveness of the Legal Aid Service, the authorities established a supervisory body consisting of a Supreme Court judge, a member of the Georgian Bar Association, NGOs, members of Parliament, and the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance during the year. The Legal Aid Service's budget cannot be reduced without approval from its supervisory board. Despite these precautions, legal NGOs noted that inclusion of the Legal Aid Service within the Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance would not encourage independence. In addition to an annual state budget, the Legal Aid Service can be funded by donations and grants from outside services. However, according to statistics published by Legal Aid Service in 2008, 97 percent or 2.9 million lari ($1.71 million) of its budget was state funded. Defendants may question and confront witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf at trial. By law defendants and their attorneys have access to the prosecution's evidence relevant to their cases at any point during the investigation and may make copies at their own expense. By law defendants are presumed innocent and have the right to appeal. The law provides that a verbatim record must be prepared and signed by the secretary and the presiding judge of the hearing within five days of the conclusion of the court hearing or trial. Only after court officials have signed the document can it be introduced to the parties. Comments from the parties on the wording of the transcript may be submitted to the court. Court judgment shall be served to the parties within the same number of days in simple cases and in 14 days in complex cases. Since 2007 persons charged with crimes could be tried in absentia if they are absent to avoid trial. The same law permits persons convicted in absentia to appeal their conviction within one month of their arrest or surrender, which guarantees a new trial. Human rights NGOs criticized in absentia provisions because they apply to all crimes; the government's position has been in favor of timely commencement of trial and presentation of evidence and witnesses to successfully prosecute criminal behavior and not to reward those who abscond from their prosecution. Defense counsel and the defendant have the right to participate in pretrial hearings; however, their presence is not mandatory. Failure of defense counsel to appear at a hearing does not constitute grounds for postponement. A judge may also rule on admissibility of appeal of a pretrial preventative measure without an oral hearing. By law a court must certify that a plea bargain was reached without violence, intimidation, deception, or illegal promise and that the accused had the opportunity to obtain legal assistance. Under the new CPC, prosecutors may enter into plea agreements with the defendant, and the defense may initiate these discussions. Prosecutors are under an obligation to inform the victim of the terms of the plea agreement. The victim can also seek senior prosecutor review of the plea bargain. Plea bargaining increased every year since it was introduced in 2004. According to the Ministry of Justice, during the year plea bargaining was used in 58.9 percent (10,400) of cases, compared with 52 percent (10,608) in 2008. The majority of plea agreements (which included a proposed sentence) included a financial penalty along with either a prison term or a suspended sentence. With a financial penalty being a consistent factor, even proper and viable plea agreements were often perceived as a way for a defendant to buy his/her way out of prison, albeit at a price set by the prosecutor. Some NGOs reported that the government coerced defendants into accepting plea bargains. In past years some plea agreements reportedly included a tacit understanding that the person accused would not pursue complaints of abuse or mistreatment from law enforcement officials. During the year the prosecutor general issued guidelines on torture investigations specifically addressing such misuse of plea bargaining. Under the new CPC, regardless of whether an arrested person is ultimately convicted, the state must fully reimburse from the state budget the damage caused from an illegal or groundless arrest. In October 2008 parliament passed a constitutional amendment that merged the Office of the Prosecutor General into the Ministry of Justice. The minister of justice heads the merged entity. Human rights activists were concerned that the merger did not allow the Prosecutor's Office sufficient independence from the Ministry of Justice and did not allow for a direct parliamentary vote on the chief prosecutor's nomination. As part of the merger, the criminal justice guidelines were made confidential, potentially making it difficult for lawyers to raise procedural points in criminal cases, as this information, even the general principles, were not shared as public information. Even under the new CPC, part but not all of law enforcement internal guidance is not public. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Some nonparliamentary opposition parties and NGOs, such as the Paris-based Federation for Human Rights (FIDH), stated that the government held political prisoners and detainees, although estimates of the number varied. Estimates ranged from zero to dozens to even hundreds or, in one case, thousands. The new public defender did not name any political prisoners or detainees in his report for the first half of the year. The parliamentary Human Rights Committee claimed that there were no political prisoners. In its report for the first half of 2008, the public defender at the time identified five political prisoners: Merab Ratishvili, Joseph Jandieri, Ilia Tsurtsumia, Joni Jikia, and Dimitri Godabrelidze. They were allegedly convicted in connection to their participation in antigovernment rallies in 2007. According to the Prosecutor's Office, Ratishvili and Jikia were arrested on charges of drug possession. The court found them guilty and sentenced them to nine- and seven-year prison terms, respectively. Tsurtsumia was arrested on charges of resisting a police officer so as to impede the protection of public order, found guilty, and sentenced to three years' imprisonment. Godabrelidze was arrested on charges of alleged illegal activities while working in the Marneuli District Agricultural Department in 2003. According to the Ministry of Justice, Godabrelidze pled guilty to the abuse of an official office and the forgery of official documents. He was sentenced to five years of prison and fined 10,000 lari ($5,920). Godabrelidze was released in 2008. Jandieri was arrested on charges of drug possession, sentenced to eight years in prison, and then pardoned in 2008. The Prosecutor's Office stated that criminal cases were pursued only when they met relevant evidentiary standards. In its report on the second half of 2008 released on April 1, the Public Defender's Office described Maia Topuria as a political prisoner. Topuria was associated with former state security minister Igor Giorgadze, who previously had been accused of an assassination attempt on then president Shevardnadze. Fourteen of Giorgadze's associates, including Maia Topuria, were convicted of treason in 2007; these convictions were upheld on appeal in 2008. This case was pending at the ECHR since 2007. Another high-profile case pending at the ECHR since 2007 involved charges of treason against former state security minister Irakli Batiashvili. The head of an opposition party, Batiashvili was released on presidential clemency in 2008. In 2007 the opposition compiled a list of 42 persons whom it considered political prisoners and presented the list to the government. Thirty-four persons on the list were released in 2008. According to observers, since the beginning of the spring opposition protests, a majority of cases alleged to have been politically motivated involved charges of illegal possession of weapons and/or drugs against opposition activists. In the majority of such cases, procedural shortcomings were reported (see section 1.d.). On August 12, nonparliamentary opposition party representatives gave the minister of internal affairs a list of 48 activists from various opposition parties whom they considered to have been arrested on fabricated charges during the April-July protests. These charges were mainly related to drug and arms possession. The Ministry of Internal Affairs opened an investigation into the allegations and began discussions with the nonparliamentary opposition. Reportedly 10 individuals were released after the initial talks on August 12, nine were released on November 16; on November 23, seven individuals were released as part of a larger presidential pardon. Many of these individuals were released on bail or released after serving short-term sentences. At year's end it was not clear how many of the individuals from the original list of 48 had been released. On August 16, two Republican Party opposition activists on the list were sentenced to prison terms by the Gori City Court. Davit Gudadze was given a four- year sentence for the illegal possession of and carrying of a hand grenade. Tamaz Tlashadze was given a three-year sentence for drug possession. The government permitted international human rights and domestic organizations to visit persons claiming to be political prisoners or detainees, and some organizations did so during the year. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, but there were concerns about the professionalism of judges and transparency in adjudication. The constitution and law stipulate that a person who suffers damages resulting from arbitrary detention or other unlawful or arbitrary acts is entitled to bring a civil action. In Abkhazia the de facto parliament in 2006 adopted a decree banning de facto courts from considering any property claims filed by ethnic Georgians who left Abkhazia before, during, or after the 1992-93 war, thereby effectively depriving internally displaced persons of their property in Abkhazia. According to the decree, any previous judgments or pending procedures related to ethnic Georgians' properties were nullified. De facto courts in Abkhazia reportedly did not make efforts to establish facts or administer justice but acted at the direction of prosecutors and law enforcement. Criminals paid bribes to police, prosecutors, and judges to avoid prosecution. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions without court approval or legal necessity and also prohibits police from searching a residence or conducting undercover or monitoring operations without a warrant; however, these prohibitions were not always respected. During the year some opposition activists reported having concerns about surveillance to the point of discontinuing their use of cell phones. Charges brought against some opposition activists after they were subjected to video and/or audio surveillance, in particular the March 23 arrest of nine activists for the illegal purchase of weapons, raised concerns among some NGOs and international observers about this practice. However, in general human rights workers and civil society representatives reported that they felt no government surveillance and felt free to engage in their activities. NGOs continued to report that police conducted searches, and may also have occasionally monitored private telephone conversations, without first obtaining court orders; police often obtained warrants after the fact. NGOs reported that most citizens were unaware of their right to delay a search of their home by one hour in order to summon two objective third-party witnesses to the search. The government stated that security police and tax authorities entered homes and workplaces without prior legal sanction. NGOs and some opposition members contended that the targeting of certain companies and persons for searches by tax authorities was politically motivated; they viewed subsequent fines as a form of ``legal extortion'' by the government. This practice was reported by businesses and persons across the political spectrum. There were concerns about the lack of due process and respect for the rule of law in a number of developments related to property rights. NGOs reported that, while the government took more concrete steps to aid internally displaced persons (IDPs) during the year, they did so at the expense of property rights. NGOs reported that owners of property squatted on by IDPs from conflict areas were pressured to sell their property at a lower than fair market price to the government in order to quickly resolve longstanding ownership issues. In 2007, according to HRW, restaurant owners in Tbilisi and a neighboring town complained that officials pressured them into handing over their property by threatening them with criminal charges for allegedly purchasing their property through corrupt business transactions during the Shevardnadze era. The government contended that these were cases of property with expired or ambiguous leases or obtained through fraudulent transactions or bribery linked to corruption. Domestic and international observers expressed concern that the government had not sufficiently respected due process and the rule of law. The public defender mentioned this concern in his December 2008 remarks to parliament. The current public defender did not include any new reports on these incidents in his last report, on the second half of the year. g. Use of Excessive Force and Other Abuses in Internal Conflicts.-- On May 5, the senior leadership of a battalion-sized military unit at the Mukhrovani base reportedly initiated a mutinous event against the government. The vast majority of the unit, including 500 members, was not involved and was unaware of the conspiracy and surrendered peacefully the same day. Three of the alleged organizers escaped. On May 21, the three were caught in a firefight with police in a Tbilisi suburb. In the shootout police killed , Gia Kriashvili, and wounded the other two, Levan Amiridze and Koba Otanadze, resulting in their hospitalization. The Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that the three men had put up armed resistance necessitating the use of lethal force. Many NGOs questioned the appropriateness of the force used in their arrest. NGOs also highlighted concerns about detention. On August 24, the Tbilisi City Court began hearings in the cases of 41 persons accused of participating in the uprising. Most faced a 27-year sentence. Verdicts were pending at year's end. Separatist conflicts in the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia remained unresolved and were exacerbated during the August 2008 armed conflict between Georgia and Russia. A report issued on September 30 by the EU-funded Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia, widely known as the Tagliavini report, made the following conclusions: it was impossible to assign overall responsibility to one side alone; open hostilities began with Georgia's shelling of Tskhinvali; some Russian forces were in South Ossetia prior to Georgia's attack; Georgia's use of force in the first phase of the conflict was unjustifiable; Russia's use of force beyond South Ossetia was unjustifiable; a Georgian intent for genocide in South Ossetia could not be proven; and ethnic cleansing was carried out against Georgians by South Ossetian forces or irregular armed groups. The Tagliavini report also concluded that all parties to the conflict--Georgian, Russian, Abkhaz, and South Ossetian forces-.''committed violations of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law.'' South Ossetian irregular armed groups and others committed ``numerous'' such violations. The main violations identified by the report included indiscriminate attacks by Georgian and Russian forces, widespread looting and destruction of ethnic Georgian villages, mistreatment, rape, assault, hostage taking, and arbitrary arrests by South Ossetians, and the failure of Russian forces to prevent or stop such violations in areas under their effective control. HRW highlighted the continued lack of accountability for such violations. In its 2009 report, the ECHR said that it had received over 3,000 appeals in 2008 related to the hostilities. The court also received an intergovernmental case by Georgia against the Russian Federation. Incidents of violence occurred in Abkhazia, particularly in the predominantly ethnic Georgian Gali region, and in South Ossetia. In August 2008 the Russian government recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states; in September 2008 the Russian government signed agreements with the de facto authorities that included provisions to allow Russian military presence in the territories. In August 2008 the Georgian prime minister signed a decree formally terminating Russian peacekeeping operations in Georgia. Formerly, agreements permitted Commonwealth of Independent States peacekeeping forces in both Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In August 2008 parliament passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia to be Russian- occupied territories. By year's end only three countries had joined in Russia's recognition of the territories. There was little official information on the human rights and humanitarian situation in Abkhazia and South Ossetia due to limited access to these regions. The mandate of UNOMIG was originally extended through February 15, but on June 15, UNOMIG's mandate was terminated after 15 years after Russia vetoed extending its mandate in the Security Council. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) maintains a presence in Abkhazia. In 2007 Abkhaz de facto authorities agreed to permit a UN human rights officer's presence and the deployment of three UN civilian police in the Gali Sector headquarters; however, this mandate also expired with UNOMIG's on June 15. Talks for allowing the renewed presence of a UN human rights officer in Abkhazia were underway at year's end. The mandate of the OSCE's military monitoring mission in South Ossetia was extended through June, but Russia's refusal to join consensus in a new mandate led to the closure of the mission after 17 years of work. Subsequent efforts to negotiate an arrangement for a new OSCE presence in South Ossetia and the rest of Georgia were still unsuccessful by year's end. The Gali region of Abkhazia, where many ethnic Georgians live, remained tense as a result of limitations on freedom of movement, kidnapping, arbitrary arrest, and deaths in custody. There were numerous reports of looting and robbery by Russian forces, Abkhaz de facto forces, or criminal gangs, including in particular during harvest season, when local farmers were extorted for a portion of their revenue. Systemic problems in the criminal justice system of the de facto authorities, in particular the failure to conduct impartial investigations and to bring alleged perpetrators to trial, sustained a climate of impunity. Abuse by de facto law enforcement authorities included arbitrary arrests and detention as well as routine mistreatment of detainees. De facto law enforcement authorities rarely wore uniforms or carried badges or credentials, allowing them to act with impunity. Russian military forces and de facto militias limited the ability of international observers to travel in Abkhazia to investigate claims of abuses. After the conflict began in August 2008, South Ossetian separatists reportedly committed killings, engaged in looting, systematically attacked ethnic Georgian villages, and blocked international observers from viewing events first hand. There were numerous reports of abductions by unidentified armed gangs of individuals on both sides of the administrative boundary line. Russian military forces and de facto militias did not permit observers into South Ossetia and occupied areas to investigate claims of abuses. Killings.--On August 6, the government released a report reiterating its version of events leading up to the August 2008 conflict. According to the report, 412 Georgian citizens were killed, including 228 civilians, 170 military personnel, and 14 police officers. Ten Georgian military personnel and 14 police officers remained missing. Although Russian officials initially asserted that approximately 2,000 civilians had been killed in South Ossetia during the conflict, the Tagliavini report stated that this number was later reduced to 162. A Dutch and two Georgian journalists were also killed. Attacks, some lethal, possibly associated with the conflicts, continued during the year; Georgian government officials and de facto authorities accused one another of committing these attacks, which occurred in or near South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Georgian and Russian officials also traded such accusations. No suspects or arrests were announced in connection with any of these cases. In January a Georgian police officer was shot and killed in Knolevi, near the South Ossetian administrative boundary line, in what appeared to the EUMM to be a sniper attack. In March an improvised explosive device killed a Georgian police officer in Dvani, near the South Ossetian administrative boundary line; the EUMM again determined the attack was likely deliberate. In April a Georgian resident of the Abkhaz village of Nabakevi, Elguja Beraia, was killed; UNOMIG received reports that Abkhaz forces committed the crime and that Beraia was a former Georgian partisan. In June an improvised explosive device killed the driver of an ambulance in a convoy led by EU military monitors in Eritskali, near the Abkhaz administrative boundary line. The EUMM determined the explosion was likely a deliberate attack. In July a Georgian resident of Akhalgori in South Ossetia was killed by an explosion in his car as he drove from Akhalgori back to an IDP settlement in Tbilisi-controlled territory. On August 12, two civilians were killed in Gagra in Abkhazia by an improvised explosive device; another device detonated the same day in Sukhumi, injuring no one. Before the conflict began in August 2008, Georgian government officials and de facto authorities accused one another of committing arbitrary and unlawful killings in the separatist areas of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, including intensified shelling of ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia. HRW reported that, during the August 2008 conflict, Georgian, Russian, and South Ossetian forces committed numerous violations of the law of war in the conflict, causing many civilian deaths and injuries and widespread destruction of civilian property. HRW stated that Georgian and Russian forces used indiscriminate and disproportionate force. They concluded that Georgian forces carried out indiscriminate attacks by their extensive use in civilian areas of multiple-rocket launching systems, which cannot be targeted with sufficient precision to distinguish between civilian and military objects. The rockets, known as Grad, were believed to have been used by Russian forces as well. HRW also reported that the South Ossetian forces conducted a campaign of deliberate and systematic destruction of certain ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia. HRW concluded that South Ossetian forces attempted to ethnically cleanse villages and egregiously violated multiple obligations under humanitarian law, for which there must be individual criminal accountability and prosecution for war crimes where appropriate. Amnesty International documented many instances of looting, killings, home burning, and systematic ethnic persecution of Georgians in both territories and found that Russian forces failed to protect civilian populations by refusing to intervene when South Ossetian separatists attacked Georgian villagers. HRW noted that Russian forces failed to ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety in areas under its effective control. HRW reported that cluster munitions used by Russia and Georgia killed at least 17 civilians and wounded dozens more; most of the casualties appeared to have been caused by Russian weapons. Following the conflict, unexploded submunitions remained scattered in and along South Ossetian roads, especially antiarmor submunitions. In the months immediately after the conflict, violent attacks continued along the administrative boundaries of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. International monitors were generally unable to identify the perpetrators but in most cases found that the attacks originated from the Abkhazian and the South Ossetian sides of the boundaries. The government announced that 12 members of the Ministry of the Interior were killed in such incidents despite the cease-fire, in some cases by sniper fire, in 2008. Abductions.--During the year tensions on the administrative border of both separatist regions remained high, and reports of abductions along the boundary continued. On July 22, the media reported that 27 individuals from one bus and one minibus who had crossed the administrative boundary line were detained inside Abkhazia. Reportedly, some were forced to accept Abkhaz ``passports'' and 11 were designated for conscription. On February 7, a group of five armed men, whom the OSCE determined to be Ossetians, stopped a car on the main East-West highway just south of Orchosani, outside of South Ossetia, abducted the driver, Malkhaz Beuklishvili, and carried him into South Ossetia. There were reports the kidnappers demanded a ransom of 6273.64 Lari($50,000). The EUMM and OSCE negotiated his release the next day. On February 27, four ethnic Georgians traveling just inside the South Ossetian administrative boundary near Tsnelisi were seized by six armed men who appeared to them to be Ossetians. Two were released shortly thereafter; they claimed that their kidnappers were Ossetians who had demanded a ransom of 6,000 euros ($8,175.57) for the release of the other two, Davit Kapanadze and Demur Chighladze. The next day, de facto South Ossetian officials announced that the two had been arrested for ``illegally'' crossing the boundary and for participating in the August 2008 war; the OSCE noted that a ransom demand is inconsistent with an ``official'' arrest. The two remained in South Ossetian custody at year's end. On November 4, four Georgian boys were detained by South Ossetian de facto authorities for alleged violation of the ``state border'' and possession of hand grenades and other explosive devices. Although convicted and sentenced to one year in prison by the de facto authorities, two of the children were released on December 3 after negotiations led by the Council of Europe, and the other two were eventually released on December 19, along with another Georgian minor who reportedly had been in custody since July. The 2007 abduction of David Sigua, an ethnic Georgian serving as chair of the election commission chair in Gali district, controlled by the de facto Abkhaz authorities, remained unsolved. The Georgian government denied Abkhaz accusations that it was involved in the disappearance, and an investigation by the government and Abkhaz, together with the UN, was inconclusive. With the closure of UNOMIG, the UN was unable to investigate further. During an August 11 meeting of the Incident Prevention and Response Mechanism in Gali, attended by representatives from Georgia, Russia, and the de facto Abkhazian authority, the Abkhaz representative once again pushed for information on Sigua's disappearance. Government and Abkhaz commissions on missing persons reported that nearly 2,000 Georgians and Abkhaz remained missing as a result of the 1992-93 war in Abkhazia. The South Ossetia de facto authorities reported 116 persons still missing from conflicts in 1991 and 2004. The ICRC continued its efforts to assist the authorities concerned to fulfill their obligation to inform the families of the missing persons about their whereabouts. Most of the missing persons from the 1992-93 war were believed to have disappeared in the region of Abkhazia. During the year there were no exhumations of persons thought to have been killed during the 1992-93 conflict, according to the ICRC. During the August 2008 conflict, the ICRC received more than 1,100 tracking requests from families and authorities. At year's end almost 1,000 of these had been closed. After the August conflict, reports of abductions for ransom, particularly of ethnic Georgians in the Gali region of Abkhazia became more common. Although in most cases abductees were quickly returned, some suffered beatings and even death. In December 2008 the body of an elderly woman who had been missing for some days was found in the woods near her house in Nabakevi; local villagers alleged that Abkhaz men had abducted her and demanded ransom. South Ossetian de facto authorities claimed that several South Ossetians disappeared while in Georgian custody, including in particular A. Y. Khachirov, S. R. Pliyev, and A. D. Khugayev, who were allegedly detained in October 2008. The de facto authorities claimed to have evidence, including eyewitness accounts, that these three were held in Georgian facilities; they sought outside assistance in investigating the cases, and the EUMM and Council of Europe became involved. The cases remained unresolved at year's end. Child Soldiers.--In Abkhazia de facto authorities frequently took teenage boys from their homes for forced conscription in the Abkhaz militia. Some parents claimed that their sons were younger than 18, the minimum age for military service. While the number of ethnic Georgians conscripted into the Abkhaz military was reportedly small, the threat of conscription remained a political tool the de facto authorities used to control the ethnic Georgian population and to prevent young Georgian men from returning to, or staying in, the Gali district. Other Conflict-Related Abuses.--Russian border guards began controlling the administrative boundaries of the two regions in May and restricted the free movement of the local population. In December the Georgian Young Lawyers Association reportedly criticized as illegal the government's holding of five South Ossetian men for four months before releasing them in a prisoner exchange. Georgian authorities reportedly negotiated the prisoner exchange with South Ossetian de facto authorities in July, facilitated the release by the courts of the five South Ossetians, and then learned the de facto authorities had backed out of the exchange. They reportedly then kept the five in custody until a new exchange was negotiated in December, at which time the five were released. During and after the August 2008 conflict with Russia, HRW reported that South Ossetian regulars deliberately killed nine ethnic Georgian women and raped two. The government also reported that South Ossetian regulars raped multiple citizens. Because of the social stigma connected with rape, few incidents were reported by the victims. Investigation of reported rapes was difficult due to chaotic conditions and lack of police in locations where they reportedly occurred, often behind Russian checkpoints where Georgian officials had no access. According to the civil.ge Web site, a June 2008 Studio Monitor documentary about a May 2008 attack on the village of Khurcha on the Abkhaz administrative border, reported that contrary to assertions by the government, the attack was carried out by Georgians. An investigation by the UN into the attack found that grenades were fired from the Georgian-controlled side of the cease-fire line. A preliminary report did not identify the perpetrators but noted inconsistencies in the circumstances surrounding the incident, in particular footage indicating that the incident was filmed in such a way as to suggest that events were anticipated rather than simply recorded as they were happening. Four civilians were injured. During the August 2008 conflict in and around South Ossetia, HRW researchers and others witnessed South Ossetian militias looting and burning ethnic Georgian villages. According to HRW, satellite images strongly indicated that most of the destruction in five Georgian villages around Tskhinvali--Tamarasheni, Kekhvi, Kvemo Achabeti, Zemo Achabeti, and Kurt--was caused by intentional burning. The damage was massive and concentrated. In August 2008 HRW researchers spoke with several members of the Ossetian militias who openly admitted that their associates were burning the houses, explaining that the objective was to ensure that displaced ethnic Georgians would not have houses to which to return. In August 2008 Russian online news agency Regnum quoted Eduard Kokoity, South Ossetia's de facto leader, as saying that the Georgian enclaves of Kekhvi and Tamarasheni were ``liquidated'' as a result of military operations. According to HRW, Georgian forces beat and otherwise mistreated at least five of 32 Ossetians detained in August 2008 during the armed conflict. Other abuses related to the August 2008 conflict, according to HRW, included the arbitrary detention by South Ossetian forces (sometimes together with Russian forces) of at least 159 ethnic Georgians, in which at least one detainee was killed; the torture of at least four Georgian prisoners of war (POWs); the execution at least three; and the exposure of almost all detainees to inhuman and degrading treatment and detention conditions. According to official government figures, persons whom Georgia detained during the conflict were held in facilities administered by the Ministry of Defense (Vaziani Military Base), the Ministry of Justice (Prison N8 and Prison Hospital), and the Ministry of Internal Affairs (temporary detention cells). The ICRC was accorded unimpeded access and visited two of five POWs as well as 12 security detainees captured by Georgian authorities during the August 2008 conflict. The ICRC was able to assess their general detention conditions and help them reestablish links with their families in the Russian Federation or South Ossetia. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press; however, there were credible reports that the government restricted freedom of speech and the press. In general individuals criticized the government publicly and privately without reprisal. However, some individuals told foreign monitors they were reluctant to discuss, or had stopped discussing, sensitive issues by telephone due to concerns about government eavesdropping. Opposition figures and representatives of the government regularly appeared on the same shows, thereby providing a plurality of views, but generally not in a debate format. Transparency International's media report on Georgia concluded, ``The three major channels are reluctant to air shows that would provide a platform for factual and informative debates between members of the administration, the ruling United National Movement party and opposition politicians.'' Throughout the year NGOs, independent analysts, and journalists accused high-ranking government officials and opposition politicians of exercising influence over editorial and programming decisions through their personal connections with news directors and media executives and of exercising influence over advertising income through their personal connections with business owners. There were also reports of physical abuse of journalists carried out, or incited, by local government officials and opposition politicians. There were approximately 200 independent newspapers, although most were local and extremely limited in circulation and influence. During the year print media frequently criticized senior government officials. However, some reported facing pressure, intimidation, or violence for doing so. Few editorially independent newspapers were commercially viable. Patrons in politics and business typically subsidized newspapers, which were subject to their influence. On November 30, Mzia Amaglobeli, the publisher of the Batumi newspaper Gazeti Batumelebi issued a statement calling on the international community for protection from the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The publisher reported that on November 25, the local unit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Batumi tried to blackmail the head of the newspaper's investigative reporting team into cooperating with it. Amaglobeli stated that, despite previous threats, the newspaper had never previously been under as much psychological pressure and that the publishers were not confident that the case would be investigated lawfully. On December 1, the Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that its internal investigations unit was probing into the incident. The investigation continued at year's end. In July 2008 the Batumelebi newspaper received an e-mail message threatening to kill the editor in chief, Eter Turadze, and a staffer. Gazeti Batumelebi went public with the story and informed the prosecutor's and ombudsman's Offices of the threat. Gazeti Batumelebi subsequently received a second threatening e-mail. The Ajara Prosecutor's Office started an investigation shortly after the incident. At year's end an investigation by the Technical Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs continued. The public defender reported that on April 6, Versia newspaper journalists Ana Khavtasi and Nino Komakhidze were physically assaulted at an opposition protest rally in front of the Public Broadcaster's building. Law enforcement officials issued an order to rally participants to disperse. Ana Khavtasi was taking pictures as the policemen reportedly were beating the demonstrators. Allegedly, the police decided to take her camera away, but both journalists resisted. The police hit Khavtasi in the forehead and pulled Komakhidze's hair. The journalists managed to keep the camera and printed the photographs on the front page of Versia the following day. MPs condemned the incident. No investigation followed. Nana Pazhava, a journalist for the Internet-based pressa.ge, alleged that Zugdidi's chief executive, Alexander Kobalia, ordered her detention for verbally abusing him. Pazhava and her colleague Ilia Chachibaia, a correspondent for the Zugdidi newspaper Asaval-Dasavali, covered President Saakashvili's December 31 visit to the town. Pazhava claimed sugar was poured in the gas tank of her car but police refused to investige the case. Both Pazhava and Chachibaia were fined 100 lari ($59) by the Zugdidi regional court for the offence against Kobalia and released early the next day. Two independent journalists, Maka Tsiklauri and Irakli Goguadze, from Presa.ge claimed the following separate incidents of perceived government pressure related directly to their work between 2007 and 2008: Goguadze said he was observing parliamentary elections in Iormuganlo (Kakheti) in May 2008 when several local activists physically abused him twice and seized his tape and video camera. An investigation continued at year's end. Goguadze said he was shooting a protest rally by displaced persons on Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi in August 2008 when several unidentified persons snapped a battery from his video camera and fled. According to the Ministry of Justice, an investigation was launched on March 26, 2009, when information about the case was first received by law enforcement agencies, and was not complete at year's end. Tsiklauri and Goguadze alleged that they were shooting video in August 2008 in Tkviavi (Shida Kartli), when they were attacked and Goguadze's camera and videotapes were seized. According to the Ministry of Justice, Tkviavi was occupied by Russian forces at that time and according to the journalists statements the assailants headed towards Tskhinvali, which is across the administrative boundary line in South Ossetia. Goguadze said that several unidentified men tried to force him into a car in December 2008 in Tbilisi after they asked him to show his identification card. However, according to the Ministry of Justice, Goguadze said in an interview that there was no kidnapping attempt, police officers merely asked for his identification card and his home address, and the officers left after receiving the information. In 2007 both journalists complained of government pressure over a documentary video they had made about recent developments in the country. The public defender sent a letter describing these incidents to the Ministry of Justice's head of the Chief prosecutor's Legal Department, and investigations continued at year's end. According to media outlets, on May 16 Gizo Tavadze, the head of the Kutaisi Municipality Culture, Sports, Monument Protection, and Education Department, verbally and physically assaulted Zviad Khujadze, a journalist and editor of the news service of Dzveli Kalaki (Old City), a local radio station in Kutaisi. Reportedly, Tavadze met Khujadze outside the radio station, got him to sit in his car, and drove toward Tskaltubo at high speed. Tavadze stopped the car, forced Khujadze to drop his telephone, and allegedly slapped him on the face. Khujadze reportedly hit Tavadze back. Tavadze then made Khujadze get out of the car and drove back to Kutaisi, leaving Khujadze behind. Khujadze believes Tavadze was upset by criticisms of the municipality's Cultural Department on his radio show. On July 8, Khujadze filed a suit against Tavadze in the Kutaisi District Prosecutor's Office for interference in journalistic activity and illegal deprivation of freedom. On November 27, the Prosecutor's Office ruled there were no grounds on which to find Tavadze guilty. In February the Public Defender's Office voiced its solidarity with journalists working in Abkhazia and condemned the violence against Inal Khashig, the editor in chief of the Sukhumi newspaper Chegemskaya Pravda. Reportedly, Khashig was taken to a local forest by Abkhaz ``President'' Bagapsh's relatives and threatened with death if he did not stop publishing materials criticizing the Sukhumi administration. On February 10, two OSCE monitors were detained by five armed South Ossetians outside the administrative boundary near Adzvi; they were released three hours later. On the same day, at the same location, South Ossetian officials detained five journalists who were trying to report on the OSCE detention. The OSCE estimated the reporters had also been outside of South Ossetia. In a November 20 report, Transparency International Georgia asserted that the country's media was less free and pluralistic than it was before the 2003 Rose Revolution. ``While the country enjoys a pluralistic, albeit small print media,'' the report noted, ``Georgia lacks a truly pluralistic television sector.'' The continued lack of transparency regarding media ownership fueled concerns over who owned and controlled the country's television stations, which served as the main source of information for most of the public. Throughout the year the public defender and others called for changes in the law on broadcasting to increase the transparency of media outlet ownership, including information about the shareholder structure of license holders and their owners. However, the ownership of many media outlets remained unclear at year's end. The privately owned national stations Rustavi-2 and Imedi, the country's two most popular television stations, and the country's public television station, were all generally considered to have a progovernment editorial policy. In November 2008 Rustavi-2's founder and former owner, Erosi Kitsmarishvili, alleged that authorities seized the television station from him in 2004. In December 2008 the next Rustavi-2 owner, Kibar Kalvaski, filed a letter of complaint with the Prosecutor's Pffice and Parliament alleging he was forced to give up his ownership of the station in 2006 under pressure from government officials. No action was taken on the letter. Transparency International's November 20 report on media stated that according to Georgian National Communication Commission (GNCC) records, Degson Limited, registered in the British Virgin Islands, held 70 percent of the shares of Rustavi 2. No other information was available about the company. The remaining 30 percent of the shares were owned by the Georgian Industrial Group (GIG). According to the report, GIG was founded by businessman and member of the ruling party, Davit Bezhuashvili, the brother of the chief of intelligence services, Gela Bezhuashvili. From November 2008 to early May, Irakli Chikovani, former general director of the Rustavi 2 TV, owned 30 percent of the television station; offshore firm GeoMedia Group, registered in Marshall Islands, owned 40 percent; and GIG owned the remaining 30 percent. Rustavi-2's founder and former owner Kitsmarishvili alleged in 2007 that President Saakashvili was behind the GeoMedia Group. On February 25, Joseph Kay announced that he had sold 90 percent of Imedi's television and radio holding company for an undisclosed price to RAAK Georgia Holding S.A. Nothing was known about the individual owners of RAAK. The other 10 percent of the shares were owned by Joseph Kay, a half-cousin of the original owner Badri Patarkatsishvili. Officially Imedi was owned by Georgian Media Production Group, formed of RAAK and Kay's shares. On March 18, Ministry of Defense spokesperson Nana Intskirveli became Imedi's news director. On May 5, it was reported that approximately 50 Imedi employees submitted a joint statement to management stating they did not believe the station's news coverage had been objective since September 2008, when the station resumed news programs; they cited examples bias, including a ban on interviews of nonparliamentary opposition politicians, a ban on coverage of the problems of displaced persons, and a lack of coverage of attacks on opposition activists. In response, Imedi's management reportedly fired two of the statement's initiators and pressured the other signatories to withdraw their endorsement of it. According to Transparency International Georgia, all other signatories removed their names from the statement and four other employees resigned, citing censorship as the reason. On July 13, Giorgi Arveladze, former economics minister, was appointed general director of Imedi. Imedi television was taken off the air in December 2007 after the resignations of several key journalists concerned that the government had presented evidence two days earlier showing the owner at that time, presidential candidate Badri Patarkatsishvili, plotting a coup. Imedi-- the last independent national television station--remained off the air through the January 2008 presidential election. After Patarkatsishvili's sudden death in February 2008, Imedi remained off the air until April 2008 and did not broadcast news until August 2008. Ownership of the station remained contested, with Patarkatsishvili's widow filing a notice of arbitration against the government in December 2008. Gogi Jaoshvili, one of the former registered owners of Imedi Television, announced at a December 2008 press conference that he had transferred his Imedi holding shares to Joseph Kay and resigned from the position of chairman of the supervisory board of I-media under psychological pressure exerted against him by law enforcement officers. Jaoshvili left the country several hours after making this public statement. Georgian Public Broadcasting (GPB) was the country's third most- watched national station, according to Transparency International Georgia. In late April four GPB board members resigned in protest over what they deemed was the station's inadequate coverage of ongoing nonparliamentary opposition protests. On July 20, GPB's general director, Levan Kubaneishvili, resigned; opposition protestors had been calling for Kubaneishvili to step down because of his perceived progovernment bias. On July 31, three board seats were filled by Parliament despite the protest of the nonparliamentary opposition, which called for more time to debate candidates' qualifications. On August 10, the board elected Gia Chanturia as the GPB's new director general following a public call for nominations. Some NGOs expressed concern that, since Chanturia had been the deputy under Kubaneishvili, the public station's progovernment editorial policy would not change. Chanturia promised to increase investigative reports and budgetary transparency at the station, and changes were being implemented at year's end. On September 22, parliament approved an increase in the number of board members from nine to 15. The rationale was to make the board more inclusive by having seven seats filled with candidates nominated by the opposition, seven from the ruling party, and one civil society representative. Since one seat was vacant at the time, the increase resulted in seven vacancies on the board. During the GPB director selection process in August, a group of media activists, made up of NGOs and professional journalists working on media freedom and development, came together to advocate the transparent and fair election of the new director. This newly formed ``Media Club'' continued its work and pushed for the depoliticization of the GPB board and the selection of media professionals to fill the vacancies. Three of the five candidates endorsed by the Media Club were chosen by Parliament to fill the vacancies. On December 25, parliament passed an amendment linking the GPB budget to a sum ``not less'' than equivalent to 0.12 percent of the country's gross domestic product. The amendment gives the GPB a consistent financial guarantee and means it will not need to depend on the goodwill of the government for funding. The GPB was the scene of nonparliamentary opposition protests following the January 2008 presidential election. Nonparliamentary opposition supporters, including the United Opposition presidential candidate Levan Gachechiladze, assaulted 20 GPB journalists and demanded that the authorities change the GPB director and the board. These changes were made in February 2008 after negotiations between the government and the opposition. The opposition parties chose four of the then nine-member board, including the board chairman, Irakli Tripolski. However, in May 2008 the opposition held a three-hour rally to protest the conduct and results of the parliamentary elections and demanded that the rally be broadcast live. The GPB and other stations featured extensive reports on the rally, but none broadcast it live in its entirety. Opposition-supported board chairman Tripolski resigned when his demand that the entire rally be broadcast was not met; he claimed that the GPB was biased. According to Transparency International Georgia's November report, all national television channels declined to broadcast investigative reports from two independent studios funded by Western donors. Only Kavkasia and Maestro, which had limited geographic coverage and openly pro-opposition editorial positions, broadcast the productions. Although somenational television directors claimed that that they did not show the reports because they considered the productions to lack objectivity, Rustavi 2, Imedi, and the GPB did not produce their own investigative reports. On June 15, police assaulted journalists covering a demonstration of the nonparliamentary opposition outside of Tbilisi police headquarters (see section 2.b.). Opposition-leaning Maestro TV and Kavkasia TV both claimed that their crews were attacked during the incident. Zurab Kurtsikidze from the European Pressphoto Agency was beaten. Police seized video and photo cameras from a number of journalists and erased their footage and photographs. On June 16, a spokesman for the Ministry of Internal Affairs acknowledged that its forces had attacked journalists and apologized for the incident. The spokesman said that the ministry had concluded an internal investigation into the case and that two employees were severely reprimanded, four employees were reprimanded, and three were suspended from duty pending further investigation. Equipment seized by police was returned to the journalists, including a camera belonging to a Reuter's correspondent in Tbilisi. As noted in Transparency International Georgia's November report, the GNCC was not perceived to be a truly independent regulatory body, in that it made politically motivated decisions. The GNCC denied the allegations, claiming it treats all broadcasting channels the same. The GNCC has prevented the establishment of any new television stations by delaying the issuance of broadcasting licenses since May 2008, asserting it was conducting research on the broadcasting market. The commission was composed of five members, each serving a six-year term. In December 2008 Parliament adopted amendments to the Law on Broadcasting allowing both the parliamentary minority and majority to nominate members to the GNCC. On March 13, Parliament approved the two new members (one nominated by the ruling party and one by the opposition). Irakli Chikovani, the former director general and controversial co-owner of Rustavi 2, was appointed as the new GNCC chairperson on June 12. The GNCC exercised some control over programming in that it issued content-based licenses, a ``general license,'' which allows for news and political programming, and a strict ``entertainment only'' license rather than a general broadcast license to stations. On July 3, the GNCC granted the pro-opposition television station Maestro TV a satellite broadcast license for a 10-year term. Previously, the station was only available through cable in Tbilisi and a few other cities; the new license allowed for national transmission. Maestro had applied for a change of license in November 2007 to allow the broadcast of a political talk show but was not granted such a license until December 2008. At year's end the station was in the process of raising funds to initiate its national satellite services. During the year Maestro's broadcasting was dropped by a few regional cable companies. Although the companies stated that their decisions were based on business considerations, on October 7 Maestro's director general alleged that the owners of these companies were pressured by the government not to show Maestro programming. On September 2, Vladimir Mamontov, editor in chief of Russia's daily newspaper Izvestia, and Maxim Shevchenko, a talk-show host on Russia's Channel One, were denied entry into Georgia. Both were to participate in series of roundtable discussions on Russia-Georgia relations. Georgian authorities cited Shevchenko's and Mamontov's visits to Abkhazia as violating the Law on Occupied Territories, which prohibits unauthorized entry into Abkhazia and South Ossetia from the Russian territories, as the reason behind the refusal to let them into the country. Another Russian journalist traveling with the group was granted entry. On October 9, the Batumi-based television station Channel 25 lost an appeal challenging a tax levy by local authorities for a period that the station had been under the control of then-Ajaran leader Aslan Abashidze (1994-2004). If the station fails to pay the tax obligation, authorities could auction the station's assets. The station and local opposition activists asserted that the case was politically motivated and constituted an attempt to shut down the sole independent television station in the region in advance of upcoming local elections. On April 27, a journalist and a cameraman from Rustavi 2 said they were assaulted outside of Parliament while covering the nonparliamentary opposition protests. The cameraman, Levan Kalandia, said that three young persons approached and started to insult journalist Natia Lekishvili, escalating into a brawl. Video footage, broadcast on television, showed a young man punching the cameraman. The Public Defender's Office reported that on April 28, Prime News agency journalist Teona Managadze was physically assaulted by protesters at an opposition protest rally in front of the parliament building. One of the opposition activists approached a group of journalists who were discussing some incidents that had happened to journalists during the protest rallies. The activist insulted Managadze and twisted her arm. The following day two persons from the General Prosecutor's Office visited the Prime Time bureau to question Managadze, who was out on an assignment. An investigation was pending at year's end. On May 5, three nonparliamentary opposition members were arrested on charges of hooliganism after allegedly slapping and punching GPB journalist Nika Avaliani. During the spring protests, the nonparliamentary opposition set up what they called a ``corridor of shame'' and forced GPB employees to pass protesters to enter the station building. It was while he was passing through this ``corridor of shame'' that the Avaliani incident occurred. The three protesters, Melor Vachnadze, Giorgi Oniani, and Revaz Revazishvili, admitted guilt and were fined 200 lari ($118). At a May 7 press conference, the three protesters alleged that during their May 5 detention, they were beaten, verbally abused, and threatened with death and rape. The Ministry of Internal Affairs opened an investigation into the allegations on May 25; the investigation continued at year's end. As the International Research and Exchanges (IREX) Board's 2009 Media Sustainability Index stated, ``Mirroring the polarized political scene, news media have essentially split into two opposing camps, leaving little room for neutrality and balance.'' According to the OSCE's final report on the January 2008 presidential election, campaign coverage in the news of most monitored television stations, including public television, lacked balance. Between the presidential election and the beginning of the campaign period for the May 2008 parliamentary elections, there was a relatively free media environment. There was new leadership at the public television station at that time and generally balanced reporting of all political parties' activities. During the parliamentary elections, the OSCE noted improvement in the balance of coverage by public television compared to the presidential election, while concluding that the coverage of most other monitored television stations lacked balance. After the May 2008 parliamentary elections, there was a noticeable weakening in freedom of the media. While media executives cited limited revenues and a weak advertising market, the net effect was to diminish the presentation of alternate views, especially on television, and to substitute entertainment for news and talk shows. Up to the late fall of 2008, there was a marked decline in the diversity of independent media, with the exception of the Tbilisi-based Kavkasia television station. Most alternative voices were greatly diminished, and the remaining media concentrated on reporting the government's activities and positions. By the start of the year, talk shows had reappeared on all of the country's television channels. The resumption of talk shows followed a period beginning approximately in June 2008, when most news coverage had been cut back to eliminate all talk shows and analytical programs. NGOs asserted that news programming was cut due to government pressure on the media. Programs cut included Shvidi Dris (Seven Days). Mze, a progovernment national channel that had 2 percent of the market, also ceased its news operations on financial grounds in June 2008. Although Mze was generally seen as progovernment, many opposition figures criticized its decision to stop broadcasting news, noting that Mze had broadcast the November 2007 protests live, unlike progovernment Rustavi 2. In June 2008 Radio Imedi's director was replaced by a former government spokesman. A group of almost 100 journalists issued a statement that labeled this action as pressure on the free media. During the temporary closure of Imedi television in 2008, Radio Imedi had remained the only national media outlet that carried opposition views. While the station continued to allow the opposition access, there was a general decrease in news coverage on Radio Imedi. In late 2008 Imedi TV launched a twice-weekly talk-show Dghis Kronika (Chronicle of the Day). This program was also broadcast live on Radio Imedi. In August Dghis Kronika was closed and replaced by a weekly talk show, Special Reportage, hosted by the same anchor. In September 2008 Rustavi 2 announced that it would not renew the popular talk show, Prime Time, which it suspended in June 2008. Despite suggestions that the program might return to the air, Rustavi-2 had not resumed broadcasting Prime Time. However, in February Rustavi-2 launched a new talk show, Pozitsia (Position) with Nino Shubladze, a deputy general director of the television broadcaster. Kavkasia TV experienced two transmission interruptions in September 2008, allegedly due to technical issues. Kavkasia's director suspected the interruption coincided with the station's criticism of the government's actions during the August 2008 conflict with Russia. At the time all other television channels were broadcasting the national Live Chain for Peace in protest over Russia's behavior during the conflict. Kavkasia's director also alleged that in June 2008 financial police exerted pressure on companies buying advertising from the station. As a result, several companies cancelled their contracts with the station, and other companies decided not to extend their contracts after they expired. Kavkasia's director kept the names of the companies confidential. In August 2008 the outbreak of the conflict between Georgia and Russia became the primary focus of media attention. Russian forces did not allow journalists to enter separatist regions or undisputed Georgian territory located behind Russian checkpoints. After the cease- fire only journalists accredited by Russia were permitted in the separatist region areas. In August 2008 eight civilians and one Dutch journalist were killed as a result of a Russian cluster bomb strike in the center of Gori. During the conflict three other journalists were killed, and 14 were wounded. Other journalists were robbed, kidnapped, or taken hostage. Journalists attributed these attacks to Russian soldiers or irregulars operating under Russian acquiescence. Authorities limited access to information during this time and did not release some sensitive information until after the war, such as casualty figures and the names of the dead. Government authorities set up a media center in Gori to provide information to journalists, which came under Russian attack. An international NGO estimated that there were more than 45 regional television stations outside of Tbilisi, 17 of which offered local daily news, although most were at a very low professional level and largely represented the views of local authorities. In April 2008 Madona Batiashvili, the chief of the Sighnaghi Bureau of Radio Hereti, a small independent regional radio station, sent a statement to the Office of the Public Defender in which she alleged pressure from Levan Bezhashvili, the president's representative in the Kakheti region, to prepare positive news reports and to stop reporting on him and his friends. According to the Ministry of Justice, the Office of the Chief Prosecutor did not receive any notice of the case and therefore did not conduct an investigation. According to the Public Defender's Office, they investigated the case and concluded that there was no evidence of threat. In December 2008 Tamara Okruashvili, a correspondent for Khalkhis Gazeti, said that she stopped to take pictures and talk to displaced persons from South Ossetia who were near the Gori Municipal Building. Some of them were complaining about their living conditions. Seeing this, Gori City Council Chairman David Khmiadashvili told Okruashvili that she should leave. Heated remarks ensued, resulting in the chairman striking Okruashvili, knocking her camera out of her hand and breaking it. Okruashvili filed a complaint with police. The following day the chairman apologized to her personally and formally in Resonansi newspaper. Khmiadashvili also sent her a new camera. Okruashvili withdrew her complaint. In 2007 Elisio Janashia, editor of Tavisupali Sitkhva (Free Word), claimed the spokesman for the governor of Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti verbally abused and threatened her after she published an article about harassment of a journalist from another newspaper. In the same month, the public defender requested that the Zugdidi Internal Affairs Ministry investigate the allegations. The investigation noted that acts committed by the governor of Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti did not constitute interference into journalistic activities, as the disputed conversation took place after the publication of Janashia's article. In October 2008 the investigation was closed. Very often journalists worked without contracts, which in effect encouraged them to practice self-censorship. Journalists were hesitant to report something other than the owners' views, as they were afraid of losing their jobs. Media in the separatist regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia remained tightly restricted by the de facto authorities and Russian occupying forces. Internet Freedom.--Outside of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, there were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Insufficient information was available about the situation in the occupied territories. Individuals and groups could engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by electronic mail. E- mail access rose slightly during the year but remained centered in Tbilisi and major metropolitan areas. Estimates were that no more than 11 percent of the population used e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 24 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Nevertheless, on November 1, the government reportedly began an investigation into a series of Facebook videos that insulted the Patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Prosecutors detained two individuals and seized computer equipment and videos. The incident prompted a societal discussion about the limits of free speech. During the August 2008 conflict, Russian cyberattacks defaced or took official Georgian Web sites offline and jammed the mobile telephone network. The government blocked access to Russian cable television news reporting and access to Russian Internet news sites when hostilities began. In October 2008 authorities restored access to Russian Internet news sites. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly; however, the police on occasion reportedly used excessive force to disperse protests. The law requires political parties and other organizations to give prior notice and obtain permission from local authorities to assemble on a public thoroughfare. Permits for assemblies were routinely granted during the year, and the government allowed protests and protester-constructed barriers to continue blocking the streets during the spring despite the expiration of permits. However, parliament passed a set of amendments to the laws on police, rallies, and administrative offenses on July 17. Despite urging by members of the parliamentary opposition to postpone enforcement of the amended law until European legal experts on the Venice Commission had reviewed it and submitted their recommendations, the amended law went into effect in August. The amended law prohibits blocking streets ``artificially'' and ``deliberately,'' either by protesters themselves or with ``various types of constructions and/or objects. The amended law on police adds nonlethal projectiles to the list of special equipment that can be used by police, including for riot control purposes. The amendment to the code of administrative offences increased the prison term for a number of administrative offences from 30 days to 90 days. In contrast, under the new CPC, the pretrial detention for criminal charges is 60 days. A number of local NGOs, including Transparency International Georgia, Open Society-Georgia Foundation, and the Georgian Young Lawyer's Association, published a joint statement calling the amendment package a ``step back on the path to democracy,'' noting that it extends the length of administrative detentions without justification, introduces particularly severe sanctions for acts that pose little risk to the public, allows the use of nonlethal weapons that could jeopardize human health and lives, and disproportionately limits freedom of assembly. The government stated that it submitted the amendments to the Council of Europe's advisory body on constitutional and legal issues, the Venice Commission, for review. At year's end the Venice Commission's official response was pending. During the year authorities permitted demonstrations, and several large protests took place despite the fact that many were held after legal permits had expired. On April 25, the nonparliamentary opposition created a city of mock prison cells on Rustaveli Avenue and Freedom Square that remained in place until mid-July blocking Tbilisi's main thoroughfare. On May 26, tens of thousands of protesters marked the country's Independence Day by gathering at the national stadium and calling for President Saakashvili's resignation. On May 27, hundreds of nonparliamentary opposition protesters blocked the railroad line at the Tbilisi Central Railroad Station for three hours without major incident. However, several clashes between police or nonuniformed assailants and protesters were reported during the year, with no or little accountability. The Ministry of Internal Affairs alleged there were no cases of excessive use of force during the spring protests and that police acted within the law when personally targeted by protesters. The nonparliamentary opposition held a sustained protest from April 9 to July 24. Throughout this period the opposition parties called for President Saakashvili's resignation, and for the most part, authorities allowed the rallies to take place unimpeded. Protesters blocked major roads and intersections throughout Tbilisi. However, NGOs and the Public Defender's Office reported dozens of cases of attacks on individuals leaving these protests, by unknown assailants wearing masks and carrying blunt instruments. In a May 11 letter to the minister of internal affairs and the justice minister, HRW stated, ``In most cases documented by Human Rights Watch, law enforcement agencies took victims' reports but to the best of our knowledge took no other action. In some cases the victims were able to name their assailants or the license plate numbers of the vehicles they used, yet police did not appear to apprehend the attacker or take further investigative steps.'' The Ministry of Internal Affairs said that in some cases victims declined to share information about alleged incidents when police tried to investigate. On June 12, a coalition of nonparliamentary opposition parties published a joint statement alleging that the authorities carried out ``direct terror and assaults'' on opposition supporters and activists during the protests. The statement also said that ``up to 200 cases of violence'' against nonparliamentary opposition supporters during the protests remained unresolved by the police. The Public Defender's Office and others tracked many of these alleged acts of violence including the beating of protesters by unknown assailants. At year's end the Ministry of Internal Affairs had not made any arrests in any of these incidents. On May 6, police detained three young activists, who subsequently asserted that they had been beaten and threatened while in custody. Later that day, while the activists remained detained at Tbilisi police headquarters, several nonparliamentary opposition activists and police officers were injured as a result of a confrontation that took place outside the headquarters. Reportedly, protesters seeking the release of the three activists marched to the iron fence surrounding the headquarters and began shaking it and verbally assaulting police standing on the other side of the fence. Riot police, with shields and batons, were then deployed inside the police headquarters' yard. Police reportedly hit the fence with their batons to get protesters to back away from the perimeter. However, at least one protest leader managed to climb over the fence and ran into the yard. While one protest leader reportedly urged demonstrators to move away from the fence, most did not. Following the incident, both police and activists were reportedly seen with injuries. A chief doctor at the nearby hospital said at least 17 persons asked for treatment for laceration wounds. It was not clear what caused the injuries. The nonparliamentary opposition claimed that the police used rubber bullets. At first the Ministry of Internal Affairs denied this claim. However, on June 2, the ministry acknowledged firing nonlethal projectiles at the protestors. Public Defender Sozar Subari, who arrived on the scene after the incident started, said he saw police officers throwing stones. Subari also reported that two persons each lost sight in one eye due to a projectile, although there was no later confirmation of this claim. Protesters were seen throwing various items at police officers. The Ministry of Internal Affairs reported that a total of 22 protesters, one journalist from the public broadcasting station, and six police officers were injured. Police figures were based on the number of individuals who sought treatment in the hospital. A Ministry of Internal Affairs investigation into allegations regarding the use of force by police officers concluded that police acted in accordance with the law. On May 28, several protesters and five police officers were reportedly injured in a clash close to a protest venue in front of the parliament building. The Ministry of Internal Affairs released a statement that an employee of the ministry, who was recording the protest with a camera, was ``detained'' by protesters and forcibly taken to a nearby apartment entrance. According to the statement, when police officers tried to free the man, the protesters resisted and wounded five police officers, who had to be hospitalized. Two of the officers were stabbed. On May 29, police arrested two persons involved in the incident. The nonparliamentary opposition parties protested the arrests, saying that the officers were not uniformed and that the authorities triggered the assault. On June 12, guards at parliament scuffled with protesters who were throwing eggs and trying to approach the parliamentary speaker's car. A lawmaker from the parliamentary minority group, Gia Tortladze, and a protester exchanged punches the same day after Tortladze was reportedly verbally insulted. Six protestors were arrested and sentenced for the incidents. Also on June 12, police arrested a man who was protesting outside of the Rustaveli Theater during a foreign embassy reception. The man allegedly physically assaulted the chairman of the Central Election Commission, Levan Tarkhnishvili, and was sentenced to 30 days in prison. On June 15, police and protesters again clashed outside a Tbilisi police headquarter. The Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that the clash was sparked when police tried to clear the entrance of the police building and the traffic road. The ministry alleged that the protesters resisted arrest and disobeyed police orders. Nonparliamentary opposition activists alleged that the police attacked the protesters. Among those injured was Zurab Abashidze, associated with opposition leader Irakli Alasania. Abashidze was hospitalized with multiple injuries to the head and a broken nose. Journalists were also reportedly attacked by police. The Public Defender's Office stated that its representative, Vakhtang Menabdze, was beaten by police although he was wearing a special uniform with the ``Public Defender'' designation on it. The Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that 39 protestors were arrested for resisting police orders. Five activists, including pro- opposition youth group leader Dachi Tsaguri, were sentenced to 30 days in prison. The Tbilisi City Court fined the others 400 lari ($237) and released them. The Public Defender's Office said that investigations into allegations against Ministry of Internal Affairs law enforcement officials continued at year's end. On June 19, the nonparliamentary opposition accused the government of sending police to raid a protest venue. However, the Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that local residents were attempting to forcibly remove the protest venue, which included ``cell'' barricades that were blocking the street, and that police intervened to stop a scuffle between local residents and protestors. On July 21, police arrested seven activists from a pro-opposition youth group who were rallying outside of Parliament. The Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that all of the activists were charged with petty hooliganism, resisting police orders, and blocking the parliament building's entrance. One of the activists was fined 400 lari ($237); the others received either 12- or 14-day prison sentences for administrative offenses. According to Civil.ge, police arrested three opposition youth activists on November 23, claiming that they had violated the amended law on rallies and resisted arrest. Later that day, the Tbilisi City Court found the three guilty, despite the reported existence of film footage indicating that they had not violated the law or resisted arrest. On November 24, the Georgian Young Lawyers Association condemned the arrest and the court ruling as a ``rough violation'' of freedom of assembly. The Public Defender's Office claimed that the three activists did not break any laws, stating that ``the constitutionally provided freedom of assembly of Dachi Tsaguria, Jaba Jishkariani, and Irakli Kordzaia has been violated.'' In November there were reports that representatives of the ruling party in Tbilisi informed a number of individuals that they had evidence of their participation in the spring opposition demonstrations and that they would suffer consequences for their participation. In December 2008 then-public defender Subari claimed, as he was delivering his biannual report on human rights, that he had proof that senior officials, including Interior Minister Vano Merabishvili, deliberately planned to use excessive force against protesters during a rally in November 2007. Subari recommended creation of an ad hoc parliamentary commission to investigate his claims. No such commission was established. In 2007 the Old Tbilisi District Prosecution Office initiated a preliminary investigation into the injuries sustained by individuals during the November 7 demonstrations. The Office of the Chief Prosecutor's investigation into the incidents reportedly continued at year's end. There was no further information on the status of the investigation at year's end. Then-public defender Subari's March 31 report to parliament covering the latter part of 2008 again noted that the Prosecutor's Office had not brought charges against attackers. The Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that 11 police officers were dismissed because of inappropriate behavior during the demonstration. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right, although there were allegations of government intimidation of some protesters and the government failed to establish responsibility for physical attacks that the nonparliamentary opposition considered politically motivated. Authorities granted permits for registration of associations without arbitrary restriction or discrimination. However, nonparliamentary opposition leaders reported that their party members were subject to politically motivated kidnappings as well as politically motivated assaults. The nonparliamentary opposition reported that these assaults were conducted by unknown assailants, which they alleged had ties to the government in retribution for the nonparliamentary opposition's spring protest action. There were at least 40 such incidents reported by different nonparliamentary opposition groups. The Public Defender's report for the first half of the year featured several examples of unlawful police actions against citizens involved in the spring anti-government protests. Protesters claimed they were subject to physical abuse by unknown individuals due to their political activities. The Public Defender's Office registered 32 such cases. In most of these cases the individuals received physical injuries documented by medical records. The Ministry of Internal Affairs made no arrests or concluded any investigations into the reported cases. Examples of such cases included the following: Four members of the Ratom (Why) movement reported to the Public Defender's Office that on April 9, 10 to 15 masked assailants stopped their vehicle, dragged two Ratom members out of the car, and physically assaulted them. The Ratom members told the public defender that the assailants warned them not to attend any more rallies and threatened them with physical retribution if they did. On April 11, an investigation into the incident was opened by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. At year's end the investigation continued. On April 10, Shmagi Gelbakhiani, Ivane Gobejishvili, and other members of the youth organization of the nonparliamentary opposition group Alliance for Georgia reported that they were going to a protest rally outside of Parliament when they were blocked by a black jeep. Five men got out of the car, verbally assaulted them, and beat them with rubber clubs. An investigation was under way at the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Gocha Sakhltkhutsishvili, a member of the organizational committee of the protest actions, reported to the Public Defender's Office that on April 15, he parked his car on the street and was attacked by three or four persons, who dragged him out of the car and beat him. The attackers then fled taking Sakhltkhutsishvili's car with them. The car was later found by police. The Ministry of Internal Affairs opened an investigation on April 15. At year's end the investigation continued. Unknown assailants also physically assaulted opposition figures in 2008. For example, in June 2008 General Gia Sehrvashidze, one of the leaders of the Christian Democratic Alliance, was hospitalized after being attacked by four masked individuals. According to the Ministry of Justice, an investigation was conducted, during which Shervashidze told investigators that he could not identify his attackers and that he did not consider the attack politically motivated. The investigation did not find any possible leads. The public defender's January-July 2008 report mentioned the following as opposition supporters who were attacked but stated the Prosecutor's Office had not investigated the incidents: Mamuka Kvaratskhelia, Ramin Abuladze, Davit Sazanishvili, Amiran Iobashvili, Nugzar Khutsurauli, Giorgi Tavdgiridze, Giorgi Shervashidze, Boris Dzanashvili, Levan Jgarkava, Levan Gvarjaladze, Davit Metreveli, Ioseb Bortsvadze, Zurab Giguashvili, and Nona Sagareishvili. Criminal cases were opened into all of the incidents and were being pursued at year's end. In one incident the victim refused to give testimony to law enforcement officials on the subject matter of the case. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. However, government officials were not always responsive to the needs and concerns of religious minority groups. The constitution recognizes the special role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the country's history under its own patriarch but stipulates the separation of church and state. A concordat (constitutional agreement) signed by the president and the Orthodox patriarch gives the church legal status. The concordat contains several controversial provisions that give the patriarch legal immunity, grant the church the exclusive right to staff the military chaplaincy, exempt church clergymen from military service, and give the church a unique consultative role in government, particularly in the area of education. However, these provisions were not in force, due to lack of implementing legislation. On April 24, the government and the Georgian Orthodox Church signed a special agreement of cooperation wherein the church took on a special role in the resocialization of convicts through involvement in the church and public works. The tax code exempts the Georgian Orthodox Church from paying value-added tax (VAT) for the importation of some religious items (crosses, candles, icons, books, and calendars used exclusively for religious purposes) but requires other religious groups to pay VAT and file for reimbursement. Any religious group may register as a noncommercial legal entity. The registration application should include the name of the organization, the place of its location, the purpose of its activities, information on the founder(s), information on the governing body of the organization, and the decision-making process of the governing body. Groups may register in one of several forms, such as a union or foundation, to receive legal and tax benefits. A union is based on membership (a minimum of five members is required), while a foundation involves one or more founders establishing a fund for furtherance of a certain cause for the benefit of the particular group or the general public. Registration is a function of the tax department under the Ministry of Finance, which must grant or deny registration within three days of application; a refusal may be appealed in court. Some religious communities expressed dissatisfaction with the status that registration provided. The Roman Catholic Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church opposed registering as civil organizations, preferring to register as religious organizations or at least to be granted equal status as the Georgian Orthodox Church. Both the Armenian Apostolic and Roman Catholic churches asserted that they were traditionally established churches in Georgia and registration as an association or foundation would diminish their status. However, many other religious groups registered under the legislation, which does not discriminate against any religious activity. Jehovah's Witnesses, who were registered as a civil organization, denied this was the case, stating that they paid all taxes and had not pursued filing for reimbursement. According to Jewish community representatives, the community imported religious items under a humanitarian category. Generally any company that imported goods had to pay VAT at the border, but if the imported goods were not designated for further selling by the importer, the Ministry of Finance must reimburse the VAT. The separation of state schools and religious teaching further narrowed the interpretation of the government concordat with the Orthodox Church on teaching Orthodoxy as an elective part of the school curriculum. The law states that Orthodox teaching may only take place after school hours and cannot be controlled by the school or teachers. Outsiders, including clergy, cannot regularly attend or direct student extracurricular activities, student clubs, or their meetings. Lay theologians, rather than priests, led such activities. Religious minorities broadly welcomed the change to school religious education, although they observed along with NGOs that practice did not always keep pace with the law. For example, implementation of the law was flawed, especially as applied to prayer and displays of crucifixes and other religious objects. The Public Defender's Office characterized the problem as especially common in Adjara, where Muslim students were frequently the target of religious pressure from Orthodox teachers. However, the Ministry of Education and Science noted a marked reduction in religious shrines at schools and some additional restraint on the part of teachers in keeping religion out of the classroom elsewhere in the country. Public schools offered students the opportunity to take an elective course on religion in society, which covered the history of major religions. Parents complained teachers focused solely on the Orthodox Church, as did the primary textbook. During the year the Ministry of Education and Science completed work on a new curriculum addressing the public complaints. The ministry had some difficulty introducing the course as an independent and required curriculum. However, the government was able to add the course into the existing nonmandatory history curriculum wherein the school may offer the course and students may choose to take it. Delays in obtaining permits to build kingdom halls required many Jehovah's Witness congregations to continue meeting in private facilities that are bought for the congregation, but in the name of a particular member. Jehovah's Witness leaders noted that if they tried to purchase a facility in their organizational name, they often faced delays in permits and protests from the inhabitants and businesses in the neighboring area. In February the Administrative Court ruled in favor of the Jehovah's Witnesses in a case protesting the denial of a construction permit by the Tbilisi City Administration; however, the decision was appealed and continued at year's end. The Jehovah Witnesses provided a list of 35 incidents involving harassment they said were reported to the authorities. The Jehovah Witnesses reported that in only two cases was an individual charged, the rest remained unresolved despite their claim that law enforcement knew the identity of the harassers. In 2007 the ECHR ruled against the government for failing to protect the group from violent harassment in 1999. Four additional cases were pending before the ECHR on the alleged violation of rights against members of Jehovah's Witnesses, some filed during the administration of previous governments. One of these cases contested a 2001 Supreme Court ruling that revoked the group's registration. However, in 2007 the organization was registered under the new registration law. This status allows them to import materials, rent venues, and conduct other transactions as a legal entity. Jehovah's Witnesses reported that authorities continued to defer on decision for permits to hold a large gathering in Tbilisi and that the authorities had not permitted them such access since 2004. Jehovah's Witnesses reported that many private facility owners would not lease or rent them the space for large activities. The Roman Catholic and Armenian Apostolic churches were unable to secure the return of churches closed or given to the Georgian Orthodox Church during the Soviet period. In 2007 the Ministry of Justice adopted plans to rely on disinterested expert opinion for assessment of future ownership disputes, instead of a now inactive commission that had included a Georgian Orthodox participant. No action was taken, however, on the return of five churches to the Roman Catholic Church (RCC), and due to direction by the Vatican, the church halted all litigation. The RCC also was hampered in constructing new churches and reported that, in one case from 2008, authorities referred the church to a local Georgian Orthodox bishop for permission. The Georgian Orthodox bishop suggested repairing an old church instead, which the local government accepted. However, in order for the reconstruction to begin, ownership of the land on which the church stands must be given to the RCC. At year's end the ownership of the land had not passed from the government to the RCC. The Armenian Apostolic Church's main concern remained the return of five churches in Tbilisi and one church in Akhaltsikhe. However, the status of at least 30 other churches it claimed remained in dispute around the country. Controversy continued to surround the disposition of the Norashen Church, claimed by both the Armenian Apostolic and Georgian Orthodox churches. In November 2008 Father Tariel Sikinchelashvili, a Georgian Orthodox priest, brought a bulldozer into the common churchyard, which a Georgian church shared with the Norashen Church, to clear the grounds of rubbish. Father Tariel claimed that the passage was too narrow for the bulldozer to pass, so he removed, and later replaced, several Armenian headstones in the yard. Upon seeing this, Armenian clergy were indignant and called the action disrespectful to the Armenian remains buried there. During the year the activity stopped and the rubble that sat atop some Armenian graves was cleared. Although the Georgian Orthodox Church proposed the creation of a commission to study the origins of the disputed churches, there was no movement from either side to start the process at year's end. On November 19, a disputed church claimed by the Armenian Apostolic church collapsed in Tbilisi. The church was reportedly constructed in 1356 but was closed during the Soviet era and used as a warehouse. The church never reopened, even after Georgian independence, when title to the property passed to the Georgian Ministry of Culture. The Armenian Apostolic Church released a statement on November 20 blaming the Georgian government and the Georgian Orthodox Church for failure to safely preserve claimed Armenian holy sites and their refusal to return claimed Armenian churches to the Armenian Diocese of Georgia. The local Tbilisi municipality had begun cleaning up the site at year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--During the year several religious minority groups faced harassment and attacks by two growing fundamentalist Georgian Orthodox groups made up of lay persons and clergy. Harassment included the passing out of pamphlets warning parents about pedophilia in the Roman Catholic Church from foreign news reports; holding a street protest at the site of a Muslim community center in Tbilisi where local ethnic-Azeri Muslims reported that many of the protestors, who were drunk, pushed them around and told them to get out of Georgia (they also reported that although police came and calmed the situation, no arrests were made); the placement of giant white crosses in traditionally ethnic-Azeri Muslim villages; and the staging of a large protest at the opening of a new Roman Catholic Church facility. The Georgian Orthodox Church stated that while there were clergy in these groups, the groups were not officially part of the church. Judaism is practiced in a number of communities throughout the country, particularly in the largest cities, Tbilisi and Kutaisi. There were an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 Jews in the country. The Jewish community did not report any acts of anti-Semitism during the year. Synagogues were not under the ownership of the Jewish Community, which is registered as a union. The government leased them to the community for the symbolic price of one lari (69 cents) per month. In April 2008 an anti-Semitic leaflet by the political movement Axali Sitkva was distributed in Tbilisi metro stations; Tbilisi Jewish leaders saw the leaflet as an effort to manipulate nationalist sentiment prior to parliamentary elections. According to the Jewish community, the Ministry of Economic Development in 2008 transferred another synagogue in Tbilisi to the Jewish community on a 25-year lease. A 150-year-old Ashkenazi synagogue was reopened in the old district of Tbilisi. The synagogue was badly damaged by an earthquake in 1991 and was restored with the support of the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress (EAJC). Despite a general tolerance toward minority religious groups considered to be ``traditional'' to the country, including Catholics, Armenian Apostolic Christians, Jews, and Muslims, citizens remained apprehensive towards ``nontraditional'' religions, which were perceived as taking advantage of the populace's economic hardships by gaining members through economic assistance. Some members of the Orthodox Church and the public viewed non-Orthodox religious groups, particularly those considered ``nontraditional'' groups or sects, as a threat to the national church and the country's cultural values, asserting that foreign Christian missionaries should confine their activities to non-Christian areas. Defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili was released in July 2008 after serving four years of a six-year jail sentence. Mkalavishvili was arrested in 2004 and found guilty of carrying out organized violence against Jehovah's Witnesses and Baptist-Evangelists and burning their religious literature. Mkalavishvili was excommunicated in 1995, after he criticized the Georgian Orthodox Church leadership for not taking a ``radical stance'' towards religious minorities. After his release from jail he started his own private congregation. On December 22, the restoration of Father Mkalavishvili was discussed at a meeting of the Holy Synod of the Georgian Orthodox Church, but the Georgian Orthodox Church decided against the motion. Muslim officials reported that local government and police erected 22 solid crosses in and around Muslim communities in the Bolnisi District. The Georgian Orthodox Patriarchy called the local district bishop to Tbilisi and explained that the crosses were an act of provocation and must be removed. No crosses were observed in a later visit to the area by a representative of the Ministry of Reintegration. However, large crosses lit up with strings of lights were still observed outside traditionally Muslim villages in the district. Local residents said they were continually erected despite efforts to take them down. Officially, permission is needed to erect a structure along the road; however, no group claimed responsibility for the crosses. Bolnisi District officials continued to refuse official permission for the public call to prayer. A call to prayer nonetheless continued. On September 16, representatives from radical fundamentalist Georgian Orthodox groups stopped construction on a mosque in a traditionally ethnic-Azeri village. The group members demanded to see the villagers' construction permit, despite not having the legal right to do so, and threatened the villagers with violence if the construction did not cease. The village community members were repairing the roof of their 104-year-old mosque and claimed that they had received permission from local authorities to complete the roof work. At year's end the repairs on the mosque had not continued, as the question of official permission was not settled and members of the orthodox group continued a vigil at the mosque to ensure that villagers did not continue repairs. The Public Defender's Office was approached 41 times by religious minorities concerning possible instances of violations to their rights. During the year there were attacks on religious minorities, including the Jehovah's Witnesses. Police were quick to respond to incidents of abuse but slower in their follow-up to crimes they viewed as minor ``hooliganism,'' defined as actions that violate public order or demonstrate open contempt towards society by using violence or threats of violence. During the year the government investigated several cases of interference, threats, intimidation, or violence against religious minorities. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, there were nine criminal cases opened for the damage of property, 10 criminal cases opened for physical abuse, and one criminal case opened for verbal abuse. The ministry also reported that five administrative sanctions were imposed for verbal abuse. The Prosecutor General's Office continued to exercise prosecutorial discretion to emphasize cases arising after 2003, given its limited investigative and prosecutorial resources. Investigations prior to 2003 were scheduled to continue where feasible, but priority was given to new cases. Religious minority groups pointed out that this could lead to the eventual elimination of cases that could be investigated under law predating 2003. The Ministry of Justice asserted, however, that since 2004 the investigation of incidents and attacks based on religious grounds was a priority. Thirty-five incidents involving harassment were reported to authorities by the Jehovah's Witnesses. These included 10 cases of vandalism and other problems with Jehovah's Witnesses Kingdom Halls. Out of those, investigations were started on six cases, and one case was brought to the court. There were eight acts of physical violence. Criminal proceedings were started on four cases; police issued a warning to one of the perpetrators. Two cases were reported as persecutions. In one case the Borjomi local court fined and officially warned to two perpetrators who insulted members. The other case pertained to the government's compliance with the ECHR 2007 decision to pay compensation to 97 victims of a mob attack. There were no developments reported in the investigation into the 2007 incident involving unidentified individuals who insulted and physically abused Jehovah's Witnesses Davit Shermadini and David Karamiani in Gldani and forcibly took their Jehovah's Witnesses literature, destroying it at the scene. At year's end the investigation was still underway. De facto authorities in the separatist Abkhazia and South Ossetia regions remained outside the control of the central government, and reliable information from those regions was difficult to obtain. Although the Russian Orthodox Church recognizes the Georgian Orthodox Church's authority over churches in the separatist regions, the Georgian Orthodox patriarchate claimed that the Russian Orthodox Church was sending in priests loyal to the church patriarchate in Moscow on the pretext of setting up indigenous Abkhaz churches. In 2008 the Russian Holy Synod passed a resolution officially recognizing Georgian Orthodox jurisdiction over Abkhazia and South Ossetia. On September 16, however, the Abkhaz Orthodox Church declared ``independence'' from the Georgian Orthodox Church. On April 4, the de facto Abkhaz authorities expelled three Georgian Orthodox priests accused of spying. In April the de facto authorities also expelled four Georgian Orthodox monks and three nuns of the Saint Giorgi Church in the village of Azhara in Kodori Gorge, reportedly for not recognizing Abkhaz de facto jurisdiction over the area. The monks crossed the administrative boundary line at the Enguri Bridge into Georgian-controlled territory. While they were crossing, Russian forces reportedly shot guns in the air for five minutes. A 1995 decree issued by the de facto leader of Abkhazia prohibiting Jehovah's Witnesses in the region remained in effect but was not enforced. During the year members of Jehovah's Witnesses reported no problems in Abkhazia, where the group had approximately 1,500 members, but was not conducting services openly. Although Baptists, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics reported they were allowed to operate in the region, the Georgian Orthodox Church reported that it was unable to do so. In South Ossetia, Orthodox believers were not able to conduct services in Georgian Orthodox churches located near the villages of Nuli, Eredvi, Monasteri, and Gera because these areas were under the control of Ossetian de facto authorities. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to IDPs, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. De facto authorities in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, as well as Russian troops in parts of Georgia occupied during the August 2008 conflict, restricted freedom of movement. Checkpoints operated by de facto militia and Russian troops often obstructed citizens' internal movement in these regions and between these regions and areas controlled by the Georgian government. In June 2008 Abkhaz de facto authorities closed the cease-fire line to all civilian vehicular traffic. Following the August 2008 hostilities, Russian and South Ossetian forces occupied villages outside of the South Ossetian and Abkhazian administrative boundaries. By October 2008 Russian and irregular forces had, to some extent, pulled back to preconflict positions. Major exceptions included an increase in the scale of the Russian presence and expansions into previously unoccupied areas, including a new Russian checkpoint outside the village of Perevi, outside South Ossetia, and a significant Russian and Ossetian presence in the Akhalgori valley and the Upper Kodori Valley in Abkhazia. The Akhalgori valley, which the Georgian government had governed since 1991, is populated predominantly by ethnic Georgians. Russian forces limited movement in and out of the valley, especially for nonresidents; international observers had difficulty gaining access. Ossetian authorities reportedly exerted pressure on local residents, especially younger ones, to accept Ossetian authority and Russian passports or leave. In October 2008 parliament passed the Law on Occupied Territories, which put limits on the movement of foreigners in and out of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, requiring permission from authorities in Tbilisi. It also imposed special requirements on those conducting economic activities in the territories. There were no reports of any international humanitarian organizations being unduly restricted in practice by the Georgian authorities. Russian and Abkhaz de facto authorities generally allowed international organizations to operate in Abkhazia, with limitations; Russian and South Ossetian de facto authorities blocked virtually all international organizations, including humanitarian ones, from entering South Ossetia. An Abkhaz ``citizenship'' law allows dual Russian-Abkhaz citizenship but not dual Georgian-Abkhaz citizenship. Ethnic Georgians living in Abkhazia were required to acquire Abkhaz ``citizenship'' to open businesses, bank accounts, vote in elections, travel freely, and own property. While ethnic Georgians in the region could ``legally'' apply for an Abkhaz passport, the processing of their applications met with long delays and in most cases was never completed. Abkhaz de facto militia conducted searches of local populations and erected arbitrary checkpoints. Money and valuables were extorted from ethnic Georgians accused of violating the identity document requirements. International organizations reported that Gali residents faced serious threats of extortion, especially at harvest time, but generally refused to make public or specific allegations for fear of retribution. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons.--According to the Ministry for Refugees and Accommodation, before the August 2008 armed conflict there were approximately 235,000 IDPs from conflicts of 1992 and 1993; the UNHCR estimated this number as 220,000. The UNHCR estimated that, of the approximately 127,000 individuals displaced as a result of the August 2008 conflict, by September 2009 approximately 7,893 persons remained displaced in undisputed Georgia. In addition, the UNHCR accounted for 106,134 in an ``IDP-like'' situation needing protection and humanitarian assistance as of September; this included individuals who returned to Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and areas adjacent to South Ossetia, as well as those displaced in the August 2008 conflict who were subsequently relocated. During the year there was debate regarding who was an IDP, as for example this status was given to the children of persons who were displaced by conflict, and who may have never been personally displaced. The numbers also included persons who had fully reintegrated into society, although perhaps not in their original hometown or region. Various agencies including the government, the UNHCR, and NGOs employed different methods in estimating the total number of IDPs. IDPs from the August 2008 conflict continued to receive substantial assistance from the government as well as the international donor community during the year. The Ministry of Refugees and Accommodation continued to implement the ``Action Plan'' for the Implementation of the State Strategy on IDPs'' adopted in December 2008. The three main objectives of the plan were to improve the living conditions of IDPs, promote their socioeconomic integration, and raise awareness of their situation. The government took steps during the year to rehabilitate existing collective centers, purchase or build new housing, or offer cash payments in lieu of providing housing to IDPs from the early 1990s and August 2008 conflicts. The government made substantial progress on providing housing to IDPs and moved from a reactive approach to the war (getting as much housing up as quickly as possible) to a long-term solution approach (providing ``durable solutions'' to IDPs from both conflicts). Abkhaz de facto authorities continued to prevent repatriation of the approximately 235,000 persons displaced by the 1992-93 war, despite their 1994 agreement with Georgia, Russia, and the UNHCR, which called for the safe, secure, and voluntary return of IDPs who fled during the war. Approximately 40,000 IDPs, many working as seasonal laborers, returned to the Gali region of Abkhazia, but Abkhaz de facto authorities refused to allow the return of IDPs to other regions of Abkhazia. A property law prevented IDPs living in other parts of the country from reclaiming homes in Abkhazia, especially outside Gali. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided some protection against refoulement, the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. However, in its April 2008 report, the UNHCR expressed concern that the legislation did not fully ensure respect for nonrefoulement and recommended additional legislation and procedural safeguards, training for border guards, and a mechanism to speed referral of asylum seekers. The government granted refugee status and asylum. The situation of Chechen refugees in the Pankisi valley improved significantly enough that by the end of December the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) had pulled out of the valley. The UNHCR coordinated with NRC and others in the international community to ensure a smooth transition from relief assistance to development. On April 15, the government issued Chechen refugees travel documents for the first time, granting them the right to travel overseas. Two Russian soldiers stationed in South Ossetia defected in June and December, and in both cases the government assisted them with temporary protection while they initiated the process of applying for asylum in the country. Both cases were in process at year's end, and both individuals remained in Georgia with protected status as asylum seekers. Stateless Persons.--According to the UNHCR, there were more than 1,600 stateless persons in the country at the end of the year. However, the precise number of stateless persons was not known, as cumbersome procedures for obtaining identity documents complicated the assessment. Among those registered as stateless, documentation was poor. The number of registered stateless persons may include Chechens who volunteered for repatriation to Russia but were denied because they had never been registered in Russia and did not have documented Georgian citizenship. This confusion was compounded by persons who lived in the unrecognized, separatist regions. The law allows for acquisition of citizenship by birth, including for children of stateless individuals born on Georgian territory. For persons born on foreign territory, the law allows the acquisition of citizenship through a naturalization process that requires 10 years of continuous residence in the country, demonstrated command of the Georgian or Abkhaz languages and Georgian history, and demonstrated permanent employment or possession of real property. Children lacking birth certificates were unable to participate in social aid or educational programs. Often children were not registered because their parents had no documentation. In July 2008 the Civil Registry Agency (CRA) launched an intensive registration project in Kvemo Kartli to register juveniles and family members who lacked identification documents. On May 14, the CRA opened new offices in Khvelvachauri and Poti. After independence in 1991, many Roma left the country, although several thousand reportedly remained. During the year the European Center for Minority Issues estimated the Romani population at 1,500, with no more than 300 in any one location. Roma were found principally in the Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Kobuleti, Kakheti, and Sukhumi regions. Large numbers of Roma came from Abkhazia, from where they had migrated to Zugdidi and Tbilisi, while additional Muslim Roma arrived from Armenia and Azerbaijan. Internal seasonal migration was noted during the summer to the Black Sea coast. Romani IDPs from Abkhazia were not entitled to IDP social assistance because they had no documentation to prove their status. CRA officials asserted that Roma with out-of-date Soviet passports had no difficulty applying for and receiving Georgian documents but noted that Roma were often reluctant to file official applications for documents. During the year there were no reports of government mistreatment of Roma in the country. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully; however, the government's record in the most recent national elections was mixed. Controversial constitutional amendments adopted in 2004 strengthened presidential powers, giving the president the ability to dismiss Parliament in two circumstances: if parliament does not approve the president's cabinet nominations after three attempts, the president can dismiss Parliament and appoint the prime minister and cabinet unilaterally; or if Parliament does not pass the budget on time, the president can approve the budget by decree. In both instances newly elected parliaments could not vote on the cabinet or the budget; however, in neither case did the president invoke the new constitutional authorities. Elections and Political Participation.--Parliament passed amendments to the election code on December 28; provisions included the direct election of the Tbilisi mayor, the split of the Central Election Commission (CEC) seats between the opposition and the ruling party, and the funding of political parties. The new electoral code passed in December also amends the selection of the chairman. The president nominates three candidates for the post in consultation with members of civil society, from which opposition members of the CEC select one. If none of the three candidates receives a majority of opposition CEC votes, parliament elects one from among the three candidates. Following opposition protests in 2007, the government changed the composition of the CEC to include six members appointed by opposition parties. One member was appointed by the ruling United National Movement (UNM) and the other six were appointed by the president and parliament under the previously existing procedure. The opposition also appointed members to all precinct election commissions; however, the midlevel district election commissions remained without opposition representation. In the period prior to the May 2008 parliamentary elections, multiparty composition of election administration was implemented at all levels, including the district election commissions, and Parliament passed an amendment to lower the threshold for party representation from 7 to 5 percent of the parliamentary election results. Prior to this reform, the president and parliament appointed a new CEC chairman, but opposition parties alleged that the appointee was selected in advance by the president and that the process was therefore not consistent with the transparent procedure provided for in the electoral code. Presidential and parliamentary elections were held in January 2008 and in May 2008, respectively. The OSCE reported that, while the early presidential election in January 2008 was consistent with most OSCE and Council of Europe standards and presented the first genuinely competitive post independence presidential election, it also revealed significant challenges. The campaign was overshadowed by allegations of intimidation and pressure. The distinction between state activities and the campaign of the ruling party incumbent candidate Mikheil Saakashvili was blurred, and the election was marred by other shortcomings in the election process, most notably flawed vote counting, tabulation, and postelection complaints and appeals procedures. The May 2008 parliamentary elections, originally scheduled for later in the year, were brought forward following a plebiscite held simultaneously with the January 2008 presidential election. The OSCE assessed that authorities and other political stakeholders made significant efforts to conduct these elections in line with OSCE and Council of Europe commitments; however, according to the OSCE, a number of problems made this implementation uneven and incomplete. The OSCE's final report noted shortcomings in vote counting, tabulation, and the handling of election complaints. The OSCE also reported widespread allegations of intimidation and pressure on opposition activists, public-sector employees, and others in the presidential and parliamentary elections. There also were credible allegations that there was pressure on businesses to contribute to ruling party election campaigns. The OSCE also reported flaws in the conduct of election commissions. In advance of the 2008 elections, Parliament restructured the incoming Parliament: the new Parliament consisted of 75 majoritarian deputies elected in single-mandate constituencies and another 75 deputies elected through a proportional party-list system. The OSCE's final parliamentary elections report stated: ``The election system was modified without reaching a consensus between the UNM and opposition parties...Opposition parties had strongly opposed single-mandate constituencies, which they saw as benefiting the UNM, given the fragmentation of the opposition, and had favored regional proportional constituencies.'' The report also noted that the unified election code (UEC) ``does not require single-mandate constituencies to be of equal or comparable size. In these elections the number of voters in individual election districts, which as a rule coincide with the administrative districts, ranged from around 6,000 to more than 140,000. Such large variations undermined one of the main principles of electoral rights, namely the equality of the vote. In amending the constitution and the UEC, parliament did not try to address this imbalance.'' In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. In the case of the Georgian Labor Party v. Georgia, the court found that there was no violation in the introduction of an active system of voter registration shortly before the election in a ``postrevolutionary'' political context, aimed at remedying the problem of chaotic electoral rolls; no violation and no evidence of abuse of power or electoral fraud adduced to back up a complaint of a propresidential majority in electoral commissions at all levels. However, it found there was a violation in the illegitimate and unjustified exclusion of two electoral districts from the country-wide vote tally. The ECHR called for the government to award the Labor Party 1,043 euros ($1,496) for costs and damages. The court stated that the government failed to comply with a number of rule of law requisites and effectively disenfranchised a significant section of the population, estimated at 60,000 voters. The Ministry of Finance claimed it had paid the judgment by electronic transfer. Unknown assailants allegedly attacked members of the political opposition before and after the January 2008 presidential and May 2008 parliamentary elections. Opposition members accused the government of not earnestly attempting to identify, arrest, and try the attackers, many of whom wore masks. At year's end there was no reported progress made on the investigation of these attacks. The OSCE's final report on the May 2008 parliamentary elections noted that the election campaign was conducted in a highly polarized environment, which was compounded by reports of widespread intimidation of opposition candidates, party activists, and state employees in many regions. Of the numerous specific allegations the OSCE election observation mission examined, it found several to be credible. The OSCE examined a series of postelection beatings and other violence involving masked men attacking a total of 13 opposition activists, many of whom were taking legal action against alleged cases of election-related irregularities. The OSCE visited seven of the 13 individuals and confirmed that they had been attacked. It noted that some opposition leaders accused the authorities and the ruling party of responsibility for the postelection attacks. The public defender also issued a statement criticizing the attacks and noting that a number of individuals who had been attacked refused to identify themselves out of fear. There were no government restrictions on political party formation beyond registration requirements; according to the Ministry of Justice's Registration and Licensing Department, there were 200 registered political parties by the end of the year, compared with 189 in 2008. However, members of nonparliamentary opposition parties reported that they were subject to politically motivated assaults as a result of their three-month protest action. The nonparliamentary opposition also reported that their members were unduly singled out for prosecution, most commonly for the alleged possession of illegal weapons or drugs (see sections 1.d. and 1.e.). There was also a case of the government allegedly extending benefits to a politician who was in its favor and then withdrawing the benefits in a punitive manner once that person shifted to the opposition. After former parliamentary speaker Nino Burjanadze joined the nonparliamentary opposition, she reported that the government took politically motivated steps, including the confiscation of a residence she received from the government in May 2008 through a presidential decree authorizing the sale of the residence and a plot of land to Burjanadze for one lari (69 cents). The decree stated that the residence was in honor of Burjanadze's efforts ``in the development of parliamentarism and democracy in Georgia.'' On August 18, the Tbilisi City Court ruled in favor of the Finance Ministry in a claim against Burjanadze. The Finance Ministry said that Burjanadze owed the state 1.25 million lari ($739,645) in unpaid taxes for the residence. Burjanadze claimed that the amount of tax she owed amounted to 300,000 lari ($177,500) and that the authorities increased the market value of the residence, based on which the tax was calculated, only after she joined the opposition. On October 21, the government took possession of the residence after Burjanadze exhausted all her appeals and the residence did not sell in auction. Due process concerns included the failure of the judiciary to permit Burjanadze to submit her own experts' assessment of the value of the property to the court. In July 2008 parliament passed an amendment to the election law that denied six opposition parties state funding based on their refusal to take their seats after the parliamentary elections. Some opposition political members stated that they were being punished by the government for their failure to participate in the new parliament. In December 2008 parliament restored political party funding to opposition parties and endowed a foundation to provide funding to all political parties for research and training. On July 27, the president put forth a proposal to allow 10 opposition members to take their seats despite their earlier boycott. On September 24, Parliament passed a constitutional amendment endorsing the proposal. At year's end Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, leader of the opposition Freedom Party, was the only opposition member to have taken back his seat. There were seven women in the 150-seat parliament. A woman was one of seven vice-speakers, and another woman was the chair of the procedural committee in parliament. There were five members of minority groups in parliament: two ethnic Armenians and three ethnic Azeris. As a result of 2006 local government reforms, the number of seats held by ethnic minorities in municipal councils was commensurate with the ethnic population in each region of the country. Higher-level city managers included ethnic minority leaders among their ranks. The de facto authorities in Abkhazia continued to restrict the rights of citizens to vote and to participate in the political process through a ``citizenship'' law that forced ethnic Georgians to give up their Georgian citizenship in order to vote in regional elections. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. While the government implemented these laws effectively against low-level corruption, which decreased as a result of high profile reforms led by the president, some NGOs alleged that senior-level officials engaged in corruption with impunity. The World Bank's worldwide governance indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem. There was a general consensus among public officials and civil society organizations that levels of petty corruption fell after the 2003 Rose Revolution. Only 2 percent of the respondents to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer, released on June 3, reported having to pay a bribe in the past year. Observers attributed the improvement to the detention of corrupt public officials, increases in public servants' salaries, and the simplification of administrative procedures. In spite of this, high-level corruption remained a persistent concern, and observers considered the official anticorruption campaign too heavily focused on prosecution as opposed to prevention and too ad hoc rather than systemic and participatory in nature. Areas of concern included democratic institutions, civil society involvement in the planning and execution of public policy, property rights, and elite corruption. In 2005 a national anticorruption strategy was approved by presidential decree. Some concrete results of this strategy were the reduction of bureaucratic red tape throughout the government and the state funding of political parties. On January 8, an anticorruption interagency council was created to update this national anticorruption strategy. Concrete accomplishments of the council included the adoption of guidelines on practical issues relating to seizure and confiscation of illegal assets by the General Prosecutor's Office in February. On February 6, two presidential orders aimed at ensuring impartial and fair recruitment, appraisal, and promotion within the public service entered into force. According to the Law on Public Service, public officials upon accepting a position are required to submit yearly declarations of their personal and family members' financial incomes and property for tax inspection. The Bureau of Declarations is the receiving agency for the financial information. Government corruption cases are investigated by the Prosecutor's Office under the Ministry of Justice. For the judiciary the task of addressing corruption and ensuring a cadre of independent and qualified judges involved a multiprong approach. Specific steps taken by the courts included providing adequate salaries, pensions, benefits for judges to lessen the appeal of bribery, and improving basic work conditions so that the job itself is a sustainable professional career. A portion of new training for prospective judges focused on judicial ethics and the importance of avoiding ex parte contact. Under the new CPC, the judge is removed from the investigative process, thus reducing the opportunity for ex parte communication and undue influence from the prosecution. A new training program shifted the selection of judges to a merit-based system reducing the opportunity for political influence. There were a low number of reported corruption cases among judicial authorities. During the last two to three years, only two credible instances of judicial corruption were reported. On December 12, a prosecutor was arrested and accused of accepting a 2,000 lari ($1,180) bribe to secure a favorable sentence for the defendant (see section 1.e.). The case continued at year's end. According to the Ministry of Justice, the number of convictions during the year for corruption related offenses was as follows: misappropriation or embezzlement, 217; illicit entrepreneurial activity, 10; legalization of illicit income, 1; abuse of official authority, 96; exceeding official powers, 30; accepting bribes, 40; bribe-giving, 47; trading with influence, 3; and falsification in service, 24. Mamuka Maziashvili, head of the Division on Regulation of Gambling Businesses, at the Central Headquarters of the Revenue Service of the Ministry of Finance, was found guilty on May 1 by the Tbilisi City Court for taking bribes. He was sentenced to five years of imprisonment with an additional four years of conditional sentence. He was also fined 30,000 lari ($17,750). Lasha Loladze, head of the Tbilisi Tax Inspection Unit of the Revenue Service of the Ministry of Finance, was found guilty on January 23 by the Tbilisi City Court for forgery and taking bribes. He was sentenced to six years of imprisonment with five years of conditional sentence. He was also fined 200,000 lari ($118,000). Zviad Merabishvili, head of the Audit Division of the Tbilisi Tax Inspection Unit of the Revenue Service of the Ministry of Finance, was found guilty on January 23 by the Tbilisi City Court for forgery and taking bribes. He was sentenced to six years and six months of imprisonment with five years of conditional sentence. He was also fined 150,000($89,000). On March 19, by verdict of the Tbilisi City Court and a plea agreement between the Prosecutor's Office and the accused, the following cases were concluded: Beka Okrotsvadze, deputy minister of economic development, was found guilty of taking bribes and sentenced to five years of conditional imprisonment and fined 300,000 lari ($177,500); Lasha Moistsraphishvili, deputy head of the Privatization Department of the Ministry of Economic Development, was found guilty of taking bribes and was sentenced to five years of conditional imprisonment and fined 100,000 lari ($59,000); Nikoloz Chantladze, head of the Privatization Department of the Ministry of Economic Development, was found guilty of taking bribes and sentenced to five years of conditional imprisonment and fined 100,000 lari ($59,000); Tamaz Machaladze was found guilty of offering a bribe and sentenced to three years of conditional imprisonment and fined 500,000 lari ($296,000). A number of politically active defendants in corruption cases alleged that they were victims of selective prosecution (see section 1.d.). In 2007 Mikheil Kareli, the former mayor of Shida Kartli region, was arrested and charged with bribery and illegal business practices. Earlier several officials from the local administration, including Gori governor Vasil Makharashvili, deputy chairman of the City Council Nugza Papunashvili, and Gaioz Dzanadia, were reportedly arrested on corruption charges. Kareli was released on bail later that month. Later that year the prosecution filed four additional charges against Kareli. Kareli failed to appear to face charges, and a warrant was issued for his arrest. In April 2008 the courts filed an indictment to try Kareli in absentia in Gori district; the trial was ongoing at year's end. In July 2008 French authorities arrested Kareli in France, and Georgian authorities requested his extradition to Tbilisi. French authorities had released Kareli on his own recognizance and were reviewing the extradition request. The press reported that Kareli had requested political asylum. In 2007 David Kekua, the deputy head of the General Inspection Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, was charged with planting evidence during a high-profile murder investigation and held in pretrial detention. In October 2007 he was found dead in his cell in Tbilisi Prison Number 7. According to the Ministry of Justice, the Tbilisi City Court seized video recordings of the cell in October 2007 that clearly showed that Kekua's death was a suicide. On February 5, the investigation into the case was terminated. The law provides for public access to government meetings and documents; however, the government sometimes did not provide access. Although the law states that a public agency shall release public information immediately or no later than 10 days from request, the release of requested information could be delayed indefinitely, and requests were sometimes ignored in practice. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigations of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. However, while some NGOs enjoyed close cooperation with the government and officials were cooperative and responsive to their views, others complained of not having sufficient access to government officials and a lack of inclusiveness of all civil society views. The major human rights problems that caused tensions between the government and NGOs during the year were the alleged mistreatment of prisoners, intimidation and use of government resources during the 2008 presidential and parliamentary campaigns, violence against nonparliamentary opposition figures with no accountability during the spring protests, violations of rights to property, politically motivated arrests, and lack of accountability for the use of excessive force by the police. According to the NGO Frontline, on October 11, human rights lawyer and Chairperson of Human Rights Priority Lia Mukhashavria was fined by the Tbilisi City Court for ``minor hooliganism'' and acts of harassment. Frontline alleged that her conviction was directly related to her human rights work. Human Rights Priority provided legal assistance to victims of human rights violations. The UN and the OSCE monitored only sporadically in the separatist conflict areas due to a lack of access, limited staff, and poor security conditions but provided periodic findings, reports, and recommendations. The situation became more difficult after the August 2008 conflict, as Russian troops refused or restricted observers' entry to South Ossetia and Abkhazia as well as to other areas of Georgia where allegations of ethnically motivated attacks persisted. On June 15, UNOMIG was terminated when Russia vetoed the mandate extension in the UN Security Council. On June 30, the OSCE completed its last patrol in Georgia; Russia blocked the extension of the OSCE's 17-year-old mandate to facilitate the settlement of the South Ossetia conflict. The OSCE human rights officer had not been allowed into South Ossetia since the August 2008 conflict. The EUMM facilitated conflict resolution (including those involving human rights issues) between the Georgian, Russian, and de facto authorities in the separatist regions by running regular patrols near the conflict areas and facilitating informal contacts among the sides. However, the EUMM was denied access to the separatist regions and patrols were permitted only on the undisputed Georgian side of the administrative boundary lines. The Geneva discussions, which were established as part of the August 2008 cease-fire, established two Incident Prevention and Response Mechanisms (IPRMs), one for Abkhazia and one for South Ossetia, to facilitate practical and depoliticized discussions of the situation on the ground. Representatives of the EUMM, UN, and OSCE facilitated these meetings, which helped decrease tensions. South Ossetian de facto authorities announced in October they would not attend additional IPRM meetings until three missing-persons cases from 2008 were resolved. A new public defender, Giorgi Tugushi, took office on September 16. NGOs continued to view the Public Defender's Office as the most objective of the government's human rights bodies. The constitutionally mandated office monitored human rights conditions and investigated allegations of abuse. The office generally operated without government interference and was considered effective, with some exceptions. The government funded the Public Defender's Office, which received 2 million lari ($1.2 million) during the year, up from 1.9 million lari ($1.1 million) in 2008, one of the few government agencies to receive an increased budget. On June 15, a representative from the Public Defender's Office was assaulted by police while monitoring a nonparliamentary opposition protest (see section 2.b.). According to information received by the Public Defender's Office, the Ministry of Justice was investigating all June 15 incidents. At year's end the investigation continued. There were no developments reported during the year in the Office of the Prosecutor's criminal investigation into then public defender Subari's allegation that Ministry of Internal Affairs special unit officers members beat and injured him when he tried to prevent an altercation between demonstrators and unit members during the November 2007 protests in Tbilisi. As required by law, the public defender submitted biannual reports to parliament. The public defender's most recent biannual report, submitted on October 31 and officially heard on December 18, covered the first half of the year. The report was chiefly dedicated to the April-July antigovernment protests and related incidents. Additionally, the public defender commented on the systemic abuse of power, inhumane treatment of criminal suspects and inmates, and the overcrowding and inadequate conditions of the penitentiary system. Ruling party members mostly criticized the parts referring to the abuse of power by law enforcement and the lack of fair trials, while opposition members criticized the section referring to the need for equality in religious freedom. The Public Defender's Office also published a report with all suspected politically motivated assaults on nonparliamentary opposition activists during the April-July protests, involving a total of 32 cases. According to the Public Defender's Office, it forwarded all the information gathered in these cases to the Prosecutor's Office for further investigation. Investigations continued at year's end. Former public defender Subari's previous report, which covered the second half of 2008 and focused on the need for checks and balances and an independent judiciary, was submitted to Parliament on March 31. Following the January 2008 election, the Public Defender's Office asked the CEC for videotapes from voting precincts where observers noted problems. Eventually, the public defender received some but not all of the tapes he requested, and only much later following an intense public dispute. The CEC was slow to deliver tapes, stating that it did not have time to review hundreds of minutes of hundreds of tapes. The public defender's authority does not include the power to initiate prosecutions or other legal actions. The public defender objected to Ministry of Justice regulations prohibiting the use of cameras and recorders in the penitentiary system as an obstacle to substantiating claims of prison abuse. The parliamentary Committee on Human Rights and Civil Integration, the Ministry of Internal Affairs' Human Rights Division, and the National Security Council's human rights advisor had mandates to investigate claims of abuse. By law the prosecutor general is charged with protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. In October the Human Rights Unit at the Office of Chief Prosecutor was placed under the Department for the Supervision of Prosecution. Apart from the overall monitoring over prosecution and supervision of compliance with national and international human rights standards, the department is also tasked with statistical and analytical activities within the prosecution system. According to the Ministry of Justice, the Human Rights Unit continued to ``monitor and respond to the notifications regarding the alleged violations of human rights in the organs of the Prosecution Services, detention facilities and isolators, as well as to identify and respond to the facts of torture, inhuman, cruel and degrading treatment or punishment.'' In addition, the unit is responsible for considering human rights recommendations of national and international human rights institutions and taking responsive measures. On February 2, Dimitri Shashkin was named as the minister for a newly created Ministry of Corrections and Legal Assistance. Shashkin was also tasked to oversee government democratic reforms, including the passage of the reformed electoral code, improvements to the prison health system, and legal aid services. In 2007 Abkhaz de facto authorities agreed to permit a UN human rights officer's presence and the deployment of three UN civilian police in the Gali sector headquarters, however; this mandate was terminated on June 15 (see section 1.g.). Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, religion, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not always enforce these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape is illegal, but spousal rape is not specifically addressed by criminal law. Criminal cases of rape generally could be initiated only after a complaint by the victim. A first-time offender may be imprisoned for up to seven years; a repeat offender or perpetrator against multiple victims may receive up to 10 years. If the victim becomes pregnant, contracts HIV/AIDS, or is subjected to extreme violence, the sentence may be increased to 15 years or, if the victim is a minor, up to 20 years. In the first 11 months of the year, investigations were initiated in 136 rape cases. Of these, 46 were terminated, prosecutions were initiated against 47 cases, and court proceedings were begun in 28 cases involving 28 defendants. Observers believed many instances of rape were unreported due to the social stigma for victims and because police did not always investigate reports of rape. Domestic and other violence against women was a problem. According to Ministry of Internal Affairs statistics, police responded to 1,331 cases of family conflicts during the year, compared with 2,576 cases in 2008 and 2,056 cases in 2007. Domestic violence is legally defined as a violation of the constitutional rights and liberties of one member of a family by another through physical, psychological, economic, or sexual violence or coercion; however, domestic violence is not specifically criminalized. Perpetrators of domestic violence were prosecuted under existing criminal provisions, such as battery or rape. The law allows victims to file immediate protective orders against abusers and authorizes police to issue temporary restrictive orders against persons suspected of abusing a family member. Restrictive orders were issued in 176 cases of domestic violence during the year, compared with 141 cases in 2008. Within 24 hours the temporary order should be approved by a court, at which point it becomes a protective order that prohibits the abuser from coming within 100 meters (310 feet) of the victim and forbids the perpetrator to use common property, such as a residence or vehicle, for six months. The victim may request an unlimited number of extensions of the protective order. The Ministry of Internal Affairs has developed the legally required form that police should use to issue restrictive orders, but training for police in this area was lacking outside of Tbilisi. A local NGO operated a hotline and a shelter for abused women, although services were limited due to a lack of funding and facilities. On December 28, parliament amended existing legislation on domestic violence. The amended version lays the foundation for the protection, assistance, and rehabilitation of domestic violence victims; provides a framework for the cooperation of various government agencies in preventing domestic violence; and establishes rehabilitation measures for domestic violence offenders. It establishes a broader definition of a victim of family violence as ``a family member who has suffered physical, psychological, sexual, or economic violence or coercion.'' It also calls for the establishment of domestic violence crisis centers run by the Ministry of Labor, Health, and Social Protection or by nongovernmental organizations. Crisis centers are intended to offer domestic violence victims psychological, medical, and legal assistance. In conjunction with these amendments, parliament amended other laws, including the labor code, the Law on Firearms, the Law on Public Service, and the administrative procedural code in ways designed to prevent domestic violence and assist its victims. Among other changes, they exempt state duty payment on court cases related to protection of and assistance to domestic violence victims; streamline and simplify court application procedures for domestic violence victims; allow a court, either on its own initiative or by request of a party, to hold closed sessions in domestic violence cases; allow a court to consider separation of a child from a violent parent; and limit access to firearms by a domestic violence offender. In December 2008 presidential decree 625 ordered the establishment of an interagency council to address domestic violence and coordinate the activities of ministries and NGOs to combat the problem. During the year the Interagency Council prepared and received presidential approval on the 2009-10 National Action Plan to Fight Domestic Violence. It was on the basis of the plan that the antidomestic violence legislation was revised. During the year the Interagency Council initiated a public awareness campaign, coordinated domestic violence training in partnership with the Prosecution Service and Police, mobilized funding to rehabilitate two state-run domestic violence shelters, and introduced a special postgraduate course for law students at Tbilisi State University on trafficking in persons and domestic violence issues. Kidnapping of women for marriage occurred but was not widespread. Such kidnappings often were arranged elopements. Police rarely took action in these cases, although the law criminalizes kidnapping. A local NGO in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region maintained a hotline and shelter to assist victims of attempted kidnappings, who were often rejected by their families after escaping from the kidnapper. Prostitution is illegal but was widespread, particularly in Tbilisi. Several NGOs claimed that prostitution remained common due to continuing poor economic conditions. Sexual harassment and violence against women in the workplace were problems. The law prohibits sexual harassment; however, the government did not effectively enforce the law, and complaints were rarely investigated. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Information was accessible so families and individuals could make reproductive decisions free from discrimination, coercion, or violence. Contraception was widely available. Skilled attendance during childbirth was accessible. Women and men were equally treated and diagnosed for transmitted infections, including HIV. However, patriarchal norms, based on cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors, in some cases limited women's reproductive rights. The law provides for the equality of men and women; however the law was not always implemented in practice. A Gender Equality National Action Plan adopted in 2007 was not enforced. NGOs stated that discrimination against women in the workplace existed, but instances were never reported. The speaker of Parliament continued to chair a Gender Equity Advisory Council, which included MPs as well as representatives from the executive branch, the Public Defender's Office, and NGOs. It became a permanent body at the end of the year. The State Commission on Gender Equity, chaired at the deputy-state- minister level, prepared recommendations on the implementation of international agreements and conventions on gender equity. Within the Public Defender's Office, there is a special group dedicated to women's and children's issues. The labor code does not protect pregnant women from being dismissed from work while they are on maternity leave. According to the UN Development Program, employers frequently withheld benefits for pregnancy and childbirth. Although some observers noted continuing improvement in women's access to the labor market, women remained primarily confined to low- paying and low-skilled positions, regardless of their professional and academic qualifications, and salaries for women lagged behind those for men. As a result, many women sought employment abroad. Children.--The law provides for acquisition of citizenship by birth (jus soli), including for children of stateless individuals born on Georgian territory. Romani children were usually born at home, and their parents frequently did not register their births with the government. Since official identification is required to receive medical treatment and other public services, the lack of identification and the reluctance of parents to apply for such services deprived many Romani children of access to medical and other services. Education was officially free through high school, but in practice a lack of resources inhibited schools' functioning and affected the quality of education in some areas, especially in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In some areas school facilities were inadequate and lacked heating, libraries, and blackboards. Most parents were obliged to pay some form of tuition to support the schools. Many parents were unable to afford books and school supplies, and in some cases students were forced to drop out due to an inability or unwillingness to pay tuition. According to the Ministry of Education, the situation in schools improved in terms of heating, although such supplies as blackboards remained inadequate in some schools. Approximately 55 schools were damaged during the August 2008 conflict. During the 2008 conflict, IDP shelters were established in 165 schools, 169 kindergartens, and nine higher education institutions, which resulted in the unavailability of buildings for use during the school year and damage to structures. Despite legal prohibitions, local residents and international organizations reported that schools in the ethnic Georgian region of Gali in Abkhazia were generally allowed to provide instruction in the Georgian language but not in certain subjects, such as history and geography, which had to be taught in Russian or Abkhaz. However, the de facto authorities did not provide funding for teachers of Georgian, and local communities had either to pay for teachers themselves, make arrangements for teachers to cross from undisputed Georgia to teach, or send their children out of Abkhazia for Georgian-language lessons. An increasingly strict boundary regime imposed by Russian border guards made the latter two types of arrangements more and more difficult. There were some reports of Russian border guards detaining children attempting to cross the boundary for language lessons. There were some reports of child abuse, particularly of street children, although there was no societal pattern of such abuse. Incidents of sexual exploitation of children, particularly girls, were reported. There is no explicit statutory rape law, but an article in the criminal code makes ``perverse action'' involving juveniles under the age of 16 illegal. The precondition for the crime is that the perpetrator has to be aware that it is illegal. In such cases the penalty is an unspecified fine and/or detention for up to two years. Commercial sexual exploitation of children and child pornography are punishable by up to three years' imprisonment. The Ministry of Internal Affairs sponsored a center for the rehabilitation of minors, which regularly provided medical and psychological assistance to child and adolescent victims before returning them to their guardians. Street children and children living in orphanages were reportedly particularly vulnerable to trafficking. The number of street children was not considered to be high and has been decreasing yearly. Difficult economic conditions contributed to the problem. According to a 1999 UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) study, there were an estimated 2,500 children living and working in the streets. A study covering the period 2007-08 by the NGO Save the Children indicated that the number had decreased to approximately 1,500. The NGO Child and Environment and the Ministry of Education each operated a shelter in Tbilisi, but the two shelters could accommodate only a small number of street children. The government took little other action to assist street children. According to a 2006 UN- sponsored report prepared by the Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, the Education Ministry viewed street children as a local issue that should be addressed by municipalities, not the ministry. There were unconfirmed reports of police harassment of street children, but the patrol police routinely transferred street children to 24-hour care centers. The NGO Child and Environment ran one night center and three day centers during the year and provided support to 350 street children per day countrywide. These centers lacked resources for treatment and rehabilitation of children, many of whom were substance abusers or suffered from mental disorders. Ongoing conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia displaced thousands of children; the numbers increased further as a result of the August 2008 conflict with Russia. Even before that conflict, UNICEF reported that health services in both regions were scant, immunization rates were lower than elsewhere in the country, schools were deteriorating, and malnutrition was a serious problem. Orphanages were unable to provide adequate food, clothing, education, and medical care, and facilities lacked heat, water, and electricity. Staff members reportedly often diverted money and supplies provided to orphanages to their personal use. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that women and girls were trafficked from and within the country for commercial sexual exploitation, and labor and men and women were trafficked within and from the country for forced labor. Instances of trafficking in persons during the year declined. During the year Georgia remained a country of origin, but fewer cases of trafficking through the country were recorded, and, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), there were no statistics to confirm that Georgia was a country of destination for trafficking. The most common purposes of trafficking are sexual exploitation and labor exploitation. In the past internal trafficking was investigated and prosecuted by law enforcement officials, but there were no reports of such investigations during the year. Claims of labor exploitation in the conflict area in South Ossetia were reported in Georgian mass media after the August 2008 war, and occasionally similar claims were presented in the case of Abkhazia. However, the IOM reported that it had seen no conclusive evidence of trafficking in either of the two conflict zones. The country was a country of origin, possibly transit, and very rarely a destination for trafficked persons. Women were trafficked from the country to Turkey and the United Arab Emirates to work in hotels, bars, and restaurants or as domestic servants. Many were exploited in the adult entertainment sector or forced into prostitution. Victims most frequently came from Tbilisi or the impoverished former industrial centers of Kutaisi and Rustavi. Local NGOs reported that men were trafficked to Russia and other destinations to work in construction, agriculture, and other sectors requiring manual labor. There also was evidence that women from other countries of the former Soviet Union were trafficked through the country to Turkey. Based on information from law enforcement investigations and the IOM's caseload of assisted victims during the year, women and girls from the ethnic Azerbaijani community in Kvemo Kartli were particularly vulnerable to trafficking. Although some reports indicated that IDPs, particularly the 30,000 persons displaced by the August 2008 conflict with Russia, might also be particular targets of traffickers, there was no evidence of increased trafficking activity involving IDPs at year's end. Children were seldom trafficking victims, although street children and children living in orphanages were vulnerable. Conditions for trafficked laborers and women trafficked into prostitution were extremely poor. The government did not have control over the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and was unable to carry out investigations into allegations of trafficking there. Traffickers were largely freelance domestic operators with connections outside the country; there were also some small international operators. They often used offers of employment from friends and families or offers of overseas jobs from tourism or employment agencies to lure potential victims. The criminal code prohibits trafficking in persons for sexual exploitation, labor, and other forms of exploitation. Trafficking in adults is punishable by seven to 20 years in prison. Trafficking in minors is punishable by a prison sentence of eight years to life, under aggravated circumstances. Minors are defined as anyone under the age of 18. The code prohibits internal and external trafficking and makes no distinction between the two. The law provides for confiscation of assets of convicted traffickers and members of their families if the assets were acquired through trafficking in persons. Such assets are to be used to satisfy the needs of the trafficking victim, with any remaining assets going to the state. A victim can also claim civil damages from the trafficker during criminal proceedings. By law it is also a criminal offense to make uses of the services of a (statutory) trafficking victim. Such activity is punishable by three to 15 years' imprisonment. An interagency antitrafficking coordination council served as the overall coordination mechanism for antitrafficking measures by state agencies. National NGOs and international organizations were actively involved in the work of the council, which met quarterly. In 2007 the council approved a strategy for rehabilitating and reintegrating trafficking victims into society. The strategy was the final document in a series providing the framework for assistance to, and protection of, trafficking victims. The Prosecutor General's Office, the State Fund, international organizations, and local NGOS jointly implement the strategy, which calls for individual victims to receive a specific rehabilitation plan according to their needs. The State Fund for Victim Protection and Assistance oversees the design and implementation of individual plans. The government operated shelters in Batumi and Tbilisi and a hotline for trafficking victims. The country has a system for protecting and providing rehabilitation opportunities for trafficking victims and integrating them back into society. A public information campaign continued into its sixth year, ensuring that information about trafficking was widely available through law enforcement agency Web sites, public service announcements, antitrafficking television programming, and brochures at the country's main ports of entry. In addition, local and international NGOs continued their own initiatives to combat trafficking, including seminars and public awareness events. These efforts were supported by the other members of the interagency coordination council. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities, although in practice the problem was a low priority for the government. Discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services was a problem, and societal discrimination existed. The administrative code mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities and stipulates fines for noncompliance. However, very few, if any, public facilities or buildings were accessible. The government took some steps to address the needs of persons with disabilities during the year. On June 14, National Disability Day, the first Disability Fair-Forum was held in Tbilisi to raise public awareness on the problems and needs of persons with disabilities. In September 2008 a Center for Disability Rights was established in the Office of the Public Defender. On July 23-25, the office held workshops on the rights of persons with disabilities. A new Ministry of Internal Affairs building and presidential palace were accessible to persons with disabilities. In March 2008 the National Agency of Public Registry of the Ministry of Justice hired six persons with disabilities as part of a telephone consulting service that provided information about how to apply for benefits. As part of the pilot program, persons with disabilities received training and office equipment that permitted them to work from home. In the same month, 40 new buses equipped with a vertical lift to assist travelers with disabilities were added to the municipal bus fleet in Tbilisi. As of December, 139,354 persons with disabilities were registered in the country. There were 8,034 registered children with disabilities. These numbers included only those officially registered; the actual number could be higher. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law requires that all government officials speak Georgian, the state language, which some minorities claimed excluded them from participating in government. Some government materials distributed to the public were only available in the Georgian language. Authorities asserted the government was not obliged to provide all official materials in minority languages. Ballots and election materials were available in minority languages during the presidential and parliamentary elections of 2008. In 2007, the Ministry of Education translated textbooks in minority languages (Armenian, Azeri, and Russian) for the first, seventh, and 10th grades. In 2008 the textbooks were translated for second, eighth, and 11th grades. The textbooks were being introduced in minority schools in minority regions and Tbilisi. Ethnic Georgians living in the Gali region of Abkhazia had no legal access to education in the Georgian language. In practice teachers who did not speak Abkhaz instructed students in Georgian; however, such teachers were often subjected to harassment and prosecution by Abkhaz de facto authorities. Many inhabitants of the region of Akhalkalaki, which is dominated by ethnic Armenians, complained about government unwillingness to give provincial-language status to the Armenian language, since very few persons there spoke Georgian or were able to conduct daily affairs in Georgian. However, many NGOs in the region stated that they saw an improvement during the year in the number of opportunities for Georgian-language instruction and in the quality of the classes. Ethnic Azeris in the ethnic-Azeri-dominated region of Kvemo Kartli made similar complaints. In July 2008 Vahagn Chakhalian, Armen Chakhalian, and Ruben Chakhalian, all members of United Javakh, a local NGO that calls for autonomy for ethnic Armenians in the country, were charged with violating public order, resisting arrest, threatening law enforcement officers, and illegally possessing firearms. In 2006 the men reportedly attempted to break into the Akhalkalaki municipal building, wounding police in the process. A fourth person, Aram Batoian, was also at the scene, and according to the Ministry of Justice he was charged with the organization of group activities violating public order as well as the illegal purchase and possession of firearms; his case was submitted to the Akhalkalaki District Court and remained under consideration at year's end. On April 7, Vahagn Chakhalian was found guilty by the Akhalkalaki District Court on six of 12 charges brought by the public prosecution. He was convicted of organizing a riot directed against the public order, hooliganism, and the illegal purchase and possession of firearms and sentenced to 10 years of prison. Ruben Chakhalian was convicted of two of four charges against him, namely organizing a riot directed against public order and the illegal purchase and possession of firearms. He was fined 5,000 lari ($2,960). Armen Chakhalian was found guilty of the illegal purchase and possession of firearms and was fined 2,000 lari ($1,180). Ethnic Armenians, Azeris, Greeks, Abkhaz, Ossetians, and Russians usually communicated in their native languages or in Russian in the areas where they are the dominant ethnic group. The law requires that ethnic minority students learn Georgian as a second language, and the government funded more than 200 primary and secondary Russian-, Azeri-, and Armenian-language schools for persons whose first language was not Georgian. The Zurab Zhvania School of Public Administration based in Kutaisi provided courses specifically for students from minority areas. The school also facilitated integration of future public servants from minority areas into Georgian society at large. In Tbilisi a large majority of ethnic minority groups were able to communicate in Georgian in their daily interaction with members of other linguistic groups. The government took several steps to integrate ethnic minority communities through Georgian-language instruction, education, involvement in political dialogue, and improved access to information. In 2008 the General Skills National Examinations for university enrollment were provided in minority languages for the first time. The government increased its efforts to provide Georgian-language instruction to members of ethnic minorities serving in the armed forces and police. In 2007 parliament approved a law on the repatriation of the Muslim Meskhetian population, a national minority group that Stalin deported in 1944. The legislation was a response to commitments that the country made to the Council of Europe in 1999 to provide for the resettlement of the Meskhetians by 2011. Passage of the law allowed the government in January 2008 to begin accepting applications for repatriation from Meskhetians with documents that confirm their deportation. Passage of the law came under heavy criticism from opposition members of Parliament and the media, which pointed to the delicate ethnic and demographic balance in areas once inhabited by Meskhetians, but subsequently populated by a sizeable ethnic Armenian community. More than 1,700 Meskhetians had filed for repatriation by year's end. More than 150 returned unofficially over the previous three years, quietly settling in Akhaltsikhe and Abastumani. In December 2008 parliament voted to extend the application period until July 1. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There are no laws that criminalize sexual orientation, male-to-male sex, or female-to-female sex; however, homosexuality was not widely accepted in society. There were a few lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) organizations; however, they did not work exclusively as such and instead promoted tolerance more broadly. One reason for this was the strong societal stigma against homosexuality, including its denunciation by the Georgian Orthodox Church. The new public defender (see section 5) stated that among his priorities would be the protection of LGBT groups and individuals, and on July 31, in a debate with another nominee for the post, he said that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation was unacceptable. On December 15, the office of an NGO that promotes LGBT equality was searched by police. Reportedly, officials used antihomosexual slurs, made unnecessary strip searches, unnecessarily damaged organizational posters, and unnecessarily ransacked offices. The Ministry of Internal Affairs denied that any procedural violations took place and maintained that the profile of the organization was irrelevant in terms of the law. The ministry reported that its General Inspection Office gave one officer a reprimand at the ``severe'' level in accordance with the police code of ethics, as his actions were determined to be nonethical and inappropriate for police officers. Two other officers were also given a reprimand at the ``severe'' level for not preventing the above-mentioned officer from making the unethical statements. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS; however, there is no penalty for violating this prohibition. NGOs reported that social stigma resulted in individuals avoiding testing and treatment for fear of discrimination. Some health-care providers, particularly dentists, often refused to provide services to HIV-positive persons. Individuals often concealed their HIV-positive status from employers for fear of losing their jobs. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows all workers, including government employees, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and they did so in practice. However, the law restricts the right of employees of law enforcement agencies, medical doctors, firemen, the Prosecutor General's Office, and certain ministries (e.g., defense) to form and join unions and strike. Labor unions stated that provisions of the labor code limit the mechanisms available for them to exercise their rights. At least 100 persons are needed for a trade union to be established--a requirement considered unreasonable by the International Labor Organization's Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations. The principal association of unions is the Georgian Trade Union Confederation (GTUC), which represented unions in 23 sectors with more than 252,900 unionized workers, according to the GTUC information. There were a few small unions for civil servants, agricultural workers, and artists, but they did not participate in the GTUC. Although many employees in large-scale enterprises were unionized, they did not exercise power commensurate with their large membership. Only a minority of the members were active in the labor movement. Critics believed that this gave management a free hand. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference. It provides for the right to strike; however, it limits the maximum length of strikes to 90 days. Strikes were reportedly limited to disputes concerning conflict of rights, not conflict of interests. Workers generally exercised their right to strike in accordance with the labor code, but strikes were rare. The GTUC asserted that the rarity of strikes was due to restrictive rules and workers' fear of losing their jobs. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Collective bargaining is recognized by law, and the law provides punishment for those who refuse to take part in negotiations; however, the government did not always protect this right in practice. The Public Defender's Office stated that one of the major deficiencies of the labor code was the absence of a requirement that employers provide notice to employees in the event of termination of employment. The labor code also allows the employer to terminate employment at will, without providing a reason. This permits employers to fire employees on discriminatory grounds (i.e., gender, political affiliation, etc.) or for union activism. The practice of collective bargaining was not widespread. Employers reportedly are not obliged to engage in collective bargaining, even if a trade union or a group of employees wishes to do so. During the year the GTUC administered approximately 80 collective bargaining agreements as well as three sector-level agreements. Poor management and leadership, as well as a general lack of familiarity with the collective bargaining process, limited the effectiveness of collective bargaining. The law prohibits employers from discriminating against union members or union-organizing activities, and employers may be prosecuted for violations and forced to reinstate employees and pay back wages. However, the labor code allows employers to terminate at will, creating a loophole in the law. Despite the law, the GTUC and its national unions continued to report some cases of management warning staff not to organize trade unions and the GTUC alleged several instances during the year in which employers threatened union members with dismissal for union activity. The GTUC estimated that it lost approximately 20,000 members due to harassment and dismissals. There were continuing reports that some workers complained of being intimidated or threatened by employers, including public sector employers, for union-organizing activity. Affected workers included teachers; employees of various mining, pipeline, and port facilities; and the Tbilisi municipal government. According to the GTUC, there were 51 dismissals during the year that could clearly be attributed to trade union membership. In other cases it was not possible to prove that the ground for dismissal was GTUC membership, as contracts in most industries were short term (as short as one month), and expiration of a contract could be cited as the reason for termination of employment. In 2007 port authorities in Poti fired union members and sealed their union office because of union activity. After negotiations between the port authorities and the union, the port authorities reinstated most workers, and the office reopened. A court ruled against the union in a lawsuit filed on behalf of eleven workers who were not reinstated, and on May 4, the GTUC appealed to the ECHR, which accepted the GTUC's application and was expected to start reviewing the case early in 2010. According to the GTUC, in March 2008 employees at BTM Textile, in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, officially established a trade union, which affiliated with the Adjara branch of the GTUC. On the same day, nine workers who had been with the company since 2007 were elected as trade union committee members. Notification of the union's establishment was officially sent to the general director of the company by mail. On the following day, the employer reportedly dismissed all nine union officers on the basis of 37(d) and 38(c) of the labor code, which allows an employer to terminate employment at will. The GTUC unsuccessfully challenged the dismissals in the Batumi City Court. At year's end the Georgian Supreme Court was reviewing these cases. The GTUC stated that these cases discouraged workers from joining or taking an active part in unions. The GTUC reported cases of employers failing to transfer compulsory union dues, deducted from wages, to union bank accounts. In one case reported by the GTUC, the company Georgian Post systematically blocked the transfer of 38,000 lari ($22,485) in trade union membership fees from employees' salaries to a union bank account. According to the GTUC, by the end of the year the process of transferring the union dues continued. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor and no cases of forced labor were reported; however, there were reports that women and children were trafficked from and through the country for commercial sexual exploitation and men and women were trafficked from and through, but not to, the country for labor (see section 6). NGOs and trade unions objected to a provision in the labor code that permits compulsory labor in instances of emergency and natural disaster but does not require remuneration to persons who are conscripted. The labor code also permits an employer to change the hours of work by 90 minutes without renegotiating the terms of any labor contact. NGOs stated that this provision would effectively require employees to work overtime without compensation in violation of the prohibition against compulsory labor in the constitution. During the year there were reports of the forced conscription of boys in the separatist region of Abkhazia, which is not under the control of the Georgian government. Whether the boys were under the age of 18 could not be confirmed. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were reports that child labor existed in some sectors. The Public Defender's Office noted that one of the major deficiencies of the labor code was insufficient attention to the rights of minors. However, with high unemployment resulting in a large pool of adult workers willing to work for low wages, child labor was uncommon. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Affairs is responsible for enforcing laws regulating child labor. Although official data was not available, a 2007 survey estimated that 77.4 percent of working children were employed intermittently on family farms, while 18.4 percent worked in family enterprises. ITUC reported that children living in rural areas were slightly more involved in child labor. Children in urban areas were susceptible to trafficking, work in the streets, begging, or selling small items. The minimum legal age for employment is 16. In exceptional cases children may work, with parental consent, at ages 14 and 15. Children under age 18 may not engage in unhealthy or underground work, and children ages 16 to 18 are subject to reduced working hours and are prohibited from working at night. The labor code permits employment agreements with persons under the age of 14 in sports, arts, and cultural activities and for the performance of advertising services. The Department of Social Protection in the Ministry of Health and Social Security is charged with identifying labor violations, receiving complaints, and determining compliance with labor laws and regulations. The Department includes a subdepartment for Child Protection and Social Programs, which employs 12 specialists who are mainly concerned with such policy issues as child adoption, foster care, and rights of children, including child labor. The subdepartment reported that it did not receive a complaint about child employment during the year. The policies that are developed by the subdepartment are implemented by the Social Service Agency under the same ministry through the mechanism of social workers. In the event a violation of child labor laws is found to have occurred, the law grants the power to impose sanctions on the employer to the courts. The Social Protection Department did not generally take action except when the violation was associated with job-related accidents. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--Neither the minimum wage for public employees, 115 lari ($68) per month, nor the statutory minimum wage for private sector workers, approximately 20 lari ($12) per month, provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum wage was below the average monthly wage in both the private and the government sectors. The official minimum subsistence levels for the year were 124.70 lari ($74) for a single person and 209 lari ($124) for a family of four. Income from unreported trade activities, assistance from family and friends, and the sale of homegrown agricultural products often supplemented salaries. The Ministry of Labor, Health, and Social Affairs is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage. The minimum wage levels had not changed since 2005 (public sector) and the 1990s (private sector), and the existence of minimum wage requirements was little known among the public. The labor code provides for a 41-hour workweek and for a weekly 24- hour rest period unless otherwise provided by a labor contract. The Public Defender's Office noted inadequate attention to the rights of pregnant women as one of the major deficiencies of the labor code. The code does not protect pregnant women from being dismissed from work while they are on maternity leave. The labor code provides that unless otherwise addressed by an employment agreement, the duration of the business week should not exceed 41 hours a week, not including breaks and leave. Leave between shifts should not be less than 12 hours. NGOs stated that the provision in the labor code permitting employers to change hours of work by 90 minutes unilaterally would effectively require employees to work overtime without compensation (see section 7. c.). Pregnant women or women who have recently given birth are prohibited from working overtime without their consent. Overtime is defined as work that exceeds the work hours addressed in the employment agreement. If the employment agreement does not specify business hours, then overtime is considered to be performance exceeding 41 workhours per week. Terms of overtime labor are defined by agreement between the parties. The employer, as a rule, is not obligated to remunerate for overtime work or to remunerate at an increased rate. The government set occupational health and safety standards, but the Public Defender's Office listed failure to ensure safe conditions for workers as one of the major deficiencies of labor code implementation. In addition, one deputy minister and a special adviser to the minister focused on labor problems. The ministry monitors adherence to accepted labor standards and drafts proposals as necessary. The parliamentary committee on Health and Social Security has general oversight over labor policy and considers labor-related proposals submitted by the ministry. According to the GTUC, no workplace health or safety inspections were conducted by the government during the year. Moreover, the government body previously in charge of workplace monitoring, the State Department for Engineering Supervision, was abolished by the prime minister during the year due to alleged corruption, leaving no government organization in charge of this task. The law permits higher wages for hazardous work and provides workers the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger health or safety without jeopardizing their continued employment. In practice employees rarely, if ever, took advantage of these protections for fear of dismissal. __________ GERMANY Germany is a constitutional parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 82 million. Citizens periodically choose their representatives in free and fair multiparty elections. The head of the federal government, the chancellor, is elected by the Federal Parliament (Bundestag). The second legislative chamber, the Federal Council (Bundesrat), represents the 16 states at the federal level and is composed of members of the state governments. The constitution (Basic Law) sets forth the powers of the chancellor and the legislative branch. The most recent national elections for the parliament took place in September. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens. The government limited the freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association for neo-Nazi and other groups it deemed extremist. There was governmental and societal discrimination against some minority religious groups. Anti-Semitic attacks and vandalism; violence against women; trafficking in women, men, and children for sexual exploitation and forced labor; and right-wing extremist violence and harassment of racial minorities and foreigners were problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings. However, on April 20, in Regensburg, Bavaria, police killed 24-year-old Tennessee Eisenberg after he allegedly refused police demands to drop a knife. Eisenberg's corpse had twelve bullet wounds. The public prosecuting office subsequently found that the two police officers involved in the shooting were acting in self-defense and cleared them of wrongdoing. Tennessee Eisenberg's family appealed the verdict. On July 7, the Federal Constitutional Court decided not to take up the appeal of former concentration camp guard John Demjanjuk against his deportation from the United States. German prosecutors have accused him of being a guard at the Sobibor extermination camp in 1943 in German-occupied Poland and charged him as an accessory to the killing of 29,000 persons. Medical officials deemed Demjanjuk fit for trial. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. On January 14, the Federal Constitutional Court reversed some of the acquittals by the Muenster Regional Court in North Rhine-Westphalia of military instructors accused of hazing subordinates in 2007 and 2008. The federal court remanded the cases to another division of the Muenster court for review. However, a court spokesman stated that a retrial would not be possible during the year due to a case overload. The appeals of other verdicts in the case were pending before the Federal Constitutional Court at year's end. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and jail conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. One reported incident and conditions in some facilities were causes for concern. On November 3, Berlin's Constitutional Court ruled that the holding of a prisoner in a 5.25-square-meter (56.5 sq. ft.) cell in a city prison violated that prisoner's human rights. In December 2008 the Dessau regional court in Saxony-Anhalt acquitted two police officers of causing the death of Oury Jalloh from Sierra Leone, who died in 2005 when his cell in a Dessau police station caught fire. The public prosecutor and the joint plaintiffs in the case appealed the decision to the Federal Court of Justice. The appeal was pending at year's end. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the police and the Federal Criminal Investigative Service. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. No cases of impunity involving the security forces were reported during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Authorities may only arrest an individual on the basis of a warrant issued by a competent judicial authority unless the police apprehend a suspect in the act of committing a crime or have strong reason to believe that the individual intends to commit a crime. The constitution provides that a person detained on suspicion of having committed a criminal offense be brought before a judge no later than the day following his arrest. At that time, the judge must inform him of the reasons for the arrest, and he must be given an opportunity to raise objections. The law entitles a detainee to prompt access to an attorney either of his choosing or, if he does not select one, one appointed by the court. If there is evidence that a suspect might flee the country, police may detain that person for up to 24 hours pending a formal charge. To continue holding a detainee, police must bring the detainee before a judge, and the court must charge the individual at the latest by the end of the day following the arrest. The court must then issue an arrest warrant stating the grounds for detention; otherwise, the court must order the individual's release. Authorities generally respected these rights in practice. The law does not allow courts to punish persons twice for the same crime. In cases involving rape, homicide, or manslaughter, courts may order offenders to serve additional time in ``subsequent preventative detention'' if they are determined to be dangerous. Such preventive detention requires a court finding, based on at least one expert opinion, that the convicted person could pose a danger to the public. Such detention may last indefinitely. On December 17, the European Court for Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that the country must compensate a man held in ``subsequent preventive detention'' since 1991 after the end of his five-year sentence for attempted murder and robbery. The ECHR reasoned that the country's ``subsequent preventative detention'' violates the European Human Rights Convention. Bail exists but is infrequent. Authorities usually released detainees unless a court decided that there was a clear risk that they might flee the country. In such cases authorities could hold detainees for the duration of the investigation and subsequent trial. Such decisions are subject to judicial review, and time spent in investigative custody applies towards any eventual sentence. If a court acquits a defendant who was incarcerated, the government must compensate the defendant for financial losses as well as for ``moral prejudice'' due to the incarceration. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected this provision in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair, public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Juries are not used. Either one judge, a panel of professional judges, or a mixed panel of professional and lay judges try cases, depending on the severity of the charges. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have a right of appeal. The law requires defendants to be present at their trials. Defendants have the right to consult with an attorney. According to the law, before any interrogation begins, a suspect, arrested or not, must be informed about his or her right to consult an attorney before the interview. The government provides an attorney at public expense if defendants demonstrate financial need. Defendants may confront and question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to all court-held evidence relevant to their cases. For simple or less serious cases, procedures exist for an accelerated hearing and summary punishment at the local-court level. These procedures are limited to cases for which the maximum sentence is not more than one year. Courts generally suspended one-year sentences and placed the convicted individuals on probation. Heavy caseloads at times delayed court proceedings. In 2008 the ECHR found one violation by the country of the right to a fair trial, five violations regarding length of proceedings, and one violation of the right to an effective remedy, as provided under articles 6 and 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--An independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters provides access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Administrative remedies for alleged wrongs are available as well. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and authorities mostly respected these prohibitions in practice. However, members of organizations monitored by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (FOPC) and state offices for the protection of the constitution (OPCs) charged that these agencies violated their privacy. In 2007 the Left Party caucus in Lower Saxony's parliament initiated legal proceedings against the Lower Saxony OPC, accusing that office of illegally monitoring the caucus and its individual members. On November 26, the state's interior minister, citing a ruling by North Rhine-Westphalia's Higher Administrative Court on February 13 that the Left Party strives to undermine the country's democratic order, confirmed that the state OPC only monitors the Left Party, and not individual Left Party members. On September 9, the federal government confirmed the FOPC collected information on all 53 members of the federal parliament from the Left Party. The government asserted that the North Rhine-Westphalia Higher Administrative Court decision on February 13 authorized surveillance of the Left Party. In investigations of certain serious crimes, law enforcement officials may monitor the telecommunications of suspects, but only with court approval. In intelligence-related cases, such as suspicion of involvement in terrorism, the law permits intelligence services to engage in surveillance activities, for example, monitoring telecommunications, without court approval; however, an independent commission elected by a parliamentary control body has to approve such activities. In an interim decision against a January law obliging telecommunication companies to store telephone, cell phone, e-mail, and Internet services data for six months, the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that data could be transmitted from telecommunication companies to the police only if required to prevent an immediate threat to life or serious injury to a person's freedom or to the security of the country. The court began its review of the law on December 15. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; while the government mostly respected these rights in practice, it imposed limits aimed at groups deemed extremist. On November 17, the Federal Constitutional Court limited free speech that specifically endorses neo-Nazi doctrines, claiming this was ``an exceptional circumstance.'' Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and an active independent media expressed a wide variety of views without government restriction. However, making or disseminating oral statements or propaganda inciting racial hatred, endorsing Nazism, or denying the Holocaust is prohibited. On August 13, the Federal Court of Justice ruled that persons can be prosecuted for displaying Nazi slogans in the country only if they are in the German language. The court argued that translations of Nazi slogans cannot be considered as Nazi symbols, since Nazi slogans are inseparably connected with the use of the German language. On June 15, a judge in Passau, Bavaria, found a prominent neo-Nazi guilty of displaying unconstitutional symbols after he buried a ``comrade'' with a swastika flag; the neo-Nazi was fined 1,200 euros ($1,700). At the end of July, the Saarbruecken state prosecutor's office in the Saarland opened an investigation into right-wing extremist politician Udo Pastoers, the caucus leader of the National Democratic Party (NPD) in the Mecklenburg-West Pomerania state parliament. In a speech in Saarbruecken on February 25, Pastoers allegedly denigrated Jews and Turks. In order for the proceedings to move forward, the Mecklenburg-West Pomerania state parliament voted on July 15 to lift Pastoers' immunity. On January 27, Hamburg police confiscated 500 copies of the second edition of the ``Newspaper Witnesses'' that contained a supplement of the Nazi-era newspaper Racial Observer (Voelkischer Beobachter) and a Nazi poster. The confiscation was part of a nationwide action initiated by the Munich Municipal Court, which claimed that the reprint used banned symbols (e.g., swastikas) and infringed on the copyrights for the Racial Observer, which the state of Bavaria had inherited following World War II. A total of 150,000 copies of the offensive supplement were distributed throughout the country. On March 31, then federal interior minister Wolfgang Schaeuble banned the Kiel-based right-wing extremist group German Youth Faithful to the Homeland (HDJ) for distributing racist and Nazi propaganda. Searches were also carried out in Berlin, Brandenburg, Lower Saxony, and Saxony in an effort to confiscate the HDJ's assets. On August 10, the Munich Higher Regional Court in Bavaria upheld the six-year prison sentence of a prominent member of the right-wing extremist NPD, Horst Mahler, for denying the Holocaust and incitement of hatred. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet; however, government agencies may monitor e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 75 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Federal and state laws permitted the FOPC and OPCs to monitor the private e-mails and chat room postings of individuals and groups under FOPC and OPC surveillance; an independent commission elected by a parliamentary control body was responsible for oversight of such activities. The law prohibits access to material such as child pornography and Nazi propaganda. According to the July 13 newsletter of the Hamburg OPC, the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons identified as ``harmful'' a Web site run by ``neo-Nazis in Hamburg'' that sought to recruit youths. The newsletter stated that efforts by the ``Campaign Office North Germany'' to recruit young persons into right-wing exremist organizations via the Internet have been successful. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were few government restrictions on academic or cultural events; however, the law bans Nazi propaganda, material denying the Holocaust, and pornography. On April 18, police prevented a right-wing extremist concert from taking place in Guestrow, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. According to a police spokesperson, five bands with names suggesting right-wing extremist content and attitudes, such as Task Force D (Task Force D was a paramilitary SS unit sent to Ukraine during World War II to kill Jews, Roma, and Communist Party members), End of System, and Nation of Perpetrators planned to perform at a motorcycle club. Approximately 200 police officers prevented 100 persons, among them known right-wing extremists as well as criminal elements, from attending the concert. On May 23, police stopped a neo-Nazi concert disguised as a birthday party in Peine, Lower Saxony, after they discovered the ruse. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government usually respected this right in practice. However, the government prevented certain prohibited organizations, mainly right-wing extremist in nature, from holding public assemblies. Permits must be obtained for open-air public rallies and marches, and state and local officials have authority to deny permits when public safety concerns arise or when the applicant is a prohibited organization. Denials were rare but did occur. Police may detain known or suspected criminals--usually right- or left-wing extremists--for brief periods when they believe such individuals intend to participate in illegal or unauthorized demonstrations. The length of time varies from state to state and can range from one to 14 days. The Hanover chief of police barred a neo-Nazi demonstration planned for May 1 in Celle, Lower Saxony. He claimed that the demonstration could result in rioting and violence and that he could not provide the necessary police support for the estimated 1,000 neo-Nazis expected to attend a demonstration calling fo.''National Socialism Now.''. Subsequently, the Celle-based organizers filed a petition in court. The Hanover Administrative Court, the Higher Administrative Court in Lueneburg, and the Federal Constitutional Court in Karlsruhe affirmed the prohibition. In July 2008 the federal state of Bavaria passed legislation on the right of assembly that was aimed primarily at controlling extremist demonstrations. In February the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that the Bavarian law was unconstitutional because it would restrict inappropriately any type of public demonstration. Despite draft amendments to revise the law, the court in August extended the interim injunction against the law for another six months. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the law permits the prohibition of organizations whose activities have been judged illegal or opposed to the constitutional democratic order. While only the Federal Constitutional Court may prohibit political parties on these grounds, federal or state governments may prohibit or restrict other organizations, including groups that authorities classify as extremist or criminal in nature. Organizations have the right to appeal prohibition or restrictions. The FOPC and state OPCs responsible for examining possible threats to the constitutional democratic system monitored several hundred organizations. Monitoring generally consisted of collecting information from written materials and firsthand accounts; however, the FOPC and OPCs could employ more intrusive methods, including the use of undercover agents who were subject to legal checks. The FOPC and OPCs published lists of monitored organizations, including left-wing political parties. The OPCs in Baden-Wuerttemberg and Rhineland- Palatinate continued to monitor the Left Party. Although the law stipulates that OPC surveillance must not interfere with an organization's activities, representatives of monitored groups complained that the publication of the organizations' names contributed to prejudice against them. On November 10,the Higher Administrative Court in Muenster, North Rhine-Westphalia, upheld a lower court decision enabling the state's OPC to continue monitoring Pro-Koeln, a citizens' group with right-wing tendencies. Pro-Koeln had filed suit after the OPC included the organization in its 2005 and 2006 reports. The court found that the group portrayed foreigners and immigrants as ``criminal'' and ``unable to integrate into German society'' based on their religion or origin, and disparaged lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender (LGBT) persons. On August 13, Berlin police searched the homes of 11 men who allegedly belonged to the neo-Nazi organization Frontbann 24, a group of approximately 60 former NPD members between the ages of 30 and 45. No one was arrested during the searches, but police gathered evidence, including pens, lighters, swastika pins, and shirts imprinted with Frontbann symbols, that was sufficient to support a prohibition of the organization. On November 4, Berlin's interior minister, Erhard Koerting, banned Frontbann 24. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government usually respected this right in practice with some exceptions; however, discrimination against certain religious minorities remained a problem. Religion and state are separate, although historically a special partnership exists between the state and an estimated 180 religious communities that have the status of a ``public law corporation'' (PLC). If they fulfill certain requirements, including assurance of permanence and size of the organization, and do not demonstrate disloyalty to the state, religious organizations may request PLC status which, among other things, entitles them to levy ``tithes'' (averaging 9 percent) on their members, which the state then collects as part of the overall taxes. Organizations pay a fee to the government for this service, and not all PLCs availed themselves of it. The decision to grant PLC status is made at the state level, and there have been cases where federal states have denied this status to an applicant. To date, the federal states of Berlin, Bavaria, Brandenburg, Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony, Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia have granted the Jehovah's Witnesses PLC status. While the federal government has encouraged the federal states to grant PLC status to Muslim communities, it preferred that the Muslim community designate a single organization with which federal and state authorities could negotiate. To date few Muslim organizations have applied for PLC status. In some cases intra-Muslim disputes prevented organizations from establishing their right to represent that community. The Muslim Coordination Council (KRM), a coalition of the four largest Muslim religious organizations in the country that represents 10 to 15 percent of the Muslim population, attempted to set up state-level offices in order to register as a PLC. The federal states of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bavaria, Berlin, Bremen, Hesse, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saarland prohibited teachers in public schools, but not civil servants in general, from wearing head scarves. The courts have consistently rejected legal challenges to the prohibition. In January the federal court in Leipzig rejected the appeal of a March 2008 ruling by the Baden-Wuerttemberg Higher Administrative Court in Mannheim that a Muslim elementary school teacher in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt must remove her head scarf during class. On June 23, the Baden-Wuerttemberg Higher Labor Court in Stuttgart ruled that a kindergarten run by the local administration could send a written reprimand to any Muslim female teacher or educator if she continued to wear a head scarf at work for religious reasons after she had been instructed not to. A debate continued in Lower Saxony's state parliament over police security checks in mosques. The Green Party questioned why random identification checks were performed at the end of a Friday prayer at a mosque in Braunschweig on May 29, and a Green Party member accused the Braunschweig police department of discrimination. The state interior minister defended the checks as necessary to collect leads on individuals involved in Islamist extremism and terrorism. The government continued to deny recognition as religions to some belief systems, including Scientology; however, the absence of recognition did not prevent their adherents from engaging in public and private religious activities. Federal and some state authorities continued to classify Scientology as a potential threat to democratic order, resulting in discrimination against Scientologists in both the public and the private sectors. Scientology members reported the use of so-called ``sect filters'' by many associations and organizations, whereby eligibility for membership was contingent upon applicants' declaring that they do not belong to the Church of Scientology. State education authorities sometimes informed parents and school children of Scientologist activities in their school districts. An item posted on the Web by the Hamburg Working Group on Scientology alleged a ``massive publicity campaign'' by the Church of Scientology at several Hamburg schools. The article discussed Scientologisty's attempts to introduce its teachings to Hamburg's school system and urged teachers, parents, and students to acknowledge that the ``organization has nothing to do with religion.'' Scientologists continued to report instances of official and societal discrimination during the year. On October 8, the Berlin Office of Foreigners denied temporary residency permits for two American Church of Scientology members seeking to train local church staff in Berlin. The denial order noted that it ``lies in the public interest to impede the further expansion of an organization whose purposes are directed against the free democratic constitional order.'' On July 9, the Higher Administrative Court of Berlin-Brandenburg confirmed an earlier ruling of the Berlin Administrative Court of February 27, which ordered the immediate removal of two anti- Scientology posters. The Charlottenburg district office of the Berlin city administration placed the posters in front of the Church of Scientology of Berlin on January 22. They displayed a large stop sign followed by a ``warning'' from the Charlottenburg District Assembly about the activities of Scientology in the area. In reaching its conclusions, the lower court held that the City of Berlin had violated its duty of religious neutrality and its obligation to remain objective on religious matters. The court also ruled that the city's warning campaign served no justifiable purpose. The higher court affirmed the rights of Scientologists and the Church of Scientology Berlin to freedom of religion under the constitution. Some religious groups expressed opposition to the government's prohibition of home schooling. During the year local authorities brought criminal charges against some parents who refused to enroll their children in government-licensed schools for religious reasons. State authorities generally permitted groups to establish private schools so long as they met basic curriculum requirements. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of continuing societal discrimination and hostility toward some minority religious groups, including anti-Semitic acts. The government took measures during the year to address these problems. The federal government also promoted tolerance by establishing regular dialogues on the integration of minorities and immigrants and on Islamic problems between cabinet-level officials and representatives of immigrant and Muslim groups. Muslim participants generally praised the federal Interior Ministry's fourth and final plenary of the Islam Conference on June 25 for promoting dialogue between the government and the Muslim communities. On July 1, Alex Wiens, who sympathized with right-wing extremist organizations, stabbed and killed an Egyptian Muslim woman, Marwa el Sherbini, in a courtroom in Dresden, Saxony. She had appeared in the court to testify against Wiens for insulting her for wearing a head scarf and allegedly calling her a terrorist. The Dresden Prosecutor's Office stated the killer was driven by deep hatred of Muslims. On November 11, the Dresden regional court condemned Wiens to a life sentence. The judge determined that the attacker killed Sherbini out of revenge and xenophobic hatred. The federal government and representatives of the German Central Council of Muslims and the Central Council of Jews publicly criticized the killing. The incident generated protests against ``Islamophobia'' both within the country and abroad; the Muslim community in the country and the Egyptian ambassador expressed satisfaction with the verdict and sentence in November. According to estimates, Jews number more than 200,000, of which 106,435 are registered members of the Jewish community. According to preliminary figures from the Federal Interior Ministry, 817 anti-Semitic offenses .''politically motivated crimes with anti-Semitic backgroun.'') occurred from January through September. These included 14 violent and 142 propaganda offenses, and 10 persons were injured. The police investigated 426 suspects and arrested 15 persons. One arrest warrant was issued. On July 28, the Higher Administrative Court in Mannheim, Baden- Wuerttemberg, confirmed the expulsion of two 17-year-old students from a high school in Pforzheim, Baden-Wuerttemberg, following an anti- Semitic incident in December 2008 in which five high school students shouted anti-Semitic phrases at a Jewish student and vandalized a door to his home. On February 26, suspected neo-Nazis distributed anti-Semitic leaflets to mailboxes in Fuerstenzell, Bavaria. The leaflets ``warned'' inhabitants that ``millions of Jews would soon leave Palestine and enter'' the country. The letters included images of swastikas and other Nazi symbols. On September 8, NPD press spokesman Klaus Beier called a national soccer player with Turkish background, Mesut Ozil, a ``plastic German'' (meaning a German ``only by passpor.''), which resulted in a local lawyer's initiating legal proceedings against Beier for incitement of hatred. In late September the NPD sent letters to parliamentary candidates and other politicians with non-German ethnic backgrounds instructing them to leave the country and return to their ``home countries.'' The letters reportedly were designed to look like official notifications from an official titled the ``commissioner for foreigners' repatriation.'' The NPD confirmed it sent the letters. The Berlin prosecutor general began an investigation against the chairman of the Berlin NPD, Joerg Haehnel, for suspected incitement of hatred. While the most widespread anti-Semitic acts were the desecration of Jewish cemeteries, other properties were also subject to anti-Semitic vandalism. On November 7, a synagogue in Dresden was vandalized with swastikas and other anti-Semitic hate symbols. The vandalism took place days prior to events commemorating the 71st anniversary of Kristallnacht. On March 3, vandals smeared a swastika on a commemorative engraved stone at the memorial site of the former synagogue in the town of Warren/Mueritz, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. On March 23, vandals desecrated the Jewish community cemetery in Meiningen, Thuringia, knocking over gravestones and damaging fencing. On August 5, then interior minister Schaeuble appointed an expert team on anti-Semitism to provide a regular report about anti-Semitism in the country, to coordinate government activities to combat anti- Semitism, and to submit an action plan on the issue. The expert team is expected to produce a report on its findings in 2011. In September 2008 the police canceled an anti-Islam congress organized by Pro-Koeln on safety grounds after the venue was blocked by opponents. Pro-Koeln later filed suit against the Cologne law enforcement authorities for prohibiting the rally; the suit was pending before the Cologne Administrative Court at year's end. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. The constitution extends to persons persecuted on political grounds a right to apply for asylum in the country. The Asylum Procedure Act regulates the asylum procedure. The Residence Act can also grant refugee status in cases of nonstate persecution. As a rule an asylum seeker whose application has been rejected can appeal the decision within a period of two weeks of a notice being served. If an appeal is filed, deportation cannot be carried out until the court proceedings have been concluded with a final negative ruling. If the court confirms the rejection, the applicant is obliged to leave the country. If the applicant does not comply with this obligation, the applicant is deported to his/her home country. The government processes the asylum applications of individuals found to have come from a safe country of origin at an international airport prior to their entry into the country. The same applies to applicants without any passport or without a valid passport. In these cases the law requires the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees either to make a decision on an asylum application within 48 hours or to allow the person to enter the country. An applicant has three days to appeal a negative decision to an administrative court. The law requires the court to rule within 14 days or allow the individual to enter the country. Local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) continued to criticize these periods of time as insufficient to allow applicants to prepare for hearings. In the case of a final rejection of a claim, authorities did not allow the individual to enter the country, and he or she had to stay at the airport reception center until departure. If it is not possible to return the individual within 30 days after arrival, the law requires a judicial order in order to keep the individual at the airport in the transit zone. The federal government claimed not to maintain statistics about detentions in airport facilities. In May the human rights NGO Pro Asyl sharply criticized the government's ``fast'' procedure, whereby a person can apply for asylum at the airport and the Federal Office for Migration makes a decision within two days. Based on its examination of 32 cases between 2006 and 2007, the organization asserted that the minimum requirements for a fair procedure were not met, since the decision was made so rapidly. According to Pro Asyl's analysis, several decisions were incorrect and resulted in unjustified deportations. Pro Asyl also asserted that, during the two days they were awaiting an asylum determination, asylum seekers were detained in the transit portion of the airport under ``inhumane'' conditions. According to the constitution, individuals who attempted to enter the country through a ``safe country of transit,'' i.e., a member state of the EU or a country adhering to the 1951 convention, were ineligible for asylum and could be turned back at the border or, if they had entered the country, be deported to that safe country of transit. Several NGOs questioned this regulation during the year; they called for a right of appeal and individual consideration of each case in the country. Several courts in the country stopped planned deportations to another EU country under the abovementioned law. On July 20, the Frankfurt administrative court ruled that the federal government had to allow the Iranian defendant to file his asylum application in the country, although he entered the country via another EU country. On September 8, the Federal Constitutional Court suspended, for similar reasons, the deportation of an Iraqi asylum seeker to another EU country, where he had originally filed a first asylum application. In practice the government generally provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In December, the Federal Ministry of Interior instructed the federal states to suspend the deportation of Syrians who face immediate deportation due to uncertainty about their treatment upon return to Syria. Although the government processes refugee and asylum cases according to existing law, the approval rate was low. From January through July, authorities processed 16,854 asylum applications and granted 5,261 persons (31.2 percent) refugee protection under the 1951 convention and its 1967 protocol. In addition, authorities granted 860 persons (5.1 percent) temporary suspension of expulsion due to the situation in their countries of origin or based on other humanitarian grounds. The country rejected 6,248 applications (37.1 percent) and ``resolved otherwise'' (e.g. procedures were closed or applications withdrawn) another 4,485 applications (26.6 percent). All cases in which asylum was granted must be reviewed after three years to determine whether the grounds for asylum still apply. On December 4, the interior ministers of the country's 16 federal states extended the residence permits of ``long term'' asylum seekers for another two years. This ruling affected approximately 30,000 asylum-seekers in the country who were refused asylum, but who nonetheless could not be sent back to their countries of origin. In order for these asylum seekers to remain in the country as residents, they are required to prove that they have ``made a concerted effort'' to find employment and can be expected to support themselves in the future. Some human rights organizations criticized the ministers' failure to grant the asylum seekers' residency outright. During the year there were more than 14,000 officially registered refugees from Kosovo living in the country, including 10,000 Roma, all of whom are required by law to leave the country once the government determines they would no longer face any risks of oppression upon return to their homes. The Federal Interior Ministry has pledged to pursue a maximum of 2,500 repatriations per year to ensure that Kosovo is not overburdened by a sudden influx of returnees. In 2008, 900 Kosovars returned to the region. Some returned voluntarily; others were deported. Stateless Persons.--According to statistics from the UNHCR, 9,322 stateless persons live in the country. There is insufficient data on the number of stateless persons who are also refugees. In general, the government effectively implemented laws and policies to provide stateless persons the opportunity to gain nationality on a nondiscriminatory basis. German citizenship may be acquired by naturalization by those with permanent residence who have lived in the country for eight years. However, refugees and stateless persons may apply after six years' residence. It can be difficult for an applicant to produce sufficient evidence or documentation for the establishment of statelessness status. The burden of proof is on the applicant. In general, the country protects stateless persons from deportation to their country of origin or usual residence when threatened with political persecution. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On September 27, the country held elections for seats in the parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operate without restriction or outside interference unless they are deemed a threat to the federal constitution. A report on the parliamentary elections released December 14 by the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) criticized certain legal provisions for the admission of new parties. The election observers noted that the federal election committee, which decides on such admissions, is composed of those parties already represented in parliament and that this could lead to a conflict of interest. The report also noted that the law does not provide for judicial review of election administration decisions before election day, thus diminishing access of citizens to a timely remedy. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. The federal chancellor is a woman, and there were 204 women in the 611-seat parliament. In addition to the chancellor, five women sat in the 16-member cabinet. Three of the 16 judges of the Federal Constitutional Court were women. There were at least eight members of ethnic minorities in the parliament, one on the Federal Constitutional Court, and one in the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. Parliamentarians are subject to financial disclosure laws that require them to publish earnings made in outside employment. State prosecutors generally are responsible for investigating corruption cases. On December 9, the Council of Europe criticized the country's anticorruption efforts and recommended the tightening of the criminal code regarding the bribery of parliamentarians. Federal law provides for public access to government information. Four federal states (Berlin, Brandenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and North Rhine-Westphalia) also have freedom of information laws that provide an appeals process. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were very cooperative and responsive to their views. The government has cooperated with international war crimes tribunals. For example, the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs pledged a sum of 6.7 million euros ($9.6 million) to the operational costs of the Khmer Rouge War Crimes Tribunal in 2009-2010. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits the denial of access to housing, health care, or education on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, religious affiliation, age, sexual orientation, disability, language, or social status, and the government normally enforced these provisions in practice. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, and provides penalties of up to 15 years in prison. The government effectively enforced the law. According to national police criminal statistics, there were 7,292 cases of rape or serious sexual coercion in 2008. The federal government supported numerous projects in conjunction with the federal states and NGOs to deal with violence against women, both to prevent violence and to give victims greater access to medical care and legal assistance. The law prohibits violence against women, including spousal abuse; the law may temporarily deny perpetrators access to the household, put them under a restraining order, or in severe cases prosecute them for assault or rape and require them to pay damages. Penalties varied depending on the nature of the case. The law did not require a civil court decision for a temporary denial. The government enforced the law; nevertheless, authorities believed that violence against women was widespread. Organizations that aid victims estimated that between 20 and 25 percent of women have been victims of physical or sexual violence. There are more than 400 women's shelters in the country, and, according to the Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth, approximately 45,000 women per year seek shelter. There are many NGOs on the local level providing hotlines, assistance, advice, and shelter. Forced marriages are illegal and invalid and may be punished by up to five years' imprisonment. While there were no reliable statistics on the number of forced marriages in the country, evidence indicated that the problem occurred more often in the immigrant Muslim community than in the general population. Forced marriages reportedly often led to violence. Victims included women and, in some cases, young men living in the country for whom the family brought a spouse from abroad. In addition, some women were sent by their families to other countries to marry against their will. Hatun und Can Frauennothilfe, a Berlin NGO assisting women threatened by forced marriage, reported that during the year approximately 2,000 women approached them anonymously to seek help in life-threatening situations. The organization provided advice, physical shelter, and financial support. Honor killings were also reported. On February 13, the Hamburg District Court found a 24-year-old Afghan-German man, Ahmad-Sobair Obeidi, guilty of the May 2008 stabbing and killing of his 16-year-old sister, Morsal, and sentenced him to life imprisonment with the possibility of release after 15 years. During the trial the defendant stated that his sister had, in his view, turned away from her family, dressed inappropriately in public, and worked as a prostitute. Prostitution is legal and widespread, although communities have the authority to exclude it from specified areas, such as residential neighborhoods. A legal framework for improving the legal and social situation of persons engaged in prostitution gives them the right to enforce contracts and to apply for health insurance and other social benefits. Such persons rarely used the provisions of the law. On July 26, Baden-Wuerttemberg police raided two brothels in the state. Both brothels were closed because of unsanitary conditions. In one establishment, police arrested the manager and 11 other persons. Police found one confirmed case of forced prostitution. In the other brothel, the police arrested four persons. On July 7, a citizens' group called Bi-gegen-bordell protested against the introduction of a ``flat-rate'' brothel for sexual services in Wettenberg-Wissmar, Hesse. The group petitioned the police and local city authorities to take action against the brothel, which was described as ``inhuman and misogynistic.'' Sexual harassment of women was a recognized problem. The law prohibits sexual harassment and requires employers to protect employees from sexual harassment. A variety of disciplinary measures against offenders are available, including dismissal. The law considers an employer's failure to take measures to protect employees from sexual harassment a breach of contract, and an affected employee has the right to paid leave until the employer rectifies the problem. There were press reports of sexual harassment in the workplace and in public facilities. Unions, churches, government agencies, and NGOs operated a variety of support programs for women who experienced sexual harassment and sponsored seminars and training to prevent it. There are no reliable data available on the extent of this problem. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Men and women enjoy equal rights under the constitution. The Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth was the primary federal agency responsible for protecting women's rights. The law provides for equal pay for equal work. Employers generally did not discriminate against women in terms of compensation for equivalent work, although women were underrepresented in well-paid managerial positions and overrepresented in some lower-wage occupations. According to current information from the Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, women earn an estimated 23 percent less than men for the same work. This is largely because more women in the country tended to be part-time workers. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth from one's parents (jus sanguinis). However, citizenship also can be granted to children born in Germany as long as one parent has been living in Germany for at least eight years or one parent has a permanent residence permit and has had this status for at least three years. Dual nationality is not allowed, and upon turning 23 a dual national must opt for one citizenship or the other. Birth registrations are recorded by civil registration offices. The law criminalizes rape and provides penalties of up to 15 years in prison. Consensual sex is legal from the age of 14 in most cases. An exception is if the older partner is aged over 18 and is ``exploiting a coercive situation'' or offering compensation, in which case the younger partner must be over 16. In addition, it is illegal for someone older than 21 to have sex with someone under 16 if the older person ``exploits the victim's lack of capacity for sexual self- determination.'' According to one estimate, 3-11 percent of all prostitutes in the country are underage. Under the law possession of child pornography is a criminal offense. A child is defined as a person younger than 14 years of age. According to the law, the mere possession of, or attempt to acquire, any material reflecting a true or realistic incident of child pornography is punished with a prison sentence from three months up to five years. The country's legal system also applies extraterritorial jurisdiction, so that any act of child pornography is prosecuted in the country according to German law, even if the act was not committed on German territory. According to the Federal Criminal Office (FCO), in 2008 there were 12,052 reported incidents of sexual abuse of children up to 14 years of age compared with 15,935 incidents in 2007. Between 2007 and 2008 the number of cases involving the distribution of child pornography (photographs and videos) increased by 14.5 percent to 18,264 cases. However, the number of reported cases of ownership and procurement of child pornography dropped by 40.9 percent from 11,357 cases in 2007 to 6,707 in 2008. In March authorities accused Joerg Tauss, then the secretary general of Baden-Wuerttemberg's Social Democratic Party (SPD) and a member of the federal parliament, of possessing child pornography. In June, Tauss left the SPD parliamentary caucus under pressure. The federal parliament lifted his immunity in September, and the Karlsruhe prosecutor's office then filed charges against Tauss for possession and distribution of child pornography. The Coalition for Street Children estimated there were as many as 11,000 street children in the country during the year. Authorities believed that these children were often subjected to violence and abuse and were frequently fleeing violent and abusive homes. Street children often turned to prostitution for income. Trafficking in Persons.--The criminal code prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. The country was a transit point and destination for men, women, and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and, to a lesser extent, forced labor. Victims were trafficked to the country from other parts of Europe, Africa (primarily Nigeria), Asia, and the Western Hemisphere. Approximately a quarter of the sex-trafficking victims were German nationals trafficked within the country. In 2008, the most recent year for which trafficking statistics are available, there were declines in the observed number of Czech, Romanian, and Polish victims but increases in the number of Bulgarian, Hungarian, and Nigerian victims. Twenty-four percent of trafficking victims were younger than 18 years of age. The majority of identified sex-trafficking victims were exploited in bars and brothels. Reported incidents of forced labor mainly involved work in restaurants, domestic work, and work in the agricultural sector. Authorities identified 676 sex-trafficking victims in 2008, compared with 689 in 2007, and 96 victims of forced labor in 2008, a decrease from 101 in 2007. Despite government encouragement of victims to cooperate in antitrafficking investigations, many victims indicated that threats or influence from traffickers made them reluctant to cooperate with authorities. Foreign victims who resided illegally in the country were given a minimum one-month reflection period to consider cooperating with government investigators before they were subject to deportation. The government provided legal alternatives to victims' deportation to countries where they might face hardship or retribution. These measures included temporary residence permits for the duration of trial proceedings as well as long-term residence permits to victims in certain circumstances, such as when the victim faced severe threats in the country of origin. Approximately one-third of sex-trafficking victims reported they had agreed to engage in prostitution. Many victims who agreed to work as prostitutes were deceived about the nature of exploitative conditions at their work: 17 percent of victims stated they were professionally recruited (e.g., by talent agencies or newspaper advertisements); 22 percent reported being deceived about the true purpose of their entry into the country; and 14 percent reported that traffickers used violence to coerce them into prostitution. Traffickers promised victims high earnings and better living conditions but then used debts (e.g., for organizing passports or visas and travel expenses) deliberately to create relationships of dependency. The victims felt they had no option but to accept the conditions and permanently work as prostitutes. Penalties for sex trafficking range from six months' to ten years' imprisonment and for labor trafficking from one to 10 years' imprisonment. In 2008, the most recent year for which statistics were available, authorities completed 482 sex-trafficking investigations. In 2008 authorities prosecuted 173 persons and won convictions in 138 cases for trafficking for sexual exploitation. In the same year, they prosecuted 25 persons and convicted 16 for labor trafficking. In cases where trafficking offenses carried the most severe sentences, courts gave a suspended sentence to 70 percent of the traffickers who were convicted. On July 21, a Hamburg brothel owner received a 10-year sentence for his involvement in the rape and trafficking of victims forced into prostitution. The individual was a known criminal who had already spent time in prison in Bulgaria and the Czech Republic. In March police freed a 36-year-old Bulgarian woman who had been held for weeks in slave-like conditions in a one-room apartment in Oberfoehring, Bavaria, and forced into prostitution. On March 18, a Munich court sentenced a 43-year-old man and his 31- year-old Romanian accomplice for luring young Romanian women to Munich and forcing them to work as prostitutes. The man received a prison sentence of three years and three months; his accomplice a two-year suspended prison sentence. The federal and state governments worked with NGOs and local women's shelters to identify and assist victims of sex and labor trafficking. State governments funded dozens of NGOs that provided shelter, counseling, and assistance and facilitated protection for victims of trafficking. The Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth fully funded the umbrella organization representing 36 NGOs and counseling centers that assisted trafficking victims. The vast majority of these NGOs focused on adult female victims. Based on cooperation agreements between law enforcement agencies and NGOs, police notifed counseling centers of trafficking victims whom they identified and informed victims of their rights and options for seeking assistance. In 12 of the 16 federal states, there were cooperation agreements between police, state welfare agencies, and NGOs that governed the provision of welfare services to trafficking victims. Police and NGOs jointly organized specialized seminars for investigating officers, victim protection officials, and prosecutors as well as workshops in source and transit countries. The country also made increased efforts in combating labor trafficking. The German Institute for Human Rights began a three-year, 600,000-euro ($860,000) project to assist trafficking victims to claim their rights in the country's courts. During the year the International Organization for Migration received one million euros ($1.43 million) in funding from the Federal Ministry for Labor and Social Affairs and the Berlin Senate to administer a three-year project to examine and determine the extent of labor trafficking in the country and the government's responses. The project will also establish a network of civil society and government actors involved in the issue. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--Under the law, the Federal Commissioner for Matters relating to Disabled Persons is the principal government contact in all matters related to persons with disabilities and has specific responsibility for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. In addition the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth, and the Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs have responsibility for addressing the needs of persons with disabilities. In 2008 there were eight violent right-wing extremist crimes against persons with disabilities; there was a total of 45 such crimes between 2001 and 2008. The constitution prohibits discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other federal state services, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. However, the federal states of Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saxony limited the number of children with disabilities attending secondary schools. For example, in Baden-Wuerttemberg 54,200 students with disabilities were required to go to special schools, which often prevented them from attending secondary school. During the year only 15.7 percent of children with disabilities attended regular schools together with children without disabilities. While special schools are often better equipped to take special care of students with disabilities, critics argue that such separation prevents the full integration of children with disabilities in the professional world and in society as a whole. The number of schools and day care facilities that accommodated both children with disabilities and children without disabilities increased from 7,789 in 1998 to 14,143 in 2008, while the number of day care centers and schools exclusively for children with disabilities decreased from 691 in 1998 to 378 by mid-2008. In July the government released a report on the status of persons with disabilities which indicated that unemployment among persons with disabilities decreased by more than 14 percent between 2005 and 2008. The number of employees with disabilities increased from 7.3 percent in 2005 to 8.5 percent in 2006. In 2007-2008, 72 percent of all juveniles with disabilities started professional training, and 27 percent found slots in preparational professional traing programs. The federal government has developed guidelines for barrier-free public buildings and for modifying streets and pedestrian zones to accommodate persons with disabilities. All 16 federal states have incorporated these guidelines into their building codes. Almost all federal buildings (98 percent) complied with the guidelines for a barrier-free environment. The federal government provided payments of 518.2 million euros ($741 million) per year through 2019 to the states to support barrier-free buildings. Efforts are continuing to improve further barrier-free access in public transportation. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Beatings and harassment of foreigners and members of racial minorities remained a frequent problem throughout the country. The FCO defined ``politically motivated crimes'' as offenses related to the victims' ideology, nationality, ethnicity, race, skin color, religion, world view, ancestry, sexual orientation, disability status, appearance, or social status. The FOPC report listed 156 right- wing extremist organizations and groups. Authorities estimated that as of the end of 2008 there were approximately 30,000 persons who either belonged to one or more of these groups or were right-wing extremists without an organizational affiliation. In 2008 the FOPC recorded 19,894 right-wing politically motivated crimes compared with 17,176 such incidents in 2007. Of these, 1,042 were violent in 2008, compared with 980 in 2007. The government registered 308 right-wing politically motivated crimes involving the use of weapons in 2008, compared with 359 in 2007. According to recent statistics from the federal government, 12,066 right-wing extremist offenses occurred in the first nine months of the year, including 572 violent acts and 8,369 instances of propaganda. In these incidents 576 persons were injured. On August 13, in the federal state of Thuringia the NPD threatened a 45-year-old Angolan-born citizen who had supported the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) party on campaign posters for the August 30 state elections. In a press release the NPD insulted him with a racial epithet and announced it would seek ``direct talks'' with the man to make him ``begin a new life in his home country, Angola.'' Thuringia authorities placed the person under police protection. The CDU state party filed a complaint against the Thuringian NPD for incitement of hatred. On August 22, three supporters of the NDP in Hamburg attacked a British citizen of African ethnic background at an NDP election stand. The NDP supporters sprayed the man with pepper spray after he tore up an NDP flyer they had been distributing. The victim received outpatient treatment at a hospital. Police arrested the three attackers. In January 2008 police in Braunschweig, Lower Saxony, charged two men for a racially motivated attack on two young Syrians. The police described the two suspects as active in a local hooligan gang but stated they were not neo-Nazis. The investigation was continuing at year's end. There was no further information on the continuing investigation into the 2007 case involving the verbal harassment and beating of an African-American in Berlin-Spandau. The state district attorney continued to investigate seven persons involved in the 2007 incident in Muegeln, Saxony, in which 40 to 50 young persons took part in a fight with eight residents from India. The altercation developed into a riot with significant injuries, property damage, and several convictions. There was no further information on the continuing investigation into the 2007 attack against several Iraqis traveling on a bus in Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt. The state prosecutor was investigating three suspects at year's end. In the state of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, the NPD eventually withdrew election posters ``Stop the Invasion by Poles'' after the Greifswald Higher Administrative Court ruled on September 19 that the display of the posters was an act of incitement of hatred and posed a threat to public order and security. To address right-wing extremism, authorities conducted a variety of educational programs to promote tolerance, many focusing on anti- Semitism and xenophobia. The Federal Ministry of Family, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth implemented three complementary federal programs to combat right-wing extremism: ``Diversity is Good,'' a 19- million-euro ($27.2 million) per year program designed to train youth, educators, and immigrants about right-wing extremism, anti-Semitism, and xenophobia; ``Competent for Democracy,'' a five-million-euro ($7.2 million) per year network to provide counseling in conflict situations; and ``Places of Diversity,'' a network of organizations, including political parties, media outlets, churches, and businesses, to promote tolerance and democracy. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Many LGBT rights groups in the country report no impediments to their operations or free association. During the year several gay pride marches occurred around the country without hindrances. However, media and other reports indicated that societal and job-related discrimination against LGBT persons occurred, although such instances were rare. The government reported 54 hate crimes in 2008 in the OSCE's report, Hate Crimes in the OSCE Region. According to a study by the Berlin antiviolence project MANEO, between April 2008 and April 2009 more than 35 percent of LGBT persons surveyed nationwide experienced some form of violence because of their sexual orientation. Approximately 11.9 percent of all cases were registered with the police. According to federal statistics, there were seven violent and right-wing extremist crimes in 2008 against persons because of their sexual orientation and a total of 42 such crimes between 2001 and 2008 nationwide. On April 5 in Berlin, five youths attacked a gay couple, evidently because of the victims' sexual orientation. One 42-year-old man suffered swelling, scrapes, and hematoma on his face; his 35-year-old partner suffered bruises and scrapes on his upper arm. The state criminal investigation department took over the investigation. On July 6, a 45-year-old gay man was attacked with a stone in Berlin. The police were investigating the attack at year's end. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. The government worked with NGOs, religious groups, and businesses to educate the public about HIV/AIDS and its prevention. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution provides for the right of employees to form and join unions of their choice without excessive requirements or previous authorization. There is no minimum membership requirement for a trade union. During the year approximately 21.3 percent of the workforce was organized into unions. The overwhelming majority of organized workers belonged to eight unions largely grouped by industry or service sector and affiliated with the German Trade Union Federation, the country's main trade union umbrella organization. The constitution permits unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution provides for the right to strike for all workers except certain civil servants (including teachers) and staff in sensitive or essential positions, such as members of the armed forces. Workers not allowed to strike had legal recourse through the courts to protect their rights. The law prohibits retaliation against strikers, and the government generally enforced this law. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The constitution protects the right to collective bargaining, and agreements are governed by law. Collective agreements are only binding for trade union members and their respective employer associations. The government generally respected this right in practice. Collective bargaining agreements covered approximately 63 percent of the labor force in the western part of the country and approximately 54 percent in the east. Collective bargaining agreements negotiated with public service employees are usually extended to civil servants via legislation, although such extensions did not always include all of the provisions of those agreements. Antiunion discrimination and other forms of employer interference in union functions are prohibited by law and were not widespread. However, the International Trade Union Confederation reported during the year that discriminatory tactics of some employers included targeted dismissals, demotions, transfers, and discrimination in recruitment. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution and federal statutes prohibit forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that men, women, and children from Europe, Africa (primarily Nigeria), Asia, and the Western Hemisphere were trafficked to the country, mainly for sexual exploitation. The majority of incidents of sexual exploitation occurred in bars and brothels; labor exploitation of illegal residents occurred mainly in restaurants, households, transportation, and construction. Researchers estimate 15,000 persons became victims of sexual exploitation and forced labor during the year. The constitution prohibits forced or compulsory labor, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- Comprehensive legislation protects children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government enforced these laws. The law prohibits the employment of children younger than 15 with a few exceptions: children 13 or 14 years of age may do farm work for up to three hours per day or may deliver newspapers for up to two hours per day, and children three to 14 years of age may take part in cultural performances under stringent curbs on the kinds of activity, number of hours, and times of the day. Abusive child labor was not a serious problem, although violations did occur mainly in small, often family-owned businesses such as bars, restaurants, and grocery stores. The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs enforced the law effectively through its Factory Inspection Bureau. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The country does not have a statutory minimum wage. However, binding minimum wages have been established in 14 branches or sectors (e.g., construction, electrical trades, painting, postal service) covering an estimated 1.4 million workers. In August employers and union representatives agreed to introduce minimum wages for approximately 170,000 workers in waste management, large-scale laundries, and special mining services. The new government coalition opposed the introduction of a national minimum wage but advocated a legal ban on ``immoral'' wages, i.e., those wages one-third below average wages in a given sector. No further government action on introduction of minimum wages is expected in the foreseeable future. Collective bargaining agreements setting minimum pay rates are enforceable by law and covered an estimated 60 percent of all wage earners. Individual contracts or company-level contracts negotiated by worker representatives who are not necessarily members of unions covered the remaining 40 percent of the workforce. The law provides for equal treatment of foreign workers, who generally worked in conditions equal to those of citizens; however, such workers faced some wage discrimination. For example, some schools paid foreign teachers less than their citizen counterparts. Employers also often paid lower wages to seasonal workers from Eastern Europe who came to the country on temporary work permits. At times, employers paid workers from other EU countries the same wages they would receive in their home country, even if the corresponding citizen worker would receive a higher wage. Federal regulations limit the workweek to 48 hours, but collective bargaining agreements may stipulate lower maximums. Contracts that directly or indirectly affected 80 percent of the working population regulated the number of hours of work per week. According to the European Labor Force Survey, the average full-time employee's workweek was 39.4 hours for women and 40.8 hours for men in 2008; rest periods for lunch were accepted practices. Provisions for overtime, holiday, and weekend pay varied depending upon the applicable collective bargaining agreement. An extensive set of laws and regulations governs occupational safety and health. In practice a comprehensive system of worker insurance carriers enforced safety requirements in the workplace. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and its counterparts in the federal states effectively enforced occupational safety and health standards through a network of government bodies, including the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. At the local level, professional and trade associations--self-governing public corporations with delegates representing both employers and unions--oversee worker safety. The law provides for the right to refuse to perform dangerous or unhealthy work without jeopardy to continued employment. __________ GREECE Greece is a constitutional republic and multiparty parliamentary democracy with an estimated population of 11 million. In October the Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) won a 10-seat majority in the unicameral Vouli (parliament) in elections regarded as free and fair, and Georgios Papandreou became prime minister. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Human rights abuses reported during the year included: abuse by security forces, particularly of undocumented immigrants and Roma; overcrowding and harsh conditions in some prisons; detention of undocumented migrants in squalid and overcrowded conditions; some legal restrictions on freedom of speech; restrictions on religious freedom; detention and deportation of unaccompanied or separated immigrant minors, including asylum seekers; a lack of adequate reception capacity or legal aid for asylum seekers and refugees; domestic violence; discrimination against and exploitation of Romani children; trafficking in persons; limits on the freedom of some ethnic minority groups to self-identify; and discrimination against, and social exclusion of, ethnic minorities, particularly Roma. After the October elections, the new government took steps to address several human rights issues: it temporarily closed the Pagani immigrant detention center, which had been criticized for squalid conditions; it created an experts' committee to overhaul the country's asylum law and procedures; and it established local government councils to act as liaison with immigrants and reduce incidents of police abuse. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed any politically motivated killings during the year; however, immigrant activists alleged that police officers killed one person in a scuffle. In December 2008 authorities arrested two police officers for the December 2008 killing of 15-year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos and charged them with intentional homicide and complicity in homicide. The killing set off weeks of riots and demonstrations by youths and self- styled anarchists in cities across the country. The trial was pending at year's end. On January 8, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), in the case Leonidis vs. Greece, determined that the country had violated the right to life of an 18-year-old-youth who was accidentally killed by a police officer in 2000 during an arrest. According to media and immigrant NGOs, on January 3, a Bangladeshi man died when he fell into a ravine after an alleged scuffle with police. His death followed the death of a Pakistani man in October 2008 at the same spot. Police denied any involvement in the incidents, which took place close to immigration headquarters where hundreds of immigrants gathered every week to submit applications for asylum. Some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) representing Muslim and immigrant groups criticized the police for brutality and poor organization of asylum processing procedures. In October the media reported that the new minister for citizen's protection held an unprecedented meeting with Pakistani community leaders to discuss ways to prevent future incidents. The trial in the 2007 case of a border guard, who shot and killed an Albanian immigrant attempting to illegally cross the Greek-Albanian border, remained pending at year's end. On February 4, the Council of Europe's Commissioner for Human Rights reported that, since 1995, at least 108 persons attempting to cross the border had been killed and another 187 persons were severely injured by marked minefields in the Evros area along the Greek-Turkish border. No minefield-related deaths were reported during the year. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices and provides safeguards for criminal suspects and illegal immigrants in detention. However, during the year several international organizations and NGOs reported abuse by police personnel and the coast guard, particularly of undocumented immigrants, asylum seekers, and Roma. In January and March, immigrants at the port city of Patras alleged that they were beaten and abused by coast guard personnel and shipping company employees. In January witnesses alleged that a coast guard officer struck an immigrant with a club and severely injured his finger. On May 9, according to Amnesty International, local NGOs, and the media, a group of vigilantes that included members of the far-right group Golden Dawn attempted to storm an abandoned courthouse in the center of Athens that was occupied by illegal immigrants. Human rights activists were injured in the ensuing fighting. NGOs working to support immigrants' rights accused the police of physical and verbal abuse during sweeps and identity checks as well as the destruction of personal property and documents. The deputy ombudsman for human rights stated that police continued to conduct identity checks and body and vehicle searches based on racial profiling and that they targeted specific neighborhoods where immigrants were known to reside. On June 30, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on its September 2008 visit to the country. The CPT noted that it had received many complaints of police abuse, such as kicks, punches, and blows with batons, from detained suspected criminals. The allegations often concerned abuses inflicted during questioning. One detainee alleged that a police officer threatened him during a search of his house by holding a hot electric iron close to his head. Another person claimed that he had been forced to undress at a police station and was ridiculed by police officers. In contrast the CPT noted a decline in allegations of police abuse of detained illegal immigrants from 2007 to 2008 and characterized this as a ``modest step forward.'' However, immigrants continued to complain to the CPT that police slapped, kicked, threatened, and verbally insulted them. For example, after one detained immigrant alleged that police had beaten him, a CPT medical exam indicated that his cheekbone and a finger were fractured. The government continued to lack systematic approaches to preventing such abuses. The report noted that there were no standards for forensic medical examinations for persons alleging abuse nor was access to a lawyer or doctor consistently provided. In July, according to press reports, a coast guard patrol tied the hands of 12 Somali immigrants they took from a dinghy and beat them. The coast guard officers allegedly returned the immigrants to the dinghy, punctured it, and abandoned it. The immigrants were later rescued by a tourist boat. Police mistreated Roma. For example, in May Amnesty International reported that police allegedly beat a Romani man for several hours at Aharnon police station in June 2008. On August 28, the UN Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) expressed concern over excessive use of force by police against persons belonging to vulnerable groups, in particular Roma. In March 2008 the Albanian secretary of the Foreign Immigrants Union of Larisa alleged he was beaten on his fingers, punched, and kicked by Thessaloniki police. His criminal complaint was pending in court at year's end. In June 2008 media reported that seven police officers and the director of the Corinth police station tortured, abused, and then abandoned a mentally ill Romanian national. The officers were suspended, and a prosecutor's inquiry was pending at year's end. CERD and such NGOs as the Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM) continued to report police mistreatment of Roma, and human rights advocates accused the court system of failing to prosecute abusive police officers effectively. In October media reported the case of five police officers who allegedly covered up for an officer who abused a citizen in 2004. The officer, whose abuse resulted in the victim's losing an eye, was shown to have submitted a false alibi. A trial date for the five officers had been set, but it had not occurred by year's end. The trial of the police officer who abused the citizen was pending at year's end. The case of Theodoros Stefanou, a Rom allegedly beaten by a police officer in 2001 on the island of Kefalonia, was pending with the ECHR at year's end. Stefanou took his case to the ECHR in 2007 with help from the GHM, alleging mistreatment, excessive length of court proceedings, and the failure of the authorities to investigate his case promptly due to his ethnicity. The case was pending at year's end. In July 2008 the UN Human Rights Committee found that the country had violated an international covenant prohibiting torture in the case of Andreas Kalamiotis, a Romani man who was allegedly the victim of police brutality in 2001. The government was given six months to provide the victim with appropriate reparation and to report to the committee on measures taken to prevent similar violations in the future. The government had not taken any such measures as of year's end. The trial date for a police officer accused of the attempted rape of a woman in 2007 had not yet been set by year's end. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in prisons and detention facilities did not meet international standards. Observers noted that facilities were seriously overcrowded, degrading, inhumane, and unsanitary. Poor prison conditions led to multiple prison protests during the year. NGOs and media reported that female prisoners were subject to systematic, invasive body cavity searches. International organizations criticized conditions for detained immigrants at certain detention centers and police stations, citing overcrowding, unhygienic facilities, a lack of outdoors and exercise space, and the intermingling of unaccompanied minors with adults and female with male detainees. Some authorities reportedly failed to advise detainees of their rights. NGOs and international entities reported that certain smaller police and border guard stations had especially poor conditions. The Ministry of Justice, Transparency, and Human Rights reported that, as of June, the total prison population was 11,328 (a decrease of 470 from September 2008), while the official capacity of the prison system was 7,543. In its June report on prison and detention center conditions, the CPT criticized the government for overall unacceptable prison conditions and noted that there had been no improvement since 1993 with regard to such problems as the lack of access to medical treatment and legal counsel or the failure to provide forensic medical examinations for detainees who alleged mistreatment. The CPT repeated many criticisms from its 2006 and 2008 reports, observing that conditions in many police and border guard stations were poor, with overcrowding, unhygienic conditions, a lack of outdoor exercise facilities, and poor access to medical care. The CPT reported that the worst facilities included the Xanthi police and border guard station, which it called dark, filthy, smelly, and dilapidated; the CPT recommended that this facility be closed and renovated. The CPT report also observed that police station facilities designed for short-term stays were used for prolonged detention, that most toilet and shower facilities were filthy and in many facilities only partially operable, and that most detention facilities lacked call bells. The CPT also found that detainees were rarely informed of their rights in a language they could understand. The CPT criticized the government for lacking an independent authority to inspect prisons and investigate allegations of mistreatment. Poor prison conditions and overcrowding led to multiple prison protests during the year. In April inmates in Malandrino prison rioted after the alleged beating of prisoner Yiannis Dimitrakis; riots spread to other prisons throughout the country. In May media reported that 611 persons were held in Diavata prison, which had an official capacity of 250. In July inmates in Nafplion prison demonstrated against overcrowding; the prison held 520 inmates but was designed to hold half that number. In November media reported that inmates in several prisons went on hunger strikes to protest prison conditions and overcrowding. According to these reports, the Aghios Stefanos prison, designed to hold 360 inmates, was holding 710. After the November 2008 18-day hunger strike of an estimated 8,000 inmates protesting overcrowding, the Ministry of Justice announced the early release of up to 5,500 prisoners and new measures for improving prison conditions. The early releases began in December 2008, but fewer than 1,000 prisoners had been released as of September. In October the new minister of citizen's protection ordered the release of 1,200 illegal immigrants held in detention centers. NGOs and the media reported that female criminal detainees were subjected to invasive and humiliating body cavity searches. In March female inmates in Elaionas Theves prison protested the prison's use of routine body cavity searches, often performed by unskilled prison guards and without privacy. Katerina Goulioni, a female prisoner and prisoners' rights activist, died while being transported to another prison due to what authorities reported was a narcotics overdose. Amnesty International called for a full investigation into the circumstances surrounding Goulioni's death and into the complaints she had lodged about the degrading and inhuman treatment of female prisoners. In a report to the parliament in May, the deputy ombudsman for human rights stated that he had received complaints by female prisoners that they were systematically subjected to body cavity searches each time they left the prison (for example, to appear in court or visit a hospital) and that, upon their return, they were required to take laxatives and placed in an isolation unit for five days. They complained that their use of the toilets was monitored by video camera during this period. The deputy ombudsman stated that this practice was inhuman and degrading and noted that such body cavity searches should be conducted rarely and on the basis of a risk assessment. The deputy ombudsman also reiterated the CPT's 2006 recommendation that such searches only be done by a medical practitioner, with a prosecutor's approval, in privacy, and in a way that respected the prisoner's dignity. Many humanitarian organizations continued to criticize conditions in facilities for illegal immigrants, including detention centers and police and border guard stations. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and NGOs echoed the CPT's observations, noting that conditions in detention centers for illegal aliens were unacceptable and amounted to serious violations of human rights. While noting that the government faced a significant influx of illegal migrants, the CPT stated that this could not justify the overcrowding, unhygienic conditions, and lack of legal aid or medical care for detained immigrants. Diplomatic observers noted in July that the Port Authority of Patras continued using converted metal shipping containers to hold detained immigrants. During the year the deputy ombudsman for children's rights, the UNHCR, and NGOs reported that conditions in the Pagani detention center were degrading, inhumane, and unsanitary. Doctors Without Borders (MSF) called the situation in the center ``a continuing humanitarian crisis.'' Detainees slept on the floor in flooded cells and lacked exercise opportunities, and the facility, designed to hold 300 persons, housed 830, including an estimated 150 to 200 unaccompanied minors. After elections in October, the new government criticized the conditions at Pagani, temporarily closed the detention center for renovations, released some detainees, and relocated others to a detention center in Chios. On June 11, the ECHR ruled against the government in the case S.D. vs. Greece, noting that conditions in the Soufli detention center, including a lack of medical care, exercise facilities, or contact with the outside world, as well as excessive length of detention, constituted degrading treatment. Amnesty International noted this case as well as the ``appalling unhygienic and overcrowded'' conditions in detention centers for immigrants. The CPT's June 30 report reiterated many of the same criticisms that it raised in 2008 of conditions for illegal migrants detained in police stations and detention centers. It noted severe overcrowding; many facilities with little or no natural light; a lack of effective ventilation; filthy common areas, toilets, and showers, access to which was limited; dirty mattresses and blankets, which detainees sometimes had to share; lack of call bells; inconsistent and sometimes nonexistent medical care; lack of access to exercise and outdoor open space; confiscation of cell phones and very limited opportunities to contact individuals outside the prison or a lawyer; and insufficient quantities of hygienic supplies, such as soap, shampoo, and toilet paper, for detainees. The CPT reported that, in principle, detained immigrants are supposed to be transferred from police or border guard stations to specialized immigrant detention centers within days; however, in practice, overcrowding at the centers meant that police stations sometimes kept immigrant detainees for weeks or months. The CPT expressed particular concern about the practice of holding male and female immigrant detainees in the same cells, calling the lack of specific facilities for females a hazardous situation for women in terms of safety, privacy, and hygiene. The CPT report identified the Mytilini (Lesvos) detention center, as well as the Xanthi, Feres, Iasmos, Exarhia, and Tichero police and border guard stations, as having particularly poor conditions for immigrant detainees. However, the CPT also observed that the Filakio detention center and the Thermi border guard station had good detention conditions, with clean, well- lighted, and ventilated spaces. In December diplomatic observers visited the Venna detention center and the Feres border guard station. The Venna facility held 109 male adult detainees, with a capacity of 222. Detainees had access to hot water and medical treatment, but mattresses were soiled, and the cells had a strong foul odor and lacked natural light. The Feres station held 17 men and four women in separate cells. Conditions were clean, but cells were small and space for medical examinations was inadequate. The government permitted monitoring of conditions at some prisons by certain local and international humanitarian organizations, such as the CPT, MSF, and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), but other organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and local NGOs, complained of inconsistent or little access to prisons and detention facilities. During the year the government passed a law allowing the ombudsman to conduct inspections on short notice of all prisons in the country. Prison visits by officials of the ombudsman's office began in September. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention. However, police continued to conduct large-scale sweeps and temporarily detained large numbers of foreigners, sometimes in crowded and squalid conditions, while determining their residency status. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The police are responsible for law enforcement and the maintenance of order within the country, and the coast guard is responsible for law enforcement in territorial waters. Both agencies are under the authority of the Ministry of Citizen's Protection. Law enforcement duties in certain border areas are shared jointly by the police and the army. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control over the police and coast guard, but corruption and police impunity continued to be problems. In May Amnesty International criticized the police for using excessive force, violence, and arbitrary arrests during the protests and riots that followed the December 2008 death of 15-year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos. Police corruption continued to be a problem. During the year the police Bureau of Internal Affairs took multiple disciplinary measures, including dismissal and suspension, against officers involved in corruption, primarily forging documents and taking bribes, violations involving arms and explosives, illegally releasing persons from custody, procuring, and violations related to alien registration (see also section 4). During the year police and coast guard personnel received training from government ministries, regional and international organizations, NGOs, and service academies. Subjects included antiracism, antitrafficking and victim identification, asylum seeker recognition, witness protection and interviewing, and crowd control. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires judicial warrants for arrests, except when they are made during the commission of a crime, and prohibits arbitrary arrest orders. In practice, police did not always follow these provisions. Police are required to bring persons who are detained before an examining magistrate within 24 hours. The magistrate has a maximum of 24 hours to issue a detention warrant or order the detainee's release. Pretrial detention may last up to 18 months, depending on the severity of the crime. A panel of judges may release detainees pending trial. Pretrial detainees made up approximately 30 percent of those incarcerated and contributed to prison overcrowding, according to figures provided by the Ministry of Justice. Some defense lawyers and legal activists asserted that pretrial detention was supposed to be reserved for exceptional cases but that it had become the norm. They also asserted that the detention period was excessively long. Bail is available for defendants detained on felony charges unless a judicial officer determines that the defendant is a flight risk. The law provides detainees the right to contact a close relative or third party, access a lawyer, and access medical services. In felony cases, the bar association provides lawyers to indigent defendants. While detainees were generally informed promptly of charges against them, foreign detainees sometimes did not have access to a court-appointed interpreter. Many detained persons complained that they were not informed of their rights in a language they could understand. The CPT reported in June that it continued to receive complaints from detainees who had been denied contact with a close relative, lawyer, or doctor. Individuals accused of misdemeanors may be tried under expedited procedures that, at times, undermined defendants' basic rights due to the brevity and swiftness of the trial. Although such defendants enjoyed the right to counsel, the short time period limited defendants' ability to present an adequate defense. Defendants may request a delay to prepare a defense, but the court is not obliged to grant their requests. Expedited procedures were used in less than 10 percent of applicable cases. During the year the ombudsman reported several instances where police took persons to police stations arbitrarily for identity checks, used insulting language and threats of force, and conducted body searches in public. The ombudsman noted that the number of complaints that police conducted investigations without soliciting testimony from victims increased during the year. Police reportedly targeted persons based on their race, color, nationality, or presence in high-crime areas or in neighborhoods frequented by illegal immigrants. In May Amnesty International accused the police of making arbitrary arrests during the riots and demonstrations that followed the December 2008 death of 15-year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected this provision in practice; however, observers reported that the judiciary was inefficient and sometimes subject to influence and corruption. The judiciary sometimes acted more leniently toward those claiming a political motivation for their acts of property destruction (professed anarchists) than it did for others. For example, anarchists were frequently given suspended sentences in lieu of prison time or fines. During the year several opinions by the ECHR criticized the government for unreasonably long trials and found the court system to be inefficient. During the year the UN independent expert on minority issues as well as legal and human rights groups, including the GHM, reported that Roma experienced police brutality, difficulty in accessing justice, and excessive delays in civil cases. Legal observers and NGOs reported discriminatory attitudes and language directed towards Roma in court. The trial of two police officers charged with killing 15-year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos in December 2008 was pending at year's end. Officials from both the government and opposition parties at the time had made statements after the killing that observers noted implied presumption of the officers' guilt. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public in most instances, and juries are used in all first and second-degree felony cases. The law permits denial of the right to a jury trial in cases of violent terrorism. Defendants have the right to be present at trial and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. An attorney is provided to indigent defendants facing serious charges. Defendants may question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. They have the right to appeal. Defendants who do not speak Greek have the right to a court-appointed interpreter. Some NGOs reported during the year that the quality and availability of court interpretation for non-Greek speakers varied from trial to trial. The government recognizes Shari'a (Islamic law) as the law regulating family and civic issues of the Muslim minority in Thrace. Muslims married by a government-appointed mufti are subject to Shari'a family law. Many NGO and media reports characterized Shari'a as discriminatory against women, especially in child custody, divorce, or inheritance cases. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is a generally independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. The law provides citizens with the ability to sue the government for compensation for alleged violations of rights. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence; however, these provisions were not always respected in practice. Police and prosecutors conducted raids and searches of Romani and immigrant neighborhoods, frequently entering homes without authorization in search of criminal suspects, drugs, and weapons. Local authorities threatened to force evicted Roma from camps and tent dwellings during the year. NGOs and media regularly reported that police beat or harassed unlicensed immigrant street vendors and undocumented immigrants. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. However, the law prohibits speech that endangers the country's foreign relations, spreads false information or rumors causing fear among citizens, causes rivalry or division among citizens, or incites citizens to disturb the peace or commit acts of violence. In practice, these legal prohibitions were seldom invoked. In most criminal defamation cases, defendants were released on bail pending trial without serving time in jail. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not impede criticism. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. The law provides for the government to exercise ``immediate control'' over radio and television stations and establishes ownership limits on media frequencies. State-operated stations emphasized the government's views but also reported objectively on other parties' positions. The law requires that radio and television stations broadcast primarily in Greek and that radio stations broadcast 24 hours a day. It sets minimum capitalization requirements and numbers of employees. Members of the Muslim minority in Thrace stated that the law discriminated against smaller, independent, Turkish-language stations. During the year the Western Thrace Minority University Graduates Association reported that the government had begun to enforce the law, with one Turkish-language radio station receiving a violation notice. The law allows any prosecutor to order the seizure of publications that insult the president, offend Christianity or any religion, contain obscenity, advocate the violent overthrow of the political system, or disclose military secrets. The government did not enforce this law during the year. The law punishes individuals who ``intentionally incite others to actions that could provoke discrimination, hatred, or violence against persons or groups of persons on the basis of their race or ethnic origin or express ideas insulting to persons or to groups of persons because of their race or ethnic origin.'' In May Reporters without Borders reported multiple instances of anarchists and other violent protestors assaulting, harassing, and threatening journalists covering the riots and demonstrations that followed the December 2008 death of Alexandros Grigoropoulos. These included a December 2008 assault on two French correspondents; a February 11 bombing of the offices of two Greek newspapers, Ta Nea and Avriani; a February 17 attack on the television station Alter; and a February 21 public manifesto by terrorist organization Revolutionary Struggle that threatened journalists. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet was available throughout the country and widely used. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 32.6 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The libel and defamation trial of an Internet blog administrator who, on one of his Web sites, allegedly called a Greek Orthodox televangelist ``stupid'' was postponed until May 2010. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--In general there were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. On March 7, the NGO Homosexual and Lesbian Community of Greece (OLKE) protested a demand made by the National Opera that a French theatrical director cut a scene in which two male characters kiss. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. In May Amnesty International released a report alleging that police had used excessive force and punitive violence against peaceful demonstrators protesting the December 2008 police shooting of Alexandros Grigoropoulos rather than addressing the rioters who were destroying property. Amnesty International alleged that police beat two of its members and criticized police for making arbitrary arrests during the demonstrations. On May 22, immigrant activists in Athens had a minor altercation with police during a demonstration to protest the actions of an officer who allegedly damaged a Koran during an identity check of an immigrant two days earlier. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association; however, the government continued to place legal restrictions on the names of associations involving certain ethnic minorities. The courts did not allow the registration of nonprofit associations of nationals who claimed to be of Macedonian ethnic origin, charging that the founders of such groups were seeking to undermine the country's territorial integrity and cultural identity. Similarly, the courts refused to register associations that included the term ``Turkish'' in their names, arguing that applicants intended to promote the idea that an ethnic, as contrasted to a religious, minority existed in Thrace. The government continued to refuse to allow the registration of the group Home of Macedonian Culture as an association in accordance with the provisions of the civil code. During the year international organizations and NGOs expressed concern that this practice violated freedom of association. The ECHR ruled against the government's denial of the organization's registration in 1998. In June the Supreme Court upheld a prior appeals court decision denying the group legal registration. In September the Appeals Court of Thrace rejected the application of the Turkish Union of Xanthi for legal recognition. The ECHR had ruled in March 2008 that the country was violating the freedom of association of the Muslim minority by refusing to recognize the organization. The ECHR had also ruled against the government's refusal to register the Cultural Association of Turkish Women of Rodopi. The ECHR upheld its decision in October 2008 following the Greek government's appeal. In December 2008 the Turkish Union of Xanthi returned to court to seek recognition in line with the ECHR decision. Upon rejecting the petition, the Appeals Court of Thrace stated that the ECHR's ruling was not binding and that the ECHR had neglected to consider ``political'' factors in its decision. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. However, some non-Orthodox groups faced administrative obstacles or legal restrictions on their religious practices. An estimated 97 percent of the population identifies itself as Greek Orthodox. The remaining 3 percent is comprised of Muslims, Roman Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Old Calendarist Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Scientologists, Baha'is, Hare Krishna devotees, and followers of polytheistic Hellenic religions. The constitution establishes the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ (Greek Orthodoxy) as the ``prevailing'' religion but also provides for the right of all citizens to practice the religion of their choice. The Greek Orthodox Church continued to exercise significant political and economic influence. The government in effect recognized the Orthodox canon law. Privileges and legal prerogatives granted to the Orthodox Church were not routinely extended to other religious groups. Orthodox Church officials refused to enter into official dialogue with religious groups that they considered harmful to Orthodox worshippers, and some officials instructed their members to shun members of groups that they consider sacrilegious, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and Protestant and evangelical Christian churches. Non-Orthodox citizens claimed that they faced greater limits on advancement in the military, police, firefighting force, and civil service due to their religious beliefs. Orthodox religious instruction in public primary and secondary schools is mandatory, but non-Orthodox students are exempted from religious instruction. The government supports the Orthodox Church financially; for example, the government pays for the salaries and religious training of clergy and finances the maintenance of Orthodox Church buildings. In Thrace the government also pays the salaries and some expenses of the three official Muslim religious leaders (muftis) and provides an allowance to some imams. Nonrecognized Muslim leaders outside Thrace receive no such support. No other religious group receives governmental financial assistance. Some groups, such as the Jewish community, have requested equal treatment with the Orthodox Church and Muslim Minority of Thrace on this issue. In 2007 the government announced a law to hire 240 imams in Thrace as public employees, with five-member committees to review the imams' qualifications. While the hiring process in the prefectures of Xanthi and Evros progressed during the year, the mufti overseeing the prefecture of Rodopi refused to approve the hiring of imams in his district unless the mufti were given more authority in the hiring committee and the five-member committee included two Islamic scholars. In December the government agreed to these conditions and ratification of a new law was pending at year's end. Some religious groups faced administrative obstacles or legal restrictions on their religious practices. The Orthodox Church, Jewish organizations, and certain Muslim groups are the only religious groups deemed to be ``legal entities of public law,'' able to own, bequeath, and inherit property and appear in court under their own names as religious organizations. Other religious groups cannot own ``houses of prayer'' (places of worship) or other property directly as religious entities but must create other corporate legal associations .''legal entities of private la.'') in order to own, bequeath, or inherit property or to appear in court. In order for such an association to be recognized as a religious organization, the religious group must also be a ``known religion'' or dogma. While no formal mechanism existed for a religious group to gain recognition as a known religion, court rulings require known religions to have publicly taught doctrine with rites of worship that are open to the public, to be nonprofit in nature, to not adversely affect public order or morality, and to have a clear hierarchy of religious authorities. The Ministry of Education and Religion indirectly recognized groups as known religions by issuing to them ``house of prayer'' permits. A separate permit is required for each physical place of worship, but a religious group with at least one valid permit is considered a ``known religion.'' Some religious groups, such as Roman Catholics, Pentecostals, Baha'is, Methodists, Mormons, evangelicals, and Jehovah's Witnesses were recognized as known religions. Other groups, such as Scientologists, Hare Krishna devotees, and polytheistic Hellenic religious groups, have applied for but not received house-of-prayer permits nor recognition as known religions. The Ministry of Education and Religion has not issued new house-of-prayer permits or recognized any new religious groups since 2006. In March 2008 the government announced the additional requirement that applicants receive approval from the local Urban Planning Department in order to receive house of prayer permits. Members of some religious groups complained that the government's policy effectively prevented minority religious groups from opening any new places of worship. During the year Baha'is reported that they had one house-of- prayer permit application pending with the government, and Jehovah's Witnesses reported that they had at least 12 applications pending, some dating to 2005. The law extends recognition as a legal entity of private law to Roman Catholic churches and related entities established prior to 1946. Roman Catholic institutions established in the country after 1946, however, do not enjoy such recognition, despite several attempts by the church to have them recognized and the brief formation of a committee under the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs in 2006 to develop a legislative solution. In late September, the deputy ombudsman for human rights stated that government delays in issuing house of prayer permits were violations of previous Supreme Court and ECHR rulings. The constitution prohibits proselytizing and stipulates that no rite of worship may ``disturb public order or offend moral principles.'' During the year officials of missionary faiths expressed concern that antiproselytizing laws remained in effect. In a September report, the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) also expressed concern that proselytizing remained a criminal offense. The government responded that antiproselytizing laws have ``long since fallen into disuse'' and that only proselytizing that was coercive or disturbed public order was illegal. The Mormon Church reported that local police detained and intimidated its missionaries in late June and in mid-September, accusing them of proselytizing. In both cases, the missionaries were released within one or two hours. During the summer police in Kalamata accused the leader of an evangelical group of proselytizing and detained him for two hours. During the year Muslim community leaders in Athens stated that their biggest concern relating to religious freedom was the continued lack of an official mosque, Islamic cemetery, or recognized Muslim clergy in Athens. During the year Muslim leaders expressed satisfaction with the proposed location of a mosque in the central Athens neighborhood of Votanikos but called for construction to begin more quickly. In 2000 parliament approved plans for an official mosque and cultural center, and in 2006 it passed a revised bill approving construction of a mosque only. In May, in response to a parliamentary inquiry, the Ministry of National Defense stated that it was unable to vacate the land designated for the mosque, claiming that relocating the naval facilities currently on the designated land would be cost-prohibitive. A Muslim cultural center in Athens that functioned as an unofficial mosque continued to operate without a house of prayer permit at year's end. Muslim community associations estimated that there were more than 200 unofficial prayer rooms throughout the country. Since the government does not recognize Muslim clerics outside Thrace, Muslims elsewhere had to travel to Thrace or go abroad for official Muslim weddings and funerals. The law provided for cremation, and in March the government issued a presidential decree specifying guidelines for municipalities to construct crematoria. According to these regulations, only municipalities may operate cremation facilities; private funeral parlors cannot own crematoria. However, no municipality had begun construction of a crematorium by year's end. As a result, cremation of remains had to take place outside of the country. During the year the government and the Jewish community of Thessaloniki continued discussions on compensation for the community's cemetery, expropriated after its destruction during the Holocaust. Aristotle University, a public institution, was built over the expropriated cemetery soon after World War II. In July a Ministry of Finance experts' committee, which included a member of the Jewish community, proposed a compensation solution. Ministry of Finance officials stated in December that they were committed to a solution based on this proposal. Official approval for the compensation plan was pending at the Ministry of Finance at year's end. International Jewish NGOs expressed concern that subway construction in the vicinity of the Thessaloniki Jewish cemetery could disturb human remains. The government continued dialogue with the Jewish community to address these concerns. An officially recognized Muslim minority of 100,000 to 120,000 resides in Thrace, and the government appoints three muftis there. Some members of the Muslim minority did not recognize the authority of the officially appointed muftis and instead elected two separate muftis, one in Xanthi and one in Rodopi, in elections in which only men were allowed to vote. Some Muslim minority NGOs called on the government to recognize the elected muftis. In Thrace the government subsidized bilingual Greek-Turkish public schools and two Islamic religious schools (termed ``ecclesiastical high schools'' by the government). The law requires all civil servants to take a religious oath before entering office. Persons not belonging to the Orthodox Church may take an oath in accordance with their own beliefs. In October, 34 members of parliament refused to take a religious oath during swearing-in ceremonies and were allowed to take a secular oath. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Followers of non-Orthodox faiths reported incidents of societal discrimination, including warnings by Greek Orthodox bishops to their parishioners not to visit the leaders or members of these faiths and requests that police arrest missionaries for proselytizing. Some non-Orthodox religious communities encountered difficulty in communicating with officials of the Orthodox Church and claimed that the attitude of the Orthodox Church toward their faiths increased societal intolerance toward their religions. During the year Orthodox Church leaders increased unofficial dialogue with members of smaller non-Orthodox religious groups. With the exception of the growing Muslim immigrant population, however, most members of non-Orthodox faiths considered themselves integrated into society. In September an arson attack took place against the Toxotes Mosque in Thrace, and the fire damaged interior carpets and part of the roof. Government officials condemned the attack in October and installed new security cameras afterward. Muslim minority NGOs reported that this was the third time the mosque had been attacked since 2004, each time prior to national elections. A police investigation was pending at year's end. Members of the Alevite (Alevi) community in Thrace, who follow a religion comprising Shi'a and Sufi elements of Islam and number approximately 3,000 adherents, claimed religious harassment from the Sunni majority in their villages. The Alevites reported that Sunni community leaders had taken control of Alevite house of worship, denying them access to perform maintenance, and disrupted their traditional festivals. Local leaders estimated the Jewish community to number 5,000. Expressions of anti-Semitism continued to occur, particularly in the extremist press. The mainstream press and public often mixed negative comments about Jews with criticism of the Israeli government. There continued to be reports of vandalism of Jewish monuments during the year. From December 2008 to January, synagogues, Holocaust monuments, and Jewish cemeteries in Athens, Larissa, Volos, Corfu, Veroia, Drama, Komotini, and Ioannina were desecrated with anti-Semitic graffiti. In January, March, and June the Jewish cemetery in Ioannina was vandalized and gravestones were damaged. The government almost always condemned such acts of anti-Semitism. On June 17, the minister of foreign affairs publicly condemned the Ioannina vandalism. The Jewish Community continued to protest anti-Semitic passages in the Greek Orthodox Church's Holy Week liturgy, but reported that it remained in dialogue with the church on removal of the passages. In 2007 the GHM and the Central Board of Jewish Communities brought charges against the newspaper Eleftheros Kosmos and former LAOS political party candidate Kostas Plevris for racism and anti-Semitism. Plevris was acquitted by an appeals court in March of his 2007 conviction for inciting hatred and racial violence with his book The Jews--The Whole Truth. A public prosecutor subsequently filed a ``cassation in favor of the law'' with the Supreme Court against the decision, seeking to ensure it would not be used as a precedent in the future. The decision was pending at year's end. In January the government cosponsored commemorative events throughout the country for Holocaust Remembrance Day. Government officials attended the events, and the minister of foreign affairs issued a public statement. On June 17, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a book, Greeks in Auschwitz-Birkenau, and held a public event in remembrance of Greeks killed in Nazi concentration camps. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for free movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation for all citizens, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. However, immigrants with temporary residence permits faced prolonged delays in renewing their permits and were sometimes denied the right of repatriation, and thus faced practical limits on their foreign travel. During the year the government began to cooperate more closely with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless persons. The UNHCR, local and international NGOs, and international organizations criticized the country's asylum process, its poor treatment of asylum seekers, and a lack of protections for unaccompanied minors. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. The law permits the government to remove citizenship from persons who commit acts contrary to the country's interests for the benefit of a foreign state. The historical number of such cases was reported to be low, and there were no reports of new cases during the year. Due to bureaucratic problems and delays in the legalization process for immigrants, many aliens were in a semi-legal status, holding expired residency permits while going through the process of renewal. Without current residency permits, immigrants encountered difficulty in accessing government services. In addition, immigrants holding certain types of temporary residency permits were given limited periods of time during which they could leave the country and still return, effectively restricting their right to foreign travel and repatriation. During the year NGOs reported multiple instances of immigrants subjected to summary deportation without legal due process. The law provides for legalization of undocumented immigrants who can prove by a visa stamp or possession of a tax roll number that they entered the country before 2005. However, the ombudsman noted that this system of legalization remained disorganized and that a database of residence permits had not been created. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to both the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum and humanitarian protection and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. International monitoring organizations, local and international NGOs, the ombudsman, and foreign governments criticized the country's asylum process, its poor treatment of asylum seekers, and a lack of protections for unaccompanied minors. According to the UNHCR, asylum seekers filed 16,676 applications and 11,144 asylum appeals from January to October. The government reviewed 21,626 applications and 3,043 appeals during this period. Only six applicants (0.02 percent) received refugee status at the initial claim level, while the government only granted 344 appeals (11.3 percent). An additional 25 persons were granted special humanitarian status. During the year the government recorded 12,727 asylum requests, 36 approvals, and 14,190 rejections (many being cases from previous years) at the initial claim level. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees and provided humanitarian status to 55 individuals in 2008. The UNHCR reported that, as of July, the government had a backlog of 6,145 unprocessed initial claims for asylum and 42,700 appeals. In practice, the government provided only limited protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Many NGOs and international organizations reported that authorities summarily deported illegal immigrants, including asylum seekers, across Greek-Turkish land and maritime borders. In July the government reorganized the asylum process, decentralizing asylum decision making to 55 regional offices throughout the country, eliminating the asylum appeals board and making police authorities the ultimate arbiters of asylum cases. The new regulations extended the period of permissible administrative detention for illegal immigrants from six to as long as 18 months. A coalition of NGOs and international organizations, including the UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), immediately criticized the new regulations. The UNHCR did not participate in the new asylum procedure, stating that it was neither efficient nor fair to asylum seekers and that the abolition of the administrative appeals board would deprive asylum seekers of access to an effective remedy. Amnesty International reported that the new regulations limited lawyers' access to case files and clients in detention and put some asylum seekers who were also illegal immigrants at risk of arrest, because asylum applications must be filed in person. Amnesty International also noted that the new requirement that asylum seekers file their applications immediately upon entry deprived would-be asylum seekers who were detained immediately upon arrival of the protection of an existing provision of the law ensuring that all would-be asylum seekers have access to the asylum process. In November the new minister for 'citizen's protection announced the creation of a committee of experts from various ministries, NGOs, and academia to propose recommendations for overhauling the country's asylum process and for setting up a new independent agency for processing asylum claims. The UNHCR and domestic and international NGOs welcomed this announcement. The committee's report was pending at year's end. NGOs and refugee activists reported that asylum interviews were typically short and superficial. Immigrant advocates alleged that asylum seekers were often forced to sign documents without knowing their contents or without interpreters, resulting in nearly automatic refusals. Unaccompanied minors who did not apply for asylum or who were refused asylum were not granted protective status and were subject to repeated detention or to deportation. In July Human Rights Watch criticized the government for illegal push-backs of migrants at the Turkish border, for puncturing immigrants' rubber dinghies in the Aegean Sea, and various legal and administrative ``tricks'' to keep asylum seekers from filing claims. Human Rights Watch noted that interpreters and asylum lawyers were in short supply throughout the country. The government stated during the year that human smugglers punctured dinghies as a tactic in order to make sure the coast guard would be forced to pick up the immigrant passengers. In August Human Rights Watch urged the government to create new open centers for immigrant unaccompanied minors. According to the Human Rights Watch report, the country provides an estimated 300 places in state care for such children, but these were full throughout the year. Human Rights Watch stated that an estimated 1,000 immigrant children entered the country without a parent or caregiver in 2008. Local NGOs and government officials criticized EU regulations that determine how asylum seekers may apply for asylum within an EU country. According to the regulations, an asylum seeker must usually file an asylum claim in the first EU country of arrival. Government and NGO representatives claimed this placed an undue asylum burden on the country, given its geographical location at the southeast edge of Europe and its proximity to migration source countries. The representatives urged the EU to reform the regulations so that asylum seekers claims would be more evenly distributed among EU member states. On January 3, a Bangladeshi man in a queue to file an asylum claim at the Athens Petrou Ralli police station fell into a nearby ditch and died. Immigrant activists alleged that the man died as a result of police scuffling with immigrant asylum seekers outside of the station. On July 12, authorities destroyed a long-standing campsite at Patras occupied by an estimated 600 to 1,000 male Afghani immigrants, including unaccompanied minors. Local NGOs, international organizations, the media, and diplomatic observers had noted in prior months that living and hygienic conditions in the settlement were poor, with human waste and refuse scattered throughout the site. Amnesty International criticized the forced eviction of the immigrants and called on the government to provide emergency relief, including shelter, access to water, and medical assistance to the reported 80 to 100 persons left without shelter at the time of the demolition, and to take measures to identify and protect the unaccompanied minors said to be among them. The government stated that it wished to increase the number of formal, legal deportations of immigrants to Turkey and the number of readmission agreements between the country and migration source countries. In December 2008 Human Rights Watch reported on the country's ``systematic failure'' to protect unaccompanied immigrant children, alleging that minors were detained in the same cells as adults, age and vulnerability assessment procedures were inadequate, child trafficking victims were not identified properly, and unaccompanied minors faced severe problems in applying for asylum. The law requires that unaccompanied immigrant minors be provided with a temporary guardian, regardless of whether the child has applied for asylum. In practice, the government seldom provided a guardian or safe accommodation for immigrant children, leaving minors vulnerable to homelessness and labor exploitation. During the year the UNHCR and international and domestic NGOs continued to urge EU countries to refrain from returning asylum seekers to the country under the EU's Dublin II regulations because a substantial number of asylum seekers continued to face serious challenges in accessing and enjoying effective protection. NGOs reported that authorities routinely deported asylum seekers without due process. Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands suspended returns of asylum seekers to the country in 2008. However, in June the Netherlands resumed these returns. The UNHCR noted that, although the country had taken a number of steps to improve its asylum practices, a substantial number of asylum seekers continued to face serious challenges in accessing and enjoying effective protection. Essential procedural safeguards were not maintained throughout the process of determining whether candidates were entitled to refugee status, at both the first instance and appeals levels, to the detriment of asylum seekers. The UNHCR also highlighted the lack of interpreters and legal aid, undue hardships in the hearing and adjudication of claims, problematic conditions and limited capacity in reception centers, and excessively long waiting periods for appeals decisions. The commissioner for human rights of the Council of Europe reported in February that he remained extremely concerned at the persistence of grave, systemic deficiencies in the country's asylum practices that put at risk the fundamental right to seek and to enjoy asylum. The commissioner called for the establishment of a coherent and adequately resourced action plan on refugee protection and noted that insufficient reception capacity for asylum seekers made their lives even more difficult, especially for children. The commissioner stated that he was particularly concerned with the serious deficiencies in the protection of unaccompanied minor asylum seekers, the chronic lack of interpreters, and with the existence of mined areas in the Evros region of the country. Conditions for illegal immigrants and asylum seekers detained by authorities were generally unsatisfactory. NGOs and international organizations continued to criticize detention procedures and facilities for refugees and asylum seekers as inadequate. All new arrivals, without exception, were placed under a deportation order without having the chance to first file for asylum, and detention was continued, even if an asylum application had been submitted. The UNHCR, Amnesty International, the ECRI, the deputy ombudsman for human rights, and the MSF expressed concern over the country's asylum policy and practices. Specific problems included unacceptable living conditions; lack of permanent reception facilities with decent living conditions; the use of ad hoc facilities (primarily on the islands, when a boatload of refugees arrived); underdeveloped systems to provide for refugee welfare; insufficient counseling to assist in the integration of refugees and asylum seekers; a lack of appropriate facilities for unaccompanied minors who were potential asylum seekers; and deficient interpretation and legal counseling for asylum seekers, in particular at entry points. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents and not by birth within the country. The Ministry of the Interior reported to parliament in 2005 that 46,638 Muslims from Thrace and the Dodecanese islands lost their citizenship when they left the country between 1955 and 1998. The law that permitted this divestment of citizenship was repealed in 1998, and these ``stateless'' residents are eligible to recover their citizenship as long as they live in the country. Some members of the Muslim minority claimed that this policy penalized stateless Muslims who had moved abroad and subsequently acquired citizenship from another country. In 2007 the Ministry of the Interior stated that it had restored nationality to 36 persons and issued special identity cards to 65 of these stateless Muslims. In February, in response to a report by the Council of Europe's Commissioner for Human Rights, the government stated that most ``stateless'' Muslims now lived abroad and had acquired other citizenship. Stateless residents were denied access to such benefits as social security, medical care, and pensions. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The country held parliamentary elections in October; the elections were considered free and fair. The Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) won a 10-seat majority in the unicameral Vouli (parliament), and Georgios Papandreou became the new prime minister. Four parties passed the 3 percent threshold for parliamentary representation. Opposition parties functioned freely and had broad access to the media. Some Roma reported that local authorities deprived them of the right to vote by refusing to register them. Some Roma had difficulty meeting the municipal residency requirements to register to vote. According to the law, voting is mandatory for citizens over age 18 years old; however, there are many conditions under which citizens may be exempted, and there was no penalty for not voting. There were 51 women in the 300-seat parliament and two women in the 17-member cabinet. A quota system requires 30 percent of all local government candidates to be women. At the three highest courts, women comprised 14 of 61 Council of State justices, 28 of 59 Supreme Administrative Court justices, and three of 62 Supreme Court justices. The PASOK-led government elected in October appointed five female ministers out of 19 cabinet posts. There were two members of the Muslim minority of Thrace in the 300- seat parliament; there were no members in the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Media, international organizations, NGOs, and World Bank governance indicators indicated that corruption was a serious and growing problem. NGOs and media reported throughout the year that the government lacked success in tackling corruption. Mutual accusations of corruption among political parties were a regular part of political life during the year. The government continued to pursue an in-depth investigation into judicial corruption and took steps to trace and apprehend corrupt government procurement officials, tax collectors, and police officers. Despite these efforts, during the year major corruption cases continued to surface. During the year NGOs combating trafficking in persons alleged that members of the police vice squad were routinely seen colluding with procurers or receiving bribes and free sexual services from persons illegally engaging in prostitution. Transparency International released a report in February stating that in 2008 more than 13 percent of citizens bribed officials, primarily in health, tax, and urban planning agencies. In April parliament narrowly voted not to prosecute a former minister for the Aegean, who was under investigation for receiving bribes over awarding ferry route contracts. In June the police Bureau of Internal Affairs reportedly arrested an Aliens Division police officer who was taking bribes in order to accept asylum applications. The officer was suspended from duty pending a criminal investigation. In July, the Ministry of Justice suspended the director and the chief warden of two prisons on Crete from duty and ordered an investigation of corruption and violations of the prison code. In 2008 two judges were dismissed on corruption-related charges. Several continuing corruption investigations from 2008 involving as many as 20 judges were pending at year's end. A judge who fled the country in 2008 was still hiding abroad at year's end. The June 2008 criminal case in which the police Bureau of Internal Affairs dismantled a smuggling ring involving border guards, police, and intelligence personnel was pending at year's end. The November 2008 case of coast guard personnel from Patras arrested on charges of alien smuggling was investigated by the former Ministry of Mercantile Marine during the year. The results of the inquiry were not made public. The November 2008 case of eight Thessaloniki police officers convicted in connection with the beating of a Cypriot student in 2006 was still pending in appeals court at year's end. The student filed for 1 million euros ($1.4 million) in compensation. There are income disclosure laws for high-ranking public officials and members of parliament. The constitution provides for the right of access to government- held information. However, NGOs and media observers noted that access to information was sometimes difficult in practice due to bureaucratic delays. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials often were cooperative, especially with international human rights organizations, and responsive to their views. The ombudsman and many local NGOs reported that the government's relationship with NGOs improved during the year. Several NGOs reported harassment or threats. A leader of the antitrafficking organization European Network of Women (ENOW) reported multiple threats and media and prosecutorial harassment, all related to a continuing appeals court case involving an ENOW-supported witness and a convicted trafficker. The law provides for an independent ombudsman. The Office of the Ombudsman provided an effective means for citizens to report human rights and religious freedom problems. The office was granted adequate resources to perform its other functions, which included mediating between private individuals and public administration and defending and promoting children's rights. There were five deputy ombudsmen who dealt, respectively, with human rights, children's rights, citizen-state relations, health and social welfare, and quality of life. The deputy ombudsman for human rights received complaints during the year regarding the government's handling of residence and work provisions for immigrants, overcrowding in prisons and detention centers for illegal aliens, unjustified procedural difficulties in acquiring citizenship, excessive and unjustified delays in processing applications by Muslims from Thrace to recover citizenship lost under pre-1998 laws, arbitrary acceptance or denial of asylum seekers' applications, discrimination against aliens, and police brutality. Personnel of the ombudsman's office were granted access to several prisons during the year for unannounced inspections. The government-funded National Commission for Human Rights is an autonomous human rights body. The commission is the government's advisory body on the protection of human rights. During the year it produced reports on the situation and rights of Roma, the abolition of a religious oath, and the freedom of expression of justices. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and the law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not protect these rights consistently in practice. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a crime. Conviction rates for rape were low for first-time offenders, but sentences were harsh for repeat offenders. According to police statistics, 128 rape or attempted rape cases were reported in the first six months of the year, and police arrested 122 rape suspects, 59 of whom were noncitizens. In 2008 police reported 232 rapes and attempted rapes. A 2006 academic study indicated that only 6 percent of rapes were reported to police. The government reported in 2007 that 22 men were convicted of rape. Medical, psychological, social, and legal support from the government and NGOs were usually available to rape victims. Domestic violence, including spousal abuse, continued to be a problem. The General Secretariat for Gender Equality, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, and NGOs reported that domestic violence was common. The law provides for prosecution by force of law, without the need for a victim to press charges, for all domestic violence crimes. Penalties range from two to 10 years' imprisonment, depending on the gravity of the crime. The General Secretariat for Gender Equality (GSGE), an independent government agency, estimated that only 6 to 10 percent of domestic violence victims contacted the police, and only a small fraction of those cases reached trial. Despite training efforts the GSGE reported that police tended to discourage women from pursuing domestic violence charges, encouraging them instead to undertake reconciliation efforts. NGOs reported that courts were lenient on male offenders in domestic violence cases. Police stations generally had a manual on how police should treat victims of domestic violence. The GSGE, in cooperation with the Ministry of Citizens' Protection, trained police on working with domestic violence victims. The GSGE provided counseling and assistance to domestic violence victims. Two GSGE shelters for battered women and their children, in Athens and Piraeus, offered services including legal and psychological help. The GSGE operated a 24-hour emergency telephone hotline for abused women, and the Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity operated a hotline providing referrals and psychological counseling for victims of domestic violence. The municipality of Athens, the Greek Orthodox Church, and a variety of NGOs operated shelters and walk-in centers for victims of domestic violence. Government statistics on the extent of rape, domestic violence, and spousal abuse were either unavailable or outdated. Data on prosecutions, convictions, and prison sentences for rape and domestic violence crimes was unavailable from the Ministry of Justice. Prostitution is legal at the age of 18. Persons engaged in prostitution must register at the local prefecture and carry a medical card that is updated every two weeks. It was estimated that fewer than 1,000 women were employed as legal sex workers and that 20,000 women, most of foreign origin, were engaged in illegal prostitution. According to academics and NGOs, many illegal prostitutes could be trafficking victims. Antitrafficking NGOs reported that prostitutes were sometimes abused and subjected to violence and harassment by procurers and clients and that the vice police often tolerated illegal prostitution and sometimes participated in soliciting prostitutes. The law prohibits sexual harassment and provides for penalties ranging from two months to five years in prison. However, labor unions reported that lawsuits for sexual harassment were very rare, with five cases during the last eight years. Government enforcement was generally ineffective due to a lack of punishment for offenders. The Center for Research on Gender Equality Issues reported that the vast majority of women who experienced sexual harassment in the workplace quit their jobs and did not file charges. The center estimated that 30 to 50 percent of working women and 10 percent of working men had experienced sexual harassment at their workplace. The government generally respects the reproductive rights of couples and individuals. Contraception is widely available in stores and in hospitals, and the government respected the rights of individuals to choose the number, spacing, and timing of having children. Both public and private hospitals provided modern skilled attendance during childbirth. Women and men have equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases. Muslim women in Thrace have inferior rights to men under family law, property law, and in the judicial system, since these issues are resolved under Shari'a as interpreted by official muftis. The government recognizes Shari'a as the law regulating the family and civic issues of the Muslim minority in Thrace, and first-instance courts in Thrace routinely ratified the muftis' decisions. The UN independent expert on minority issues highlighted in February that the application of Shari'a in some instances subjected Muslim women to norms incompatible with the constitution, legislation, and international standards, particularly with respect to child marriages. Child marriage, the UN expert found, carried serious implications for the health, well-being, and life choices of Muslim women, and it regularly took place unchallenged by the national authorities. The UN independent expert on minority issues noted that the situation of women in Romani and Muslim communities was of particular concern. According to the UN report, Muslim women experienced severe inequalities in access to education and consequently suffered disproportionately high levels of illiteracy and unemployment. In an unprecedented March 2008 case, a court of first instance in Rodopi Prefecture refused to ratify a mufti's decision that awarded a woman only a small share of her parental inheritance, instead of the one-half share provided by the law. The court held that the law of the country and European law should prevail over Shari'a. The court stated that the application of Shari'a should not deprive the country's Muslim women of their rights and should not be applied if it violated the basic principles of the constitution regarding the equality of the sexes and equality before the law. A final court decision regarding the division of property between the woman and her brother had not been delivered by year's end. In February a first-instance court overturned a decision by the mufti of Komotini to divide the custody of four children equally between a man and a woman during their divorce proceedings. The court ruled that, as the father was diagnosed as suffering from a mental illness and alcoholism, custody of all four children should go to the mother. A final legal decision was pending at year's end. In another February case, a Muslim woman sued the local mufti of Xanthi for breach of duty for refusing to honor a custody agreement she had previously signed with her husband. The agreement stipulated that custody of the couple's only child would go to the mother. The woman claimed that the mufti arbitrarily changed the terms of the agreement by giving custody to the father. The case was pending at year's end. The National Commission for Human Rights has advised the government to limit the powers of the muftis to religious duties and to stop recognizing Shari'a because it could restrict the civic rights of citizens. Muslim female activists claimed that, because all Muslim women in Thrace were married under Shari'a, they were therefore obliged to acquire mufti consent to obtain a divorce. These decisions were based on interpretations of Shari'a that do not exist in written form and therefore would not be able to be appealed. Nevertheless, the courts routinely ratified such mufti decisions. Apart from the Muslim minority in Thrace, women have rights equal to those of men, and equality is stipulated by the constitution. The law provides for equal pay for equal work; however, according to 2007 statistics, women's pay was 81 percent of that of men. Although relatively few women occupied senior private sector positions, women continued to enter traditionally male-dominated professions, such as law and medicine, in larger numbers. Women were underrepresented in labor union leadership. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents at birth. The law also gives citizenship to a child born in the country who has no other citizenship, but in practice this provision was not implemented. The government does not issue birth certificates for children born in the country to immigrant parents who lack citizenship. The deputy ombudsman for human rights urged the government to grant citizenship to all children who were born and raised in the country and to provide them with all educational, social security, and social protection services. Without birth certificates or a long-term residence permits, immigrant children were unable to register for the national college exam and could not pursue tertiary education. In December 2008 parliament passed a new law giving immigrant children born in the country the right to apply for long-term residence permits. NGOs estimated that, of the 200,000 foreign children living in the country, only 30,000 could meet the requirements of the law, which include a fee of 900 euros ($1,290), a certificate of completion of the mandatory nine years of education in the country, and two parents with legal residence permits. In May the Municipality of Kaisariani issued a symbolic birth certificate to a child born to Ghanaian parents to sensitize the authorities to the citizenship problem of foreign children born in the country. While the law provides free and compulsory education for a minimum of nine years, noncompliance was a significant problem in the Romani community. The UN independent expert reported in March that Romani children did not have full and equal access to education. In September 2008 the UN independent expert visited a Romani settlement in Spata and found that none of the children attended school. In April 2008 the GHM reported that 90 percent of Romani children were illiterate. There were continuing reports of non-Romani parents withdrawing their children from schools attended by Romani children and attempting to prevent Romani children from studying at the same schools that their children attended. Romani children continued to face social exclusion and discrimination in education and lacked access to social services. Unaccompanied immigrant children were detained in the same cells as adults, lacked safe accommodations and legal guardians, and were vulnerable to homelessness and labor exploitation. In September the ECRI noted with concern that the law allows for the deportation of unaccompanied minors and that unaccompanied minors were served deportation orders with no specific date and without interim accommodation centers for housing them. The deputy ombudsman for children's rights informed the ECRI that guardianship of unaccompanied minors was among the duties of social workers but that, in practice, this duty was not carried out due to lack of funds and guidelines. Violence against children, particularly against street children, Romani children, and undocumented immigrant children, was a problem. Corporal punishment and mistreatment of children is prohibited by law, but government enforcement was generally ineffective. Welfare laws provide for treatment and prevention programs for abused and neglected children as well as alternative family care or institutional placement for those in need of it. However, government-run institutions were understaffed, and NGOs complained that they did not have places for all children who needed alternative placement. In 2008 the deputy ombudsman for children's rights reported that the system of children's welfare and protection was deficient overall and did not cover increasing needs. In particular, social services were not appropriately staffed to handle serious family problems, and welfare allowances and support for single parent families were insufficient. In addition, the deputy ombudsman noted that prosecutors for minors, who should by law take measures to protect children in difficult situations, were overloaded with other duties. Child protection institutions were understaffed, lacked certification, and did not have sufficient qualified staff to provide care to abused, refugee, or drug-abusing children. Foster care systems were not adequately implemented, and the process of adoption continued to take several years. In September, after visits to child welfare institutions in Attica and Ileia, the deputy ombudsman for children's rights reported that, due to a lack of staff, children were sedated, tied to their beds, or even confined in wooden cages to limit their movement. The legal age for marriage is 18. Child marriage was common within the Romani community, and there were limited numbers of marriages of persons under 18 among the Muslim minority in Thrace and Athens. The UN independent expert for minority issues reported that young Romani women typically marry and have children at a very early age, reportedly as young as 13. Child marriage is considered a tradition in the Romani community but was also a consequence of lack of education and work opportunities. The state-appointed muftis, who may apply Shari'a in family matters, noted that they did not allow the marriage of children under age of 15 and, in order to protect children, required a prosecutor's decision to allow marriages where at least one party was a minor between the ages of 16 and 18. According to law, the age of consent is 15 for heterosexual sex and 17 for male homosexual sex. The law does not specify an age of consent for female homosexual sex. The country criminalizes sex with children under the age of 15. The law prohibits the possession and circulation of child pornography as a felony, punishable with five to 10 years' imprisonment. According to the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and local NGOs, the majority of street children (often indigenous Roma or Albanian Roma) were exploited by family members, who forced them to work in the streets, begging or selling small items. The government took insufficient steps to prevent this form of child exploitation. While no national statistics were available, in June the NGO ARSIS reported that it had found 638 street children in Athens and Thessaloniki. During the year ARSIS observed a significant rise in the number of street children, especially Romani street children, from Bulgaria and Romania, while there was a decrease in the number of children from Albania. Conditions for undocumented immigrants and asylum-seeking children were particularly harsh. During the year local and international NGOs, including Amnesty International and the MSF, as well as the UNHCR on several occasions found unaccompanied minors incarcerated along with adults in detention centers in the Aegean islands under degrading, inhumane, and unsanitary conditions. The UNHCR stated in August that it was alarmed at the conditions in the Lesvos detention center, where 200 unaccompanied children were among the 850 detainees and that many of the 50 infants at the center had illnesses related to the cramped and unsanitary conditions. The deputy ombudsman for human rights reported in 2008 that an estimated 4,000 to 5,000 unaccompanied minors arrived in the country each year. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons. The country was a destination and transit venue for women and children trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation and for men and children trafficked for the purpose for forced labor. Women and teenage girls were trafficked from Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, other parts of Eastern Europe and the Balkans, Nigeria, and Brazil into forced prostitution and forced labor. One NGO reported that there were many teenage male sex trafficking victims from Afghanistan and sub-Saharan Africa in the country. Victims of labor trafficking originated primarily from Albania, Romania, Moldova, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, and most were forced to work in the agriculture or construction sectors. Child labor trafficking victims were forced to beg and engage in petty crimes. Several NGOs reported anecdotal evidence that Romani women and children were trafficked within the country. According to the police, persons from Greece, Eastern Europe, and Nigeria are the primary traffickers for sexual exploitation. Police estimated that there were somewhat fewer than 100 sex and labor trafficking organizations based in the country. The vast majority were small, cell-based organizations that operated mostly independently. Trafficking rings were flexible and known to cooperate with each other on a short-term basis. Trafficking networks were often linked to bars, clubs, and hotels. Travel and employment agencies facilitated travel and legal documentation for traffickers. Police have discovered a variety of money-laundering fronts for trafficking rings: restaurants, nightclubs, and even a chain of bakeries. Police and NGOs reported a decrease in coercion by violence but an increase in emotional coercion, where traffickers use deception to befriend or enter into a romantic relationship with the victim, who is subsequently forced into prostitution. Labor traffickers typically operated separately from sex trafficking organizations and were linked more closely to immigrant smuggling groups. In June NGOs reported they had begun seeing immigrant children washing windscreens or selling flowers and handkerchiefs at city intersections, a phenomenon that had disappeared during the previous few years. The Thessaloniki-based NGO Arsis reported in June that it had identified 638 children in Athens and Thessaloniki, most of Albanian Roma origin, between five and 11 years of age, working in the streets and exploited by family members and traffickers. The law considers trafficking in persons a criminal offense and provides for imprisonment of up to 10 years and fines of 10,000 to 50,000 euros ($14,300 to $71,500) for convicted traffickers. Penalties are harsher for traffickers of children. The government continued to investigate cases of trafficking and secured convictions of traffickers. In 2008 police conducted 40 trafficking investigations (37 sexual exploitation cases, two labor exploitation cases, and one case of trafficking for human organs), compared with 41 investigations in 2007. They brought charges against 162 suspected traffickers, compared with 121 arrests made in 2006. The government convicted 21 defendants of trafficking-related charges, while 17 were acquitted. Courts handed down fewer suspended sentences in 2008 than in earlier years, and punishment often included both imprisonment and a fine. However, many convicted traffickers remained free on bail for several years while appealing their convictions. The Ministry of Justice continued to lack effective databases, hindering its ability to provide and manage information on convictions and sentencing in all types of court cases. During the year the government participated in international investigations in cooperation with EUROPOL, INTERPOL, and the Southern European Cooperative Initiative. The Ministry of Citizen's Protection continued working on a police action plan for regional antitrafficking cooperation. Government entities responsible for combating trafficking and supporting victims included the ministries of foreign affairs, justice, interior, health, education, and finance. A high-level interministerial committee on trafficking in persons met infrequently during the year. Some police officers and diplomats were reportedly involved in trafficking rings or accepted bribes from traffickers, including from organized crime networks. The police Bureau of Internal Affairs investigated charges of police involvement in trafficking cases. In 2007 the authorities filed trafficking-related charges against three police officers, two of them senior officials. No trial date was set by year's end. In 2008 the country ratified a child repatriation agreement with Albania for Albanian child victims of trafficking. In July the government began implementing the agreement with the help of NGOs from both countries. ARSIS reported that, while implementation had begun, the process was subject to bureaucratic delays and children sometimes remained in custody for weeks. While the immigration law provides for a ``reflection period'' for trafficking victims facing deportation, the screening and referral process did not adequately identify and protect many vulnerable victims, especially children. Some trafficking victims, including minors, were prosecuted for immigration violations, sometimes alongside their traffickers. A few trafficking victims and NGOs reported that inadequate police protection for victims who were witnesses in trials meant that those victims lived in constant fear of their traffickers. Some victims were provided with the full reflection period and testified against their traffickers. Authorities identified 78 trafficking victims in 2008, a decrease over the 100 victims identified in 2007. These victims were given temporary residence permits and access to free public health and counseling services. The government operated short-term shelters for victims during the year and in 2008 approved over 515,738 euros ($738,000) in grants to NGOs for trafficking in persons research and to provide shelter, counseling, and legal assistance to victims. Several government ministries also conducted public awareness campaigns to disseminate information about trafficking in persons. During the year the government conducted numerous training programs for prosecutors and public administration officers, including social workers, psychologists, nurses, police personnel, and justices on identifying victims of trafficking. The government also conducted training programs in conjunction with international organizations, including the IOM. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other government services; in practice government enforcement of these provisions was uneven. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities; however, authorities enforced this law poorly. During the year members of a special parliamentary committee on persons with disabilities reported that this lack of accessibility forced such persons to remain at home and led to serious social exclusion. Only 5 percent of public buildings were fully accessible to persons with disabilities; most buildings with special ramps did not have accessible elevators or lavatories. The deputy ombudsman for social welfare handled complaints related to persons with disabilities, especially those related to employment, social security, and transportation. During the year the Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity estimated that there were 180,000 children with disabilities with special educational needs. The Teachers' Association estimated that only 18,500 of these children attended primary school and that, of this number, only 10 percent would attend secondary school, due either to a lack of local special education schools or a lack of accessibility. In 2007 the National Confederation of Persons with Disabilities reported that the educational system for persons with disabilities fostered discrimination and social exclusion and, as a consequence, 90 percent of children with disabilities were excluded from the mandatory nine years of education. The deputy ombudsman for children's rights and the NGO Confederation of the Disabled reiterated during the year that education was not available for persons with serious disabilities and many persons with disabilities were forced either to leave school due to lack of accessibility or to accept a low quality education at the special education schools. The confederation stated that, of the 10 universities in Athens, only two were accessible to persons with disabilities. In June 2008 members of a special parliamentary committee for persons with disabilities stated that unemployment of persons with disabilities, estimated to be 80 percent, was the greatest social problem these persons faced. The law states that individuals may be confined in mental hospitals only under a court order. In 2007 the deputy ombudsman for human rights reported that 94 percent of persons confined in mental hospitals were there under a prosecutor's order but that, in 84 percent of these cases, the decision to confine the patient was not supported by a corresponding court order. As a result, the rights of persons with mental disabilities were not effectively protected. The deputy ombudsman further found that 97 percent of persons with mental disabilities had been transferred to mental hospitals by police, sometimes handcuffed and escorted as ``dangerous persons'' rather than as patients. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Roma continued to face widespread governmental and societal discrimination, including systematic police abuse; mistreatment while in police custody; regular raids and searches of their neighborhoods for criminal suspects, drugs, and weapons; and limited access to education and segregated schooling. Their dwellings (in many cases shacks made of cardboard, plastic sheets, and corrugated tin on the edge of city dumps) were at times demolished and, in other cases, lacked running water, electricity, or waste removal. Government efforts to address these problems were inconsistent, especially at the municipality level. The law prohibits the encampment of ``wandering nomads'' without a permit and forces Roma to establish settlements outside inhabited areas and far from permanent housing. There were approximately 70 Romani camps in the country. Local and international NGOs charged that the enforced separation of Romani settlements from other inhabited areas contravened the country's commitments under the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. The UN independent expert on minority issues, in a March report to the UN Human Rights Council, highlighted that many Roma remained in unhealthy living conditions with their children either in segregated schools or unable to access educational opportunities. Roma faced a severe lack of access to adequate housing and were subjected to forced evictions. The report noted that Roma lacked access to public services, such as public transportation, clean drinking water, and electricity, often due to a lack of action or discrimination by local officials. Roma faced significant discrimination in employment, which often limited their work prospects to menial jobs in the informal sector. During the year the European Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), an EU organ, and the ECRI reported that Roma were the most disadvantaged minority group in terms of education and that most Roma who lived in settlements continued to earn their income from scrap and garbage collection. The ECRI noted that few Roma were employed in the mainstream labor market due to discrimination and prejudice, although their lack of qualifications (as a result of a low level of education) also played a role. According to the FRA, only 4 percent of Roma reported having attended school for at least 10 years and 63 percent were living in segregated conditions, effectively cut off from mainstream society and municipal services. The survey noted that 55 percent of Roma had been victims of discrimination during the year, 90 percent had not reported discrimination to any authority, 86 percent did not know if there was a law forbidding discrimination, 94 percent did not know of any organization that could offer support or advice to them, and 56 percent thought that they had been stopped by the police because of ethnic profiling. In August the UN CERD Committee expressed concern about obstacles encountered by Roma with regard to access to work, housing, health care, and education. In late September, the deputy ombudsman for human rights urged the government to have local municipalities register Roma. Without registration, according to the deputy ombudsman, Roma lacked access to schools and other public services and faced severe challenges integrating socially. Media reports indicated that at least half of Roma were not registered with a municipality. In April 2008 an academic researcher reported that life expectancy for Roma was 55 years (compared to 79 for the rest of the population), 90 percent of Romani children were not vaccinated, the rate of hepatitis B among Roma was three times higher than the rest of the population, and the rate of incarceration for Roma was seven times higher than that of the general population. Local authorities continued to harass and threaten to evict Roma from their camps or other dwellings, but no actual evictions were reported during the year. There was no follow-up to the April 2008 complaint concerning Romani housing rights by the International Center for the Legal Protection of Human Rights and the GHM against the country with the European Committee of Social Rights. The complaint detailed serious and widespread infringement of the Romani community's right to housing. Government ministries continued projects to address the chronic problems of the Romani community, including training courses for civil servants, police, and teachers to increase their sensitivity to Romani problems; the development of special teaching materials for Romani children; the establishment of youth centers in areas close to Romani communities; and the deployment of mobile health units and community social workers to address the needs of itinerant Roma. However, the UN independent expert on minority issues and the deputy ombudsman for human rights noted that these projects were not effectively implemented on the local level and urged the government to ensure that national policies were not subverted or defied by local authorities influenced by local prejudices. Roma complained that government-sponsored housing loans, for amounts up to 60,000 euros ($85,800), were insufficient to purchase housing and that the loan application process was too slow. The government blamed incomplete applications for loan delays. NGOs reported that the loan program lacked sufficient oversight to ensure the money was directed toward housing. Media and NGOs reported multiple attacks by far-right extremist groups on immigrants during the year. The Hellenic League for Human Rights expressed its deep concern over the rise in racist violence committed by far-right groups. Nineteen Pakistanis were injured in April in different neighborhoods of Athens, and three Pakistanis were attacked in August in Piraeus. Police did not find the perpetrators but stated that they were investigating the allegations. In May members of far-right groups attempted to storm an abandoned former court building in Athens that, at the time, was occupied by an estimated 600 illegal immigrants. Police evicted all the immigrants from the building in July. Immigrants, who made up approximately 10 percent of the population, faced widespread societal discrimination. Immigrants accused police of physical, verbal, and other mistreatment. They also reported the confiscation and destruction of personal documents, particularly during police sweeps to apprehend undocumented immigrants. In May immigrants in Athens were involved in a series of scuffles with police, protesting the alleged defacement of a Koran by a police officer. In June police arrested two farmers in Manolada for ambushing, beating, and dragging two illegal immigrants from Bangladesh behind their motorbikes. The two farmers claimed that they wanted to punish the immigrants for livestock thefts in the area allegedly perpetrated by illegal immigrants. The investigation was pending at year's end. Community leaders reported that it was difficult for ethnic Albanians and other immigrants to obtain citizenship, even after all objective citizenship requirements had been met. Government procedures for granting citizenship are confidential, and the Ministry of the Interior and Public Order is not obliged to explain the reasons for rejecting an application. Immigrant community leaders noted that the ministry regularly rejected the applications of immigrants who believed that they met all citizenship criteria. Applying for citizenship was further discouraged by the 1,500 euro ($2,150) nonrefundable application fee. In 2008 the ombudsman noted that delays in citizenship processing were excessive and unjustified. The ombudsman reported that few applications for citizenship were accepted by the Ministry of the Interior and Public Order and that many applications were pending for years, even if the applicants met all requirements. During the year municipal governments in Athens established immigrant councils to foster dialogue on issues such as discrimination, social benefits for immigrants, legalization, employment, and security. Police officials met with representatives of the Pakistani immigrant community to discuss ways to combat discrimination and incidents of police abuse. A number of citizens identified themselves as Turks, Pomaks (Slavic-speaking Muslims), Vlachs (a Balkan minority group speaking a dialect of Romanian), Roma, Arvanites (Orthodox Christians who speak a dialect of Albanian), or Macedonians. Some members of these groups sought to be officially identified as ``minorities'' or ``linguistic minorities.'' The government considers the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne as providing the exclusive definition of minorities in the country and defining their group rights. Accordingly, the government recognizes only a ``Muslim minority.'' Although government does not confer official status on any indigenous ethnic group, nor recognize ``ethnic minority'' or ``linguistic minority'' as legal terms, it affirms an individual right of self-identification. However, many individuals who defined themselves as members of a ``minority'' found it difficult to express their identity freely and to maintain their culture. Use of the terms Tourkos and Tourkikos .''Turk'' and ``Turkis.'') is prohibited in titles of organizations, although individuals legally may call themselves Tourkos. Associations with either term in their name were denied official recognition. To most ethnic Greeks, the words Tourkos and Tourkikos connote Turkish identity or loyalties, and many ethnic Greeks objected to their use by citizens of Turkish origin. Some members of the Pomak community claimed they were pressured by members of the Turkish-speaking community to deny the existence of a Pomak identity as separate from a Turkish identity. Media in Thessaloniki reported in October 2008 that two editors of Millet, a local newspaper published in Turkish, were given 12-month suspended sentences for inciting hatred against the Pomak community. Pomaks filed four suits against the editors, totaling 200,000 euros ($286,000). The suits were pending at year's end. The government did not recognize the existence of a Slavic dialect, called ``Macedonian'' by its speakers, spoken in the northwestern area of the country. However, a small number of Slavic speakers insisted on identifying themselves as ``Macedonian,'' a designation that generated strong opposition from other citizens. These Slavic speakers claimed that the government pursued a policy designed to discourage the use of their language. Government officials and the courts denied requests by Slavic groups to identify themselves using the term ``Macedonian,'' stating that approximately 2.2 million ethnically (and linguistically) Greek citizens also use the term ``Macedonian'' to identify themselves. The foreign press and NGOs reported that on June 2, at least a dozen unidentified men violently disrupted a presentation of a new Greek-Macedonian dictionary and a speech by a Western linguist and academic at the Foreign Press Association in Athens. The reports alleged that the men damaged banners and video equipment and injured at least one reporter. Allegedly, they were members of the ultra- nationalist group Golden Dawn. The UN independent expert on minority issues, in a March report, urged the government to withdraw from the dispute over whether there is a Macedonian or a Turkish ethnic minority in the country and focus instead on protecting the rights to self-identification, freedom of expression, and freedom of association of those communities and complying fully with the rulings of the ECHR that associations should be allowed to use the words ``Macedonian'' and ``Turkish'' in their names and to express their ethnic identities freely. The independent expert found that those identifying themselves as ethnic Macedonians still reported discrimination and harassment. Representatives of this minority claimed that they were denied the right to freedom of association, citing unsuccessful efforts since 1990 to register the organization ``Home of Macedonian Culture'' in Florina. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--According to law, the age of consent is 15 for heterosexual sex and 17 for male homosexual sex. The law does not specify an age of consent for female homosexual sex. The NGO, Homosexual and Lesbian Community of Greece (OLKE), stated that the higher age of consent for homosexual males and the lack of any legal treatment of female-to-female sex, constituted gender identity discrimination. OLKE also criticized the country's laws against hate speech for not including sexual orientation or gender identity. OLKE alleged during the year that police often abused and harassed homosexual and transgender persons and subjected them to arbitrary identity checks and body searches in public places. In March organizers of the Athens Pride parade reported that the police did not respond to a series of attacks against gay bars in Athens. OLKE reported that police protection had improved for the parade and that the ombudsman officials had handed out employment antidiscrimination flyers during the event. NGOs reported that societal discrimination based on sexual orientation was widespread, but focused on gay male relationships. Transgender and HIV-positive persons were exempted from military service on disability and medical grounds, respectively. Other Societal Discrimination.--Observers indicated that individuals with HIV/AIDS suffered from high social exclusion and a loss of employment if they revealed their status. In February the Supreme Court ruled against an HIV-positive individual and in favor of his employer in a landmark HIV/AIDS discrimination case. The individual had revealed his HIV-positive status in 2005 and was subsequently fired. The Supreme Court ruled that the dismissal was legal due to the fact that his HIV-positive status caused negative reactions from his coworkers and created a negative work environment. The General Confederation of Greek Workers protested the Supreme Court's decision. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides that all workers, with the exception of members of the military services, have the right to form and join independent unions of their choice without any previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right. Approximately 30 percent of the total labor force was unionized. Agricultural employees, most of whom were foreigners, were not unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers in the private sector and in public corporations exercised this right in practice. Police have the right to organize and demonstrate but not to strike. There are some legal restrictions on strikes, including a mandatory notice period of four days for public utility workers and 24 hours for workers in the private sector. The law mandates minimum staff levels (as determined by management) during strikes affecting public services. Courts may declare a strike illegal; however, such decisions were seldom enforced. Unions complained that this judicial power deterred some of their members from participating in strikes. Courts declared some strikes (of transportation workers, air traffic controllers, garbage collectors, dock workers, and others) illegal during the year for reasons such as a failure by the union to give adequate advance notice of the strike or the introduction of new demands by a union during the course of the strike, but no workers were prosecuted for striking. In December 2008 unknown persons attacked Constantina Kuneva, secretary of All Attica Union of Cleaners and Domestic Workers. The perpetrators threw sulfuric acid in her face and forced her to swallow it. Her defense of the rights of irregular workers, part of her work with the union, resulted in intimidation and death threats. Trade unions and NGOs demanded a thorough investigation. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law generally provides for the right to bargain collectively in the private sector and in public corporations, and unions exercised this right freely. No antiunion discrimination was reported during the year. There are three export processing zones in the country. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits all forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, women, children, and men were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation or for labor exploitation in agricultural and construction sectors. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace and prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, the government did not adequately protect children, especially Roma, who were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation as well as for labor, such as begging, pick- pocketing, or selling merchandise on the street. The minimum age for employment in the industrial sector is 15, with higher limits for some activities. The minimum age is 12 in family businesses, theaters, and the cinema. These limits were enforced by occasional spot checks and were generally observed. Families who engaged in agriculture, food service, and merchandising were often assisted by younger family members on at least a part-time basis. Child labor was a problem, although international and local observers agreed that the number of working children had decreased compared with previous years. A number of children begged or sold small items in the streets. The government and NGOs reported that the majority of beggars were either indigenous Roma or Albanian Roma. Local children's advocates estimated that a large number of the 150,000 children under the age of 18 who dropped out of school each year ended up in the labor market, often in poorly paid and arduous positions. Jobs for dropouts included washing cars, pumping gas, construction, and low-level service sector employment. In December 2008 Human Rights Watch reported that unaccompanied immigrant children, working mainly in the agriculture, construction, and garment manufacturing sectors, were particularly vulnerable to labor exploitation. There were reports that children from Albania were trafficked and forced to beg; however, antitrafficking NGOs reported a decrease in trafficking as more Albanian parents entered the country legally with their children. Some parents forced their children to beg for money or used their children to elicit sympathy while begging for money. The labor inspectorate is responsible for enforcing labor legislation; however, trade unions alleged that enforcement was inadequate due to labor inspectorate understaffing. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 32 euros ($46) per day and 701 euros ($1,000) per month was not enough to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family in urban areas with higher living costs. Wages were officially the same for local and foreign workers, but there were numerous reports of undocumented foreign workers being exploited by employers, who paid low wages and made no social security contributions. The maximum legal workweek is 40 hours in the private sector and 37.5 hours in the public sector. The law provides for at least one 24- hour rest period per week, mandates paid vacation of one month per year, and sets limits on the amount of overtime worked. Premium pay and authorization by the Ministry of Employment and Social Security is required by law for overtime work. The labor inspectorate is responsible for enforcement of labor legislation; however, trade unions alleged that enforcement was inadequate, especially in the construction and public works sectors, due to inadequate inspectorate staffing. The law provides for minimum standards of occupational health and safety. The General Confederation of Greek Workers characterized health and safety laws as satisfactory but stated that enforcement by the labor inspectorate was inadequate. Workers do not have the legal right to remove themselves from situations that they believe endanger their health; however, they have the right to lodge a confidential complaint with the labor inspectorate. Inspectors can close machinery or a process for up to five days if they see safety or health hazards that they believe represent an imminent danger to workers. __________ HUNGARY Hungary is a republic with a population of approximately 10 million and a multiparty parliamentary democracy. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral parliament (National Assembly). The National Assembly elects the head of state, the president, every five years. The president appoints a prime minister from the majority party or coalition. The National Assembly elections in 2006 were assessed as free and fair. On April 14, parliament passed a constructive vote of no confidence that removed the minority Socialist government led by Ferenc Gyurcsany and installed a new minority government headed by Gordon Bajnai. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Human rights problems included police use of excessive force against suspects, particularly Roma; government corruption; societal violence against women and children; sexual harassment of women; and trafficking in persons. Other problems worsened, such as extremist violence and harsh rhetoric against ethnic and religious minority groups. Extremists increasingly targeted Roma, resulting in the deaths of four Roma and multiple injuries to others. Discrimination against Roma in education, housing, employment, and access to social services continued. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, an off-duty police officer was one of four attackers accused of killing a man during a robbery in Budapest on December 10. On December 12, the officer was suspended from duty and placed in pretrial detention. His case was pending at year's end. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that police harassed and used excessive force against suspects, particularly Roma. According to the Office of the Prosecutor General, during the year there were 18 complaints of police use of force during interrogation. The complaints resulted in 17 indictments of 11 police officers. On December 12, a Romani man filed a complaint against five police officers who allegedly assaulted him the previous night. The man claimed that the officers stopped him while he was walking home, beat him, and discharged a gun next to his head. He said they then forced him into a patrol car and dumped him near a lake on the outskirts of town. The man suffered minor injuries. The Prosecutor's Office in Eger opened an investigation, which continued at year's end. On January 21, citing lack of evidence, the Prosecutor's Office in Eger closed its investigation of alleged police abuse of five Romani men and two Romani women in 2007 during an identity check in Heves. The Romani plaintiff then filed an appeal, which the Heves County Prosecutor's Office rejected on March 13. Since the law allows citizens to file criminal charges without the assistance of a state prosecutor, on May 25 the defendants filed a new charge directly with the Heves County Court. On September 14, the Heves County Court suspended the case until another case, alleging violence by the Roma against the police, was decided. On October 20, the Metropolitan Court of Appeals upheld the suspension of the case. Both the case initiated by the Romani man against the police and the one initiated by police against the Romani man were pending in the Heves County Court at the end of the year. In 2007, citing lack of evidence, the Budapest Prosecutor's Office dropped charges against five police officers accused of raping a woman in May 2007. Instead, in 2008 the Prosecutor's Office charged the woman with falsely accusing the five officers. The woman then filed a new criminal charge, and authorities suspended the case against her until the second criminal case against the police officers could be adjudicated. The case was pending at year's end. On June 16, the Pecs Appellate Court convicted three police officers from Somogy County of abuse of authority for humiliating two men with mental disabilities during questioning in a 2007 theft investigation. The court fined the three officers and delegated any further disciplinary action to their supervisor. The Hungarian Helsinki Committee (HHC) criticized the court for not discharging the officers. Authorities conducted 203 criminal investigations into allegations of police misconduct during demonstrations in 2006. In eight cases the court rejected the charges. Prosecutors terminated their investigations in 171 cases, mainly because authorities could not identify the individual perpetrators. The prosecutor pressed charges of causing bodily injury in 20 cases. Of that number, the court made legally binding rulings in 10 cases; the remaining 10 cases awaited action at year's end. One case remained under investigation, while three were transferred to the military prosecutor's office at the end of the year. The Budapest Investigative Prosecutor's Office repeatedly stated that while the top echelon of the police force properly assisted in the investigations, lower-ranking leaders were not helpful. Unit commanders claimed on a number of occasions they could not recognize the members of their units on video recordings. Officers, most of whom wore masks or helmets without identification numbers, often testified that they witnessed the incidents but could not identify the perpetrators. In civil proceedings arising from the 2006 demonstrations, the Budapest municipal court issued seven verdicts during the year, ordering police authorities to pay 7,850,000 forint ($38,000) to compensate eight demonstrators who were either beaten or illegally detained in 2006. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. The government closed a ``less cost-effective'' prison, which increased prison overcrowding at other facilities. The prison population increased to 129 percent of capacity compared with 117 percent in 2008. On December 1, 15,627 inmates were in prisons and detention centers. According to the HHC, prison overcrowding was accompanied by a shortage of bed linens, towels, clothing, and adequate medical care. Sanitation and toilet facilities were also poor in some facilities. In some prisons toilets were not separate from living spaces. Many police holding cells did not have toilets and running water in the cells; lighting and ventilation were often inadequate as well. The HHC also noted that detainees who made allegations of physical mistreatment often were not examined by an independent medical expert. According to authorities, during the year five inmates committed suicide. On February 13, a 56-year-old pretrial detainee died of his injuries after prison guards allegedly beat him in the Kaposvar prison. Following an investigation by the Kaposvar Military Prosecutor's Office, the commander of the Hungarian Penitentiary Service dismissed the Somogy County prison governor. The Military Prosecutor's Office charged three prison guards with mistreatment. The case was pending at year's end. A court convicted two prison guards of physical abuse in an official capacity in connection with an attack on an inmate in the Miskolc Prison in October 2008. The inmate reported that the guards severely beat him after a disagreement. The guards appealed, and the case was pending at year's end. The HHC reported that it conducted four visits to various prisons and met with prisoners without the presence of prison officials. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. According to the Prosecutor General's Office, there were 65 official complaints of arbitrary detention. The Prosecutor General's Office rejected 22 complaints and initiated indictments in three cases. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Hungarian National Police (HNP), which operates under the direction of the Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement, is responsible for enforcing laws and maintaining order nationwide. Twenty regional police departments are directly subordinate to the HNP; city police are subordinate to the regional police and have local jurisdiction. Three organizations within the HNP have national jurisdiction: the Republican Guard; the National Bureau of Investigation; and the Emergency Police (formerly called Rebisz), which are also responsible for counterterrorism and crowd control. On May 18, the police trade union Ready for Action (TMRSZ), which represented more than 6,000 officers--approximately 13 percent of the police force--and the extreme nationalist Movement for a Better Hungary (Jobbik) signed a cooperation agreement that generated public controversy. Although the law forbids police officers from joining political parties, Jobbik placed the secretary general of the union fourth on its list of candidates in the June 7 elections for seats in the European Parliament (EP). Jobbik received just less than 15 percent of the votes and won three seats in the EP. The minister of justice and law enforcement and the national police chief criticized the agreement, and the Office of the Prosecutor General initiated legal proceedings against TMRSZ. On June 3, the chief prosecutor ruled that the leaders of the TMRSZ violated the law when they signed the agreement with Jobbik. Corruption within police agencies remained a problem. Penalties for police officers found guilty of wrongdoing include reprimand, dismissal, and criminal prosecution. During the first 10 months of the year, authorities found 2,458 police officers responsible for breaching discipline, 716 guilty of misdemeanor offenses, and 26 unfit for duty. No information was available on the number of police officers charged with criminal offenses. During the first 10 months of the year, four police officers were sentenced to prison, 28 received suspended sentences, 213 were fined, five were demoted, 26 were dismissed, and 42 were reprimanded. No information was available on the number placed on probation. In addition 10 police officers were convicted of corruption. The military prosecutor's office is responsible for conducting proceedings involving any member of the armed forces charged with a criminal offence. The Independent Police Complaints Board (IPCB), established in 2008, continued to investigate violations and omissions by the police that substantively concerned fundamental rights. The five-member body, appointed by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly, functions independently of police authorities. As of December 15, the board had received 697 complaints filed by the public. It reviewed 457 complaints and found legal violations in 215. The board forwarded 52 cases to the national police chief, who agreed with the findings in eight, partially accepted the findings in 23, and rejected the remainder. The HHC reported that police officials accused of a crime routinely received preferential treatment from the courts. According to the HHC, police officers generally were not suspended from duty during criminal proceedings, and those convicted received disproportionately light punishments. In addition a special provision in the penal code allows courts to clear convictions from the official record, thereby allowing police officers to continue working. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires police to obtain a warrant based on sufficient evidence from a prosecutor's office, a court, or the police department to make an arrest. Police must inform suspects of the charges against them and of the section of the criminal code under which they are charged at the beginning of their first interrogation, which must be within 24 hours from the time of their detention. The authorities generally respected this right. Persons may be subject to ``short-term arrest'' if they are caught committing a crime; are suspected of having committed a crime; are the subject of an arrest warrant; or are unable or unwilling to identify themselves. Short-term arrests generally lasted eight hours, but could last up to 12 hours in exceptional cases. However, if a suspect poses a threat to public security, police may detain him or her for 24 hours. Police and the prosecutor's office can order the detention of suspects caught in the act, when their identities cannot be established, or if other conditions justify pretrial detention. If the prosecutor's office does not order pretrial detention within 72 hours, police must release the person. Under the law persons who were detained and later acquitted may receive monetary compensation. According to NGO reports, authorities detained Roma more frequently than non-Roma, and Roma were subjected to racial profiling. Research conducted in 2008 by the HHC and data from the HNP and the National Police College indicated that Roma were three times more likely to be stopped for identification checks than non- Roma, despite data suggesting that Roma are no more likely to be involved in unlawful activities than non-Roma. According to the Hungarian Penitentiary Service, on December 1, 4,582 persons were in pretrial detention. Of these, 999 had been detained between six months and one year, and 619 had been detained for more than a year. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) found the government had violated the right to liberty and security provided under the European Convention on Human Rights by holding a person in pretrial detention and under house arrest for almost two years and three months. There is a functioning bail system. Police must inform suspects of their right to counsel before questioning them. Representation by defense counsel is mandatory when defendants face a charge punishment for which is five years or more in prison; are in detention; are deaf, blind, or suffering from a mental disorder; are unfamiliar with the Hungarian language; are unable to defend themselves in person for any other reason; are juveniles; or are indigent and request the appointment of a defense counsel. When defense counsel is required, defendants have three days to hire an attorney; otherwise, the police or the prosecutor will appoint one. If defendants makes it clear that they are not willing to retain counsel, the police or the prosecutor is required to appoint counsel immediately. However, the police or prosecutor is not obligated to wait for counsel to arrive before interrogating the suspect. According to human rights NGOs, police routinely continued the interrogation immediately after notifying a suspect of his right to counsel. The HHC advocated reforms to the public defender system to address critical shortcomings. In late 2008 and in the early part of the year, the HHC researched closed criminal cases in various county courts to assess the quality of appointed counsel. The research supported existing empirical data indicating that the performance of appointed counsels was substandard, primarily due to a questionable process whereby investigating authorities appointed defense counsel. The HHC proposed that public defenders be appointed by an independent legal aid organization and reviewed regularly by a professional committee. The law permits detainees to notify relatives or others of their detention unless the notification would jeopardize the investigation. If the detainee cannot exercise this right, police must perform the notification. However, NGOs reported that in practice police did not fully comply with this requirement. On March 5, the Tatabanya Municipal Court ordered the detention of an 83-year-old woman while she was ill in the hospital. The order ran counter to a 2007 ruling by the Constitutional Court that the accused must be present in court when pretrial detention is ordered. The Komarom-Esztergom County Court rejected the woman's appeal, but the Tatabanya Appellate Court revoked the pretrial detention order on April 17 following a motion by the HHC. The woman also filed a complaint with the ECHR challenging the circumstances that led to the court-ordered pretrial detention. According to the HHC, police took 35 demonstrators into custody during official ceremonies on the March 15 holiday. They reportedly strip-searched all of them in violation of the law on short-term arrests. Those arrested also complained that authorities refused to let them contact their family members or lawyers, provided incorrect contact information for the HHC and the Civil Rights Ombudsman, and provided no information about how they might file complaints at the IPCB. The IPCB and the national police chief ruled in several cases that the police had infringed upon the fundamental rights of the complainants. Amnesty.--President Laszlo Solyom issued 20 official pardons during the year. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. The country has a four-tier judicial system consisting of local and county courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court, which exercises control over the operations and judicial procedures of all other courts. The fourth tier is an 11-member Constitutional Court, elected by the National Assembly and independent of the judicial system, that reviews the constitutionality of laws and international treaties ratified by the government and may review Supreme Court decisions on constitutional questions. Individuals may bring cases directly to the Constitutional Court. Military trials follow civil law and may be closed for national security or to protect the privacy of individuals. In all cases sentencing must take place publicly. Civilians may not be tried in military courts. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The law extends these rights to all defendants. Defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty. There is no jury system; judges are the final arbiters. Judicial proceedings generally are investigative rather than adversarial. Trials are generally public, but the judge can ban or restrict public access to a trial to ensure the participants' privacy or the trial's safety. Depending upon the space available in the courtroom, a judge may limit public access to visitors who have been preregistered. The prosecutor, the victim, the defendant, and the defense counsel may also request that public access to proceedings be restricted in order to protect minors younger than 14 years old, witnesses, or state or business secrets. The court must publically announce the final decision of every case. The Hungarian Civil Liberties Union (HCLU) repeatedly criticized the courts for restricting the media's access to the courtroom. On August 17, the Office of the Civil Rights Ombudsman also criticized the regulations used to determine which trials should be open to the media. The ombudsman argued that the imposition of restrictions at times led to tumultuous scenes in courtrooms, as well as to arbitrary interpretations of the law. He called for a new standardized law. Defendants are entitled to counsel who can be present during all phases of the criminal proceedings. Defendants have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases, may challenge or question witnesses, and may present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants have the right of appeal. Judicial proceedings varied in length; delays of several months to a year were common. During the year the ECHR found that the government had denied complainants a fair hearing within a reasonable time in a case that had lasted 105 years. In 2008 the ECHR found the country guilty of 39 violations of provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights concerning length of proceedings. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Under the law persons may initiate lawsuits to seek damages for human rights violations; however, fines levied in such cases are payable to the state and not the victim. Generally, the fines were too small to deter violators. Property Restitution.--The government continued to facilitate the restitution of religious properties confiscated by the state during the communist era and sought to ensure that all religious organizations had an equal opportunity to regain control over their former property. Nevertheless, some important cases remained unresolved. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and in practice the government generally respected these prohibitions. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press; however, there were charges that the state-owned Public Service Broadcasting was politically influenced due to improper media regulations. Individuals could criticize the government in public or private without reprisal; however, individuals, including journalists, can be held liable for their published statements or for publicizing libelous statements made by others. Libel is a criminal offense. Officials continued to use the libel laws to claim compensation for perceived injuries to their character. On October 1, police opened an investigation, including taking fingerprints, of a journalist from the newspaper Magyar Hirlap after State Secretary Laszlo Keller accused him of defamation in two articles by the journalist that were published on January 28 and February 2. In the articles the journalist highlighted a ruling by the Constitutional Court, published in December 2008, that revealed a legislative mistake associated with Keller. In response to the investigation, the journalist launched an official complaint against the police, arguing that in the case of a criminal charge filed by a private citizen, they were not authorized to investigate or fingerprint a suspect without the assistance of a state prosecutor. The police apologized for the investigation and the fingerprinting procedure; they initiated disciplinary measures against the officer deemed responsible. The police investigation into the libel case was pending at year's end. The criminal code includes provisions against incitement of hatred and hate-inspired violence. Any person who publicly incites hatred against any national, ethnic, or racial group or certain other groups of the population is guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment for up to three years. Additionally, any person who assaults someone because he belongs to a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment up to five years. An amendment that came into force on January 1 included a provision making preparations for the use of force against any member of the community a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment for up to two years. Courts have failed to convict persons of inciting hatred when no physical assault followed. Under the civil code, a person specifically targeted by hate speech may file a civil suit, but, as long as the speech remains abstract and does not mention any specific individual, there is no legal recourse. On February 24, a report on the country by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance stated that ``the very high level of constitutional protection afforded to the freedom of expression has to date made it impossible for the authorities to legislate effectively against racist expression.'' The law prohibits the public display of certain symbols, including the swastika, the hammer and sickle, the five-pointed red star, and the arrow cross, a symbol associated with the country's fascist World War II-era government. On March 10, the Supreme Court acquitted Attila Vajnai, the deputy chairman of the Workers' Party of Hungary, of the charge of publicly using totalitarian symbols when he wore a five-pointed red star on his lapel during a 2003 demonstration. The decision responded to the ECHR ruling in July 2008 that Vajnai's right to freedom of expression had been violated when the municipal court found him guilty of a misdemeanor for displaying the five-pointed red star. The ECHR also noted that the country's laws prohibiting the use of totalitarian symbols were indiscriminately applied and too broad. An active and independent media expressed a wide variety of views without restriction; however, the traditionally nonpartisan state-owned radio and television stations, which accounted for 18 and 14 percent, respectively, of the media market, in some instances took into greater consideration the concerns of the main opposition party. The National Television and Radio Commission (ORTT) is responsible for monitoring public and commercial broadcasting outlets and for granting licenses and frequencies. The president and prime minister jointly nominate the head of the six-member commission, and the National Assembly appoints the five other members. The board monitors news broadcasts to ensure equal treatment of all political parties. On October 28, the ORTT awarded the licenses of the only two frequencies that broadcast throughout the country to companies believed to be associated with the two major political parties. Two long-term foreign investors previously held the licenses. Press reports suggested that the tender process was tainted. On the following day, the president of ORTT, Laszlo Majtenyi, resigned, stating it was impossible to keep the broadcast media regulator free of party politics. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 59 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. During 2008 the ECHR found one violation by the country of freedom of assembly and association as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Freedom of Assembly.--Under the law demonstrations do not require a police permit, but event organizers must inform police of a planned assembly in a public place at least three days in advance. The law authorizes police to prohibit any gathering if it seriously endangers the peaceful operation of representative bodies or courts, or if it is not possible to ensure alternate routes for traffic. However, the police are not required to disband a spontaneous assembly that remains peaceful. During the first nine months of the year, police prohibited 53 demonstrations or approximately 5 percent of the total number of announced demonstrations. During the year the HHC and other human rights organizations repeatedly underlined the need to modify the law on assembly to clarify when the police may prevent a public gathering. According to the HHC, the present regulations do not permit the police to prevent any demonstration based on the conviction that the demonstrators are highly likely to commit a criminal offense. According to NGOs the shortcomings of the present regulations resulted in sometimes inconsistent police practices. On the March 15 holiday, police placed two men under short-term arrest during an official ceremony conducted by the prime minister. They charged the men with not complying with a police order to stop shouting that the prime minister should resign. At the police station, authorities strip-searched the two men. The police fined them for ``infringing the freedom of association, the freedom of assembly, and the right to participate in electoral assemblies.'' On March 18, an internal police investigation concluded that, although the arrest was legal, the four police officers violated the short-term arrest procedure by strip-searching the men. On May 24, the civil rights ombudsman issued a special report asserting it was not possible to commit the petty offenses with which the two men were charged during such public events. On June 3, the IPCB ruled that the police actions seriously infringed upon the fundamental rights of the two men, including their right to freedom of expression, right to personal liberty, right to fair proceedings, and their human dignity. On October 1, the Pest Central District Court stated that official ceremonies organized by the state do not fall under the scope of the act dealing with the right to assembly and, consequently, the two men could not have committed the offence of ``violating the right to assembly.'' The ambiguity in police guidance concerning the law of assembly was evident during a July 4 demonstration of the far-right Magyar Garda in Budapest. Protesters, most of whom wore Magyar Garda uniforms, organized the demonstration in response to a July 2 court ruling banning the organization. They did not notify police. Police told several hundred demonstrators to leave the area. When the crowd refused to disperse, police used tear gas. Some demonstrators began throwing bottles at police officers. Police arrested 216 demonstrators, including the Magyar Garda and Jobbik Party chairman, Gabor Vona. On September 10, Mate Szabo, the parliamentary commissioner for civil rights, released a report criticizing police for not providing a reason for dispersing the peaceful demonstration. According to the HHC, police had legal grounds for breaking up the demonstration, because it infringed the rights and freedom of others. The HCLU criticized police for failing to act proportionately and gradually while disbanding the demonstration. On August 12, the police denied a demonstration request for a neo- Nazi procession to commemorate the Nazi war criminal Rudolf Hess that was planned by the Hungarian National Socialist Front for August 15 in Budapest. The police ruled that the demonstration would violate international conventions. The HCLU contended that police did not have the right to prohibit the procession in advance, but instead should have advised the organizers that they would break up any demonstration involving crime or violating other persons' rights. On August 22, the Magyar Garda, which is a banned organization, held a swearing-in ceremony for 620 new members on private land in Szentendre after the police denied their request for a permit to hold the assembly in Budapest. Police entered the private land after participants marched in formation wearing the same uniforms used by the banned organization. Police initiated legal proceedings against 176 individuals, charging them with ``participation in the activities of a banned social organization.'' The cases were pending at year's end. On November 14, in Sajobabony, local Roma attempted to break up a Magyar Garda assembly during a Jobbik party political rally. After a group of Roma assaulted one of the organizers, Jobbik and the Magyar Garda members proceeded to the Romani section of town. Several clashes and damage to vehicles resulted. On November 15, police responded by establishing several checkpoints leading into town. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right. On December 15, the Supreme Court, upholding an earlier appeals court decision, dissolved the far-right paramilitary group, Magyar Garda Association (MGA). Jobbik Party Chairman Vona formed the MGA in 2007, following violent 2006 antigovernment demonstrations, in order to ``preserve the country's traditions and culture.'' The MGA staged marches in various towns and rural communities wearing uniforms and depicting ``Gypsy crime'' as a major threat to public security. The court ruled that the MGA curtailed the freedom and the rights of others and ``triggered a risk of violence'' during its rallies. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There is no state religion, and under the law every registered religious group is entitled to the same rights. The four ``historical'' religious groups (Catholic, Reformed, Lutheran, and Jewish) received 93 percent of state financial support provided to religious groups. According to supreme court records, 361 churches were registered as of May. To register, a religious group must submit a statement to a county court declaring that it has at least 100 followers. The court determines whether the registration of the new group complies with constitutional and legal requirements. A 2007 report by the State Audit Office concluded that the government underpaid subsidies to schools operated by religious organizations by 2.7 billion forints ($14.2 million) in 2005 and 2006. Although support increased during the year to 66.2 billion forint ($348 million), the ``historical'' religious groups wanted the method for calculating state funding written into law. The issue remained unresolved at year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish population was estimated to be between 80,000 and 100,000. During the year anti- Semitic incidents, including vandalism, continued, but the Federation of Jewish Communities in Hungary (MAZSIHISZ) reported that anti- Semitism did not increase in the year compared with 2008. According to police there were 124 reports of vandalism or destruction of Jewish and Christian properties (nine in houses of worship and 115 in cemeteries) during the first 10 months of the year compared with 365 cases reported in 2008. The privately owned weekly newspapers Magyar Demokrata and Magyar Forum continued to publish anti-Semitic articles. There were several extremist Hungarian-language Web sites, many of them openly anti-Semitic. NGOs reported that the government monitored the content of these sites to enforce the prohibition against public display of such symbols as the swastika, the hammer and sickle, the five-pointed red star, and the arrow cross. During the year the prime minister, other senior government officials, and representatives of other parties routinely denounced extremist movements; they initiated and participated in several demonstrations promoting tolerance. On February 24, the World Jewish Congress joined MAZSIHISZ in criticizing anti-Semitic comments made by a local government official, Attila Kiss, from Rajka. Kiss called on other officials to take up ``sickles and swords'' and ``exorcise'' the local synagogue. MAZSIHISZ lodged an official complaint against Kiss, which the Prosecutor's Office subsequently rejected. On April 4, Jobbik, Magyar Garda, and the Hungarian National Front co-organized an event commemorating the 1882 ``blood libel'' trial in which residents of Tiszaeszlar accused the local Jewish community of killing a 14-year-old Christian peasant girl in order to use her blood for a religious ceremony. The police ordered an investigation into the event after the media reported that the approximately 80 participants made anti-Semitic comments. On December 3, the police concluded the investigation due to the lack of evidence of the crime of ``incitement against a community.'' On April 18, a day before the March of the Living procession organized by the Jewish communities, far-right demonstrators marched to the German embassy in Budapest to deny the Holocaust and to raise their voices against ``Zionist world-rule.'' An estimated 250 persons, including 60 wearing Magyar Garda uniforms, held posters reading, ``Down with the Holocaust doctrine'' and ``the Third Reich strikes back.'' Others wore shirts that said, ``Dare to be white.'' MGA Captain Istvan Dosa said in a speech that ``nothing from the Holocaust is true,'' and then he read a petition addressed to the German embassy. The Budapest police initiated legal procedures against Dosa and another speaker for ``incitement against a community.'' However, the participants also made an official complaint concerning police actions in connection with the march, which the prosecutor's office supported. Consequently, the police dropped their investigation of the march. On June 30, three men beat a 27-year-old Jewish man after asking if he was a Jew. The victim suffered minor injuries. The prime minister asked the minister of justice and law enforcement to supervise and accelerate the investigation and to present proposals on how to avoid similar incidents. On December 23, the police arrested two persons, one 16 years old and the other 18 years old, in connection with the attack and initiated an investigation of violence against a member of a community. The case was pending at year's end. On July 9, the prime minister appealed to police agencies for increased vigilance regarding racist attacks against Jews and other minorities. On September 5, during a pride parade, approximately 20 demonstrators whom police had pushed out of Varoshaz Square began shouting ``nasty Jews'' in the direction of Budapest's largest synagogue. The demonstrators threw an empty beer bottle at the synagogue and tore down a hanging banner advertising the Jewish Summer Festival. They set the banner, along with a temporary reed fence near the synagogue, on fire. Police quickly extinguished the fire. They opened an investigation into the incident, and the case was pending at the end of the year. On October 26, a 22-year-old man smashed a memorial plaque dedicated to Armin Kecskemeti, chief rabbi of Mako for more than 40 years, who died in a concentration camp in 1944. The perpetrator also wrote ``what six million?'' and ``lying swine'' on the wall. Two days later the police captured a suspect and initiated proceedings against him on vandalism charges. On November 11, President Laszlo Solyom laid a wreath at the restored plaque and said he considers it necessary to counteract the ``barbaric act of a drunken man'' and to ensure that positive aspects of the history of the country and Jewry reach public awareness. The case against the man was pending at year's end. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law does not provide for forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or the return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. On April 21, the prosecutor general determined that the Office of Immigration and Nationality (OIN) was unlawfully detaining certain asylum seekers. The prosecutor general sent a notice to the OIN demanding that it immediately enforce the law by releasing all asylum seekers whose applications had been admitted into the final asylum procedure. The OIN challenged this notice at the Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement, suggesting an amendment to the law. The HHC reported that the unlawful practice continued at the end of the year despite the prosecutor general's intervention. During the first six months of the year, the OIN received 2,269 applications for refugee status, of which it approved 114. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees and provided it to approximately 23 persons during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2006 Prime Minister Gyurcsany and his Socialist-Liberal coalition were returned to office in a free and fair election. The coalition subsequently dissolved and, on April 20, a new government headed by Prime Minister Bajnai assumed office. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. There were no government restrictions on political parties. The 386-seat National Assembly included 43 women. There were two women in Gyurcsany's cabinet, but none in Bajnai's. Due to data privacy laws, no information was available on the number of minorities in the National Assembly or the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and NGOs contended that officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Corruption in the executive and legislative branches reportedly increased during the year, and numerous cases of alleged corruption received significant public attention. According to the World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators, government corruption was a problem. Low-level corruption among police officials remained a problem. On February 10, the Chief Prosecutor's Office ordered the pretrial detention of the mayor of Budapest's Seventh District, Gyorgy Hunvald, on suspicion of real estate fraud, bribery, and forgery of documents. Budapest's Seventh District, especially the area called the ``Jewish quarter,'' has been the center of suspected real estate fraud for years. At the end of the year, the Central Investigative Chief Prosecutor's Office continued investigating the significantly lower- than-market sale price in 2003 and 2004 of 14 formerly state-owned buildings, which cost the district 970 million forint ($5.1 million). During the year the police opened an investigation into the Budapest Public Transport Company (BKV) in connection with 1.7 billion forint ($9 million) in severance payments to 100 persons over the previous six years. BKV chief executive officer Istvan Kocsis reported to the police that employment contracts signed by previous management teams were disadvantageous for the company. Leaked information on the company's confidential employment terms, salaries, and bonuses generated a strong negative public reaction. In response, the government issued a decree on August 28, requiring state-owned companies and institutions to publish senior executives' salaries. However, some publicly owned companies remained reluctant to release such data. On December 7, the police arrested the directors of Budapest Airport and the BKV on suspicion of bribery, malpractice, and other crimes. Their cases were pending at the end of the year. On December 14, parliament passed an anticorruption package designed to track disbursement of public funds and promote public trust. The law introduced whistleblower protection measures as well as a new national anticorruption authority empowered to review all public procurement and to forward any suspected criminal cases to prosecutors. However, President Solyom only signed the whistleblower protection measure and returned the legislation on the anticorruption authority to parliament for reconsideration. Parliament did not act further on the bill by the end of the year. The National Assembly, high-level government officials, civil and public servants, and police officials disclosed their financial status on a regular basis, as the law requires. Several government offices were responsible for combating corruption. The State Audit Office audited the public sector and campaign spending of political parties. The independent judiciary, the prosecutors, the police, and in certain cases the customs and finance guard were responsible for investigating corruption. Special agencies such as the competition authority and the supervisory body of financial institutions were responsible for ensuring fair and transparent market conditions. The 18-member Anticorruption Coordination Board ceased its activity. The board originally consisted of cabinet members, representatives of nongovernmental state institutions, and NGOs. However, in 2008 three NGO representatives left the board and were not replaced. The constitution and law provide both citizens and foreigners the right to access state-held information, although the government may restrict this in order to protect legitimate state interests. Requestors can appeal in court a state institution's decision to deny access. Government offices charged a fee to cover copying costs. Government offices were required to report access requests and detail reasons for denials to the data protection ombudsman. According to the latest statistics published by the ombudsman, government offices received 78,245 requests in 2008 and rejected 35 because they involved commercial secrets or the offices concerned lacked authority to act. The HCLU contended that the ombudsman's statistics were highly inaccurate and claimed that the government denied approximately 80 percent of their requests. During the year the ECHR ruled that in 2004 the government had improperly denied the HCLU access to public information regarding drug policy. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture visited the country from March 24 until April 24; a report of the visit had not been published. There are four parliamentary commissioners (ombudsmen) for civil rights, national and ethnic minority rights, data protection, and future generations. They examine constitutional rights violations and initiate individual or general proceedings to prevent further violations. Following nominations by the president, a two-thirds parliamentary majority elects the ombudsmen for six years. The ombudsmen are responsible only to the parliament, which allocates their financial resources in the annual state budget and votes on their annual report. The ombudsmen operated without government or party interference and published several reports during the year. The public perception of the ombudsmen's activities was generally positive. The Parliamentary Committee for Human Rights and Minority, Civil, and Religious Affairs has 19 members selected in proportion to the parties' seats in parliament and is chaired by Zoltan Balog. The committee debates and reports on human rights-related bills and supervises the human rights-related activities of the ministers. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status; however, the government failed to enforce these rights fully in practice. During the year the Equal Treatment Authority (ETA) in the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, which monitors enforcement of antidiscrimination laws, received 1,087 complaints. These led the ETA to initiate 368 inquiries, and it determined that 51 complaints were justified. In the ``justified'' cases, the ETA ordered employers to stop their illegal activities, refrain from further wrongdoing, and in 19 instances, pay penalties ranging from 200,000 forint to five million forint ($2,650 to $15,900). Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, but the crime was often unreported. Under the law a sexual assault is considered to be rape only if it involves the use of force or threats. Penalties for rape range from two to eight years in prison and can be as long as 15 years in aggravated cases. During the year the prosecutor's offices pressed rape charges in 103 cases against 116 individuals, all of whom were convicted. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence or spousal abuse. The charge of assault and battery, which carries a maximum prison term of eight years, was used to prosecute domestic violence cases. On June 22, parliament adopted the Restraining Act in Cases of Violence between Relatives. Under the law police may issue an emergency order valid for three days, and courts are authorized to issue longer- term restraining orders. According to women's rights NGOs, the law does not provide appropriate protection for the victims and does not place sufficient emphasis on the accountability of perpetrators. Expert research in the field of family violence indicated that approximately 20 percent of women in the country had been physically assaulted or victimized by domestic violence. According to the HNP, 5,522 women were reported to be victims of domestic violence during the first 10 months of the year, compared with 2,137 in 2008; however, most incidents of domestic violence went unreported due to fear and shame on the part of victims, and prosecution for domestic violence was rare. Prosecuting those who abused women was difficult because of societal attitudes that tended to blame the victim. Correspondingly, according to NGOs police remained reluctant to arrest abusers due to a lack of confidence that the judicial system would effectively resolve abuse cases. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor operated an Internet site, a 24-hour hotline, and 11 shelters for victims of abuse. During the year the ministry opened four ``halfway houses'' around the country able to accommodate as many as 16 families (victims of domestic violence) for up to five years. Prostitution is legal, but persons engaged in prostitution could only work legally in certain locations away from schools and churches. The Hungarian Prostitutes' Interest Protection Association estimates that between 15,000 and 20,000 persons regularly engaged in prostitution. Buying sexual services from a person younger than 18 years old is a crime punishable by up to three years' imprisonment. According to NGO reports, the number of females younger than 18 years involved in prostitution has increased in recent years. The law provides the right to a secure workplace and prohibits sexual harassment as a criminal offense. While only two reports of sexual harassment were filed with the ETA, according to NGOs sexual harassment remained a widespread problem. NGOs contended that the law did not clearly define sexual harassment, leaving a lack of legal awareness or incentives to file a case. Only one violation of the law has been found since its passage in 2005. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and to skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Under the constitution and the law, men and women have equal rights. The ETA was responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Equal Treatment Law and for coordinating governmental activities in the field of gender equality. NGOs pointed out that the law has no gender-specific provisions. NGOs also raised concerns about the ETA's lack of financial and human resources to carry out its mission. According to the Central Statistical Agency, women continued to earn 17 percent less than men for substantially similar work. The ETA found employer discrimination against women in eight of the 19 complaints it received. There was economic discrimination against women in the workplace, particularly against job seekers older than 50 and those who were pregnant. Children.--The country's citizenship law is based on the principle of jus sanguinis, meaning that a person acquires citizenship by birth from a parent who is a citizen. The ECHR found in one case that the government improperly withheld maternity benefits to the children of a citizen father because the mother was not a citizen of the country. While the law provides free compulsory education for children through 18 years of age, a 2006 study found that more than 82 percent of Roma have eight years of education or less, compared with 36 percent of the rest of the population. Similarly, while an estimated 40 percent of the population had some form of secondary schooling, only 3.1 percent of Roma received such education. The public education system continued to provide inadequate instruction for minorities in their own languages. Romani language schoolbooks and qualified teachers were in short supply. Segregation of Romani schoolchildren remained a problem. NGOs and government officials estimated that 20 percent of Romani children were placed without cause in remedial classes for children with mental disabilities, effectively segregating them from other students. Schools with a majority of Romani students employed simplified teaching curricula, were generally less well equipped, and were in significantly worse physical condition than those with non-Roma majorities. On September 17, the Chance for Children Foundation (CFCF) sued the Ministry of Education and Culture for violating the Equal Opportunity Act by failing to halt the segregation of Romani children in public schools. The case was pending at year's end. On December 1, the Somogy County Court ruled that the municipality of Kaposvar had unlawfully discriminated against Romani children by segregating them from non-Romani students in a separate school with a simplified curriculum. The municipality appealed the verdict, and the case was pending at year's end. On December 9, the Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok County Court ruled that the municipality of Jaszladany did not discriminate against Romani children by segregating them from non-Romani students in a private school established inside the building of the state school and cofinanced by the local government. Another CFCF lawsuit, against local authorities of Gyor, was pending at year's end. According to police 4,386 crimes against children were reported during the first 10 months of the year, compared with 3,801 in 2008. Police continued to lack the necessary training, capacity, and institutional support to protect children adequately, particularly in situations involving domestic violence. The minimum age of consensual sex is 14 years. According to the law, statutory rape is a felony punishable by imprisonment for two to eight years and for five to 10 years if the victim is under 12 years of age. The law prohibits child pornography, which is punishable by up to eight years in prison. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, or within the country. The principal countries of origin for victims of trafficking through the country were Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, Moldova, Poland, countries of the former Yugoslavia, and China. The principal destinations were Austria, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Ireland, Denmark, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Women were trafficked primarily for sexual exploitation, while men were trafficked for forced labor. Girls were reportedly trafficked within the country for commercial sexual exploitation. There were no official estimates of the number of victims who were trafficked from or through the country. The majority of internally trafficked victims originated in the eastern part of the country. The high-risk groups included orphans who reached adulthood, young women from the countryside, and young Romani women. According to government officials and NGOs, the majority of traffickers were individuals or small, family-based groups. Organized crime syndicates transported many of the trafficking victims to or through the country for forced prostitution. The principal recruitment methods used by traffickers included advertisements for jobs abroad as waitresses or dancers. In some cases the victims may have expected that they would engage in prostitution in their destination countries, but they were not aware of the coercive conditions they would face. Under the law punishment for trafficking depends upon the circumstances of the offense. The basic punishment is up to three years' imprisonment. Penalties increase to five- and eight-year maximums when two or more of the following occur: the victim is kept in captivity; subjected to forced labor; used for the purpose of sodomy or sexual penetration; or is in the care, custody, supervision, or treatment of the perpetrator. If the crime involves a child under 12, the punishment is five years to life in prison. Any person who makes plans to traffic is guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment for up to two years. NGOs suggested that the weakest features of the antitrafficking effort were the ``exchange or trade'' provisions of the trafficking act. They provide that any person who sells, purchases, conveys, or receives another person or exchanges one person for another person, or appropriates a person for such purpose for another party, commits the felony offense of trafficking in persons. The low number of prosecutions was due to the strict requirement to prove the trade element. Police investigated 13 trafficking cases during the first eight months of the year and forwarded five to the prosecutor's office. The government agencies most directly involved in combating trafficking included the ministries of justice and law enforcement and foreign affairs, the HNP, border guards, and customs authorities. An interministerial countertrafficking working group, which included NGOs and international organizations, met quarterly. In addition, there was an International Trafficking Unit within the National Bureau of Investigation. The government regularly cooperated with other countries in joint trafficking investigations. During the first 10 months of the year, authorities extradited seven persons on trafficking charges, while two persons were extradited from abroad to the country. There were approximately 60 regional and local general victim protection offices and 11 crisis centers where trafficking victims could receive psychological, social, and legal assistance. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor operated a hotline for victims of trafficking and domestic violence. Trafficking victims who cooperated with police and prosecutors could receive temporary residency, short- term relief from deportation, and shelter. During the year the government allocated 245.7 million forint ($1.3 million) to antitrafficking efforts. This included: 4.5 million forint ($23,800) for research, 3.2 million forint ($17,200) for training, three million forint ($15,800) for prevention, six million forint ($31,700) for shelter support, and 229 million forint ($1.2 million) for prosecution and enforcement resources to include the special trafficking in persons investigation unit. The government worked together with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to promote public awareness programs about trafficking. Between March and June, the government funded a demand- side campaign posting placards in gas station restrooms explaining how hiring prostitutes could support the trafficking industry. Government funding included IOM-developed anti-demand information posted on the Ministry of Justice's Web site and IOM-provided trafficking-prevention training throughout the year for the staff of the shelter for unaccompanied minors. On December 30, the government signed an initial six-month contract valued at six million forint ($31,700) with the NGO Hungarian Interchurch Aid to support a shelter exclusively for trafficking victims. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services; however, persons with disabilities frequently faced discrimination and prejudice. Government sources estimated there were 600,000 persons with disabilities, while disability organizations estimated the number to be approximately one million. NGOs expressed concern about the lack of independent oversight over government-run, long-term-care institutions for persons with mental disabilities. There were sporadic reports that employees of such institutions used inappropriate physical restraints on patients, a problem experts attributed partly to inadequate numbers of qualified staff. The international NGO Mental Disability Advocacy Center (MDAC) criticized the government for failing in its obligation to protect the rights of persons with disabilities placed under the legal guardianship of others. According to MDAC one of the key problems was a lack of alternatives to guardianship for persons with disabilities who needed support in making certain decisions. According to NGOs there are an estimated 80,000 adults under guardianship. A government decree requires all companies with more than 20 employees to reserve 5 percent of their jobs for persons with physical or mental disabilities. The decree specifies fines for noncompliance. Employers typically paid the fines rather than employ persons with disabilities. Approximately 9 percent of working-age persons with mental disabilities were employed during the year. Both the central government and municipalities continued to update public buildings to make them accessible to persons with disabilities. The law requires all buildings operated by the central government be accessible by 2010; those operated by the municipalities must meet this goal by 2013. There was no data available on the percentage of government buildings that were not accessible. The lead agency for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities is the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Hate Crimes Report for the year stated that 12 violent attacks against members of national, ethnic, racial, or religious groups occurred in 2008. According to the Central Statistics Office, in 2007 the Romani community was the largest ethnic minority, accounting for 2 percent of the population, or about 200,000 persons. However, unofficial estimates, which vary widely, suggested the actual figure was much higher, ranging between 500,000 and 800,000 persons. Violent attacks against Roma continued and generated strong public concern and intense disputes as to the existence of racially motivated crimes in the country. On February 23, a Romani home in the town of Tatarszentgyorgy was attacked with Molotov cocktails and gunfire, and a man and his five-year-old son were shot and killed as they ran from their burning home. On April 22, a 54-year-old Romani man died from a gunshot wound in Tiszalok. On August 3, in Kisleta a Romani woman was shot and killed in her home, and her 13-year-old daughter was seriously injured. Between June 2008 and August 3, a series of physical attacks against Roma resulted in the killing of nine persons and injuries to many others. In response, the national police chief doubled the number of detectives in the special unit assigned to the case to 100. On August 21, police arrested four suspects. No additional attacks of this nature occurred after the arrests. The case was pending at year's end. Human rights NGOs criticized authorities for mistakes made during on- site investigations, particularly in Tatarszentgyorgy. The police ordered an internal disciplinary proceeding to identify the alleged mistakes, and these resulted in disciplinary measures against two police officers. On October 9, five Roma were charged with a racist assault after allegedly beating an ethnic Hungarian on September 23. The four men and a woman were placed in pretrial detention. According to a police spokesman, this was the country's first racist incident in which the victim was not a member of a minority. On January 30, Albert Pasztor, the head of the Miskolc police headquarters, stated in a press conference, ``Hungarians appear to rob banks or gas stations, but all the other robberies are committed by Gypsies.'' He also stated that Hungarians should refrain from patronizing bars in certain parts of the city, since they may become victims of Romani criminals. He added that the problem was that ``cute Gypsy children often become rude and cruel perpetrators.'' Upon the instruction of the minister of justice and law enforcement, the HNP initiated an inquiry into the incident, and Pasztor was suspended from his position. However, two days later the investigation concluded that Pasztor did not break any law, and the HNP terminated his suspension; the decision to reinstate Pasztor was approved by the minister of justice and law enforcement. On April 2, Parliamentary Commissioner for Civil Rights Szabo stated in an interview that ``Gypsy crime'' existed and defined it as a type of crime performed to earn a living. He also referred to Roma as being a ``collectivist, almost tribal-level social group, in contrast to the highly individualist Hungarian society.'' He also presented himself as the parliamentary commissioner of the ``majority'' rather than the parliamentary commissioner for the rights of national and ethnic minorities. Although he withdrew his statement the next day following strong criticism by human rights groups, Szabo's professional acceptance greatly weakened following this incident. On September 3, Oszkar Molnar, the mayor of Edeleny and a FIDESZ parliamentarian, stated during a press conference that pregnant Romani women hit their bellies with rubber hammers and took harmful medicines to increase the chance their child would be born with disabilities in order to receive increased state financial aid. Responding to the statement, FIDESZ party leaders initially labeled it as a ``local issue.'' However, in December the center-right FIDESZ party dropped Molnar from its slate for the April 2010 parliamentary elections. On November 24, parliament's Committee on Human Rights, Minorities, and Civil and Religious Affairs published an open letter calling on all Hungarian public personalities to speak out against hate speech. The letter was initiated by the committee's chairman, Zoltan Balog; the former president of the Supreme Court, Zoltan Lomniczi; and the director of international relations of the FIDESZ Hungarian Civic Union, Dan Karoly. The leaders of the four historic churches signed the letters as supporters. Human rights NGOs reported that Roma were discriminated against in almost all fields of life, particularly in employment, education, housing, penal institutions, and access to public places, such as restaurants and bars. According to statistics of the Hungarian Institute for Educational Research and Development, Roma were significantly less educated than other citizens, and their incomes and life expectancy were well below average. A 2007 International Labor Organization report estimated the unemployment rate among Roma to be 40 percent. However, in many underdeveloped regions of the country, it exceeded 90 percent. Romani unemployment was estimated to be three to five times higher than among the non-Romani population. Inadequate housing continued to be a problem for Roma; their overall living conditions remained significantly worse than the general population's. According to Romani interest groups, municipalities used a variety of techniques to prevent Roma from living in more desirable urban neighborhoods. According to a survey by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, approximately 100,000 seriously disadvantaged persons, mostly Roma, lived in approximately 500 settlements lacking basic infrastructure and often located on the outskirts of cities. The government continued its program to eliminate these settlements and to help residents move to more desirable communities. Most ministries and county labor affairs centers had special officers for Romani affairs focused on the needs of the Romani community. The Ministry of Education and Culture continued to offer financial incentives to encourage schools to integrate Romani and non- Romani children in the same classrooms and to reintegrate Roma inappropriately placed in remedial programs. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor operated a program to finance infrastructure development in Romani communities. The Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement operated an antidiscrimination legal service network that provided free legal aid to Roma in cases where they encountered discrimination based on their ethnicity. Since January 1, in order to apply for EU and government funds for urban rehabilitation and public education projects, every city must attach to its proposal a desegregation plan outlining planned actions to eradicate segregation in housing and public education. The government opened 200 positions in public administration for Romani college graduates. By the end of the year, 122 applicants passed the mandatory civil servant entry exam and awaited placement in various national and county government offices. Roma, like the other 12 official minorities, are entitled to elect their own minority self-governments (MSGs), which organize minority activities and handle cultural and educational affairs. The president of each MSG also has the right to attend and speak at local government assemblies. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexual conduct is legal, but extremist groups continued to subject gay men and lesbians to physical abuse and attacks. On September 5, the Rainbow Mission Foundation organized the 14th annual Pride March in Budapest, which capped a week of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender programs. Organizers were successful in registering the march but criticized a police statement that participants should refrain from ``actions that are against public taste'' or the police would disperse the march. Although protestors tried to disrupt the event, the march, in which an estimated 1,500 persons participated, finished without major disturbances. Police detained 41 counterdemonstrators and initiated proceedings against 17 of them on suspicion of using force against officials. Police opened an investigation against three persons for creating a ``public nuisance'' when they assaulted a woman who was wearing a gay pride shirt. On September 7, after the HCLU complained to the national police chief that the reason for the assault was related to the woman's membership in a societal group, police changed the legal grounds of the investigation to ``violence against a member of a community.'' The case was pending at year's end. On April 8, police detained two persons in connection with two 2008 attacks on a gay bar and a gay bathhouse in Budapest. The case remained pending at the end of the year. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. The law also allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Twenty five percent of the workforce was unionized. With the exception of military personnel and police officers, workers have the right to strike, and workers exercised this right. The law permits the unions of military personnel and police officers to seek resolution of grievances in the courts. Two national trade unions, MSZOSZ and LIGA, have reported cases of employers' intimidating trade union members, transferring, relocating, or dismissing trade union officers, and hindering union officials from entering the workplace. Court proceedings on unfair dismissal cases can take more than a year to complete, and court decisions are not always properly enforced. LIGA reported that it took six years for an unfairly dismissed trade union leader in the Malev airline company to obtain a reinstatement order from the court. However, the airline company still did not allow him to return to work. The Independent Trade Union of Air Transport Workers continued to face problems with the Budapest airport. The airport hired foreigners on fixed-term contracts to replace striking workers when they organized a strike at the end of the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Collective bargaining is protected by law and was freely practiced. In 2007 collective bargaining agreements covered 41 percent of the workforce. The Labor Code requires trade unions to represent 65 percent of the workforce (for a single union) or 50 percent of the workforce (for a group of unions) to engage in collective bargaining. There are no export processing zones, but individual foreign companies frequently were granted duty-free zone status for their facilities. There were no exemptions from regular labor laws in the duty-free zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Women and children were trafficked into, within, through, and from the country for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government effectively enforced these laws in practice. The law prohibits children less than 16 years old from working, except under certain conditions, such as temporary work during school vacations. Otherwise, children less than 15 years old are prohibited from all work. Children may not work night shifts or overtime, or perform hard physical labor. As of August 2008, the country's Labor Inspectorate reported that 19 companies employed 57 children under 15 years old, mostly in construction and agriculture. Companies that employed children were fined between 30,000 and 20 million forint ($158 to $105,000), depending on the circumstances. Individuals who identify children as victims of labor exploitation are required to report them to the Guardianship Authority. According to the IOM, trafficking of children for sexual exploitation was a problem. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum monthly wage of 71,500 forint ($377) did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The National Council for Interest Reconciliation, a tripartite body of employers, employees, and the government, regularly evaluated and raised the minimum wage. The law sets the official workday at eight hours, although it may vary depending on the industry. A 48-hour rest period is required during any seven-day period. The regular workweek is 40 hours with premium pay for overtime. The law prohibits overtime exceeding 200 hours per year. The laws also apply to foreign workers with work permits; they were enforced effectively and consistently. Labor courts and the Labor Inspectorate enforced occupational safety standards set by the government, but enforcement was not always effective. Workers have the right to remove themselves from unsafe and unhealthy situations without jeopardizing their continued employment, and this right was generally respected. __________ ICELAND Iceland, with a population of 318,000, is a constitutional parliamentary republic. The president is the head of state; a prime minister, usually the head of the majority party, is head of government. There is a unicameral parliament (Althingi). In 2008 Olafur Ragnar Grimsson was reelected president in free and fair elections. After parliamentary elections on April 25, the Social Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Left-Green Movement (LG) formed a governing coalition led by Prime Minister Johanna Sigurdardottir (SDA). The elections were free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Reported human rights problems included societal discrimination against minorities and foreigners, especially refugees and asylum seekers; violence against women; and reports of persons trafficked to and through the country. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. During the year media expressed concern regarding overcrowding at the main prison at Litla-Hraun and at Reykjavik's main pretrial detention facility. When overcrowding in the main facility occurred, pretrial detainees were held in local police station jails. There was a waiting list of 240 persons convicted of crimes but unable to serve their sentences during the year due to a lack of prison space. The government maintained a separate minimum-security prison for female inmates; however, because so few women were incarcerated (six on average), some men were also held there. Men housed in facilities with women were closely monitored and only interacted with women in the common areas; they did not share cellblocks. Juvenile offenders were normally held in facilities run and supervised by the Government Agency for Child Protection. In at least one instance, a child was held in detention with adults, since there was no separate facility for juveniles in the prison system. Pretrial detainees were held together with convicted prisoners, except in those instances when it was deemed necessary to place them in solitary confinement. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers during the year. Prisoners could, and did, request visits from Prisoners' Friends, a group of volunteers from the Icelandic Red Cross. The volunteers talked with the prisoners and provided them with second-hand clothes upon request. There were no prison visits by international human rights monitoring groups during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the police, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police may make arrests under a number of circumstances: when they believe a prosecutable offense has been committed; where necessary to prevent further offenses or destruction of evidence; to protect a suspect; or when a person refuses to obey police orders to move. Arrest warrants are usually not employed; the criminal code explicitly requires warrants only for arresting individuals who fail to appear at court for a hearing or a trial or at a prison to serve a sentence. Persons placed under arrest are entitled to legal counsel, which the government provides for the indigent. Authorities must inform persons under arrest of their rights and must bring them before a judge within 24 hours. The judge determines whether a suspect must remain in custody during the investigation; the judge may grant conditional release, subject to assurances that the accused will appear for trial. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Courts do not use juries, but multijudge panels are common. Defendants are presumed innocent, and courts generally tried cases without delay. Defendants have access to legal counsel of their own choosing. For defendants unable to pay attorneys' fees, the government covers the cost; however, defendants who are found guilty are required to reimburse the government. Defendants have the right to be present at their trial, to confront witnesses, to introduce evidence, and to participate in the proceedings. They and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. At the discretion of the courts, prosecutors may introduce evidence that police obtained illegally. Defendants have the right to appeal, and the Supreme Court handles appeals expeditiously. These rights extend to all citizens without prejudice. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--A single court system handles both criminal and civil matters. The two levels of the judiciary--the district courts and the Supreme Court--were considered independent and impartial in civil matters. Lawsuits may seek damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Administrative remedies are available as well as judicial remedies for alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Immigration law allows authorities to conduct house searches without a prior court order when there is a significant risk that delay would jeopardize an investigation of immigration fraud. In September 2008 police searched the temporary residence of asylum seekers in Reykjanesbaer, a municipality near Keflavik Airport, after obtaining a court order. The police conducted the search on the suspicion that some asylum seekers were withholding information pertinent to their asylum requests. Immigration authorities were still processing their findings at the end of the year. Immigration law allows authorities to request DNA tests without court supervision in cases where they suspect immigration fraud. There were no reports that DNA testing took place during the year. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government respected these rights in practice. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. The law establishes fines and imprisonment for up to three months for persons convicted of publicly deriding or belittling the religious doctrines of a lawful religious association active in the country. The law also establishes fines and imprisonment for up to two years for anyone who publicly ridicules, slanders, insults, threatens, or in any other manner publicly assaults a person or a group on the basis of their nationality, skin color, race, religion, or sexual orientation. There were no reports that the law was invoked during the year. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to data from Statistics Iceland, approximately 93 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet during the year. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The state financially supported and promoted the official religion, Lutheranism. Other religions did not receive equal financial support from the government or treatment in school curricula (grades 1- 10). The law specifies conditions and procedures that religious organizations other than the state church must follow to be registered by the government and to be eligible for a per-capita share of church tax funds from the government. The government did not place any restrictions or requirements on unregistered religious organizations, which, except for access to state funds, had the same rights as other groups in society. The Ministry of Justice and Human Rights approved the registration of the Islamic Cultural Center of Iceland in March but rejected the registration application of the New Avalon Center in May. In October the ministry approved the registration of the Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International and the Church of the Resurrected Life, which previously applied for registration as the New Avalon Center. All citizens 16 years of age and older pay an annual church tax of 10,260 kronur (approximately $82). According to an amendment to the law on church taxes passed in June, persons who are not registered as belonging to a religious organization, or who belong to one that is not registered and officially recognized, no longer have to pay church taxes. Previously the tax payment went to the University of Iceland, a secular institution. Atheists and ethical humanists had objected to having their fees go to the university, asserting that this was inconsistent with the right of freedom of association. The state provided the Evangelical Lutheran State Church (ELSC) with a per capita share of the church tax funds. In addition, the ELSC received additional state funding that was not available to other registered religious organizations. In July 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) agreed to review the case of the Icelandic Pagan Association (Asatruarfelagid) to receive funding proportional to its membership from monies made available only to the state church. The Supreme Court had previously rejected the association's request. As of year's end, the ECHR had not issued a judgment in the case. The Muslim Association of Iceland's long-pending application to the Reykjavik city planning commission for land to build a mosque encountered further delay during the year. Some observers believed that the commission was prejudiced against the proposed mosque, since the applications of other groups for similar plots made swifter progress during the same period. School grades 1-10 (ages 6-15) in the public schools are required by law to include instruction in theology. The precise content of this instruction, however, can vary as the curriculum is not rigid and teachers are often given wide latitude in the classroom. Lessons on non-Christian religions are part of the curriculum, but some teachers reportedly focused primarily on Christianity. Students may be exempted from attending the classes upon parental request. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish community numbered fewer than 100 individuals. There was one report of an anti-Semitic act. The proprietor of a Reykjavik bicycle store hung up a sign in his store in January that read that no Jews were welcome. The owner removed the sign in short order after receiving harsh public criticism. The law establishes penalties of fines and up to two years in prison for verbal or physical assault on an individual or group based on religion. The law also establishes fines and imprisonment for up to three months for publicly deriding or belittling the religious doctrines of a lawful religious association active in the country. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Human rights advocates, however, complained about the ambiguous nature of the asylum system and the high refusal rate of asylum cases. In practice, the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government had no fixed refugee acceptance requirements. Asylum seekers were eligible for government-subsidized health care during the processing of their cases, which at times took a year or longer. They could enroll their children in public schools after being in the country for three months, and some children of asylum seekers were enrolled in public schools during the year. Asylum seekers could also obtain work permits and attend Icelandic language classes. During the year, the Directorate of Immigration processed 41 applications for asylum. It gave residential permits on humanitarian grounds to 10 persons and granted refugee status to three asylum seekers and two of their dependents. The Directorate of Immigration rejected eight asylum applications and deported 18 asylum seekers to other European countries on the basis of the Dublin Convention. The minister of justice appoints the director of immigration, who also heads the adjudicating body for asylum cases. Some observers asserted that this arrangement could constitute a conflict of interest. Human rights advocates criticized the law for not specifying which ``significant human rights reasons'' must underpin granting temporary residence (and eligibility for work permits) while asylum cases are processed, arguing that the situation created the possible appearance of arbitrary decisions. Observers noted that the law was ambiguous about the criteria for granting and denying asylum. This ambiguity, combined with the small number of approved asylum applications, left unclear what considerations were applied in adjudicating the applications of asylum seekers. The law allows for accelerated refusal of applications deemed to be ``manifestly unfounded.'' Asylum seekers can appeal denials to the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. If rejected at that level, they can appeal to the courts. Human rights advocates have criticized this process, however, because several asylum applicants were deported when their deportation dates came up even though they were still awaiting a court decision on their appeal case. In March the Supreme Court overturned a decision by the Directorate of Immigration to reject a 2004 asylum application by a Mauritanian citizen. The court stated that the directorate did not obtain necessary and accessible information on which to base its decision on the asylum request. In July 2008 police carried out a deportation order from the Directorate of Immigration and deported a Kenyan asylum seeker to Italy without ruling on the merits of his claim. In August 2008 the minister of justice overturned the directorate's decision and ordered it to evaluate the basis of the Kenyan's asylum claim. The directorate was processing the case at year's end. In July 2008 a report by the UN Committee against Torture (CAT) expressed concern over reports of inappropriate handling of asylum requests by law enforcement officers and border guards, for example, at airports and detention centers. The CAT report provided no specifics concerning the reported incidents. The law permits the government to provide temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. The government has never made use of this authorization. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On April 25, the country held parliamentary elections that were considered free and fair. In 2008 the incumbent president was reelected unopposed. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. There were 27 women in the 63-seat parliament and six women in the 12-member cabinet. Two of nine Supreme Court members and 14 of 40 district court judges were women. No members of minority groups held seats in either the parliament or the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were no reports of government corruption during the year. In August the parliament created three independent junior special prosecutors to work alongside the special prosecutor to investigate allegations of public and private corruption related to the collapse of the country's three largest banks in October 2008. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government provided access in practice for citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. On occasion the government denied legal requests for information based on reasons of confidentiality. The government provided the legal reasons for denials. Appeals against refusals by government authorities to grant access to materials may be referred to an information committee consisting of three persons appointed by the prime minister. Permanent employees of government ministries may not be members of the committee. Most public officials were not subject to financial disclosure laws. In March, however, the parliament's presidium approved nonbinding rules stating that members of parliament are expected to report to the presidium their financial interests for public disclosure. Every member of parliament had registered his or her financial interests by year's end. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The Icelandic Human Rights Center was the leading human rights organization, vetting government legislation, reporting to international treaty monitoring bodies, and promoting human rights education and research. The center was funded by the government, the EU, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), unions, and the city of Reykjavik; it operated as an NGO. An independent ombudsman, elected by parliament, monitored and reported to national and local authorities on human rights developments to ensure that all residents, whether or not they were citizens, received equal protection. Individuals could lodge complaints with the ombudsman about the decisions, procedures, and conduct of public officials and government agencies. The ombudsman may demand official reports, documents, and records, may summon officials to give testimony, and has access to official premises. Government agencies generally responded to the ombudsman's requests for information and documents within a reasonable time. While the ombudsman's recommendations are not binding on authorities, they were generally adopted. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, and social status. Various laws implement these prohibitions, and the government effectively enforced them. Women.--Rape carries a maximum penalty of 16 years in prison. Judges typically imposed sentences of one to three years. Spousal rape is not explicitly addressed in the law. In previous years, the Icelandic Counseling and Information Center for Survivors of Sexual Violence (Stigamot) noted that the number of reported rapes consistently rose faster than the number of convictions. According to national police statistics, there were 68 reported rapes in 2008. During that year prosecutors brought 10 cases to trial and obtained a conviction in one. In 2007 convictions were obtained in 17 of the 19 cases that went to trial. Activists continued to complain that the burden of proof in rape cases was too heavy and discouraged victims from reporting acts of rape and the authorities from prosecuting them. The government did not respond formally to these concerns. The law prohibits domestic violence; however, violence against women continued to be a problem. Police statistics indicated that the incidence of reported violence against women, including rape and sexual assault, was low; however, the number of women seeking medical and counseling assistance suggested that many incidents went unreported. During the year, 117 women sought temporary lodging at the country's shelter for women, mainly because of domestic violence. The shelter offered counseling to 197 clients. During the year 128 women sought assistance at the rape crisis center of the national hospital (Landspitali University Hospital). In February the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Security released the results of a survey conducted to gauge the extent of violence against women. The survey indicated that 42 percent of the country's women suffered physical or sexual violence or been threatened with it since they were 16 years old. The law permits judges to increase the sentences of persons who commit violence against persons with whom they had a domestic relationship or other close bond. However, there were no domestic violence cases in which judges actually handed down stronger sentences, and one respected activist expressed concern that sentences were too mild. The State Prosecutor's Office reported 263 cases of domestic quarrelling and 252 cases of domestic violence during the year. Although courts could issue restraining orders, advocates expressed concern that such orders were ineffective because courts granted them only in extreme circumstances and the court system took too long to issue them. Victims of sex crimes were entitled to lawyers to advise them of their rights and help them pursue cases against the alleged assailants; however, a large majority of victims declined to press charges or chose to forgo trial, in part to avoid publicity. Some local human rights monitors attributed underreporting of domestic violence and sex crimes to the infrequency of convictions and to traditionally light sentences. In the few cases of domestic violence that went to court, the courts continued in many cases to base sentences on precedent and rarely made full use of the more stringent sentencing authority available under the law. According to statistics from the Icelandic Counseling and Information Center for Survivors of Sexual Violence, 14 percent of its clients pressed charges in 2008, the latest year for which data was available. The government helped finance the Icelandic Counseling and Information Center for Survivors of Sexual Violence, the rape crisis center of the national hospital, and other organizations that assisted victims of domestic or gender-based violence. In addition to partially funding such services, the government provided help to immigrant women in abusive relationships, offering emergency accommodation, counseling, and information on legal rights. Prostitution is legal; however, in April the parliament passed legislation criminalizing the buying of sexual services. The law also prohibits advertising for prostitution and prohibits a third party, or pimp, from profiting from prostitution or procurement of sexual services. It is also illegal for a person to rent facilities for prostitution. Two laws prohibit sexual harassment. The general penal code prohibits sexual harassment and stipulates that violations are punishable by imprisonment. The law on equal status defines sexual harassment more broadly. The law requires employers and organization supervisors to make specific arrangements to prevent employees, students, and clients from becoming victims of gender-based or sexual harassment. Victims of harassment could report incidents to the Complaints Committee on Equal Status. Employers were only required to provide their employees with information on the legal prohibitions against sexual harassment in workplaces with 25 or more employees. Gender equality advocates reported receiving several complaints during the year; there were two court cases, but no guilty verdicts. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including under the family and property laws and in the judicial system. However, despite laws that require equal pay for equal work, a pay gap existed between men and women. According to a 2008 study commissioned by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Security, women earned 16 percent less than men. The law states that employers and unions should work towards gender equality in the labor market, especially in managerial positions, and that employers should work towards declassifying jobs as primarily female- or male-oriented. The government funded a center for promoting gender equality to administer the Act on Equal Status and Equal Rights of Women and Men. The center also provided counseling and education on gender equality to national and municipal authorities, institutions, companies, individuals, and NGOs. The minister of social affairs and social security appoints members of the Complaints Committee on Equal Status, which adjudicates alleged violations of the act. The minister also appoints members of Equal Status Council, drawn from national women's organizations, the University of Iceland, and labor and professional groups. The council makes recommendations for equalizing the status of men and women in the workplace. During the year the Complaints Committee on Equal Status decided eight cases. In one case the committee found that Kaupthing Bank breached the law on equal status when, after terminating a female employee and three male employees, it offered jobs to the three men but not to the woman. The committee also found that the bank had discriminated against the same woman when she received lower bonus payments than a male employee in a similar position. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth from one's parents (jus sanguinis). A child acquires the country's citizenship at birth if both parents are Icelandic citizens, if the mother is an Icelandic citizen, or if the father is an Icelandic citizen and is married to a foreign mother. This does not apply if a mixed-nationality couple had obtained a judicial separation at the time when the child was conceived. In 2008 local child protection committees, whose work is coordinated by the Agency for Child Protection, received 1,526 reports of abuse, including 571 reports of emotional abuse, 480 of physical abuse, and 479 of sexual abuse. The agency operated four treatment centers and a diagnostic facility for abused and troubled minors and coordinated the work of 30 committees throughout the country that were responsible for managing child protection issues in their local areas. The local committees hired professionals with expertise in social work and child protection. The government maintained a children's assessment center to accelerate prosecution of child sexual abuse cases and to lessen the trauma experienced by the child. During the year the center conducted 217 investigative interviews, provided assessments and therapy for 110 children, and performed 27 medical examinations. The center was intended to create a safe and secure environment where child victims might feel more comfortable talking about their abuse. It brought together police, prosecutors, judges, doctors, and officials from child protection services. After an interview with a child, the assessment center could analyze the possible effects of the sexual abuse on the child and family. The children's assessment center could also provide advice to parents. District court judges were not required to use the center, and the Reykjavik District Court held investigatory interviews in its courthouse instead, a practice that concerned some children's rights advocates. The children's ombudsman, who is appointed by the prime minister but acts independently of the government, has a mandate to protect children's rights, interests, and welfare. When investigating complaints, which typically involved physical and psychological abuse and inadequate accommodation for children with illnesses or disabilities, the ombudsman had access to all public and private institutions that house or otherwise care for children. The ombudsman was not empowered to intervene in individual cases but could investigate them for indications of a general trend. The ombudsman could also initiate cases at her discretion. While the ombudsman's recommendations are not binding on authorities, they are generally adopted. The law criminalizes statutory rape, and it is punishable by up to 12 years in prison. The minimum age for consensual sex is 14. The law prohibits child pornography and it is punishable by up to two years in prison. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons with the aim of sexual abuse or forced labor and provides for imprisonment of up to eight years for such offenses. Victims may file civil suits or seek legal action against the traffickers. During the year there were reports that persons were trafficked to and through the country. In a September report on human trafficking, the Icelandic Red Cross stated that 59 to 128 persons were trafficked to the country between 2005 and 2008. An estimated 70 percent of trafficking cases involved underpaid or mistreated workers in nightclubs and massage parlors and as women in prostitution trafficked from Eastern Europe, Africa, Brazil, and Southeast Asia. Nightclub and massage parlor workers who were allegedly forced to work in prostitution may have stayed for several months before being trafficked onward, while others may have spent only a few days in Reykjavik before being moved abroad. Observers also alleged that workers in the construction and restaurant industries were exploited. The Throughout the year, the Directorate of Labor investigated cases involving undocumented workers suspected of being victims of trafficking. In some cases employers were fined for noncompliance with labor laws, but none were charged with trafficking. According to a February report by the national police commissioner on organized crime and terrorist threats, traffickers are often connected with dealers of illegal narcotics, and international organized crime rings traffic foreign women to the country for the purpose of prostitution. In December the Reykjanes District Court acquitted a woman of Equatorial Guinean origin of trafficking charges; she was the first person in the country ever to be indicted on such charges. The woman was convicted of profiting from prostitution as a third party, and two days later she was charged again on separate counts of trafficking. The matter had not gone to court by year's end. In March the parliament approved the country's first national action plan on trafficking in persons. In October the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights took over primary responsibility from the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Security for efforts to prevent and punish trafficking. In December the parliament amended the legislative definition of a trafficking victim to pave the way for the ratification of the Palermo Protocol to the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. Legal measures to reduce the number and operations of strip clubs in the Reykjavik metropolitan area, the predominant location of prostitution and trafficking cases, have been somewhat successful. At the end of the year, as a result of strengthened licensing requirements for such establishments, only three strip clubs remained in operation in the country, all in the Reykjavik area. The owners of these establishments were reportedly able to exploit loopholes in the law to remain in operation. According to NGO representatives and police, rumors continued to circulate that prostitution, illegal nude shows, and lap dances took place in the three establishments. The government provided funding for various organizations that assist victims of trafficking but did not have its own assistance program for trafficking victims. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities, and there were no reports of official discrimination in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The law also provides that persons with disabilities receive preference for government jobs when they are at least as qualified as other applicants. However, disability rights advocates asserted that the law was not fully implemented and that persons with disabilities constituted a majority of the country's poor. Building regulations require that public accommodations and government buildings, including elevators, be accessible to persons in wheelchairs, that public property managers reserve 1 percent of parking spaces (a minimum of one space) for persons with disabilities, and that sidewalks outside the main entrance of such buildings be kept clear of ice and snow to the extent possible. Violations of these regulations are punishable by a fine or a jail sentence of up to two years; however, the main association for persons with disabilities complained that authorities rarely, if ever, assessed penalties for noncompliance. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Security was the lead government body responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. It coordinated the work of six regional offices that provided services and support to persons with disabilities. It also maintained a diagnostic and advisory center in Reykjavik that aimed to create conditions allowing persons with disabilities to lead normal lives. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Immigrants, mainly from Eastern Europe and the Baltic countries, stood out from the largely homogeneous population and suffered occasional incidents of harassment based on their ethnicity. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons' organizations in the country included Samtokin '78, the major interest and activist group, and Trans-Iceland, an activist organization for transgender persons. Reykjavik Gay Pride is an independent organization responsible for coordinating annual gay pride festivities in Reykjavik. An estimated 80,000-100,000 persons attended the annual gay pride march in Reykjavik in August. The government authorized the march and police provided sufficient protection to marchers. There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination based on sexual orientation. Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights. Labor unions were independent of the government and political parties. Approximately 80-85 percent of all eligible workers belonged to unions. Workers had the right to strike and exercised this right in practice. The government has imposed mandatory mediation when strikes have threatened key sectors in the economy, such as in the fishing industry. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference and prohibits antiunion discrimination and employer interference in union functions, and the government protected these rights in practice. The law allows workers, including foreign workers, to bargain collectively, and workers exercised this right in practice. Nearly 100 percent of the workforce was covered by collective bargaining agreements. There were no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women were trafficked to the country from Eastern Europe, Africa, and Brazil for sexual exploitation. There were also reports of persons being trafficked to the country to work in the construction, manufacturing, and restaurant industries. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively implemented laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The law prohibits the employment of persons younger than 16 in factories, on ships, or in other places that are hazardous or require hard labor; this prohibition was observed in practice. Children who are 14 or 15 may work part time or during school vacations in light, nonhazardous jobs. Their work hours must not exceed the ordinary work hours of adults in the same positions. The Administration of Occupational Safety and Health (AOSH) enforced child labor regulations effectively. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The law does not establish a minimum wage. The minimum wages negotiated in various collective bargaining agreements applied automatically to all employees in those occupations, including foreign workers, regardless of union membership. While the agreements can be either industry- or sector-wide, or in some cases firm-specific, the negotiated wage levels are occupation- specific. Labor contracts provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The standard legal workweek is 40 hours, including nearly three hours of paid breaks a week. Work exceeding eight hours per day must be compensated as overtime. Workers are entitled to 11 hours of rest within each 24-hour period and to a day off every week. Under special defined circumstances, employers may reduce the 11-hour rest period to no less than eight hours, but they must then compensate workers with one-and-a-half hours of rest for every hour of reduction. They may also postpone a worker's day off, but the worker must receive the corresponding rest time within 14 days. Foreign workers are entitled to the same protections in terms of working time and rest periods as citizens. The AOSH effectively enforced these regulations. There were indications that undocumented foreign workers--primarily men in the construction and restaurant industries--were underpaid and required to work long hours while living in substandard housing or even sleeping at building sites. Most sources stressed that the men willingly worked illegally to earn more than they might have expected in their East European or Baltic home countries. The size of the immigrant labor force shrank drastically because of the country's financial and economic crisis that began in fall 2008. The law sets health and safety standards, and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Security administers and enforces them through the AOSH, which conducted both proactive and reactive inspections. The ministry can close workplaces that fail to meet safety and health standards. Workers have a collective, but not individual, right to refuse to work at a job that does not meet occupational safety and health criteria. It is illegal to fire workers for reporting unsafe or unhealthy conditions, and this law is generally observed in practice. __________ IRELAND Ireland, with a population of approximately 4.1 million, is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with an executive branch headed by a prime minister, a bicameral parliament (Oireachtas), and a directly elected president. The country held free and fair parliamentary elections in 2007. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. During the year there were some reports of police abuse of authority and inadequate care for prisoners with mental disabilities. Domestic violence; mistreatment of children; trafficking in persons; and discrimination against racial minorities, immigrants, and Travellers were problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--Although the law prohibits such practices, there were reports of abuse by police officers. In 2007, the most recent year that it published a report on the country, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) noted that it identified cases of police verbally or physically mistreating detainees during its 2006 monitoring visit to the country's prisons and detention centers. Between January and October, the Police Ombudsman Commission received 1,781 complaints against police officers. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--While prison conditions generally met international standards, there were some problems. Some mentally ill prisoners were alleged to have been inappropriately held in prisons rather than in mental health care facilities. Prison overcrowding was a problem. According to the 2008 Irish Prison Service annual report, prisons averaged a 99 percent occupancy rate, with several prisons exceeding their capacity. At times authorities held detainees awaiting trial in the same facilities as convicts. The country maintained a facility to ensure separation between children and young adults. However, authorities held a small number of 17-year-olds with specific individual needs, including the need for higher security, with young adults. The inspector of prisons reported that overcrowding at Mountjoy prison (the country's largest) was so severe that prisoners were held in reception and shower blocks. A number of cells had no sanitation facilities, and prisoners were forced to ``slop out'' their cells. The prison was infested with mice and cockroaches. Human rights groups continued to criticize understaffing and poor infrastructure at the Central Mental Health Hospital in Dundrum, the country's only secure hospital for prisoners with mental disabilities. The government generally permitted prison visits by domestic and international human rights observers, including the International Committee of the Red Cross. There were no visits by such groups during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police and the army, which was authorized to act when necessary in support of the unarmed police. The government had effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year; however, there were isolated problems of abusive behavior, which the government investigated. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--An arrest requires a warrant except in situations requiring immediate action for the protection of the public. Detainees must be promptly informed of the charges against them and, with few exceptions, may not be held longer than 24 hours without charge. For crimes involving firearms, explosives, or membership in an unlawful organization, a judge may extend detention for an additional 24 hours upon the police superintendent's request. The law permits detention without charge for up to seven days in cases involving suspicion of drug trafficking; however, to hold such a suspect longer than 48 hours, police must seek a judge's approval. Upon their arrest, the law permits detainees and prisoners prompt and unrestricted access to attorneys. If the detainee does not have an attorney, the court appoints one; for indigent detainees the government provides. The law allows detainees prompt access to family members. The law requires that authorities bring a detainee before a district court judge ``as soon as possible'' to determine bail status pending a hearing. The law allows a court to refuse bail to a person charged with a crime that carries a penalty of five years' imprisonment or more, or when deemed necessary to prevent the commission of another serious offense. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The director of public prosecutions prosecutes criminal cases. The country generally used jury trials in criminal cases, and the accused may choose an attorney. Indigent defendants have the right to an attorney at public expense. Defendants enjoy the presumption of innocence and have the right to present evidence, question witnesses, and appeal. The law explicitly allows ``special courts'' to be created when ``ordinary courts are inadequate to secure the effective administration of justice and the preservation of public peace and order.'' A nonjury ``special criminal court'' tries all cases the director of public prosecutions certifies to be beyond the capabilities of an ordinary court. The judicial branch selects the three judges making up a special court, which usually includes one high court judge, one circuit court judge, and one district court judge. The panel reaches its verdicts by majority vote. The rules of evidence are generally the same as in regular courts, but the court accepts a sworn statement of a police chief superintendent identifying the accused as a member of an illegal organization as prima facie evidence of such membership. Special criminal court proceedings are generally public, but judges may exclude certain persons other than journalists. Special criminal court decisions may be appealed to the court of criminal appeal. The constitution allows the parliament to create tribunals, with limited powers, to investigate designated matters, usually cases of government corruption. They do not try cases; however, if warranted, their findings may be the basis for formal charges. In each instance, the legislation creating the tribunal sets out its powers and rules of procedure. Authorities established some tribunals to last indefinitely and established others only for a specific task. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The independent and impartial judicial system hears civil cases and appeals on civil matters, including damage claims resulting from human rights violations; such claims may be brought before all appropriate courts, including the Supreme Court. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution provides for freedom of the press with the qualification that it not ``undermine public order or morality or the authority of the state.'' The constitution prohibits the publication or utterance of ``blasphemous, seditious, or indecent'' material. A new law, scheduled to go into effect in 2010, establishes that a person can be found guilty of blasphemy if ``he or she publishes or utters matter that is grossly abusive or insulting in relation to matters held sacred by any religion, thereby causing outrage among a substantial number of the adherents of that religion.'' The maximum penalty for this offense is a 25,000 euros ($35,850) fine. The law proscribes words or behaviors that are likely to generate hatred against persons in the country or elsewhere because of their race, nationality, religion, national origins, or sexual orientation. There were no reports that authorities invoked these provisions during the year. The law empowers the government to prohibit the state-owned radio and television network from broadcasting any material ``likely to promote or incite to crime or which would tend to undermine the authority of the state.'' Authorities did not invoke this prohibition during the year. The independent print media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without government restriction. Broadcasting remained mostly under state control, but private sector broadcasting continued to thrive. There were 57 independent radio stations and one national independent television station. Access to cable and satellite television was widespread. The Censorship of Publications Board has the authority to censor books and magazines it finds indecent or obscene. The board did not exercise this authority during the year. On July 31, the Supreme Court overturned a lower court finding that two journalists had to reveal their sources and answer questions regarding their actions following their 2007 publication of details concerning then prime minister Bertie Ahern's finances. The Irish Film Classification Office (IFCO) must classify films and videos before they can be shown or sold; it must cut or prohibit any film that is ``indecent, obscene, or blasphemous'' or which tends to ``inculcate principles contrary to public morality or subversive of public morality.'' During the year the IFCO did not prohibit any films or videos. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 64 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected this right. The law allows the state to ``prevent or control meetings'' that authorities believe would breach the peace or to be a danger or nuisance to the general public. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Most primary and secondary schools were confessional, and trustees of the particular faith espoused by the school generally governed their management boards. Under the constitution, the Department of Education must fund schools of different religious denominations, including Islamic and Jewish schools, on an equal basis, and did so during the year. Although religious instruction was an integral part of the curriculum, the law allows parents to exempt their children from such instruction. The Department of Education indicated that it would not issue a formal policy recommendation on the June 2008 case of a Wexford school that granted permission for a student to wear a hijab (headscarf), providing the hijab met the color guidelines for school uniforms. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--According to the 2006 census, the Jewish community numbered 1,930 persons. There were no developments in the cases of the January 2008 anti- Semitic voice message left on the answering machine of the Dublin Hebrew Congregation or the May 2008 painting of anti-Semitic slogans and a swastika on the home of a Jewish couple in Tuam. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and laws provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government operated a resettlement program that accommodates up to 200 persons per year on referral from the UNHCR or identified through selection missions to existing UNHCR refugee operations. During the year the government granted leave to remain to 659 individuals who did not qualify as refugees. Of these, 623 were failed asylum seekers. There have been no reports of discrimination against refugees, restrictions on their ability to work, or access to education and law enforcement. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The country held parliamentary elections, which observers considered to be free and fair, in 2007. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. On June 5, the country held elections to the European Parliament that authorities considered free and fair. There were 22 women in the 166-seat house of representatives (Dail Eireann) and 13 women in the 60-seat senate (Seanad Eireann). The president of the republic was a woman, as were three of the 15 government ministers. There were five women on the 34-member High Court and two on the eight member Supreme Court. There were no minorities in the lower house, the senate, or the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were some allegations of government corruption during the year. During the year the investigation of former prime minister Bertie Ahern continued for his alleged improper acceptance of financial payments and loans from friends and business associates during his 1993-94 tenure as minister of finance. Public officials were subject to financial disclosure laws. The Revenue Commission in the Department of Finance is responsible for identifying and combating government corruption. The law provides for public access to government information and requires government agencies to publish information on their activities and make such information available to citizens, noncitizens, and foreign media upon request. Authorities generally granted public information requests and did not charge prohibitive fees. There were mechanisms for appealing denials. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The country has an ombudsman for the press and a human rights commission. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of gender, marital status, family status, sexual orientation, religion, age, disability, race, and membership in the Traveller community, and the government sought to enforce the law; however, discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities, including immigrants and Travellers, remained a problem. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including rape within marriage, and the government enforced it. The law provides for free legal advice to victims of serious sexual assault. In 2008 there were 72 rape cases tried in court and 42 persons convicted of rape and other sexual offenses. Most of the persons convicted received prison sentences of between five and 12 years. However, six offenders received longer sentences, including one life sentence. The law criminalizes domestic violence, but such violence continued to be a problem. The law authorizes prosecution of a violent family member and provides victims with safety orders that prohibit a person from engaging in violent actions or threats and orders that bar an offender from entering the family home for up to three years. Victims may apply for interim protection while courts process their cases. Violations of these orders are punishable by a fine of up to 1,900 euros ($2,723). In 2008 courts received 3,328 safety order applications and 3,096 barring applications. The government funded centers throughout the country for victims of domestic abuse. Although prostitution is not a crime, any public solicitation for prostitution is illegal. It was also illegal to keep or to manage a brothel. Reports of, and arrests for, these crimes were rare. The law obliges employers to prevent sexual harassment and prohibits dismissing an employee for making a complaint of sexual harassment. The Equality Authority investigates claims of unfair dismissal and may require an employer to reinstate the employee or pay the employee up to 104 weeks' pay. Authorities effectively enforced the law in the few cases of sexual harassment that were reported. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth. Women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. However, inequalities in pay and promotions persisted in both the public and private sectors. Average women's earnings were 78 percent of men's. Women constituted 43 percent of the labor force but were underrepresented in senior management positions. Children.--A person born on the island of Ireland in or after 2005 is automatically an Irish citizen if he/she is not entitled to the citizenship of any other country or if at least one of his/her parents is an Irish citizen, a British citizen, a resident of the island of Ireland who is entitled to reside in either the Republic or in Northern Ireland without any time limit on that residence, or a legal resident of the island of Ireland for three out of the four years preceding the child's birth (excluding time spent as a student or an asylum seeker). In 2008 the Health Service Executive (HSE) reported receiving 23,268 complaints of alleged child abuse, of which 15,074 authorities formally investigated. The law requires that organizations providing services to children identify and report cases of physical and sexual abuse. In 2008 the Dublin Rape Crisis Center reported that 45 percent of the calls to its crisis line involved child sexual abuse. Fifteen centers provided face-to-face support to 4,928 individuals. The law requires government health boards to identify and help children who are not receiving adequate care and gives police the authority to remove children from the family if there is an immediate and serious risk to their health or welfare. Unaccompanied minors entering the country continued to be an area of concern. Since 2000, 503 migrant children went missing from the health care system. Through August, 40 children were reported missing from the health care system. Numerous NGOs offered support for victims as well as resources for parents and professionals who work with children. The ombudsman for children investigates complaints from children or persons acting on their behalf against various governmental and nongovernmental bodies and promotes child welfare. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that men, women, and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and labor. The country is a destination and, to a lesser extent, transit point for women, men, and children trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women from Europe, Africa and, to a lesser extent, South America and Asia reportedly have been trafficked to Ireland for forced prostitution. There were no reliable statistics on the number of trafficking victims, but a 2007 joint study by the National University of Ireland and Trinity College to establish a baseline estimate of cases of sex trafficking into the country since 2000 concluded that the minimum number of such cases during the seven- year period was 76. The law prohibits the selling or purchasing of any person for any purpose and carries penalties of up to life imprisonment. The law also provides that if a citizen or resident is alleged to have committed a trafficking offense abroad, Irish courts may accept jurisdiction to try the offense and may impose similar penalties. The government works with NGOs to combat trafficking. The government distributed NGO-developed posters to assist victims at airports, bus and rail stations, ports, hospitals, and police stations, and provided funding for an NGO-run hotline for victims and potential victims. The government, in conjunction with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), trained labor inspectors, health service employees, and others likely to encounter trafficking. A professional development course, designed by the police with the assistance of the IOM, the United Kingdom Human Trafficking Center, and NGOs, was provided to frontline police, immigration officers, and a number of officers of the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The country maintained the unit to combat human trafficking. In 2008 the Department of Justice provided 275,000 euros ($394,135) to the NGO Ruhama, which supported victims of sexual exploitation. The Department of Defense provided training modules to peacekeepers on human trafficking and sexual exploitation. The country also participated in an EU initiative to combat trafficking. There was no evidence that government officials participated in, facilitated, or condoned trafficking. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services; and the government effectively enforced these provisions. The law requires access to buildings where possible for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced these provisions. The National Disability Authority has responsibility for setting and implementing disability standards, as well as directing disability policy. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law prohibits discrimination based on language or social status, and the government enforced the law; however, societal discrimination and violence against immigrants and racial and ethnic minorities, including Asians, Eastern and Baltic Europeans, and Africans, continued to be a problem. There were racially motivated incidents involving physical violence, intimidation, graffiti, and verbal slurs. NGOs reported an increase in ``Irish only'' job advertisements, and the Economic and Social Research Institute noted that job candidates with typical Irish names were more likely to be appointed than those with non-Irish names. According to the 2006 census, 22,369 persons identified themselves as members of a nomadic ethnic group called ``Travellers,'' with a distinct history and culture. Travellers faced societal discrimination and were regularly denied access to premises, goods, facilities, and services, despite applicable antidiscrimination laws. Despite national regulations, Travellers frequently experienced difficulties enrolling their children in school. Of the estimated 5,000 Traveller families, approximately 1,000 lived on the roadsides or at other temporary sites without electricity or sanitary facilities. Many Travellers depended on social welfare for survival, and their participation in the economy was limited by discrimination and lack of education. The law obliges local officials to develop accommodations for Travellers and to solicit Traveller input into the process. Traveller NGOs asserted, however, that many communities provided Travellers with housing, such as government-owned apartments or townhouses, that was inconsistent with the nomadic Traveller lifestyle or provided halting sites that did not include basic amenities such as sanitary facilities, electricity, and water. Societal Abuses, Discrimination and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity There were seven gay and lesbian resource centers in the country, in Dublin, Cork (two centers), Limerick, Derry, Waterford, and Dundalk. All cities and many smaller towns celebrated gay pride with parades and festivals. The government endorsed these activities and provided sufficient protection. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers with the right to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and the law was implemented. Approximately 33 percent of workers in the private sector and 95 percent in the public sector were union members. Among foreign- owned firms, an estimated 80 percent of workers did not belong to unions, although pay and benefits were usually more attractive compared with domestic firms. Police and military personnel may form associations, but technically not unions, to represent them in matters of pay, working conditions, and general welfare. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without government interference, and this right was exercised in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, except for police and military personnel, and workers exercised this right in both the public and private sectors. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Labor unions have the right to pursue collective bargaining and in most instances did so freely; however, the law did not require employers to engage in collective bargaining, and they did not encourage it. Unions reported 31 percent of the Irish labor force as members. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the export processing zone at the Shannon airport. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. NGOs reported that men and women were trafficked into the country for work in the construction industry, commercial fishing, as domestic servants in private homes, or in agriculture; however, officials asserted that while trafficking and labor exploitation occurred, the magnitude of the problem was small. Trafficked women and girls were forced into prostitution on the streets, from apartments, or as escorts. NGOs believed a number of Romani children have been trafficked for the purpose of forced begging; however, given the difficulty in understanding Romani family structures, they could not confirm that the children were not with a natural parent. The government has partnered with the International Labor Organization in its antitrafficking initiative and has formed a labor exploitation working group, involving members from trade unions and employer organizations. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government implemented laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government effectively enforced these laws. Children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced begging and to work in restaurants and domestic service. Under the law employers may not employ children under the age of 16 in a regular, full-time job. Employers may hire 14- or 15-year-olds for light work on school holidays as part of an approved work experience or educational program. Employers may hire children over the age of 15 on a part-time basis during the school year. The law establishes rest intervals and maximum working hours, prohibits the employment of 18- year-olds for late night work, and requires employers to keep more detailed records on workers under 18 years of age. The Office of the Labor Inspectorate at the Department of Enterprise, Trade, and Employment is responsible for enforcement and was generally effective. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage is 8.65 euros ($12.40) per hour. Although low-income families were entitled to such benefits as subsidized housing, medical coverage, and children's allowances to accommodate for low wage, legally present foreign migrant workers are eligible for this type of assistance. During the year reports persisted that the pay of foreign migrant workers was at times below the minimum wage, particularly in the rural agricultural and construction sectors. The law explicitly omits foreign migrant workers from laws regulating wages. The government operates a labor-monitoring agency independent of the Department of Enterprise, Trade, and Employment, which primarily represents business interests. The agency was active and effective. The standard workweek is 39 hours. The law limited working hours in the industrial sector to nine hours per day and 48 hours per week. The law limited overtime work to two hours per day, 12 hours per week, and 240 hours per year. The government effectively enforced these standards. Although there is no statutory entitlement to premium pay for overtime, it could be arranged between employer and employee. NGOs and trade unions reported that these standards did not apply to agency workers, i.e., workers supplied by third-party contractors. These workers, who were predominantly migrant laborers, were also specifically excluded from laws regulating pay. The Department of Enterprise, Trade, and Employment is responsible for enforcing occupational safety laws, and these laws provided adequate and comprehensive protection. There were no complaints from either labor or management during the year regarding shortcomings in enforcement. Regulations provide workers with the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations that present a ``serious, imminent, and unavoidable risk'' without jeopardy to their continued employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ ITALY Italy is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 59.1 million. The bicameral parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers, headed by the president of the council (the prime minister). The president, who is the head of state, nominates the prime minister after consulting with the leaders of all political forces in the parliament. International observers considered the April 2008 national parliamentary elections free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens, although there were problems with lengthy pretrial detention; excessively long court proceedings; violence against women; trafficking in persons; and abuse of homosexuals, Roma, and other minorities. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings during the year. Although security forces were involved in several controversial killings, there was no apparent systematic pattern of abuse by authorities. On January 30, a police inspector was involved in the fatal shooting of his neighbor, Diouf Ckeikh, a Senegalese immigrant. The incident, which took place in Civitavecchia, was the result of a minor dispute. On March 20, an Algerian detained in a center for identification and expulsion in Rome died. Red Cross physicians stated a heart attack caused his death, while other detainees claimed that police officers had beaten him. The Ministry of Interior ordered an internal investigation. On April 7, authorities charged two police officers in Milan with the murder of Giuseppe Turrisi, a man who was living in a homeless shelter. According to prosecutors, blows from the two officers resulted in the man's death. On July 14, a judge sentenced a police officer to six years' imprisonment in the widely reported case of Gabriele Sandri. The court found the officer guilty of manslaughter for using excessive force in his attempt to break up a fight involving rival soccer fans in Arezzo in 2007. On July 6, a judge sentenced four police officers to three years and six months in prison for the 2005 involuntary manslaughter of Federico Aldrovandi in Ferrara. In this case, police responded to a report of a person under the influence. The suspect later died from injuries he sustained while he was being taken into custody. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police occasionally used excessive force against persons, particularly Roma and immigrants detained in connection with common criminal offenses or in the course of identity checks. On May 15, Parma prosecutors indicted local police officers for assaulting Emmanuel Bonsu Foster, a young Ghanaian whom police identified as a drug dealer. On October 7, the court of Genoa acquitted Gianni De Gennaro, who was head of the National Police during protest demonstrations at the 2001 G-8 summit. Authorities had charged him with inducing police officers to give false testimony regarding police behavior toward the protesters. In July 2008 a court sentenced 15 police officers to prison terms of five months to five years for the ``inhuman or degrading treatment,'' including assault, of some detained protesters. In November 2008 a Genoa court sentenced to two- to four-year prison terms 13 police officers convicted of perjury, conspiracy, or assault stemming from their raid on a building used by the protesters. In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found that the country had twice violated the prohibition against inhuman or degrading treatment in the European Convention on Human Rights. On March 24, the ECHR, citing the need to prevent violation of their rights in their home countries, blocked the deportation of eight individuals whom authorities considered terrorists. On August 3, the Interior Ministry deported a Tunisian man, Toumi Ali Ben Sassi, despite a May 18 request by the ECHR not to execute the expulsion on the grounds that he risked torture and mistreatment in his home country. On February 24, the ECHR ruled that the June 2008 expulsion of Ben Khemais violated the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, although some prisons remained overcrowded and antiquated. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. On July 26, the ECHR determined that there had been a violation of Article 3 (prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment) of the European Convention on Human Rights regarding treatment of Bosnian inmate Izet Sulejmanovic in Rebibbia Prison from November 2002 to April 2003. The same court determined there had been no violation of the Convention for the period of detention from April to October 2003. Sulejmanovic filed suit based on the conditions of his detention, in particular, prison overcrowding and insufficient daily exercise outside of his cell. The court ordered the government to pay Sulejmanovic 1,000 euros ($1,430) in compensation. On October 16, authorities arrested Stefano Cucchi for drug possession. While in custody, police transferred him to Rebibbia prison and then to a hospital, where he died on October 22. The circumstances of his death were not clear. The Prosecutor's Office in Rome opened a manslaughter investigation. The prisoners' rights group Antigone claimed that authorities held Cucchi in an overcrowded prison, resulting in failure to provide him the care due a prisoner arrested while under the influence of drugs. According to the Ministry of Justice, at year's end, an estimated 66,500 inmates were in a prison system designed to hold 44,066; however, the uneven distribution of prisoners left a few institutions particularly overcrowded. Older facilities lacked outdoor or exercise space, and some prisons lacked adequate medical care. In September approximately 52 percent of inmates were serving sentences; the other 47 percent were mainly detainees awaiting trial. According to an independent research center, during the year 175 prisoners died in custody, 72 of them by suicide. There were allegations that a small number of these deaths were the result of abuse or negligence on the part of prison officials. Temporary detention centers for immigrants were less overcrowded than in the past due to a decrease in the number of persons reaching the country illegally from North Africa. The law does not require pretrial detainees to be held separately from convicted prisoners; they were held together in smaller prisons. The government permitted visits to detention facilities by independent human rights organizations, parliamentarians, and the media. In November 2008 the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention visited some facilities in Milan, Rome, Naples, and Sicily and expressed concerns about detention conditions of prisoners condemned for Mafia-related crimes. Several municipalities had permanent independent ombudsmen to promote the rights of detainees and facilitate access to health care and other services. The government provided access to detention centers for representatives of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and these visits were in accordance with the UNHCR's standard modalities. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the Carabinieri, the national police, the financial police, and municipal police forces. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year; however, long delays by prosecutors and authorities in completing investigations of some cases of alleged abuse undercut the effectiveness of mechanisms to investigate and punish police abuses. On July 14, a court sentenced two of eight Carabinieri arrested in Milan in 2006 for graft and evidence tampering to 30 to 66 months' imprisonment; it acquitted one of them. The eight reportedly used false evidence to extort money from a number of previous offenders. During the year Romani NGOs complained that many Roma lived in constant fear of systematic and invasive searches of their living areas, accompanied by threats of deportation. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found two violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--To detain an individual, police require a warrant issued by a public prosecutor unless a criminal act is in progress or there is a specific and immediate danger to which they must respond. When authorities detain a person without a warrant, an examining magistrate must decide within 24 hours of the detention whether there is enough evidence to proceed with an arrest. The investigating judge then has 48 hours to confirm the arrest and recommend whether to prosecute. In terrorism cases authorities may hold suspects 48 hours before bringing the case before a magistrate. Authorities generally respected the right to a prompt judicial determination. The law entitles detainees to prompt and regular access to lawyers of their choosing and to family members. The state provides a lawyer to indigent persons. In exceptional circumstances, usually in cases of organized crime figures, in which there is danger that attorneys may attempt to tamper with evidence, the investigating judge may take up to five days to interrogate the accused before access to an attorney is permitted. Some human rights organizations asserted that the terrorism law is deficient in due process and in some cases resulted in the deportation or return of alien suspects to countries where they had reason to fear persecution. The law allows for increased surveillance and enhanced police powers to gather evidence in terrorism cases, for example, DNA for purposes of identification (see section 2.d.). Lengthy pretrial detention was a serious problem. During the first half of the year, 47 percent of all prisoners were either in pretrial detention or awaiting a final sentence. The maximum term of pretrial detention is from two to six years depending on the severity of the crime. There is no provision for bail; however, judges may grant provisional liberty to suspects awaiting trial. As a safeguard against unjustified detention, detainees may request that a panel of judges (liberty tribunal) review their cases on a regular basis and determine whether continued detention is warranted. Authorities may impose preventive detention as a last resort if there is evidence of a serious felony or if the crime is associated with the Mafia or terrorism. Except in the most extraordinary situations, preventive detention is prohibited for pregnant women, single parents of children under age three, persons over age 70, and those who are seriously ill. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice; however, most court cases involved long trial delays. There were some reports of judicial corruption. Pressure on the judicial system, primarily in the form of intimidation of judges by organized crime groups, further complicated the judicial process. On July 4, authorities arrested six members of a criminal association in Trapani and charged them with attempted murder of a judge who had received letters containing bullets as well as explicit threats. There are three levels of courts. Civil and criminal trial courts use a single judge, a panel of judges, or a jury. There is a criminal and a civil appellate court with juries. Both sides may appeal decisions of the court of appeals to the highest court, the Court of Cassation in Rome. Prosecutors may in some instances challenge acquittals by appealing directly to the Court of Cassation, bypassing the intermediary appellate level. Such appeals may be based on the court's application of the law or, in some cases, on the evidence. A separate Constitutional Court hears cases involving conflicts between laws and the constitution or over the duties or powers of different units of government. Nine military tribunals and nine prosecutor's offices are in charge of military crimes committed by members of the armed forces, such as treason, unauthorized release of state secrets, and espionage. An appeals court reviews challenges brought by defendants or prosecutors. In 2008 the ECHR found six violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public. Defendants have access to an attorney in a timely manner. Defendants may confront and question witnesses against them and may present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Prosecutors must make evidence available to defendants and their attorneys upon request. Defendants have a presumption of innocence and the right to appeal verdicts. In December 2008 a Milan court acquitted and released Melchiorre Contena, who was arrested in 1977 and found guilty of kidnapping and homicide in 1979. He had spent more than 30 years in prison but was released due to inconsistencies in the testimony of the three other kidnappers involved. Domestic and European institutions continued to criticize the slow pace of justice and cited 51 especially egregious cases in 2008. At the end of 2008, 4,200 petitions seeking compensation from the government for excessively long proceedings were pending in the ECHR. In addition, according to the Court of Cassation, about 30,000 new cases were initiated at the national level in 2008. Also in 2008, the Court of Cassation rendered 3,612 judgments against the government for excessively protracted proceedings. The president of the Court of Cassation indicated some reasons for delays, including the excessive number of trials, the lack of nonjudicial remedies, and insufficient and inadequate distribution of offices and resources, including an insufficient number of judges. In 2008 the ECHR found 51 violations by the country of the European Convention on Human Rights with respect to length of proceedings. Courts could determine when the statute of limitations should apply, and defendants often took advantage of the slow pace of justice to delay trials through extensive pleas and appeals. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Civil remedies are determined by law, and arbitration is allowed and regulated by contracts. Often citizens and companies turned to arbitration because of trial delays. In 2008 the ECHR found eight violations by the country of the right to protection of property under the European Convention on Human Rights. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Searches and electronic monitoring were generally permissible with judicial warrants and in carefully defined circumstances. The Court of Cassation's lead prosecutor may authorize wiretaps of terrorism suspects at the request of the prime minister. The media published leaked transcripts of both legal and illegal government wiretaps during the year, including on Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. On June 19, the national authority for the protection of privacy blocked the publication of photos featuring the prime minister and guests in his private residence. The law allows magistrates to destroy illegal wiretaps discovered by police. In 2008 the ECHR found 13 violations by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for the freedoms of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and the press. On July 17, the ECHR determined that the country had violated freedom of expression in a case in which a journalist had been convicted for defamation of a local politician. In 2008 the ECHR found that the country had violated freedom of expression as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. In 2002 the appeals court of Palermo sentenced Claudio Riolo, who had censured the conduct of the president of the province of Palermo in an article published by a local newspaper and reprinted by a national daily. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views. However, disputes over partisanship continued to prompt frequent political debate. The two main opposition parties and NGOs contended that media ownership was concentrated in too few hands. Prime Minister Berlusconi's family holding company, Fininvest, held a controlling share in the country's largest private television company, Mediaset; its largest magazine publisher, Mondadori; and its largest advertising company, Publitalia. His brother owned one of the country's nationwide dailies, Il Giornale. The NGO Reporters without Borders and the journalists' union criticized several judicial actions against journalists and highlighted the threats and intimidation against journalists coming from criminal organizations in the south. In September 2008 police searched the home of three journalists from the magazine L'Espresso, which had published articles on ties between criminal organizations and politicians involved with trash collection in Naples. They allegedly published information about the case leaked from the prosecutor's office. During the year the National Federation of the Italian Press condemned what it described as excessive restrictions on freedom of expression. In May Freedom House's Freedom of the Press report showed a decline in the country's ranking from ``free'' to ``partly free.'' In addition to the L'Espresso case, the National Federation of the Italian Press (NFIP) criticized RAI television, which was under the control of a parliamentary committee. RAI executives delayed transmission of a news analysis program, which was often critical of the Berlusconi government, in favor of broadcasting a special program highlighting the government's efforts to provide housing for those displaced by the L'Aquila earthquake in April. During the year public officials continued to bring cases against journalists under the country's libel laws. On August 28, Prime Minister Berlusconi filed a libel suit against the daily La Repubblica for the publication of a list of leading questions over a period of months. Some of the provocative questions played off personal issues that became public as Berlusconi's wife asked for a divorce. On September 2, Prime Minister Berlusconi sued the daily L'Unita for libel for printing two unfavorable articles on his private life in July and August. Berlusconi sought three million euros ($4.3 million) in damages. In November 2008 a judge found journalist Marco Travaglio guilty of libel against former minister Cesare Previti for an article published by L'Espresso in 2002 suggesting he and his political party, Forza Italia, had direct links with the Mafia. In the view of most observers the risk of such suits did not affect adversely the willingness of the press to report on politically sensitive subjects. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. A special unit of the police monitored Web sites for crimes involving child pornography online. The government could request other governments to block foreign-based Internet sites if they contravened national laws. As an antiterrorism measure, authorities required that Internet cafe operators obtain licenses. According to Eurostat, in 2008, 47 percent of citizens had access to the Internet at home. In October a Facebook ``community'' inciting violence against Prime Minister Berlusconi emerged. The judiciary sought to define a balanced approach to dealing with such overt threats. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There is no state religion; however, the concordat between the Roman Catholic Church and the government gives the Catholic Church certain privileges. For example, it may select Catholic religion teachers, whose earnings the government paid. In accordance with the law, the government had understandings with organizations representing non-Catholic religions pursuant to accords that allow the government to support them (including financially), including the Confederation of Methodist and Waldensian Churches, Adventists, Assembly of God, Jews, Baptists, and Lutherans. At year's end, the current government had not yet reviewed and submitted to the parliament for ratification other accords negotiated by the previous government with the Buddhist Union, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Apostolic Church, the Orthodox Church of the Constantinople Patriarchate, and the Hindu community. Muslims in some locations continued to encounter difficulties in getting permission to construct mosques and other community buildings. In December 2008 the Islamic Center of Milan received approval for a plan to enlarge its mosque after seeking permission for several years. Although local officials usually cited other grounds for refusing building permits, some Muslims asserted that hostility toward their religion underlay the difficulties. The efforts of Northern League members of parliament to seek legislation to restrict building additional mosques furthered a hostile attitude toward Muslims. There were occasional reports that government officials or the public objected to women wearing garments that completely covered the face and body. In August a northern town banned ``burkinis'' from its public pool. The mayor claimed the full-body swimsuit could disturb small children. He added that such swimwear could be a potential violation of pool hygiene rules. The presence of Catholic symbols, such as crucifixes, in courtrooms, schools, and other public buildings continued to be a source of criticism and lawsuits. In February the Ministry of Education suspended a teacher for a month because he removed the crucifix from his classroom in Perugia. On November 3, the ECHR determined that the display of crucifixes in schools in the country violated the separation of church and state. The ruling was nonbinding and was met with wide disapproval in the country. An appeal was pending at year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Denial of the Holocaust is a crime punishable by up to four years in prison. There were no reports of any prosecutions under this law during the year. The country's approximately 30,000 Jews maintained synagogues in 21 cities. No violent anti-Semitic attacks were reported during the year, but societal prejudices persisted, manifested largely by anti-Semitic graffiti in a number of cities. Small extremist fringe groups were responsible for anti-Semitic acts. On January 23, 22 shops owned by Jews were the target of vandalistic attacks in Rome by the fascist group Militia, which left a banner urging a boycott of Jewish shops. The government condemned the anti-Semitic vandalism. Prime Minister Berlusconi, foreign minister Franco Frattini, and other politicians across the political spectrum expressed solidarity with the victims and their intent to fight prejudice and violence at the national and international levels. There were no reported arrests in connection with the attacks by year's end. Addressing the presidents of major American Jewish associations, Berlusconi confirmed ``the commitment of Italy to ... fight all forms of anti-Semitism.'' The government continued to host an annual meeting to increase educational awareness of the Holocaust and to combat anti-Semitism. There were also instances of discrimination and violence against Muslims. In June 2008 two homemade bombs thrown at the Milan Islamic Center damaged the main gate. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 Report on International Religious Freedom at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations to protect and assist refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The country is a party to the EU's Dublin II Instruction, whose partners generally transfer asylum applications to the first member country in which the applicant arrived. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol. In 2008, 4,431 persons received such protection. Between January and August, 1,246 immigrants were granted asylum status, and 1,387 obtained humanitarian protection. According to the UNHCR, the top three countries of origin of persons granted temporary protection were Eritrea, Nigeria, and Somalia. The government provided temporary protection to refugees fleeing hostilities or natural disasters. The government granted such refugees temporary residence permits which had to be renewed periodically and did not ensure future permanent residence. Between May 1 and September 22, the Ministry of the Interior identified 1,800 individuals who came ashore illegally from North Africa, compared to 18,800 in the same period of 2008. Those who were apprehended were sent to temporary detention centers for processing, and a magistrate determined whether they would be deported (if their identity could be ascertained), issued an order to depart (if their identity could not be ascertained), or accepted for asylum processing. According to Save the Children, between May 2008 and February 2009, 1,994 unaccompanied minors and 300 accompanied underage migrants came ashore in Lampedusa; 1,680 were hosted in protected communities but 1,119 of them fled. The Interior Ministry equipped special sections of identification centers to host minors. On July 2, the parliament approved a law that criminalizes illegal immigration. It is punishable by a fine and an immediate order to leave the country. The law also permits the creation of unarmed citizen patrol groups to help police keep order. In August 2008 the government signed an agreement with Libya that includes provisions for patrolling the Libyan coast by Italian and Libyan officers using Italian boats. The controversial agreement allows all immigrants departing from the Libyan coast, not only Libyan nationals, to be turned back before they reach the country's soil. On May 7, under the new agreement, the Italian coast guard escorted to Libya 227 immigrants whom it stopped in the Strait of Sicily. Similar operations continued over the summer and produced a dramatic decrease in the number of immigrants who reached the country's shores. On September 23, the minister of the interior stated that in the first four months of cooperation with Libya, the country's authorities stopped four boats and sent back 834 persons attempting to reach the country. He claimed that the new measures prevented over 17,000 migrants from departing Libya in their attempt to reach the country. There were claims from some of the persons transferred to vessels for return to Libya that the country's officials used force in the process. The Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights and the UNHCR criticized the country's new policy of repatriation of immigrants to Libya. There were concerns that authorities returned immigrants who may have been eligible for asylum in Europe to a country that has not signed international conventions on protection of refugees. In addition, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International criticized the government for its failure to screen foreigners and to identify refugees, unaccompanied minors, and victims of trafficking. In July the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) visited the country to examine the government's new policy of intercepting migrants approaching by sea from the south and returning them to Libya. By year's end, the CPT had not published its report. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--National and international experts, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, considered the April 2008 parliamentary elections free and fair. On June 6 and 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Numerous political parties functioned without government restrictions or outside interference. There were 58 women in the 322-seat Senate and 134 women in the 630-seat Chamber of Deputies. Women held five of 23 positions in the Council of Ministers. The only legally defined minorities were linguistic: the French- speaking Valdostani and the German-speaking Altoatesini/Suedtiroler. There were four members of these groups in the Senate and three in the Chamber of Deputies. In a largely monolithic society, immigrants represented approximately 5 percent of the population, and fewer than half of these qualified as ethnic/racial minorities. Two members of immigrant groups (of Moroccan and Congolese origin) were elected to the Chamber of Deputies. In 2008 the ECHR found that the country had violated the right to free elections as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. The anticorruption and transparency office in the Ministry of Public Administration acts as the government watchdog on corruption. According to the national audit court (corte dei conti), courts in 2008 convicted 68 persons on corruption charges and recovered 117 million euros ($167 million). In 2008 financial and carabinieri police found sufficient cause to refer to prosecutors 5,361 cases of public officials suspected of such crimes as corruption, graft, abuse of power, and embezzlement, while 68 public employees were convicted of corruption. There continued to be isolated reports of government corruption during the year. According to the ministries of interior and justice, in 2006 prosecutors charged 925 individuals with corruption; courts convicted 130 persons of corruption. Prosecutors charged 2,725 persons with abuse of authority; courts convicted 45 persons of abuse of authority. Prosecutors charged 2,725 with embezzlement. On October 9, the Constitutional Court ruled that the July 2008 legislation granting immunity from prosecution to the four highest government officials was unconstitutional. On June 11, Palermo prosecutors began investigating two politicians believed to have helped a Mafia-owned company secure natural gas distribution concessions from the regional government of Sicily. Majority party senator Carlo Vizzini and European parliamentarian Salvatore Cintola of one opposition party allegedly collaborated with at least two other politicians. In July 2008 authorities arrested Abruzzo governor Ottaviano Del Turco and a number of other local officials and charged them with corruption, embezzlement, fraud, and abuse of power in a case allegedly involving 12.8 million euros ($18.3 million) in the health care sector. Prosecutors have requested the indictment of Del Turco, and the decision of preliminary investigation judges was expected in spring 2010. The law gives citizens the right to access government documents and to be informed of administrative processes. With some security-related exceptions, the government and local authorities respected this right in practice for citizens, noncitizens, and the foreign press. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, ethnic background, and political opinion. It provides some protection against discrimination based on disability, language, or social status. The government generally enforced these prohibitions; however, some societal discrimination continued against women, persons with disabilities, immigrants, and Roma. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the government enforced the law effectively. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Interior, 4,637 cases of rape were reported, and police identified 8,845 assailants. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a problem. In 2007 the Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) reported that 6.7 million women aged 16 to 70, or 32 percent of all women, had been victims of violence at least once in their lives. Five million women were victims of sexual violence, one million of them of rape or attempted rape. ISTAT estimated that in 2006 there were 74,000 cases of rape or attempted rape, of which 4,500 were reported to the police. Partners reportedly committed approximately 23 percent of sexual abuses. According to the Ministry of Interior, from June 2008 through July 2009, 5,556 cases of sexual abuses were reported to police. The law criminalizes the physical abuse of women, including by family members; allows for the prosecution of perpetrators of violence against women; and helps abused women avoid publicity. ISTAT reported 113 killings of women by their current or ex-partners in 2008. Law enforcement and judicial authorities prosecuted perpetrators of violence against women, but victims frequently declined to press charges due to fear, shame, or ignorance of the law. On July 17, the Ministry of Equal Opportunity established a hotline for victims of stalking, in addition to the hotline for victims of violence seeking immediate assistance and temporary shelter. From February 23 through October, 3,247 cases of stalking were reported to the Ministry of Equal Opportunity hotline. Police received 4,124 stalking complaints and made 723 arrests. From March 2006 through 2007, 16,700 women reported episodes of violence to this hotline, and half of them requested assistance. The NGO Telefono Rosa assisted 1,744 victims of violence, 287 of whom were foreigners. The NGO ACMID-Donna established a toll-free number for abused Muslim women and received 5,500 calls from November 2008 through August 2009. Approximately 82 percent of those cases involved violence or other mistreatment by husbands or relatives, including unwillingly being in a polygamous marriage, a situation affecting an estimated 14,000 women. There were occasional reports of ``honor crimes'' and forced marriage. In June 2008 a 16-year-old Moroccan girl living in Piacenza simulated her own kidnapping to avoid a forced marriage arranged by her family. The intended groom was a Moroccan man over 60 years old and living in France. In September police in Pordenone took a 45-year-old Moroccan man into custody on suspicion of murdering his daughter, Saana Dafani. The father was upset over his 18-year-old daughter's relationship with a 31-year-old Italian man. Female genital mutilation is a crime punishable by up to 10 years' imprisonment. The government estimated that 35,000 women were victims of genital mutilation, 1,100 of whom were age 17 and younger. An interagency committee of the Department of Equal Opportunity in charge of combating female genital mutilation implemented a prevention program that included an awareness campaign for immigrants, an analysis of risks, and training of cultural mediators. On November 9, the Ministry of Equal Opportunity inaugurated a hotline dedicated to victims of such mutilation. On June 11, the NGO Arci launched a campaign against genital mutilation in collaboration with migrant women's associations in Rome, Florence, and Turin. Prostitution is legal in private residences; the law prohibits pimping, brothels, and similar commercial enterprises. The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation remained a problem. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Interior, 4,350 persons were charged with trafficking in persons and pandering. The law permits domestic courts to try citizens and permanent residents who engage in sex tourism outside of the country, even if the offense is not a crime in the country in which it occurred. According to the domestic branch of End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography, and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT Italy), in recent years sex tourists from the country made Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Czech Republic, Northern Russia, and Brazil preferred destinations. The country has a code of conduct for tourist agencies to help combat sex tourism. Sexual harassment is illegal, and the government effectively enforced the law. By government decree emotional abuse based on gender discrimination is a crime. Couples and individuals had the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children, and had the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Access to information on contraception, and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care were widely available. Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. The law gives women the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. According to an independent research center, the overall gap between salaries for men and women was 16 percent, although a study released in July estimated the gap between men and women with the same jobs and qualifications was 2 percent. Women were underrepresented in many fields, including management, entrepreneurial business, and other professions. Although 36 percent of lawyers were women, no women were members of the prestigious National Council of Lawyers. Although 60 percent of doctors were women, only 14 percent of the heads of local health authorities were women. The parliament ratified a new law ending discrimination in the retirement age between men and women. Previously, women could retire at 60, five years earlier than men. The European Commission found the rule illegal in 2008, and the country enacted the new law to be in compliance. A number of government offices worked to ensure women's rights, including the Ministry for Equal Opportunity and the Equal Opportunity Commission in the Prime Minister's Office. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare has a similar commission that focuses on women's rights and discrimination in the workplace. Many NGOs, most of them affiliated with labor unions or political parties, actively and effectively promoted women's rights. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Citizenship is not derived by birth within the country's territory. Local authorities registered all births immediately. In 2008 Telefono Azzurro, an NGO that advocates for children's rights, received 304,774 calls and 3,230 requests for assistance. Of these, an estimated 6 percent involved sexual abuse, and 18 percent physical violence. In 56 percent of the cases, the victims were female; 44 percent of the victims were younger than 10. In 2006 authorities registered approximately 170 reports of sexual intercourse with minors, 290 reports of production of child pornography, and 180 reports of possession of child pornography. NGOs estimated that 10 percent of persons engaged in prostitution were minors. An independent research center estimated that approximately 30,000 minors entered the country illegally in 2008, of whom about 8,000 were sheltered in protected communities. Of those, 80 percent left the communities without authorization. On February 25, Carabinieri officers arrested 11 Bulgarian Roma accused of trafficking minors from Bulgaria to Western European countries. Victims were forced to marry other Roma and to commit crimes such as shoplifting, pickpocketing, and burglary. On May 24, the minister of interior announced the establishment of a new hotline run by Telefono Azzuro, dedicated to helping find minors who disappeared and assisting those who ran away. In 2008 there were 1,330 runaways, of whom 998 were not citizens of the country. On January 21, authorities arrested an Italian in Thailand for the third time of having had sex with minors. On May 19, authorities arrested a 60-year-old Italian in Thailand and accused him on the same grounds. Illegal immigrant child laborers from North Africa, West Africa, the Philippines, and China continued to enter the country. The flow of children from Albania dropped dramatically, possibly due to improved economic conditions for Albania and increased law enforcement cooperation between the country and Albania. Few of the country's children engaged in prostitution for survival. However, independent research center Parsec has reported that thousands of minors from Eastern Europe engaged in prostitution for survival. Prostitution under the age of 18 is against the law, but no penalty is specified. The country, which has a statutory rape law, is not a destination for sex tourism. The minimum age for consensual sex varies from 13 to 16 years old based on the relationship between partners. The penalty for child pornography ranges from six to 12 years in prison, and the penalty for violation of the law regarding the minimum age for consensual sex ranges from two to 10 years in prison. A special unit of the police monitored 26,600 Web sites during the year; the unit investigated 1,155 persons for crimes involving child pornography online and arrested 51. According to the NGO Telefono Arcobaleno, 6.5 percent of those accessing pornographic materials involving minors worldwide were from the country. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, trafficking in persons was a problem. Persons were trafficked to, from, through and within the country. According to NGO sources, the number of new victims trafficked in 2008 was an estimated 2,800. The country was a destination and transit country for women, children, and men trafficked internationally for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women and children were trafficked for forced prostitution mainly from Nigeria, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, Albania, Ukraine, Russia, South America, North and East Africa, the Middle East, China, and Uzbekistan. Chinese men and women were trafficked to the country for the purpose of forced labor. Romani children continued to be trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced begging. Men were trafficked for the purpose of forced labor, mostly in the agricultural sector in southern Italy but also in sweatshops around the country. According to one NGO, 90 percent of foreign seasonal workers were unregistered, and two-thirds were in the country illegally, rendering them vulnerable to trafficking. The top five source countries for agricultural workers, from where forced labor victims were likely found, were Poland, Romania, Pakistan, Albania, and Cote d'Ivoire. Between one-quarter and one-third of women trafficked for prostitution came from Romania, according to the Ministry for Equal Opportunity. Parsec estimated that the large majority of persons engaged in prostitution were immigrants primarily from Romania, Nigeria, Bulgaria, Ukraine, China, Moldova, and Russia. A large number of women entered the country voluntarily and were subsequently obliged to engage in prostitution to repay smugglers. The average age of victims declined, and an increasing number of victims were trafficked for labor outside the sex industry, particularly in the agriculture and service sectors. Immigrants, mostly from Nigeria, North Africa, China, and Eastern Europe, played a major role in trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, both as traffickers and as victims, although citizens were also involved. On February 11, police arrested and accused three Romanians and an Italian of trafficking, raping and abusing a Romanian girl. They enticed the girl from her home village with the bogus offer of a caretaker's job in Sicily. The Romanians stole her passport, isolated her, and repeatedly raped her over a 20-day period. Then, the Italian physically abused her as part of his successful attempt to force her into prostitution. NGOs and independent experts reported that traffickers became more sophisticated in lowering the profile of their illicit activities. Due to increased enforcement efforts, traffickers moved their victims away from street prostitution and towards conducting their activities in hotels, clubs, discos, and other less visible venues. This shift made it more difficult for authorities to identify trafficking victims. The law provides prison sentences of eight to 20 years for trafficking or enslavement. If the victims are minors, sentences increase by one-third to one-half. The law mandates special prison conditions for traffickers that limit their ability to continue their operations while incarcerated. According to the Ministry of Justice, authorities investigated 2,738 persons for trafficking in 2008 and arrested 365; trial courts convicted 138 persons, and appeal courts convicted 148. The government cooperated with foreign governments, including those of Romania, Nigeria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Moldova, to investigate and prosecute trafficking cases. Because police had difficulty in meeting the law's evidentiary standards in some trafficking cases, authorities relied on enforcement of immigration law to stop trafficking. There were no reports during the year that government officials participated in, facilitated, or condoned trafficking. The law provides temporary residence or work permits to trafficked persons seeking to escape their exploiters. Authorities and NGOs encouraged trafficking victims to file complaints, and there were no legal impediments to their doing so. Unlike most other illegal immigrants, who face deportation if apprehended, persons who qualify as trafficking victims under the law receive benefits, including legal residence, whether or not they file a complaint. However, the UNHCR and NGOs criticized the government for not always allowing enough time between apprehension and deportation of illegal immigrants to screen them as possible trafficking victims. The government provided legal and medical assistance, access to shelters, and job training to persons identified by authorities as victims of trafficking. In 2006 the government assisted 7,300 women. There were also assistance and incentive programs for those willing to return to their native countries; in 2006, 62 victims who chose to return to their home countries were repatriated. The law empowers magistrates to seize convicted traffickers' assets to finance legal assistance, vocational training, and other social integration assistance for trafficking victims. The government worked with foreign governments and NGOs to organize trafficking awareness campaigns. The law directs the Foreign Ministry, working with the Ministry of Equal Opportunity, to conclude antitrafficking agreements with trafficking source countries. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government effectively enforced these provisions, but there was some societal discrimination. Although the law mandates access to government buildings for persons with disabilities, mechanical barriers, particularly in public transport, left such persons at a disadvantage. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare was responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. Many cities lacked infrastructure (such as elevators at subway and funicular stations and ramps on sidewalks) for persons with limited mobility and those in wheelchairs. Independent research centers estimated there were approximately 2.8 million persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There continued to be reports that authorities mistreated Roma. The NGOs International and National Union of Roma and Sinti in Italy (UNIRSI) and Opera Nomadi reported cases of discrimination, particularly in housing and evictions, deportations, and government efforts to remove Romani children from their parents for their protection. Government officials at the national and local levels, including those from the Interior Ministry and the Ministry of Equal Opportunity, met periodically with Roma and their representatives. During the year the Interior Ministry continued a campaign to crack down on illegal immigration based on a May 2008 emergency decree on security and immigration. Authorities arrested or expelled several hundred foreigners and took the names of others who lived in encampments near major cities. On August 5, the Supreme Administrative Court ruled that local authorities were permitted to collect personal data on Roma who live in authorized camps. A census of Roma in authorized camps registered 7,200 inhabitants. Authorities closed a few unauthorized encampments and sheltered hundreds of Roma in temporary facilities. There were no accurate statistics on the number of Roma in the country. NGOs estimated that 140,000, including 75,000 citizens, were concentrated on the fringes of urban areas in the central and southern parts of the country. Romani camps were characterized by poor housing, unhygienic sanitary conditions, limited employment prospects, inadequate educational facilities, and inconsistent police presence. According to the European Fundamental Rights Agency, the majority of North African immigrants living in the country believed that they were discriminated against and mistreated by police because of their ethnicity. On January 25, authorities arrested and charged three persons for the October 2008 ``hate crime'' killing of Mohamed Chamrani, a Moroccan who had been beaten and thrown into Lake Garda. On June 25, near Milan, five members of a family, including a 70- year-old woman, assaulted and injured in a dispute over a parking spot a 64-year-old citizen of the country who had emigrated from Egypt. Before beating him, the man's attackers shouted that he should return to where he came from. His injuries, including broken ribs, required hospitalization. The government's Office to Combat Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Ministry of Equal Opportunity assisted victims of discrimination. In 2007 the office received about 8,000 calls on its national hotline. The majority of complaints related to labor conditions, wages, and discrimination in the provision of public services. The office provided legal assistance and helped mediate disputes. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no laws criminalizing homosexuality. An official from the NGO Arcigay reported police maintained order at several gay pride events, including a march through Rome. Arcigay reported the group was granted permits for the events. The Rome police department has created a special unit to investigate reports of crimes based on sexual orientation. There were reports of societal discrimination based on sexual orientation. Arcigay reported eight killings and 52 nonlethal attacks on lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) persons between January and September, compared to nine killings and 45 other attacks in 2008. Several of the crimes were described as domestic disputes. Between May and September, several acts of vandalism were committed against bars and discos catering mainly to LGBT clientele. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDs. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right to establish, join, and carry out union activities in the workplace without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. The law prohibits union organization in the armed forces. Unions claimed to represent between 35 and 40 percent of the workforce. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. The law restricts strikes affecting essential public services (such as transport, sanitation, and health) by requiring longer advance notification and precluding multiple strikes within days of each other. In February the government approved a bill to restrict transport strikes. Only those unions representing at least half the workforce can call transport strikes. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively, and workers exercised this right. Approximately 35 percent of the workforce worked under collective bargaining agreements. Antiunion discrimination is illegal, and the government effectively enforced labor laws. Employees fired for union activity have the right to request their reinstatement. There were no reported cases of discrimination. There are no export processing zones. The free-trade-zone law allows a company of any nationality to employ workers of the same nationality under that country's labor laws and social security systems. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and the government enforced such laws; however, there were reports such practices occurred. Women were trafficked for sexual exploitation, Romani children for sexual exploitation and begging, and workers for agricultural labor or to work in sweatshops manufacturing counterfeit products. Parsec estimated that approximately 500 victims of labor trafficking worked outside the sex industry, mainly in domestic, agricultural, or service labor. Forced labor occurred primarily in the agricultural sector and mostly in the south where, according to the NGO Doctors without Borders, a large majority of the foreign seasonal workers were unregistered and did not hold residence permits. On March 12, Carabinieri police announced the arrest of nine Egyptians and one Moroccan accused of trafficking in persons for labor exploitation. Traffickers smuggled hundreds of North Africans from Libya, facilitated their escape from temporary centers, provided fake documents, and forced them to work illegally in a cleaning company near Milan. ``Operation Viola,'' coordinated by the national anti-Mafia prosecutor, continued during the year. On April 20, police arrested 49 persons from a criminal association based mainly in Campania for trafficking drugs and children. The minors, all from Nigeria, were threatened and forced into prostitution in various regions of Colombia, Turkey, Bulgaria, and the Netherlands. Chinese men and women were trafficked to the country for forced labor. At the end of the year, the trial was still pending of a Chinese entrepreneur charged in March 2008 with abetting illegal immigration and exploiting 47 Chinese victims including six minors and two pregnant women working and living in a sweatshop near Reggio Emilia. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government sought to enforce laws and policies designed to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were a number of reports of child labor. The law prohibits employment of children under age 15 with some limited exceptions, and there are specific restrictions on employment in hazardous or unhealthy occupations for boys under the age of 18 and girls under the age of 21. Enforcement was generally effective in the formal economy; however, it was difficult in the extensive informal economy. Illegal immigrant child laborers, mostly from 15 to 18 years of age, continued to enter the country from North Africa, the Philippines, and China. They worked primarily in the manufacturing and services industries. Most arrived with their parents; however, according to the NGO Terre des Homes there were about 24,000 unaccompanied minors. Children were trafficked for sexual exploitation and begging. The minister of interior estimated that minors represented 20 percent of the total victims of trafficking and smuggling from Romania; of those, three out of four were engaged in prostitution. In 2007 about 300 minors were trafficking victims, according to the Ministry for Equal Opportunity. National and local authorities provide minor victims automatic residency permits (valid until age 18) and access to education and other assistance programs. On September 30, according to the Ministry of Welfare, 6,587 unaccompanied minors were registered, 74 percent of whom were hosted in protected communities. The government, employers' associations, and unions continued their tripartite cooperation to combat child labor. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare, working with police and Carabinieri, is responsible for enforcement of child labor laws, but their efforts were often ineffective. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The law does not specify a minimum wage; it provides for it to be set through collective bargaining agreements on a sector-by-sector basis. The minimum wage in most industries provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Courts effectively enforced the wages set through collective bargaining agreements, but workers in the informal sector often worked for less than the analogous minimum wage in the formal sector. The legal workweek is 40 hours. Overtime work may not exceed two hours per day or an average of 12 hours per week. Unless limited by a collective bargaining agreement, the law sets maximum overtime hours in industrial sector firms at no more than 80 per quarter and 250 annually. The law requires rest periods of one day per week and 11 hours per day. Premium pay is required for overtime. These standards were effectively enforced. The law sets basic health and safety standards and guidelines for compensation for on-the-job injuries. There were labor inspectors in both the public health service and the Ministry of Labor and Welfare, but their numbers were insufficient to ensure adequate enforcement of health and safety standards. The standards were not enforced in the informal economy. According to the Workmen's Compensation Institute, in 2008 there were 1,120 work-related deaths. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment, and the government effectively enforced this right. __________ KOSOVO Kosovo is a parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 2.2 million. Multiparty elections in 2007 for the Assembly generally reflected the will of the voters. Kosovo declared its independence in February 2008 and supplanted the UN Interim Administrative Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), which had previously administered Kosovo under the authority of UN Security Council Resolution 1244. At independence, Kosovo accepted the Ahtisaari plan, which provided for internationally sponsored mechanisms, including an International Civilian Office and the EU Rule of Law Mission (EULEX). The government, EULEX, and the UN-authorized North Atlantic Treaty Organization peacekeeping force for Kosovo (KFOR) generally maintained effective control over security forces. During the year reported problems and abuses included the following: deaths and injuries from unexploded ordnance or landmines; corruption and government interference in security forces and the judiciary; lengthy pretrial detention and lack of judicial due process; cases of politically and ethnically motivated violence; societal antipathy against Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church; lack of progress in returning internally displaced persons (IDPs) to their homes; government corruption; violence and discrimination against women; trafficking in persons, particularly girls and women for sexual exploitation; societal violence, abuse, and discrimination against minority communities; societal discrimination against persons with disabilities; abuse and discrimination against persons based on their sexual orientation; and child labor in the informal sector. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government, EULEX, or their agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. Investigations continued into allegations that, during the 1999 Kosovo conflict, traffickers kidnapped civilians from Kosovo and brought them to Albania, where some were killed and their organs sold. In April, EULEX announced that it had begun a preliminary investigation into the allegations. In August the Council of Europe special rapporteur, Dick Marty, led a fact-finding mission to Serbia and Albania to further investigate. Marty's report to the Council of Europe remained pending at year's end. There were reports of politically motivated attacks and threats against Kosovo Albanian political and institutional figures during the year. On November 11, a group of people stoned Prime Minister Thaci's official vehicle during a rally for his Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) in Decan/Decani. Police arrested three persons in connection with the incident. On November 13, unknown assailants ambushed and beat Hysni Ahmeti, the Alliance for the Future of Kosovo mayoral candidate for Mitrovica/Mitrovice. Ahmeti survived the attack and police later charged Fadil Vallqi with attempted murder. Vallqi remained under house arrest at year's end. There were no new developments in the case against Milic Milicevic, Milivoje Zdravkovic, Radojko Dunjic, and Dusan Manjolovic for assaulting members of the security detail for the special representative of the UN secretary-general (SRSG) and the KFOR commander in Gorazhdec/Gorazdevac, Peje/Pec municipality, in 2007. Although the trial was scheduled several times, it did not begin due to court backlogs. The defendants remained free pending trial. During the year there were reports of one death and six injuries from landmines or unexploded ordnance from the 1998-99 conflict. On November 20, a panel of judges sentenced Mentor Qela to 20 years, Agim Hoti to 16 years, and Driton Spahiu to 15.5 years in prison for shooting at Anton Berisha, the head of the Telecommunications Regulation Authority, as he traveled on the Pristina-Peje/Pec highway in 2007. Their appeal was denied on November 26. There were no new developments in the 2007 killing of police officer Avni Kosumi; an investigation remained ongoing. On March 13, the Supreme Court (consisting of a combined panel of three international and two local judges) overturned Florim Ejupi's June 2008 conviction and acquitted him of all charges, citing lack of evidence. Ejupi had been sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment for the ``Nis Express'' bus bombing near Podujeve/Podujevo that killed 11 Kosovo Serbs and injured 40 others in 2001. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances; however, according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), as of December there were 1,875 persons still listed as unaccounted for since the 1998-99 conflict. Of the remaining missing, 70 percent were Kosovo Albanians and 30 percent were Kosovo Serbs and other minorities. During the year the Ministry of Justice and the Office on Missing Persons and Forensics (OMPF) continued to identify the remains of missing persons. In 2008 EULEX joined their operations. From January to December, the OMPF, in coordination with the Ministry of Justice, performed 135 field operations, including 78 exhumations. One hundred and one individuals were exhumed, and 80 sets of remains were identified and handed over to families. By December, 443 unidentified sets of remains were in OMPF custody (401 from Kosovo sites, and 42 from Serbian sites). During the year the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) and OMPF made 322 DNA matches (representing 106 new individuals) and reassociated 231 body parts to previously identified sets of remains. During the year the OMPF and the ICMP worked on the identification of six cases of missing persons for which there were not enough blood donors to provide information for a match. DNA information and traditional methods were combined to confirm identification of remains. During the year officials from Kosovo and Serbia met three times in a working group on missing persons chaired by the ICRC and under the auspices of the SRSG. Although a sub-working group on forensic issues met once during the year and the parties conducted several teleconferences on forensic issues, 423 sets of human remains in the Pristina morgue remained unidentified. During the year the OMPF identified and handed over 93 sets of human remains to families, including 19 victims from ethnic minority communities. The OMPF transferred 12 sets of remains exhumed in Kosovo to families in Serbia and one from Kosovo to Bosnia. The remainder were exhumed in Kosovo and handed over to families in Kosovo. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that the government, EULEX, or KFOR (which has limited arrest and detention authority) employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prisons and detention center conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. During the year there were some allegations of abuse and mistreatment of prisoners. The Kosovo Rehabilitation Center for Torture Victims (KRCT), a local NGO that visited and monitored prisons and detention centers during the year, reported four allegations of excessive use of force at Dubrave/Dubrava Prison by members of the KCS Special Intervention Unit. Following a KCS investigation into these claims, one officer was suspended; he later returned to work with a warning. In an unrelated investigation, the KRCT reported that one officer was suspended and a second dismissed for corruption. The KRCT also reported one allegation of physical mistreatment, where a guard slapped a prisoner, at the Lipjan/Lipljan Detention Center. The guard received an oral warning. The director of the KCS received 52 complaints of abuse and mistreatment from prisoners as of August. Two of the complaints resulted in the suspension of two involved officers, and the KCS demoted one of the officers. As of September 16, there were 823 convicted prisoners and 502 pretrial detainees mixed in prison and detention centers. There were 34 females (19 convicted prisoners and 15 pretrial detainees) and 54 juveniles (29 detainees, 12 in juvenile imprisonment, and 13 in the educational correctional program). During the year the monthly prison population at Dubrave/Dubrava varied from 600 to 950 inmates, below its total capacity of 1,200. The Dubrave/Dubrava Prison and five detention centers operated during the year. The Prizren detention center was closed for renovation. The KRCT reported that the Kosovo Correctional Service (KCS), which runs the country's prisons and detention centers, mixed pretrial detainees with convicted prisoners. The KRCT also reported that it had observed multiple cases of pretrial detainees being held for more than 12 months. The KCS managed daily operations at the Dubrave/Dubrava Prison and all detention centers. EULEX retained a limited monitoring, mentoring, and advising role in the prisons. Additionally, EULEX transported prisoners upon request. The KCS permitted visits and monitoring of the country's prisons and detention centers. The ombudsman and KRCT inspected Dubrave/Dubrava Prison and detention centers during the year. The ombudsman reported good cooperation from the KCS, including the ability to conduct private interviews with inmates during visits. The ICRC did not conduct any prison or detention facility inspections during the year. The government spent 5.43 million euros ($7.76 million) during the year to improve living conditions in prisons and detention centers in Dubrave/Dubrava, Lipjan/Lipljan, Pristina, and Prizren. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which seven prisoners incarcerated for terrorism, murder, attempted murder, and robbery escaped from Dubrave/Dubrava Prison. Police subsequently arrested three escapees. In 2007 Macedonian police later killed two other escapees near Tetovo, Macedonia. Two escapees remained at large. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government, EULEX, and KFOR generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Local security forces include the police (KP) and the Kosovo Security Force (KSF). The police function under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In December 2008 EULEX became operational and established its mandate to monitor, mentor, and advise local judicial and law enforcement institutions. EULEX possesses limited executive authority in areas including war crimes, witness protection, money laundering, terrorist financing, and international police cooperation. In July the police assumed primary responsibility for counterterrorism activities. The KSF is a lightly armed security and civil defense force which functions under the civilian authority of the Ministry of Kosovo Security Force and is mentored by KFOR. In December 2008 the government appointed a general director of police to replace the international commissioner of police. Two deputy general directors were appointed in February; one was a Kosovo Serb, the other a Kosovo Albanian woman. As of August members of ethnic minorities comprised an estimated 15 percent of 7,190 police officers; 10 percent of officers were Kosovo Serbs. Following the country's February 2008 declaration of independence, 325 Kosovo Serb officers, largely at the behest of Serbian authorities, boycotted the police in protest of the secession. The Internal Affairs Ministry continued to pay the officers, who were placed on administrative leave. In April the ministry announced that it would terminate boycotting officers who did not return to work by June 30. Prior to the deadline, 318 Kosovo Serb officers returned to KP service. Seven officers refused to return and were terminated. An estimated 15 percent of officers were women. The government and EULEX shared executive authority over the police force, although EULEX authority was limited. Police were responsible for day-to-day police operations in all areas of the country except the Serb majority northern municipalities of Zubin Potok, Zvecan, Leposaviq/Leposavic, and the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica. In these Serb majority northern regions, EULEX exercised additional executive authority to ensure security. Specialized police units on war crimes and the witness protection program remained staffed by international EULEX police officers and operated independently of the KP. EULEX and the KP jointly operated units on criminal intelligence and organized crime. Both the international police and the judiciary have broad discretion to intervene in any particular criminal matter. As a practical matter, most policing duties and responsibilities were in the hands of the local police. Corruption and government influence remained problems in the security forces. For example, on August 27, the police arrested fellow police officer Lieutenant Sejdi Zeqiri, the commander of Obiliq/Obilic police station. Zeqiri was arrested for abuse of official authority, bribery, and sexual harassment. At year's end, Zeqiri remained under house arrest and the investigation continued. There was limited progress in the September 2008 arrest of six members of the Customs Service for involvement in a ring that smuggled pharmaceuticals into the country. The Customs Service dismissed five officers, and the final officer remained suspended without pay. The police inspectorate operates as an independent body under the Internal Affairs Ministry and has a mandate to promote police efficiency and effectiveness, hold police accountable for their actions, and investigate alleged legal violations. The inspectorate forwards the results of investigations revealing violations to a disciplinary committee for possible further action. During the year the inspectorate investigated 1,647 cases, of which 742 were citizen-initiated complaints and the remaining 905 were initiated by the police. Of those cases, the inspectorate pursued further investigation into 1,062 and turned 585 cases over to the directorate for internal investigations. Court decisions were pending in 155 cases. Of the 1,062 cases investigated, 465 were allegations of serious police violations. Of the serious violations, 22 percent were for serious cases of conduct unbecoming a police officer, 17 percent involved allegations of inappropriate use of force, 9 percent involved criminal offenses, 8 percent were for serious insubordination, and 2 percent concerned complaints of corruption. In early June the head of the inspectorate resigned, leaving the organization without a leader. No replacement had been appointed by year's end. The directorate for internal investigations investigated minor police offenses and imposed administrative penalties for infractions. Between January and November, the unit opened 821 cases, including for minor insubordination and damage or loss of police property. As of November, the directorate completed 706 investigations, 438 of which were deemed to have merit. The directorate closed five cases without investigation due to insufficient evidence. Sanctions ranged from decreased pay (eight cases) to verbal warnings (322 cases). One hundred and fifteen cases remained under investigation. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police generally made arrests openly using a warrant issued by a judge or prosecutor and based on sufficient evidence. In some cases, masked or undercover officers conducted arrests. By law, arrests must be based on prosecutors' orders and arrestees must be brought before a judge within 72 hours. The majority of the year's arrests were carried out by the police. There were no reports that the police abused the 72-hour rule, and authorities generally charged arrestees within six to eight hours or released them. Arrestees have the right to be informed of the reason for their arrest in a language they understand; to remain silent and not answer any questions except those concerning their identity; to obtain free assistance of an interpreter; to obtain defense counsel and to have defense counsel provided if they cannot afford one; to receive medical and psychiatric treatment; and to notify a family member. The police and EULEX police generally respected these rights in practice. Under extraordinary circumstances, KFOR can arrest and detain individuals without a warrant. The KFOR commander can detain individuals for 72 hours, renewable for a second 72-hour period. After 144 hours, KFOR must release the detainee. There were no reports that KFOR arrested persons without a warrant during the year. In February, KFOR authorities closed and subsequently dismantled the detention facility at Camp Bondsteel. The police and EULEX police may hold individuals for up to 72 hours without a court order. The court may hold individuals in pretrial detention for 30 days from the day of arrest and can extend detention up to a total of 18 months. There is a functioning bail system. The law allows for house arrest, confiscation of travel documents, and expanded use of bail as alternatives to pretrial detention. Defendants can also appeal their detention on remand. Lengthy detentions, both before and during judicial proceedings, remained a problem. The law provides that a judge may impose pretrial detention only when ordinary measures, such as house arrest, are insufficient to secure the defendant's presence during criminal proceedings and enable proper administration of the criminal proceedings. In practice, however, judges routinely used detention on remand without showing any evidentiary justification. Trial delays were caused by factors including judicial inefficiency and corruption. Amnesty.--On February 17, President Sejdiu granted amnesty or commuted the sentences of 62 individuals in honor of the country's first anniversary of independence. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the local judiciary was at times biased, subject to outside influence, and did not always provide due process. There were credible reports of corruption in the local judiciary, and the court system was inefficient. The court system includes a constitutional court, a supreme court, five district courts, a commercial court, 25 municipal courts, 25 minor offense courts, and an appellate court for minor offenses. As of August, there were 31 international judges and 15 international prosecutors supporting local judges and prosecutors. The government maintained a central public prosecutor's office, five district prosecutors, and seven municipal prosecutors. EULEX exercised its executive authority over a special prosecutor's office which included five international prosecutors focused on serious crimes including human trafficking, money laundering, war crimes, and terrorism. In criminal cases in which EULEX international judges exercised their jurisdiction, these judges sat on mixed panels with local judges. EULEX judges comprised the majority on these panels, with one EULEX judge serving as the presiding judge. The president of the Assembly of EULEX Judges has the authority to compose a panel solely or majority of which are local judges, or to not assign particular stages of proceedings to EULEX judges. For civil cases, judicial panels were composed of three judges, two of which were EULEX judges. The courts were reviewed by the Office of the Disciplinary Counsel (ODC) and the Judicial Audit Unit (JAU). The ODC was responsible for investigating the activities of judges, prosecutors, and lay judges and for prosecuting cases of misconduct before the Kosovo Judicial Council (KJC). Following UNMIK's departure, the ODC was first transferred to the Justice Ministry and then in June was transferred again to the KJC. This double transfer inhibited its effectiveness. The JAU analyzed and evaluated the functioning of the courts and public prosecutors' offices and submitted reports and recommendations to the KJC, Justice Ministry, and the Assembly. During the year the ODC referred 51 cases to the KJC, which had a total of 87 cases pending as of September. The KJC convened one disciplinary hearing before the Judicial Disciplinary Committee. During the year the JAU completed four audit reports. The Mitrovice/Mitrovica district court partially functioned during the year. As of October, EULEX judges had conducted three trials and a fourth was ongoing. During the year EULEX began a review of the court's records and hired nine local staff. The Serbian government continued to operate an unsanctioned parallel judicial system in Kosovo Serb enclaves and in majority Serb municipalities. District and municipal courts in Mitrovice/Mitrovica and municipal courts in Leposaviq/Leposavic and Zubin Potok remained closed following March 2008 protests against the country's independence. Trial Procedures.--Trials are public, and defendants enjoy the presumption of innocence, the right to be present at their trials, to confront witnesses, to see evidence, and to have legal representation. Representation may be provided at public expense if necessary; however, this procedure was used rarely in practice. Defendants have the right of appeal. Trials are heard by panels consisting of professional and lay judges; there are no jury trials. The Legal Aid Commission, an independent government agency, provided free legal assistance to low-income individuals through five district legal aid bureaus. From January to August, the commission provided legal assistance to 1,115 persons: 618 in administrative matters, 439 in civil matters, and 58 in criminal matters. Of those receiving assistance, 421 (38 percent) were women and 111 (10 percent) were minorities, including members of the Romani, Turkish, Bosniak, Kosovo Serb, and Egyptian communities. The commission referred 268 cases (24 percent) to advocates from the national bar association for legal aid-funded court representation while legal aid officers handled the remaining cases. The most common types of civil legal disputes included social assistance, pension cases, property and family law cases, and inheritance disputes. For criminal cases, the commission provided advice on appeals and bail hearings. The Justice Ministry operated a judicial integration section that continued to address judicial system problems affecting minorities. To that end, the ministry operated 11 court liaison offices to assist minority communities in Kosovo Serb majority areas by accompanying them to courts, filing documents with courts on their behalf, and providing information and legal assistance to refugees and IDPs. The government, with the assistance of EULEX prosecutors and judges, tried and punished perpetrators of war crimes from the 1998-99 conflict; however, many cases remained unresolved. On March 3, the Pristina district court found Gani Gashi guilty of war crimes in the killing the civilian Idriz Obrija in July 1998 and sentenced him to 17 years' imprisonment. On April 29, the Peje/Pec district court found Gjelosh Krasniqi guilty of war crimes for taking Pashk Luli hostage and confiscating weapons in Doblibare/Doblibare in 1998. Krasniqi received seven years' imprisonment. On September 23, EULEX police arrested Slobodan Martinovic, Srecko Martinovic, and Svetlana Stojanovic for war crimes committed in 1999. The three allegedly kidnapped and tortured eight people and were linked to an informal detention center in the Novoberde/Novo Brdo and Gjilan/ Gnjilane area. EULEX charged them with inhuman treatment, immense suffering or violation of bodily integrity or health, application of measures of intimidation and terror, and illegal arrest and detention. All three were placed on conditional release from pretrial detention on December 23. A trial date had not been set. Two others, Dragan Trojkovic and Sinisia Filic, were wanted on the same charges but remained at large. On October 2, the Pristina district court found Rrustem ``Remi'' Mustafa, Latif Gashi, and Nazif Mehmeti guilty of war crimes for the torture of civilian detainees at three Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) run detention facilities. The court, composed of one local and two EULEX judges, sentenced Mustafa to four years' imprisonment, Gashi to six years, and Mehmeti to three years. At year's end, Mustafa remained free pending a final judgment on his appeal. During the conflict, Mustafa had been the chief of the KLA Operational Zone of Llap and he later became a PDK member of the Assembly and chairman of the Assembly's Security Committee. All three were arrested in 2002 on charges of war crimes for illegal detention, torture, and killing of suspected collaborators of the Milosevic regime in the 1990s. Of the 26 victims listed in the indictment, one was Serbian; five were murdered. There were developments in the war crimes case against Momcilo Jovanovic. On February 2, an international EULEX prosecutor at the Peje/Pec district court issued an arrest warrant for Jovanovic after he failed to respond to official summonses to appear in court. In October 2008 an international prosecutor had indicted Jovanovic for war crimes for murder and other violations of the laws of war for incidents that took place in 1998-99 in the village of Katundi i Ri/Vitomirca. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports that the government or KFOR held political prisoners or detainees during the year. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary in civil matters. The local judiciary was at times biased and subject to outside influence and did not always provide due process. There were credible reports of corruption in the local judiciary and the court system was inefficient. In November 2008 the European Commission reported that the country's judicial system remained weak at all levels. The commission cited the low public confidence in the justice system as well as the continuing existence of three parallel sources of legislation (ex- Yugoslav law, UNMIK regulations, and Kosovo law) as particular problems. The commission also noted that the backlog of court cases remained a serious problem. According to a 2006 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) report, interference by municipal authorities and the UNMIK Department of Justice hampered judicial independence in civil matters. The OSCE cited instances in which municipal authorities plainly obstructed court proceedings, pressured judges in cases to which authorities were party, and influenced third parties to prevent courts from exercising their authority. In 2007 the OSCE reported that UNMIK and municipal authorities improperly interfered with judicial independence in the proposed sale of property in the Roma settlement in the Mitrovice/Mitrovica region. Following the report, the OSCE justice system monitors did not observe any further interference. Individuals may appeal to courts in order to seek damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. In practice there were many such lawsuits pending. There were problems enforcing civil court orders. For example, following a May 19 settlement agreement, the Decan/Decani municipality publically stated it would not amend the municipal cadastral records regardless of the eventual decision of the Supreme Court's special chamber for the Kosovo Trust Agency. The case is related to a land dispute between several defunct state-owned enterprises and Visoki Decani Monastery. Property Restitution.--The Kosovo Property Agency (KPA) is responsible for the resolution of residential, commercial, and agricultural property claims arising from the Kosovo conflict. As of December, the KPA administered 3,583 properties. Of those, 2,855 were administered upon the request of a successful claimant, and 728 were administered based on ex officio interventions by the Housing and Property Claims Commission (HPCC, the predecessor adjudicating agency to the KPA). The KPA rented 932 properties on behalf of the legitimate owners who received 1,854,291 euros ($2,651,636) in rent. As of December, the agency had received 40,694 total claims: 36,405 for agricultural property, 979 for commercial property, and 3,309 for residential property. Kosovo Serbs in the northern part of Mitrovice/ Mitrovica continued to occupy Kosovo Albanian owned properties and denied their owners access; Kosovo Albanians in the southern part of the municipality occupied and denied Kosovo Serbs access to their property. The KPA remained unable to enforce the 10 HPCC decisions (of approximately 30,000 total) for properties located in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica, due to concern by authorities that attempts at enforcement would lead to violence. In May 2008 the SRSG reconstituted the HPCC under the KPA to examine requests for reconsideration in instances where the original claim had been denied. As of December, one HPCC request for reconsideration remained pending. Additionally, the Kosovo Property Claims Commission, a quasijudicial arm of the KPA acting under the KPA mandate, adjudicated 27,954 claims by year's end. In June 2008 the law was amended to bring the KPA under the control of the government. The Serbian government subsequently suspended the KPA's access to cadastral and other relevant property records located in Serbia. The Serbian government announced that the suspension would continue until UNMIK reasserted its authority over the KPA. The suspension of the KPA's operations in Serbia significantly reduced the agency's ability to fulfill its mandate, since 90 percent of the claimants were located outside of the country. The suspension prevented access to the relevant archives and caused delays in claims adjudication. On August 18, the Office of UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the KPA signed a memorandum of understanding to allow the reopening of KPA offices in Serbia under UNHCR auspices. The backlog of property-related claims in municipal courts remained high, with some 21,000 outstanding at year's end, representing almost exclusively monetary claims by Kosovo Serbs for war-related damage. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government, EULEX, and KFOR generally respected these prohibitions in practice. KFOR forces retained the ability to assist local police and EULEX police in conducting searches for high-risk suspects and independently search private property for weapons without court orders, based on UN Security Council Resolution 1244's peacekeeping authority. During the year KFOR searched private property three times but did not conduct any searches for high-risk suspects. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. However, there were reports that reporters were intimidated by public officials, politicians, and businesses. The media also encountered difficulties and obstructions in obtaining information from the government and public institutions. The law on broadcast media prohibits hate speech and speech that incites ethnic violence. Individuals generally could criticize authorities publicly or privately without reprisal. According to the Association of Professional Journalists of Kosovo (APJK), media outlets' financial difficulties left the editorial independence and journalistic professionalism of both print and television media vulnerable to outside influence and pressure. A few newspapers were financially self-sufficient and thus were able to develop editorial policies independent of business and political interests. However, other newspapers relied on funding from businesses and political interest groups, including the government, which provided financial support in exchange for positive coverage or absence of critical coverage. There was no direct censorship of print or broadcast media; however, journalists reported pressure from politicians and organized crime, which frequently resulted in indirect forms of censorship. Some journalists refrained from critical investigative reporting out of fear for their personal security. Journalists were occasionally offered financial benefits in exchange for positive reporting or for abandoning an investigation; some were verbally threatened by government officials and suspected criminals for perceived negative reporting. According to editors, government agencies and corporations withdrew regular advertising from newspapers that had published critical coverage of them. Print media self-regulated through a code of conduct adopted by the Press Council, an organization composed of print editors and publishers, and led by an international member elected by the council. The Council's complaint board may impose fines for breaches of the code of conduct, including penalties of up to 2,000 euros ($2,860) for serious violations, such as hate speech or defamation. The Independent Media Commission (IMC) implemented regulations and enforced codes of conduct governing broadcast media. The commission is a permanent body overseen by a six-member governing council. As of August, the country had 110 licensed broadcasters (42 of which broadcast in minority languages) and these broadcasters expressed a wide variety of views. Of the 68 broadcasters whose primary language was Albanian, the three entities of the publicly funded Radio Television Kosovo (RTK) group (RTK TV, Radio Kosova, and Radio Blue Sky) also broadcast daily in minority languages. The RTK Board of Directors is responsible for overseeing RTK, the country's public broadcaster, and the Ministry of Finance controlled its budget. The law provides for regulation of RTK program content and requires that at least 15 percent of RTK program time, including prime time, be dedicated to minority communities in their respective languages on a proportional basis. On October 9, the Assembly selected the nine members of the RTK Board of Directors and the Board selected its chairman on October 27. On October 16, the Constitutional Court suspended RTK's principal funding mechanism, a 3.5 euro ($5) monthly RTK fee that had been added to all electrical bills. The suspension of the fee caused the European Broadcast Union to issue a public letter noting that this decision endangered the broadcaster's independence, as it would increase the likelihood that RTK would have to engage in the political process of going to the Assembly for funding. Authorities continued to search for a funding mechanism that would preserve RTK's independence and operations. There were no reports of censorship or harassment for the publication of books, and publishing houses expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. There were no reports that the government used libel laws, national or public security grounds, or publishing restrictions as vehicles to limit the operations of print, broadcast media, or publishing houses. During the year the APJK reported 20 instances of press freedom abuse by government officials, business interest groups, and media owners including verbal threats to journalists and their agencies by individuals affected by negative media coverage, pressure not to publish certain materials and articles, and obstruction of their work. During the year there were several incidents of violence or harassment directed at the media. On January 2, a group of Kosovo Serbs threw an explosive device at firefighters in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica and attacked a television crew from local station TV Most, who were covering the fire. The reporter was injured and the camera destroyed. On July 28, police in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica passed the case to EULEX prosecutors. No arrests were made by year's end. On March 13, Kosovo Serb media reported that reporters of the Kosovo Serb television production Glas Juga and Radio KIM were harassed by the police after they covered a Kosovo Serb protest in the village of Shillove/Silovo. Reportedly, police officers stopped the reporters, forced cameraman Bojan Kosanin out of his vehicle, and kicked him. The police claimed that they did not receive any complaints regarding police mistreatment. The case was referred to police for further investigation. On May 3, local daily newspaper Express reported that a police security detail detained photographer Fisnik Dobreci while he was taking photos of President Sejdiu at lunch with the family of former president Rugova. Express reported that police detained Dobreci in a police vehicle until the end of the lunch and threatened him with five years in prison. The paper filed a lawsuit against the police, without effect. An internal police review concluded that the police had acted appropriately. On June 18, the Committee to Protect Journalists asked Prime Minister Thaci to publicly condemn and investigate a recent wave of threats against television journalist Jeta Xharra. Xharra, the director of the Balkans Investigative Reporting Network (BIRN), had aired a video report on May 28 showing a BIRN news team being expelled from Skenderaj/Srbica municipality's public information office and being forced to leave town by an armed individual who confiscated some of the film crew's footage. Following the release of the video, a series of letters threatening Xharra appeared in Infopress, a local newspaper supportive of the PDK party. For example, on June 5, Infopress published a letter from a private citizen urging others to punish Xharra. The following day, Infopress distanced itself from the letter, noting that the opinion did not necessarily reflect the newspaper's views. On June 22, the Press Council, responding to a complaint filed by Xharra, concluded that the opinions published by Infopress constituted hate speech and fined the newspaper 1,000 euros ($1,430). On July 16, the IMC expressed concern over the arrest of a reporter and a technician from TV Liria while they were covering a police operation involving the arrest of dozens of municipal employees from the Viti/Vitina municipal government. The IMC stated that the detention of journalists constitutes a direct threat to their work and to freedom of expression. The APJK requested that police conduct an investigation of the incident and take measures against the policemen who arrested journalists. Police opened an investigation but denied any wrongdoing. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which a group of Kosovo Serb men attacked a four-person KTV crew filming the celebration of Orthodox Christmas near the Kosovo Serb enclave of Gracanice/ Gracanica. No formal complaint was filed, and the police did not investigate further. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which a locally hired cameraman of Tirana-based Top Channel TV was attacked within view of local and UNMIK police while filming an anti-independence protest in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica. The investigation remained officially ongoing but there was no progress in the case. There were limited developments in the following cases: police transferred the file on the 2007 assault on Lajm reporter Enis Veliu to the minor offenses court, and prosecutors filed an indictment against unknown persons pending identification of suspects for the September 2007 arson at the home of journalist Milaim Zeka, who had produced television programs about controversial cases, including high-profile killings and corruption. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. In August the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority reported that approximately 25 percent of citizens used the Internet daily. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government, EULEX, and KFOR generally respected this right in practice. The law on public gatherings requires that organizers inform the police of protests 72 hours prior to the event. Police are required to notify the organizers within 48 hours if the protest will be allowed. On a few occasions during the year, police used force to disperse demonstrations and beat demonstrators while making arrests. In April, May, and August, EULEX police repeatedly used tear gas to disperse crowds of up to 400 Kosovo Serb protesters in Kroi i Vitakut/ Brdjani in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica who were demonstrating against Kosovo Albanian returnees rebuilding their homes. On various occasions, protesters attempted to break through police lines and threw rocks at construction workers. During an incident on August 24, five construction workers and two protesters were injured. On May 10, in the Kosovo Serb enclave of Ranillug/Ranilug in Kamenice/Kamenica, local Kosovo Serbs protested electrical power cuts by electricity provider KEK when a police special operations unit violently dispersed the crowd. Credible reports indicated that multiple officers beat and kicked one of the protesters while he was on the ground. At year's end, the police inspectorate was investigating the incident. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution includes provisions that protect religious freedom and prohibit discrimination on the basis of religion. There are no specific licensing regulations for religious groups; however, religious organizations must register as NGOs with the Ministry of Public Services in order to purchase property. Religious groups complained that NGO status did not adequately reflect their religious character, and the Protestant Evangelical Church refused to register as an NGO. The Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology continued to prohibit students from wearing headscarves at school. The ministry based its policy on the law requiring public education institutions to refrain from religious instruction or other activities promoting any specific religion. The ministry enforced this prohibition despite a 2004 opinion by the ombudsman that the rule should apply only to teachers and school officials, not students. There were no developments in the February 2008 complaint to the ombudsman from a student who was ordered by her principal not to attend school with her headscarf. At year's end, the student continued attending school with her scarf. Protestant groups continued to report that they experienced discrimination in media access, particularly by public television station RTK. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports of burglaries of Protestant churches during the year. Individual Protestants alleged there were incidents of verbal assault directed against them. The Islamic community reported several incidents that it believed represented violations of religious freedom, including the national library's closure of its prayer room in 2008, the Ministry of Education's denial of the community's request to include religious education in school curricula, and the government's refusal to dedicate funds to religious communities. During the year the media commissioner informed community leadership that they could submit a new application for a radio frequency, which the government had previously refused to provide. The community subsequently resubmitted the request. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Societal violence continued to decrease, but tensions between ethnic communities remained high, especially in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica. Security concerns continued to affect the Kosovo Serb community and its freedom to worship. Some Kosovo Serbs asserted that they were unable to travel freely to practice their faith. On June 6, approximately 60 refugees from Suhareke/Suva Reka attempted to visit Holy Trinity Monastery, destroyed by fire in 1999. Police denied the group access, claiming that they lacked the proper authorization. The group then tried to visit the remains of a second church, but police forced the refugees to leave, citing security reasons due to a large group of Kosovo Albanians who had gathered near the parked bus. On August 28, the Kosovo Albanian Association of the Families of War Victims and Missing Persons organized a protest in Gjakove/ Djakovica municipality against the visit of 30 Kosovo Serb IDPs attending the reconsecration of the Dormition of the Most Holy Mother of God Church, which had been burned by Kosovo Albanian rioters in 2004. Over 100 protesters reportedly threatened and threw stones at the visitors. The visitors managed to leave the area unharmed under police escort. There were no reported incidents of rock throwing against Serbian Orthodox clergy traveling outside of their monasteries. However, clergy requested and received KFOR escorts, citing threats to their security as impediments to their ability to visit holy sites. The Rasko and Prizren Diocese of the Serbian Orthodox Church reported that, on August 9, a Kosovo Albanian attacked Deacon Stevo Mitric, who was traveling from Mitrovice/Mitrovica to the village of Velika Hoxha in Rahovec/Orahovac. According to the diocese, Mitric was traveling through Gllogovc/Glogovac municipality when another car stopped in front of him and one of the passengers attempted to pull him from his vehicle. On September 14, a Serbian Orthodox monk returning to Visoki Decani Monastery encountered what appeared to be a bomb on the only road leading from Devic Monastery, which he had been visiting. Police examined the device, which turned out to be a nonlethal smoke bomb. Monks and nuns at some monasteries reportedly did not use parts of monastery property--often land outside the monastery walls--due to safety concerns. Criminal charges remained pending against a Kosovo Albanian man from Zvecan municipality who threatened a Serbian Orthodox nun from the Sokolica monastery in 2007. The case was before the Mitrovice/Mitrovica district court but could not proceed until the court resumed full operation. Police refined their operating procedures to provide greater protection for Serbian Orthodox religious and cultural sites, requiring each regional headquarters to create a protection plan for such sites. There were cases of vandalism and harassment directed against Serbian Orthodox Church property. On July 2, unknown persons vandalized the Desanka Maksimovic School in Kostadince. Vandals broke windows, destroyed a picture of Saint Sava and a map of Serbia, and wrote ``UCK'' (the Albanian language initials of the KLA) on the school's outer wall. Police were investigating the incident at year's end. On August 20, a Serbian Orthodox Church parish house in Prizren was targeted by unknown persons who allegedly banged on the door and disturbed the peace. Members of the parish did not file a complaint with the police, who guarded the parish house. On August 22, Kosovo Serb residents of the ethnically mixed Bince/ Binac village in Viti/Vitina reported to police that unknown persons had damaged four gravestones in the village's Orthodox cemetery. There were developments in some cases of Serbian Orthodox property destruction from 2008. Prosecutors filed charges against four individuals who stole the bell from a Serbian Orthodox church in Novake, Prizren; the bell was recovered and subsequently returned to the church. Police identified four minors suspected of involvement of the vandalism of a church door in Kacanik, Ferizaj/Urosevac. The case was sent to prosecutors in Ferizaj/Urosevac, and charges were pending against them at year's end. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which unknown persons damaged the interior of the Orthodox church in Mire/Lepi village and stole approximately 30,000 Serbian dinars ($466). Prosecutors filed an indictment against unknown persons pending identification of suspects in a 2007 case in which unknown persons vandalized the Church of St. John in Peje/Pec. The Serbian Orthodox Church continued to express concern about the status of the green space in the main park in Gjakove/Djakovica, a part of which the church considered its property, and upon which a church had been located prior to 1999. The mayor of Gjakove/Djakovica publically stated that the church would not be rebuilt, and there was no progress in resolving the dispute during the year. The government-funded Reconstruction Implementation Commission (RIC) continued to work on Serbian Orthodox religious sites in the country that were damaged or destroyed during the March 2004 riots. The RIC launched five projects in July (one each in Gjakove/Djakovica, Vushtrri/Vucitrn, and Pristina, and two in Prizren) and three other projects (in Peje/Pec, Skenderaj/Strpce, and Prizren) in November. The RIC invested 432,161 euros ($617,990) during the year. Funds pledged by the government in 2008 had not yet been released. The local Islamic community reported assaults on Islamic leaders during the year. On January 9, Mullah Osman Musliu from the Drenice/ Drenica region was assaulted while preaching in one of the mosques in Zabel village in Gllogovc/Glogovac. The victim said that he was assaulted by a group of Wahhabi religious extremists. Police arrested four persons in connection with the assault, and an investigation continued. The community also reported incidents of theft and vandalism at mosques but stated that not all were motivated by religious intolerance. Prosecutors filed criminal charges against two persons suspected of vandalizing approximately 30 Muslim gravestones in a cemetery in Gjilan/Gnjilane in April 2008. The case remained pending at year's end. No agreement was reached regarding the construction of a mosque in the ethnically mixed village of Berivojce in Kamenice/ Kamenica. Kosovo Albanians and Serbs had clashed over the proposed mosque in June 2008. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts during the year. Approximately 40 individuals from two families in Prizren had some Jewish roots. The Albanian-Jewish Solidarity Association, an organization dedicated to promoting relations between ethnic Albanians and Jews, was active during the year. No synagogues existed in the country, but there was a small cemetery in Pristina. In April the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, in consultation with experts from Israel and the Kosovo Israel Friendship Association, restored the 14 Jewish gravestones that had been vandalized in 2007. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government and EULEX generally respected these rights; however, interethnic tensions and real and perceived security concerns restricted freedom of movement in practice. During the year the government and EULEX generally maintained the protection of these rights for minority communities. The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to IDPs, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other vulnerable groups. Police continued to assess the security situation as stable but fragile. No crimes related to freedom of movement were reported to police. Nevertheless, members of all ethnic communities continued to remain largely within or travel between areas where their group comprised the majority. Rock throwing and other forms of intimidation continued to affect Kosovo Serbs when traveling outside Kosovo Serb majority areas. There were attacks during the year on vehicles carrying Serbs and other ethnic minorities. For example, on January 4, a Kosovo Serb man in Suhodoll/Suvi Do reported to police that unknown persons threw stones at his car while he was driving, causing damage to his windshield. Police continued to investigate the incident. On January 5, a Kosovo Serb man in Mitrovice/Mitrovica reported to police that unknown persons threw stones at his van, causing approximately 250 euros ($358) worth of damage. Police were investigating. On June 7, a Kosovo Serb man from Gjilan/Gnjilane reported that rocks were thrown at his vehicle while driving. The glass on the left side of the car was broken. No further information was available regarding this case. There were developments in the following cases from 2008: suspects were arrested and charged in the January case in which Kosovo Albanian youths threw stones at a car driven by a Kosovo Serb living in Gjilan/ Gnjilane. Five suspects were also arrested in the February incident in which masked, armed men stopped a bus that routinely carried Kosovo Serbs to Serbia near Podujeve/Podujevo and demanded 20,000 euros ($28,600). No further information was available on a July 2008 case in which five or six Kosovo Albanian youths in Suhodoll/Suvi Do village in Mitrovice/Mitrovica threw stones at a vehicle operated by a Kosovo Serb. During the year police arrested and charged a suspect in the 2007 stoning of a bus carrying a group of ethnic Serbs from Kosovo and Serbia on the way to the Visoki Decani monastery. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which unknown persons threw stones at a bus carrying professors and students from the Warsaw Theological Seminary to Zociste Monastery. Sporadic incidents of violence and intimidation targeting minorities continued to limit freedom of movement for Kosovo Albanians in northern Kosovo. The government enhanced efforts to facilitate minority travel, but real and perceived risks deterred many minorities from traveling outside their neighborhoods. Police arrested and filed charges against three suspects in the March 2008 demolition of a bridge in a Kosovo Serb village. There were no new developments in the June and July 2008 incidents in which pedestrians discovered explosive devices along the railway in Old Kacanik village in Ferizaj/Urosevac and beneath a railway bridge in Mitrovice/Mitrovica. There was no further information available in 2007 cases involving the placement of explosive devices or unexploded ordnance near roads or infrastructure in Mitrovice/Mitrovica, Gjilan/Gnjilane, Vrbovc/Vrbovac and Leposaviq/Leposavic. The cases remained under investigation at year's end. The government regulated movement in and out of the country. The law provides that the central civil registry may issue travel documents to any person registered as a habitual resident of the country, and the registry routinely issued such documents in practice. The law prohibits forced exile and authorities did not use it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--According to the UNHCR, at year's end there were 19,695 persons displaced within Kosovo, 52 percent of whom were Kosovo Serbs and 38 percent were Kosovo Albanians. Of the 4,100 persons displaced by riots in 2004, approximately 1,200 remained IDPs. According to UNHCR estimates, the largest number of Kosovo IDPs were concentrated in the Mitrovice/Mitrovica region. Of the 19,695 IDPs within Kosovo, 15,181 were in Mitrovice/Mitrovica; roughly half of IDPs were Kosovo Serbs and half were Kosovo Albanians. In Mitrovice/ Mitrovica municipality, Kosovo Serbs in the northern part and Kosovo Albanians in the southern part of the municipality continued to illegally occupy each others' properties, hindering potential returns. On April 1, the ombudsman urged the prime minister to immediately relocate Roma living on polluted land to a new, safer location regardless of whether they were able to demonstrate their property rights in Mitrovice/Mitrovica or any other municipality. As of August, 42 Roma families (191 persons) remained at the lead-polluted Cesmin Lug IDP camp located in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica. Osterode, an adjacent IDP camp on the grounds of a former KFOR military barracks, housed 89 families (390 persons) who had been relocated from Cesmin Lug and two other polluted camps in 2006. Progress was slow in rebuilding the original Roma settlement in the southern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica that was destroyed during riots in 1999. Displaced persons began returning to the neighborhood in 2006; by July, 645 inhabitants, all Roma, had returned. During the year the Ministry of Communities and Returns budgeted 4.9 million euros ($7 million) for the protection and assistance of IDPs. The funds were spent on housing reconstruction, food and nonfood assistance, income generation grants, and basic support infrastructure like roads and water systems. The government allowed IDPs access to domestic and international humanitarian organizations and permitted them to accept assistance provided by these groups. The government did not attack, target, forcibly return, or resettle IDPs under dangerous conditions. On September 7, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International reported a series of physical attacks and verbal harassment against Roma returnees living in Gjilan/Gnjilane. Roma in the Abdullah Preseva neighborhood reported that six such incidents took place between July 30 and August 2. Police were investigating at year's end. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws are based on and refer to the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol and provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The asylum law entered into effect in June 2008. Administrative instructions remained unimplemented pending legal review and promulgation. During the year the UNHCR assisted the newly formed Department of Citizenship, Asylum, and Migration in building its capacity to adjudicate claims, to provide training to border police to help identify and process individuals requesting asylum at ports of entry, and to prevent the return of persons to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group , or political opinion. As of August, the country hosted 281 refugees, mostly from neighboring countries. The government did not provide temporary protection to individuals who did not qualify as refugees. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide residents with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Since the country's declaration of independence in February 2008, local authorities assumed authority and responsibilities in most areas of governance. Under the constitution, the 120-member Assembly has the authority to select a president, a prime minister, and other ministers and government officials. Elections and Political Participation.--On November 15, the country held the first round of local elections for municipal assemblies and mayors. International observers assessed the elections as generally free and fair, although they noted some technical violations of elections laws. Three of the second round mayoral run-off elections held on December 13 were marred by credible allegations of irregularities and electoral fraud. In response, election officials ordered new run-off elections in two municipalities and a recount and investigation of the allegations in the third. Observers noted that the country's election laws require revision to improve their efficacy, and electoral institutions suffered from a lack of capacity and political interference. International and domestic observers determined that the 2007 Assembly elections generally reflected the will of the voters, although few Kosovo Serbs participated, due largely to Serbian government pressure to boycott. No significant irregularities were reported. The country had a multiparty system dominated by five Kosovo Albanian parties with several minority parties and coalitions. The law provides that individuals may nominate themselves as candidates to their parties, which must hold open and transparent internal elections to select candidate lists. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference, but party affiliation played an important role in access to government services and social and employment opportunities. Traditional social arrangements and clan loyalties also played an important, although unofficial, role in political organizations. There were 37 women in the 120-seat Assembly. The electoral law requires a 30 percent quota for female parliamentarians. There was one woman on the eight-member Assembly presidency, two female ministers, and three female deputy ministers. While no women were elected in the November mayoral elections, women represented 31 percent of elected municipal representatives. Following the 2007 elections, there were 24 ethnic minority members in the 120-seat Assembly, including 10 Kosovo Serbs and 14 members of other groups, including ethnic Turks, Bosniaks, Gorani, Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptians. There were three minority government ministers--two Kosovo Serbs and one Kosovo Bosniak--and two Serb and two Bosniak deputy ministers. One Kosovo Bosniak, one Kosovo Turk, and one representative of the Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities shared a rotating seat on the Assembly presidency. Kosovo Serbs from several political parties won the 10 set-aside Assembly seats in the 2007 election. Before that election, the holders of those seats did not claim their set-aside cabinet posts and continued to boycott Assembly votes, although they did participate in committees. A Kosovo Serb led the Ministry of Communities and Returns. The constitution requires that the Assembly reserve 10 seats for Kosovo Serbs and 10 for members of other ethnic groups, but ethnic minorities were underrepresented at the municipal level where there were no similar quotas. In the three northern municipalities of Leposaviq/Leposavic, Zubin Potok, and Zvecan, Kosovo Serb voters responded to calls from Serbian authorities not to participate in the November 15 municipal elections, and as a result, Kosovo Serbs were not represented in those municipal assemblies. Kosovo Serb representation in municipal assemblies in the southern part of the country was significantly higher than in previous years due to increased Serb participation in the elections. In June 2008 the government implemented a new election law to create a single, multimember electoral district throughout the country. Under the law, elections are to be held with open lists according to a proportional majority system; a quota system is supposed to ensure adequate representation for women and minorities in the Assembly; and a political party must receive 5 percent of the vote in order to enter the Assembly. The Serbian government continued to run parallel government structures in Kosovo Serb enclaves. In April 2008 UNMIK stated that organizing elections for these parallel structures was a violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1244. In May 2008 UNMIK declared the parallel municipal structures arising from these elections were illegitimate. On April 3, the Serbian government dissolved two municipal parallel governments in Peje/Pec and Pristina due to allegations of corruption. The Serbian government sponsored parallel municipal elections in these two municipalities on August 16. The Kosovo government and international community continued to emphasize that the parallel institutions were illegal and invalid. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. According to the World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators, corruption was a serious problem. There was widespread public perception of corruption in the government. International organizations and NGOs continued to report that corruption was a serious problem. A lack of effective judicial oversight and general weakness in the rule of law contributed to corruption in the government. The law provides that public officials are subject to financial disclosure laws. During the year the Assembly passed new anti- corruption legislation and amended an existing conflict-of-interest law. The anticorruption law creates a government agency to investigate public corruption and forward suspected cases of corruption to prosecutors. The amended conflict-of-interest law tightens rules forbidding public officials from exercising their responsibilities in circumstances where family members or close associates would have a financial or other personal interest at stake; a new anticorruption agency will administer the amended conflict of interest law. The Kosovo Anticorruption Agency (KAA) and the Office of the Auditor General are the two major agencies responsible for combating corruption in the government. During the year the KAA stated that it had received 150 reports of corruption and estimated that that corruption during the year had cost the government at least 30 million euros ($43 million). On August 18, the KAA issued warning letters to six local officials from the Leposaviq/Leposavic municipal court, the Peje/Pec district court, the Gjilan/Gnjilane municipal court, and the Ministry of Health for not declaring their wealth within the deadline set by law. The warning letters indicated that the officials were subject to dismissal from their positions if they failed to comply with the regulation. Following issuance of the letters, four of the officials declared their assets. The remaining two claimed that because they did not receive salaries for their work, they were not required to declare. The independent Office of the Auditor General (OAG) reviewed fiscal management and accountability in the central government, municipal authorities, and publicly owned enterprises. During the year the OAG audited most ministries, the president's office, and the Assembly. At a September press conference, the OAG noted that government institutions were failing to respect fiscal management laws and regulations due to a lack of understanding of their responsibilities and of basic accounting. The OAG specifically identified flaws at the ministries of health, economy and finance, education, transportation, labor and social welfare, as well as customs, the Assembly, the prime minister's office, and the president's office. In a report released during the year, Freedom House noted that corruption was widespread and remained a major problem due to insufficient laws, a lack of political will, and the weakness of the judicial system. The report also notes the anticorruption law and the provisional penal code each define corruption differently. In 2008 the European Commission reported that the existing institutional legislative framework addressing corruption was unclear and noted that the weak judicial system inhibited progress in combating corruption. On June 25, the police arrested Ardian Hasanaj, a senior official at government-owned national telecommunications provider PTK. Hasanaj allegedly took bribes from two persons to help them find jobs. The June 2008 trial of six former UNMIK international officials and one local citizen on suspicion of misusing 230,000 euros ($328,900) meant for humanitarian projects was suspended due to lack of evidence. During the year the Pristina district court transferred the case of Elez Hoxha to the Prizren district court to avoid a conflict of interest. Hoxha, a former Pristina district court judge, was arrested in June 2008 on suspicion of bribery. A trial date remained pending at year's end. EULEX suspended its investigation into the conduct of 11 international and eight local employees of Radoniqi Hydro-System in its dealings with the Kosovo Electric Company for lack of evidence. The investigation began in 2007. There was no information available concerning the previously scheduled trial of former assembly speaker Nexhat Daci. In 2007 the Pristina district court indicted Daci on three counts of embezzlement after a 2006 audit of Daci's tenure as Assembly speaker uncovered serious mismanagement, misuse of public funds, and procurement irregularities. In March 2008 an international judge confirmed the indictment. The case remained pending at year's end. The trial of Ahmet Alishani, Daci's senior advisor continued during the year. Alishani was indicted in March 2008 on charges of fraud and bribery. There were developments in the case of former PTK director Leme Xhema, former director of Norway Invest Mustafa Neziri, and Ove Johansen. The three, together with Roger Reynolds, former divisional manager at Kosovo Trust Agency, and Ronnen Sorensen, former managing director and chairman of Norway Invest, were charged in connection with the alleged misuse of 300,000 euros ($429,000). Johansen allegedly arranged the fraudulent transfer of these funds from PTK to a phantom company headquartered in Norway. In May 2008 the Pristina district court sentenced Xhema to four years imprisonment. She appealed the sentence. On June 22, the Supreme Court reduced her sentence to three years. The Supreme Court also cleared Mustafa Neziri of all charges on the grounds that the statute of limitations had expired. On July 8, Ove Johansen was arrested in Montenegro and extradited to Kosovo; he was awaiting trial at year's end. Roger Reynolds and Ronnen Sorenson remained at large. During the year EULEX prosecutors took over the case of Sabajdin Llonqari and Fitim Maksutaj, two former finance officers at Dubrave/ Dubrava Prison, who were arrested in 2006 for abusing their official position and falsifying documents. The trial was pending at year's end. The Law on Access to Official Documents provides for access to official government documents but does not include penalties for failure to comply; in practice, ministries rarely granted access during the year and the media complained frequently about lack of access to official documents. On February 14, the APJK organized a protest to urge the government to reconsider the administrative instructions guiding the Law on Access to Official Documents. The APJK and journalists complained that the instructions prevent journalists from accessing official documents. Several days after the protest, the minister of public services invited the APJK to present its recommendations for changes to the administrative instructions. The process was continuing at year's end. A test conducted by the NGO Youth Initiative for Human Rights, covering the period from October 2008 to June 2009, indicated that only about 20 percent of requests for access to official documents (sent randomly to local and central authorities) received positive responses. The International Exchanges and Research Board's (IREX) Media Sustainability Index noted that the administrative instruction implementing the 2003 Law on Access to Official Documents extended the time limit beyond 15 days and was overly specific about when a document can be accessed, thus limiting access to official documents. In 2007 the APJK reported that a survey measuring the responsiveness of government and public institutions to media requests for official documents indicated that only 23 percent of requests were successfully completed. The survey also indicated that none of the institutions approached by journalists provided the petitioner with a register of available documents. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. The government and KFOR were occasionally cooperative and responsive to their views. Following the 1998-99 conflict, many domestic NGOs, covering a wide array of issues, developed throughout the country. The government occasionally met with domestic NGO monitors, responded to their inquiries, or took action in response to their reports or recommendations. There were no reports that the government harassed, targeted, or prosecuted NGOs for their activities. The government cooperated with international organizations, including UN representatives and the ICRC. The UN maintained a large presence in the country and covered a wide range of issues. The ICRC maintained a constant presence in the country. Police continued to investigate the March 2008 incident in which unknown assailants in Mitrovice/Mitrovica threw a Molotov cocktail at the headquarters of the humanitarian organization Norwegian Church Aid. The ombudsman investigates allegations of human rights violations and abuse of government authority. In June the Assembly approved the selection of a new ombudsman after four failed attempts since 2006. The ombudsman's office reported that it had good cooperation with the government and political parties. The ombudsman was considered moderately effective, but was restricted by funding problems. The OSCE reported that, because donor funding ended in 2008, the ombudsman's office in the Serb village of Vidanje/Videje in Peje/Pec municipality closed in March. Additionally, the staff numbers were reduced at the ombudsman's office in Gracanice/ Gracanica in March for the same reason. The ombudsman continued to assert that the courts and ministries were the most frequent violators of human rights in the country. The ombudsman also noted that recent reforms in the judiciary were insufficient, and the system still suffered from grave defects. While the ombudsman actively issued intervention letters, reports, and recommendations, his recommendations were not always followed by the government, local courts, or the police. The ombudsman investigated cases concerning property rights, abuse of official authority, administrative acts or omissions by public authorities, lack of proper investigations into criminal acts, issues involving the length of court proceedings and the execution of court decisions, and employment- related disputes and discrimination cases. The Assembly maintains a committee on human rights, gender equality, missing persons, and petitions; which must review all laws that affect human rights. The committee was controlled by governing coalition parties and had only limited independence. The committee did not issue any reports or recommendations during the year. The government and KFOR generally cooperated with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). On October 28, ICTY prosecutors appealed the acquittal of former prime minister Ramush Haradinaj and codefendant Idriz Balaj. The Appeals Chamber's decision remained pending at year's end. In April 2008 the court acquitted both men of all charges stemming from the alleged murder, persecution, rape, and torture of Kosovo Serb civilians in 1998. Lahi Brahimaj, convicted of torture and mistreatment of prisoners and sentenced to six years in prison in April 2008, also filed an appeal. On July 23, the ICTY overturned the conviction of former culture minister Astrit Haraqija, who had been sentenced to five months' imprisonment in December 2008. Haraqija and his political advisor, Bajrush Morina, were charged with threatening a witness who planned to testify against Ramush Haradinaj. The court upheld Morina's three-month sentence. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender, ethnic origin, disability, or language. The government did not effectively enforce these prohibitions. Women.--The law criminalizes rape; however, spousal rape is not specifically addressed. Under the criminal code, rape is punishable by two to 10 years in prison; statutory rape (sexual intercourse with a child under 18) is punishable by five to 20 years in prison. Rape involving homicide is punishable by up to 40 years' imprisonment. Observers believed that rape was significantly underreported due to the cultural stigma attached to victims and their families. Police rape units around the country received 42 reports of rape during the year. According to the Justice Ministry, victim advocates provided services to victims in approximately 31 cases of rape during the year. Domestic violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a serious and persistent problem. The law prohibits domestic violence, and convictions carry prison terms of six months to five years. The law treats domestic violence cases as civil cases unless the victim suffers bodily harm. Failure to comply with a civil court's judgment relating to a domestic violence case is a criminal offense and can be prosecuted. When victims did press charges, police domestic violence units conducted investigations and transferred cases to prosecutors. According to the special prosecutor's office, family loyalties, poverty, and the backlog of cases in both civil and criminal courts contributed to the low rate of prosecution. In 2007 the OSCE issued a report on domestic violence that highlighted problems in the adjudication of domestic violence cases, including unlawful delays in reviewing applications for protection orders. The OSCE also expressed concern over appellate procedures in domestic violence cases; in some cases, courts unlawfully noted in their decisions that an appeal by the defendant would stay the execution of a protection order. Between January and November, police reported 856 victims of domestic violence. Of the victims, 681 were female, 175 male. Only 16 sought refuge in shelters. Children also suffered from domestic violence. During the year police reported 125 child victims of domestic violence: 74 girls and 51 boys. Only 12 were placed in shelters. During the same period, the Center for Protection of Women and Children provided assistance to 144 victims of domestic and sexual violence and three victims of trafficking. The Justice Ministry's victim advocate and assistance unit was involved in 636 domestic violence cases during the year. Convictions for domestic violence were rare, and sentences ranged from judicial reprimands to imprisonment. Traditional social attitudes towards women in the male-dominated society contributed to the high level of domestic abuse and low number of reported cases. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare's protection for families section had a unit solely dedicated to dealing with family violence. The ministry provided some financial support to NGOs running shelters for domestic violence victims, which also accommodated some trafficking victims. The ministry also provided social services through social welfare centers. Several domestic and international NGOs pursued activities to assist women; however, they were constrained by a tradition of silence concerning domestic violence, sexual abuse, and rape. The police training school offered special courses on domestic violence and rape. There were no reports that the police responded inappropriately to rape or domestic abuse allegations. Although the law prohibits prostitution, it remained prevalent. EULEX continued to monitor, mentor, and advise the police trafficking section. There is no specific law against sexual harassment, which was a common problem. Women's rights organizations indicated that sexual harassment commonly occurred on the job but went unreported due to fear of expulsion or physical retaliation. Public awareness of sexual harassment remained low, and few cases were reported. The reproductive health law protects the reproductive rights of individuals and couples, including the right to information and access to appropriate services. In practice, the government respected reproductive rights. The UN Population Fund (UNFPA) reported that access to reproductive health information and treatment was widespread and equitable, regardless of income level, age, sex, ethnicity, residence, and HIV/AIDS or other status. The UNFPA noted that counseling on reproductive rights, although available, was generally of poor quality. Women possess the same legal rights as men but traditionally have a lower social status, which affected their treatment within the legal system. The Agency for Gender Equality under the Prime Minister's Office has the mandate to implement and monitor the gender equality law. Despite a lack of legal impediments, relatively few women obtained upper-level management positions in business, the police, or government. Women represented less than 30 percent of the government workforce. According to the Business Registration Agency, women owned fewer than 5 percent of registered businesses. Female unemployment remained at around 80 percent, 25 to 30 percentage points higher than the rate for men. During the year the Agency for Gender Equality supported a local NGO providing training for women in small businesses and also sponsored the third annual ``women in business'' fair in June. According to the OSCE, women belonging to nonmajority communities were at risk of suffering multiple forms of discrimination due to gender, ethnicity, or social origin. Traditional societal attitudes toward women resulted in discrimination. In rural areas, women frequently had little ability to make decisions involving their children or to exercise control over property. While the law makes no gender distinction in the right to inherit property, family property customarily passes only to men. In rare cases, Kosovo Albanian widows, particularly in rural areas, risked losing custody of their children due to a custom calling for children and property to pass to the deceased father's family while the widow returns to her birth family. Children.--Children acquire Kosovo citizenship from their parents or by virtue of birth in the country. According to a July 2008 UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) study, 14 percent of Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian children in Kosovo Albanian-majority areas were not registered at birth. In Kosovo Serb-majority areas, 5 percent of Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian children were not properly registered. UNICEF reported that as a rule, a lack of registration did not impact the child's ability to receive elementary education or health care but could adversely affect access to social assistance. While education is free and compulsory up to age 15, statistics from 2005, the most recent year for which data was available, indicated that only 77 percent of children between the ages of seven and 14 from non-Serb minority communities (Ashkali, Bosniak, Egyptian, Gorani, Roma, Turkish, and others) attended school. Girls from non-Serb minorities attended school at a rate of 69 percent. In contrast, 97.5 percent of Kosovo Albanian and 99 percent of Kosovo Serb children were enrolled in primary school. Since 2008 the government has purchased books for pupils through the fifth grade. Fewer than 10 percent of two- to five-year-old children attended preschool. UNICEF estimated that less than 75 percent of children who completed compulsory basic education enrolled in secondary school and that the continuation rate for Kosovo Albanian girls was less than 55 percent. Among girls from non-Serb minority communities, only about 40 percent enrolled in secondary schools. The law requires equal conditions for schoolchildren regardless of mother tongue and provides the right to native-language public education for minority students through secondary school. Schools teaching in Serbian, Bosnian, and Turkish operated during the year. Both Kosovo Serb and Kosovo Albanian children attended schools with inadequate facilities that lacked basic equipment. A few schools housed both Kosovo Serb and Kosovo Albanian pupils, who studied different curricula and rotated class schedules. Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian children attended mixed schools with Kosovo Albanian and Kosovo Serb children and reportedly faced intimidation and bullying in some majority Albanian areas. Roma children tended to be disadvantaged by poverty, leading many to start work both at home and in the streets at an early age in order to contribute to family income. Roma children were also disadvantaged by having to learn another language to attend school, since many spoke Romani at home. International NGOs funded and administered various preschool programs for Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian children to learn Albanian and Romani languages. Some Kosovo Bosniak children in predominantly Bosniak areas occasionally were able to obtain Bosnian- language primary education, but those outside such areas received instruction only in Albanian. The extent of child abuse in the country was unknown, but UNICEF believed it was significantly underreported due to lack of awareness, victim services, and limited capacity to identify, report, and refer cases of abuse. The Justice Ministry's unit for victim advocacy and assistance reported 38 cases of child abuse between January and September. A 2006 study by UNICEF and the Ministry of Education on the prevalence of violence in schools found that violence against children was condoned and that corporal punishment was an accepted practice in homes and schools. Some students who lived far from school reported they were afraid to travel the distance due to the threat of peer violence. Children reported that persons close to them were perpetrators of violence, that boys were at higher risk for physical violence, and that girls were at higher risk of verbal abuse. There was anecdotal evidence of child marriage, particularly in the Roma, Ashkali, Egyptian, and Kosovo Albanian communities. The government and NGOs did not compile statistics on child marriage, so the extent of the problem was unclear. Statutory rape is a criminal offense punishable by five to 20 years in prison, depending on circumstances and the age of the victim. The law prohibits possession, production, and distribution of child pornography. Anyone who produces, uses, or involves a child in making or producing pornography is subject to one to five years' imprisonment. Distribution of child pornography is punishable by six months' to five years' imprisonment. Possession of child pornography is punishable by fine or imprisonment of up to three years. During the year the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare operated 35 centers that assisted 1,497 orphans and 811 delinquent children. The ministry also managed foster homes and coordinated with NGOs to place children in temporary shelters. During the year a total of 86 children were living in foster homes and government-funded community homes under 24-hour care, including 35 children who were placed into protective care this year. The Pristina Clinical and University Hospital had previously been home to seven children; during the year one child died. The remaining six were placed in foster homes. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that there were 19 abandoned children with disabilities, ranging in age from three to 18 years, living in two government-funded community homes receiving 24- hour care. Trafficking in Persons.--The constitution and law prohibit trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. Trafficking of women and children remained a serious problem, although limited statistics made it difficult to estimate the magnitude of trafficking in children. The country was a source, transit, and destination point for trafficked persons, and internal trafficking remained a problem. Victims were women and children trafficked internally or from Eastern Europe and other Balkan countries into the country. Children were exploited most commonly for labor--primarily begging--while adults were trafficked mostly for commercial sexual exploitation in illegal brothels or through call girl services. Victims were trafficked through the country to Albania and Macedonia. According to police and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), there were more identified victims of trafficking during the year compared with previous years. During the year police identified 22 adult trafficking victims: 11 Kosovo Albanian women and 11 foreign female victims. Of the foreign victims, six were from Moldova, two were from Albania, one was Bulgarian, one was Serbian, and one refused to reveal her country of origin. Police also identified seven trafficking victims who were minors: five Kosovo Albanians, one Kosovo Serb, and one Albanian. According to police statistics, the number of internally trafficked adults remained the same during the year as compared to 2008. In both years, 11 of the identified victims were from the country. IOM data also showed a year-on-year increase in the total number of trafficking victims. In 2008 the IOM assisted 20 trafficking victims: eight foreign citizens and 12 from Kosovo. From January to October, the IOM assisted 29 victims: 21 from Kosovo and eight foreigners. Of the seven, six were from Moldova, one was from Albania, and one was from Serbia. Trafficking in children remained a problem. The NGO Terre des Hommes reported that during the year it identified 15 child victims of trafficking. Seven were from Kosovo, eight from Albania; all were Roma. Six were girls and nine were boys, and their ages ranged from six months to 16 years. All were exploited for labor, typically begging. The six-month-old child was used to aid others in begging. Police identified one minor victim of trafficking, a sexually exploited 17- year-old girl from Albania. The IOM assisted three minor trafficking victims, two internally trafficked and one foreign, also from Albania. All three were sexually exploited. Children from backgrounds with a high level of poverty, unemployment, family abuse, and poor education were particularly at risk of being trafficked. The IOM reported that of local victims identified since 1999, 10 percent were not enrolled in school; 32 percent had only finished primary school (fifth grade); 41 percent had finished elementary school (ninth grade); 10 percent had completed secondary education (high school); and fewer than 1 percent had attended university. Since 1999, of the foreign victims IOM assisted, over 50 percent were from Moldova, 18 percent were from Romania, 12 percent were from Ukraine, and the rest from Albania, Bulgaria, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, and Nigeria. The majority of these victims were women between the ages of 18 and 25. IOM data show that, historically, 82 percent of Kosovo's victims were internally trafficked; 7 percent were trafficked to Macedonia, 3 percent each to Albania and Italy, and fewer than 1 percent to the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, and Montenegro. The IOM reported that during the year all the Kosovo victims it assisted were internally trafficked. Police reported that sex trafficking victims were generally not aware they would be working in the sex industry when they left their homes. However, IOM data indicated that most sex trafficking victims were trafficked by friends or acquaintances with the victim's full knowledge. Methods of trafficking continued to increase in sophistication. Police reported that most women were trafficked into the country through the Pristina airport. Bar and brothel owners purchased victims from recruitment rings, often composed of friends of the victim. Police and Terre des Hommes reported that recruiters were slightly more likely to be men than women. The IOM and police reported that trafficked persons often had work contracts that enabled them to enter the country legally and obtain residence permits. This made it difficult to detect and prove trafficking. The IOM reported that, of the 473 international victims it assisted since 1999, close to 73 percent fell prey to traffickers after accepting a fraudulent job offer abroad, 8 percent were deceived by false travel arrangements, and fewer than 2 percent were promised marriage. For internally trafficked victims, 64 percent received a false job promise, nearly 21 percent were given a false promise of marriage, and 4 percent were kidnapped. Police reported great difficulty in identifying trafficking victims due to their reluctance to come forward and report the crimes to police. Unlike in previous years, where traffickers shifted their operations into private homes, all the trafficking victims identified by police were discovered in public bars and clubs. Traffickers continued to use financial incentives to encourage victims to refuse assistance. Additionally, police reported that cultural taboos and the threat of social ostracism caused most internally trafficked victims to remain silent about their experiences. The IOM disagreed with the police assessment and noted that the victims it assisted were typically forthcoming about their experiences. Trafficking victims reported that they were regularly subjected to beatings, denied access to health care, and occasionally had their travel and identity documents confiscated. Police reported that victims were often found in poor psychological condition. Police continued to experience difficulty in recruiting Kosovo Serb officers for their antitrafficking unit, which prevented undercover operations from taking place in northern parts of the country and in Kosovo Serb enclaves. The country's laws and police procedures provide a defense for trafficking victims against criminal charges of prostitution, illegal entry, presence, or work in the country. According to the criminal law, trafficking is punishable by a maximum of 20 years' imprisonment. Engaging in trafficking is punishable by two to 12 years' imprisonment, or up to 15 years if the victim is a minor; organizing a group to engage in trafficking is punishable by seven to 20 years' imprisonment and a fine up to 500,000 euros ($715,000); facilitating trafficking through negligence is punishable by six months' to five years' imprisonment. A person convicted of engaging in sex with a person known to be a trafficking victim may be imprisoned from three months to five years, while sex with a minor known to be a trafficking victim carries a penalty of two to 10 years' imprisonment. When trafficking is committed by an official in the exercise of their duties, the perpetrator may be imprisoned for five to 15 years. Facilitating prostitution is punishable by a fine or imprisonment up to three years, and up to five years if it occurs within a 350-meter radius of a school or other location used by children. When the crime of prostitution involves minors as victims, the term of imprisonment can be up to 12 years. Prostitution is punished as a minor offense; prostitutes can be punished, but not clients, unless the police can prove that a client knowingly used the services of a trafficking victim. Prostitution constitutes grounds for deportation unless the individual is a victim of trafficking. During the year police conducted 63 surveillance operations, 23 undercover operations, and closed 70 business establishments used for trafficking and prostitution. Police arrested 32 men and women for trafficking, and an additional 13 women on prostitution charges. Police identified 29 trafficking victims, 22 of whom received needed assistance, including safe accommodation, counseling, and professional training for return and social reintegration. The remaining seven declined treatment. At least one shelter provided medical care pursuant to its agreements with health care providers. From January to November, the Prosecutor's Office filed 31 criminal trafficking and smuggling charges; 54 additional cases from previous years remained open. Eighteen cases were completed, resulting in 12 convictions with prison sentences, four fines, three suspended sentences, and one acquittal. Factors that contributed to a low number of prosecutions included the increasing sophistication of organized crime to avoid direct links between the victims and senior crime figures, reluctance of victims to cooperate with authorities, inadequate training for judicial personnel, and failure of police to adapt to new techniques employed by traffickers. Police and border police shared responsibility for combating trafficking with the ministries of internal affairs; justice; health, education, and public services; and labor and social welfare. NGOs and international organizations offered the majority of protection and prevention-related antitrafficking activities. There were a number of arrests and police actions against traffickers during the year. On February 23, border police arrested four Kosovo Albanian men for trafficking an Albanian minor. The victim was sent to a shelter and then returned to Albania. The men were detained for one month and then released. No further information on the case was available. On March 3, authorities suspended five police officers with pay on suspicion of abuse of authority, trafficking, and facilitating prostitution. Two of the officers worked at Pristina airport in coordination with the border police. The others worked at the Office for Immigration and Foreigners; all were in regular contact with known traffickers through text messages. At year's end, the Special Prosecutor's Office had completed its investigation and was preparing final indictments, but no arrests had been made. On April 25, police arrested an Albanian woman and charged her with trafficking. The case was transferred to the Pristina district court, where the accused received 30 days detention. An investigation is ongoing. Following the January 2008 police searches of six locations in Gjakove/Djakovica on suspicion of involvement in trafficking, police arrested five persons and sent four women to shelters. During the year two of those arrested were convicted and sentenced to four years imprisonment for trafficking-related offenses. During the year a prosecutor was assigned to the case of the Kosovo Ashkali man arrested in April 2008 for trafficking a 14-year-old girl and pimping her. Charges remained pending at year's end. During the year Aleksander and Pal Pitaqi, Veronica Dragan, and Elena Pislaru were convicted on charges of human trafficking, money laundering, and facilitating prostitution. The court found that the traffickers led an organized criminal group that recruited and held women from Moldova for sexual exploitation. Aleksander Pitaqi received six years' imprisonment and an 86,874 euro ($124,230) fine; Pal Pitaqi received five years' imprisonment and a fine of 2,000 euros ($2,860); Veronica Dragan received four years' imprisonment, and fine of 85,794 euros ($122,685); and Elena Pislaru received three years' imprisonment and a fine of 2,000 euros ($2,860). There was no additional information available in the 2007 arrest of two Kosovo Albanian men who ran the Suka and Suka 1 cafes in Prizren. The government and international and local NGOs provided assistance to trafficking victims. Local NGOs, such as the Center for Protection of Victims and Prevention of Trafficking in Human Beings, operated shelters that provided medical care and psychological counseling services to trafficking victims. The NGO Hope and Homes for Children operated a shelter for child victims of trafficking and domestic violence. The Justice Ministry ran a high security shelter for high- risk victims while they recovered. During the year the Ministry of Education initiated a two-month outreach program to 113 primary and secondary schools urging students to report cases of trafficking and domestic violence. The ministry also ran an awareness campaign in 10 schools to warn students of the dangers of trafficking. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services; however, the situation of persons with disabilities remained difficult. Although the law mandates access to official buildings, it was not enforced and such access was rarely available in practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare is the government agency responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. By law, protection and provision of services is offered to all citizens; however, there was considerable discrimination in practice, and ensuring the rights of persons with disabilities was not a government priority. According to local disability rights NGO HandiKos, existing laws relating to persons with disabilities were not adequately implemented. As a result, children with disabilities were often excluded from educational opportunities, were not professionally evaluated, and lacked sufficient health and social services. According to the Ministry of Education, there were seven special residential schools for children with disabilities and 73 special needs classrooms attached to regular schools. The ministry reported that, as of December, 1,179 pupils were receiving special education. There were no special legal protections for children with disabilities. A new Law on Material Support for Families of Children with Permanent Disability entered into force in June 2008. The law provides a definition of children with disabilities and permits the legal guardians of such children to apply to the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare for material support. However, the ministry lacked both the funds and personnel to implement the law. According to the NGO Mental Disability Rights International (MDRI), patients with mental disabilities continued to be detained without legal basis in isolated conditions. In 2003 MDRI noted that there is no law to regulate the process of committing persons to psychiatric or social care facilities or to protect their rights within institutions. On occasion individuals in need of mental health treatment were convicted of fabricated or petty crimes and sent to prisons that lacked resources for adequate treatment. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there were an estimated 14,000 persons with mental disabilities; MDRI reported an estimated 50,000 persons with mental disabilities living outside institutions. According to MDRI, such persons lived isolated and stigmatized lives. The government-operated Shtime/Stimlje Institute maintained a facility for persons with developmental disabilities with 60 residents and a separate psychiatric facility with 62 residents. The majority of residents at the institute were Kosovo Serbs and members of other minorities. The total number of residents in these facilities decreased from 2008, addressing in part MDRI's concerns about overcrowding. Both facilities continued to admit new patients through the year. During the year the Ministry of Health operated eight integration and community homes across the country, each hosting 10 patients with mental illnesses. In addition, the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare ran another seven community homes with approximately 10 residents in each facility. MDRI reported that, while these homes were intended to be transitional, most residents spent years there with little prospect of integration into the community. According to the WHO, there were not enough facilities to provide care for persons with mental disabilities and employment opportunities for persons with mental disabilities were limited. The National Council on Disabled Persons, an advisory organization to government authorities and the Assembly, met twice during the year. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Official and societal discrimination persisted against Kosovo Serb, Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities in employment, education, social services, language use, freedom of movement, the right to return, and other basic rights. Members of the Kosovo Bosniak and Gorani communities also complained of discrimination. Reports of violence and other crimes directed at minorities and their property persisted. According to a draft report prepared by the prime minister's Office of Community Affairs, minority employment in public institutions fell during the year and was generally confined to lower levels of the government. The report recommended that the government more actively reach out to minorities and implement reporting, recruiting, training, equal opportunity, and language procedures. A 2007 ombudsman's report concluded that ethnic discrimination was a widespread problem. The ombudsman highlighted discrimination in the delivery of public services and freedom of movement. Between January 1 and August 31, EULEX police reported 116 cases of interethnic crime; 86 involved Kosovo Serbs as either victims or suspects. During the same period in 2008, UNMIK police reported 798 cases of interethnic crime, 617 involved Serbs as victims or suspects. Underreporting of interethnic incidents persisted as a consequence of the local police policy of assigning low priority to them and persistent mistrust between minorities and the Kosovo Albanian majority. There were reports of violence against Kosovo Serbs during the year which were usually investigated by police. For example, on January 5, a Kosovo Serb informed the police that his son had been threatened by a Kosovo Albanian male. The Kosovo Serb was threatened in retaliation for the burning of the Kosovo Albanian's store. The victim chose not to file a formal complaint and police closed the case. On June 13, three Kosovo Serb teenagers were reportedly beaten by a group of Kosovo Albanians in Lipjan/Lipljan while passing a construction site. On June 16, police filed assault charges of against Atdhe Qerkini, Kosove Kelmendi, Bunjamin Jashanica, Gezim Xhemajli, Gazmend Bleta, and Qendrim Veseli. On June 17, the Lipjan/Lipljan municipal court ordered the six suspects to be detained for 30 days, with the exception of Veseli, a minor. There were no developments in the April 2008 incident in Gjilan/ Gnjilane in which a Kosovo Albanian man assaulted a Kosovo Serb man, who sustained slight bodily injuries. In June 2008 the OSCE reported that a Kosovo Serb man attempted to visit his property in Decan/Decani with members of a UNDP team planning to help reconstruct his home. When the man arrived at his property, a Kosovo Albanian neighbor, who was unlawfully using the property in the owner's absence, prevented the group from entering. According to the OSCE, the Kosovo Serb owner did not attempt to visit his property again. Municipal authorities attempted to mediate the dispute but were unable to contact the property owner. In July 2008 three unidentified Kosovo Albanian women physically assaulted and injured a Kosovo Serb woman in Gjilan/Gnjilane. The victim declined to press charges or file a complaint, and police closed the case. There were no developments in the July 2008 case in Istog/Istok, where an unidentified Kosovo Albanian man punched and kicked Zarko Orovic, a prospective Kosovo Serb returnee visiting from Montenegro, and robbed him of 350 euros ($500). The case was subsequently sent to prosecutors, but no suspects were identified and no arrests were made. During the year police forwarded to prosecutors the December 2008 case in which two Kosovo Albanian youths from the southern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica stabbed a 16-year-old Kosovo Serb in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica during a confrontation with Serbian youths. The defendants claimed they were acting in self-defense. There were no developments during the year on investigations into the 2007 stabbing of a Kosovo Serb woman behind a cafe in Mitrovice/ Mitrovica or the 2007 indictment of Sabri Haziri, who was accused of assisting in planting a bomb on a railway bridge in 2003 near the village of Llozishte/Loziste in Zvecan. During the year there were occasional reports of Kosovo Albanians destroying private property belonging to Kosovo Serbs. Some of these attacks may have been attempts to force Kosovo Serbs to sell their property. Regulations prevent the wholesale buy-out of Kosovo Serb communities in an effort to prevent the intimidation of minority property owners in certain areas; however, these were rarely enforced. There were numerous reports that Kosovo Serbs had difficulty accessing their property, which was sometimes occupied or used by Kosovo Albanians. The KPA reported that it faced frequent cases of illegal occupation and reoccupation of properties in its eviction activities, with many properties vandalized or destroyed. There were no developments in the April 2008 case in Kline/Klina in which a Kosovo Serb reported that his property had been taken over by a Kosovo Albanian man. The OSCE reported 70 cases of the fraudulent sale of Kosovo Serb property by persons falsely claiming to have the right and presenting forged documents in court. In situations where the rightful owners did not live in the country, such fraud went undiscovered for long periods of time. There were clashes between groups of Kosovo Albanians and Kosovo Serbs during the year. In April, May, and August, EULEX police repeatedly used tear gas to disperse crowds of up to 400 Kosovo Serb protesters in Kroi i Vitakut/ Brdjani in the northern part of Mitrovice/Mitrovica, who were demonstrating against Kosovo Albanian returnees rebuilding their homes. On various occasions, protesters attempted to break through police lines and threw rocks at construction workers. During the August 24 incident, five construction workers and two protesters were injured. In October 2008 police charged Blasko Lazar Simic, Tihomer Radivoje Milosevic, Miodrag Vladimir Nikolic, and Bozo Zivojin Stanojevic with assaulting a public official and inflicting minor bodily injuries during a June 2008 clash between Kosovo Serbs protesting the construction of a mosque and Kosovo Albanians in the ethnically mixed village of Berivojce in Kamenice/Kamenica municipality. Two police officers and a number of protesters were injured. A trial date was pending at year's end. During the year the OSCE reported that the criminal justice system continued to exhibit serious shortcomings in handling cases from the 2004 riots. The OSCE noted the failure of courts and prosecutors to secure witness statements and cooperation; the failure of police to transmit reports, to appear when summoned as witnesses, or, in some cases, to cooperate with investigations; the widespread failure by prosecutors to charge alleged perpetrators with suitable crimes; the failure of judges to sentence those convicted to appropriate sentences; and long delays in proceedings. In many cases the courts did not properly account for ethnic motives as an aggravating factor and imposed mild or even suspended sentences for serious crimes. Incidents of ethnically motivated violence against members of non- Kosovo Serb minority communities reportedly took place during the year. Between July 30 and August 2, Roma returnees alleged they were attacked and beaten in six incidents in the village of Abdullah Preseva in Gjilan/Gnjilane municipality. Likewise, 20 Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian families from the Halit Ibishi neighborhood in Ferizaj/ Urosevac municipality reported they sought protection from the police due to continuous harassment and intimidation by unidentified persons. Police were investigating these incidents at year's end. There were no developments in the 2007 Peje/Pec incident in which two Kosovo Albanian men assaulted and seriously injured a Kosovo Egyptian man or in the 2007 assault by a Kosovo Albanian on a Kosovo Bosniak. In the second case, the victim was hospitalized with serious injuries and police apprehended a suspect. Roma were subject to pervasive social and economic discrimination; often lacked access to basic hygiene, medical care, and education; and were heavily dependent on humanitarian aid for survival. Although there were some successful efforts to resettle Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptians in the homes they occupied prior to the 1999 conflict in Vushtrri/ Vucitrn, security concerns remained. Kosovo Bosniak leaders continued to complain that thousands of their community members had left the country as a result of discrimination and lack of economic opportunities, noting that departures had increased due to economic circumstances in the country. Societal Abuses, Discrimination and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation; however, there were reports of violence and discrimination directed against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals. Traditional societal attitudes about homosexuality intimidated most gays and lesbians into concealing their sexual orientation. LGBT individuals generally felt insecure, with many reporting threats to their personal safety. There were fewer threats reported than in previous years. This diminished reporting may have been due to greater caution taken by LGBT persons in their public activities. The print media at times reinforced negative attitudes by publishing articles about homosexuality that characterized LGBT persons as mentally ill. At least one political party, the Islamic-oriented Justice Party, included a condemnation of homosexuality in its political platform. There were few NGOs in the country that focused on LGBT issues. The Center for Social Group Development, a local NGO addressing LGBT issues, stated that there were a number of other cases of discrimination against LGBT individuals during the year, but that victims refused to allow the center to present their cases publicly out of fear of discrimination. There were no overt impediments to the center's operation; however, social pressure and traditional attitudes had the effect of limiting its activities. There were no developments in the 2007 incident in which police officers harassed four men, three of whom were wearing dresses. The center reported that police had failed to follow up on the alleged May 2008 murder of a 32-year-old man from Gjilan/Gnjilane municipality in the Pristina city park in an area known as a gathering point for gay men. There was no official discrimination in employment, housing, statelessness, access to education or health care; however, societal pressure persuaded virtually all LGBT persons to conceal their sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of official discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS during the year; however, anecdotal reports of such discrimination did occur. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Regulations allow workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, but this right was sometimes impeded by companies that threatened their employees when they joined or established unions. Regulations do not recognize the right to strike; however, strikes were generally permitted in practice, and few strikes occurred during the year. The government did not pass new labor laws during the year, so older UNMIK regulations remained in force. The only significant unions were the Association of Independent Trade Unions of Kosovo (BSPK) and the Confederation of Free Unions (CFU). However, the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that the influence of both groups was declining as former members split off to form their own smaller unions. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Government regulations provide for the right to organize and bargain collectively without interference or restriction, and the government did not restrict this right in practice; however, no collective bargaining took place during the year. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Regulations prohibit antiunion discrimination; however, some union officials reported discrimination in practice. The BSPK and CFU reported that only a small number of companies respected regulations preventing antiunion discrimination and claimed that worker rights were abused in every sector, including in international organizations, where staff did not receive pensions. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--Regulations prohibit forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation, and forced labor in bars and restaurants and that that children were trafficked for labor exploitation (see Section 6, Trafficking in Persons). There were no reports of the government requiring work without pay or the imposition of prison labor by administrative or legislative authority. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- Regulations prohibit exploitation of children in the workplace, including a prohibition of forced or compulsory labor; however, with the exception of trafficking, the government rarely challenged these practices. Trafficking of children, primarily for labor exploitation, was a serious problem, although a lack of statistical data made it difficult to estimate its magnitude. Regulations set the age of 16 as the minimum for employment and the age of 18 as the minimum for any work likely to jeopardize the health, safety, or morals of a young person. Regulations permit children to work at the age 15, provided the employment is not harmful or prejudicial to school attendance. The law requires children between ages six and 15 to attend school. Child labor remained a serious problem. According to UNICEF, in recent years the number of children working on the streets of towns and cities rose, although the overall number of working children remained unknown. Poverty was the most common reason children entered the workforce. While most children were not their families' main income earners, child labor served as a major contribution to many families' income. Problems with the education system, including low quality and inaccessibility of schools, contributed to the problem of child labor. In rural areas, young children typically assisted their families in agricultural labor. Urban children often worked in a variety of unofficial retail jobs, such as selling newspapers, cigarettes, and phone cards on the street. According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, the numbers of such children grew relative to 2008, although no statistics were available. Some children were also engaged in physical labor, such as transporting goods. International NGOs active in the country continued to report serious labor violations during the year, including child labor. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare coordinated child protection policies for the government, however, the police had the lead on enforcing child labor laws. The ministry reported that limited progress had been made in reducing the number of children working on the streets. The ministry and local NGOs, with funding provided by the International Labor Organization, worked to identify and remove working children from the streets. Since 2007, 452 children were identified, of whom 369 returned to school. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no law establishing a minimum wage, and the Assembly did not adopt any labor laws during the year. The average monthly salary in the country was 230 euros ($329) in the public sector and 280 euros ($400) in the private sector. The unofficial minimum wage was 80 euros ($114). Regulations provide for a standard 40-hour workweek; require rest periods; limit the number of regular hours worked to 12 hours per day; limit overtime to 20 hours per week and 40 hours per month; require payment of a premium for overtime work; and prohibit excessive compulsory overtime. During the year employers often failed to abide by official labor standards due to a lack of government enforcement, particularly with regard to the standard work week and compulsory and unpaid overtime. Employees often did not report such violations due to fear of reprisals. According to the BSPK, many individuals worked long hours in the private sector as at-will employees without employment contracts, regular pay, or pension contributions paid on their behalf. Employees reported being fired without cause and in violation of existing laws, and being denied holidays. Women's rights organizations indicated that sexual abuse occurred on the job but went unreported due to fear of expulsion or physical retaliation. According to union officials, workers in the public sector commonly faced similar mistreatment, including sexual abuse and the loss of employment due to political party affiliation. The Labor Inspectorate within the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare is responsible for enforcing labor, health, and safety standards. However, the inspectorate primarily advised employers, and although it issued over 5,444 citations during the year for various labor standard violations, fines remained unpaid pending litigation. The inspectorate lacked trained staff and did not enforce health and safety standards effectively. The law does not permit employees to remove themselves from dangerous workplaces without jeopardizing their continued employment. Although there is a law to protect employees' health and working conditions, many private and public institutions continued to violate it. Labor inspectorate officials reported difficulties in obtaining accurate information since workers rarely disclosed the problems themselves, in spite of legal protections. __________ LATVIA The Republic of Latvia, with a population of approximately 2.2 million, is a parliamentary, multiparty democracy. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Saeima (parliament). Elections in 2006 for the 100-seat parliament were considered free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Human rights problems included: serious police abuse of detainees and arrestees; poor conditions at police detention facilities; poor conditions and overcrowding in prisons; judicial corruption; violence against women; child abuse; trafficking in persons; and abusive behavior targeting ethnic and racial minorities that involved hate speech on the Internet. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings. In previous years individuals were alleged to have died in custody because of mistreatment by security forces. For example, in 2007 two police officers were dismissed from duty for their alleged involvement in the killing of a businessman in a detention cell of the Sigulda police station. Their trial on charges of exceeding authority, failure of duty, and intentionally causing serious bodily harm was pending at year's end. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were reports that government officials employed them. Independent local and international organizations continued to voice concerns about police behavior, and there were reports that police severely abused persons in custody. The ombudsman's office stated it received eight complaints regarding mistreatment by police and five about mistreatment by prison officials. According to internal police statistics, there were 169 complaints of police violence in the first eight months of the year, compared with 289 during same period in 2008. Of these complaints five resulted in criminal investigations. Authorities dismissed the remaining complaints without an investigation, transferred them to other government agencies, or were considering whether to open an official investigation. There were no developments during the year in the investigation of the alleged mistreatment in 2007 of former security officer Edgars Gulbis. He was released in July pending trial for involvement in a car bomb attack against a senior antismuggling officer. In 2007 Gulbis was arrested, released, and then rearrested for the attack. Following his rearrest and while in police custody, Gulbis either fell, jumped, or was pushed off a bridge into a river. According to the ombudsman's office, a police internal investigation of the incident failed to provide an adequate explanation of the incident due to shortcomings in investigation procedures. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in prisons and detention centers remained poor and overcrowded and did not meet international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. There were four deaths in custody during the first eight months of the year, compared with 10 deaths during the same time in 2008. Authorities stated that two deaths were suicides and opened investigations into the other two. During the year the Prison Administration completed its investigation into the September 2008 death of Sergey Danilin. He was found dead in his cell in Daugavpils prison, having reportedly asphyxiated on his vomit. Prison administrators indicated that guards may have pushed Danilin as he was being transported, and a prison chaplain stated that Danilin's death may have resulted from a severe beating by a prison guard. The Prison Administration found sufficient evidence to forward the case to the prosecutor's office, which continued to investigate the case at year's end. The government reported that there were 7,061 persons held in prisons. Of these 392 were women, held in a separate women's prison. There were 141 juveniles in prisons. The majority was held at a separate juvenile facility, but some juveniles were held in designated juvenile areas at regular detention centers. The government has acknowledged that prison conditions are poor and has made some efforts to improve facilities, including closing one prison with the worst conditions and improving medical and recreation facilities. However, there were no major improvements during the year. Human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) continued to criticize prison conditions and suggested that budget cuts had reduced maintenance below acceptable standards. Prison administrators complained that, as a result of budget cuts, they could not provide for the safety and health of prisoners. Although expenditures for food for prisoners were reduced significantly, officials maintained that food still met nutritional requirements. On December 15, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released its report on a 2007 visit to the country. It noted the following: lack of attention to life-threatening health conditions of prisoners; credible allegations by prisoners of mistreatment, including excessive use of force by guards and violence among prisoners; insufficient food or access to outdoor exercise; and prison conditions that were unsanitary, lacked ventilation or natural light, and which ``could in some cases be considered inhuman and degrading.'' The Latvian Center on Human Rights (LCHR) also reported poor conditions at the Olaine detention center for illegal immigrants in Riga. In February the UN Assistant High Commissioner for Refugees visited the detention center but did not issued a report by year's end. The ombudsman's office stated that it received 76 complaints during the first eight months of the year about poor conditions in detention facilities, compared with 42 complaints during the same period in 2008. The complaints primarily concerned inadequate light, heat, or ventilation in cells; the condition of sanitary facilities; and insufficient exercise areas. Of the 76 complaints, 26 were accepted for further investigation. The state police received five complaints about poor conditions in detention centers; all were dismissed after investigation. The government generally permitted independent monitoring of prisons and detention centers by international and local human rights groups. In December a CPT delegation inspected detention centers in Daugavpils and Jekabpils. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police, security police, special immigration police, border guards, and other services are subordinate to the Interior Ministry (MOI). Municipal police are under local government control. The Military Counterintelligence Service and a protective service, as well as the National Guard, are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense. The national police and municipal police share responsibility for maintaining public order, but only the national police are responsible for carrying out criminal investigations. The security police are responsible for combating terrorism and other internal threats. The military service and National Guard are primarily responsible for external security. The internal security office of the national police investigates and disciplines national police officers that commit crimes or abuses of power, including corruption. Citizens may also report police corruption to the Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB). Allegations of corruption and bribery within law enforcement agencies continued to hurt the public's perception of police effectiveness. In June following an extensive investigation, authorities indicted Vladimirs Vaskevics, the former head of the criminal investigative service of the customs service, for failure to comply with financial disclosure laws. In August the KNAB began criminal proceedings against two state police inspectors accused of demanding a bribe from a suspect in exchange for not reporting a robbery. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires that persons be arrested openly and with warrants issued by an authorized judicial official, and the government generally respected this requirement in practice. The law provides a person in detention the right to a prompt judicial determination of the legality of the detention, and authorities generally respected this right in practice. Detainees were promptly informed of charges against them. The law requires the prosecutor's office to make a decision whether to charge or release an individual under arrest within 48 hours. There is a bail system; however, it was used infrequently and applied most often in cases of economic crimes. Detainees have the right to have an attorney present at any time; however, authorities did not always respect this right in practice. Investigators conducted unscheduled interrogations of detainees without legal counsel. During the year the government did not respond to a 2008 report by the human rights ombudsman that noted so-called unscheduled ``talks'' with detainees. The government provides an attorney for indigent defendants, and authorities permit detainees prompt access to family members. These rights are subject to judicial review but only at the time of trial. The law limits pretrial detention to no more than 18 months from the first filing of the case for the most serious crimes and less for minor offenses. However, in practice long pretrial detention remained a problem despite some improvement. During the year, as in 2008, the European Court on Human Rights issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to liberty and security, as provided under Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected this provision in practice; however, there were significant problems, including inefficiency and corruption. The judicial system is composed of district (city) courts; regional courts, which hear appeals from district courts and can also serve as courts of first instance; a separate administrative court, which adjudicates administrative violations; the Supreme Court, which is the highest appeals court; and the seven-member Constitutional Court, which hears cases involving constitutional issues at the request of state institutions or individuals who believe that their constitutional rights were violated. On February 7, the Riga regional court sentenced two district court judges, Irena Polikarpova and Beatrise Talere, to eight years' imprisonment for bribery. Polikarpova and Talere appealed the sentence to the Supreme Court, which postponed hearing the case until 2010 at Talere's request. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and most judges enforced this right; however, the fairness of individual court decisions, of judges and of the judicial system in general remained a concern. During the first eight months of the year, the ombudsman's office reported 196 complaints about the fairness of trials and courts. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are generally public; however, some may be closed to protect government secrets or the interests of minors. A single trial judge hears most cases, although for more serious criminal cases, at the district and regional levels, two lay assessors join the professional judge on the bench. In some criminal cases, modified juries consisting of randomly selected members of the public participate in the tribunal in a limited way. Defendants have the right to be present at their trials. At closed trials, defendants are subject to criminal sanction if they reveal any details of the case outside the courtroom. Defendants have the right to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, at government expense if they are indigent. Defendants have the right to read charges and confront witnesses against them and may call witnesses and offer evidence to support their cases. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases and may appeal to the highest levels in the judicial system. In February a new law on judicial transparency went into force, requiring information on court decisions to be published on the Internet. On May 20, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights heard the government's appeal of the July 2008 ECHR judgment that found the country had violated Article 7(no punishment without law) of the European Convention on Human Rights by convicting Vassili Kononov of war crimes committed during World War II. Kononov was a member of a Red Partisans unit that attacked the village of Mazie Bati in the eastern part of the country in 1944, killing nine villagers, three of them women. In its original judgment, the ECHR found, in a four to three decision, that Kononov could not reasonably have foreseen that his acts amounted to a war crime under the law of war applicable at the time and that there was no plausible legal basis in international law on which to convict him. The court held that the government should pay Kononov 30,000 euros ($45,000) for nonpecuniary damages within three months of the final decision. The Grand Chamber had not ruled on the appeal by year's end. In June the special parliamentary commission formed in 2008 to investigate allegations of judicial corruption released its final report. It concluded that courts must be independent from outside authority or influence, and ongoing improvements to the legal system will take time to implement fully. The commission was established in response to the 2007 publication of the book Litigation Kitchen by journalist Lato Lapsa, which included transcripts of allegedly wiretapped telephone conversations between prominent figures in the judiciary between 1998 and 2000. The book's publication led to allegations of unethical and illegal behavior by some judges, including discussing cases outside of court and inappropriate influence on judges from politicians and businesses. Three judges resigned because of the allegations, but none were charged with crimes. During the year an independent judicial ethics committee established by parliament in April 2008 continued to operate. Its principal objectives are to clarify and highlight judicial ethical standards and to comment on any violations of those standards. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, including access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. The government generally upheld the law concerning civil procedures, and civil court orders were generally enforced. Property Restitution.--Property restitution was substantially completed, although most religious groups--including the Lutheran, Orthodox Christian, and Jewish communities--continued to wait for the return of some properties. The status of these remaining properties was the subject of complicated legal and bureaucratic processes concerning ambiguous ownership, competing claims, and the destruction of the Jewish communities to whom properties belonged before World War II. During the year the government and the Jewish community continued to consider a legislative solution to outstanding claims on communal property and heirless private property last owned by members of the Jewish community that could not be regained earlier under the denationalization laws, since there were no identifiable heirs to the property. As of year's end, a government task force established in September 2008 to study outstanding claims for the restitution of Jewish communal property had not released its findings. The Jewish community also sought compensation for heirless private property last owned by Jews before the Holocaust. Members of the international Jewish community continued to complain that national and local authorities delayed or ignored claims by Jews regarding property restitution. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. In contrast with 2008, there were no reports of police detaining persons for publically suggesting that the country's banking system or currency were unstable. In 2008 police detained and questioned an economist for two days after a newspaper published his comments on the stability of the country's banks and currency. Police also detained a popular musician for questioning after he commented on bank stability during a concert. Under the law spreading false information about the financial system is a crime. Both individuals were released without charge. Human rights groups criticized the government for attempting to enforce national spirit, including the April prosecution of one individual in Riga for ``blasphemy against a state symbol'' after he disposed of a hand-held Latvian flag in a dumpster. The case resulted in acquittal. The law imposes fines on property owners who fail to display the national flag on designated holidays. The law criminalizes incitement to racial or ethnic hatred. The country has one state owned television station, Latvian National Television (LTV), and one radio station, Latvian National Radio. Privately owned television and radio outlets also operated in the country. Independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without government restriction. All prominent newspapers were privately owned. In July the largest-circulation newspaper, Diena, was sold to a foreign owner. Both employees and outside observers expressed concerns that the new owner would limit the editorial independence of the newspaper. Russian language print and electronic media were also prevalent and active. There was one government-owned newspaper, which primarily published official records of government actions and decisions. Other newspapers were widely believed to be associated with political or economic interests; complete information on media ownership was not publicly available The law governing broadcast media contains a number of restrictive provisions regulating the content and language of broadcasts. Primary broadcast radio and television stations are required to use the state language (Latvian), and secondary broadcasters are allotted up to 20 percent of total broadcast time for non-Latvian language programming. Non-Latvian television broadcasts are required to have Latvian subtitles. However, these laws only apply to terrestrial broadcasts, as opposed to satellite or cable television. Extensive Russian-language programming was available on both traditional channels and cable networks. In December a court postponed until February 2010 its hearing of the government's appeal of a 100,000 lat ($200,000) civil award for invading the privacy of LTV journalist Ilze Jaunalksne. The case included a review of possible criminal conduct by financial police involved in the case. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 60 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and authorities may not prohibit public gatherings except in very limited cases related to public safety. Organizers of demonstrations must provide advance notice to local authorities, who may change the time and place of public gatherings for such reasons as to prevent public disorder. Numerous demonstrations took place peacefully and without government interference during the year. However, some observers continued to criticize the law that requires 10-day advance notification of a planned protest and what they characterized as vague procedures for holding a protest without prior notice. On January 13, an estimated 10,000 persons gathered in Dome Square in central Riga for a peaceful rally to protest the country's worsening economic situation and express dissatisfaction over government corruption and mismanagement. The rally turned violent after most protesters had left, and a crowd of several hundred persons threw stones at government buildings and smashed police vehicles and windows. Police used mace and truncheons to disperse them. According to the MOI, more than 30 persons were injured in the riot, including three police officers who were seriously wounded. Police detained approximately 120 protesters, many of whom were reportedly intoxicated. In March Riga city officials denied a permit to a group seeking to commemorate the service of Latvian soldiers in German Waffen SS units during World War II. Opposition groups had planned counterdemonstrations, and the government cited security concerns in denying the permit. A scaled-back event occurred, along with counterdemonstrations. Several prominent counterdemonstrators were detained, a move criticized as unjustified by some observers. In May Riga city officials revoked a permit for a Baltic gay pride parade two days before the event was to take place. Officials asserted that the parade posed a security risk; however, gay rights groups claimed political motives prompted the move. A court restored the permit, and the parade took place. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the law bars the registration of Communist, Nazi, or other organizations whose activities could contravene the constitution, for example, by advocating the overthrow of the government. Nevertheless, some nationalist organizations using neo-Nazi slogans and rhetoric operated openly. Under the law members of the country's large noncitizen community are prohibited from joining and participating in any political party of 400 or more members in which less than half the members are citizens. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. However, bureaucratic problems persisted for some minority religious groups. There is no state religion, however, the government distinguished between ``traditiona.''--Lutheran, Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Old Believers, Baptist, Methodist, Adventist, and Jewish--and ``new'' religious groups. In practice this distinction resulted in increased bureaucratic regulations and requirements for new religious groups that were not applicable to traditional ones. Traditional religious groups may teach their faith to public school students, conduct official marriages, provide religious services for the army, and have representation in the National Ecclesiastical Council, which provides advice on religious matters to the government. Although the government does not require religious groups to register, the law accords religious organizations certain rights and privileges if they register, including tax benefits for donors, and separate legal status to own property or for other financial transactions. Registration also eases the rules for holding public gatherings. Any 20 citizens over 18 years of age may apply to register a religious group. Asylum seekers, foreign diplomats, and other persons residing in the country temporarily may not register a religious group. Single congregations that do not belong to a registered religious organization must reregister each year for 10 years. Ten or more congregations of the same denomination and with permanent registration status may form a religious association. Only churches with religious association status may establish theological schools or monasteries. According to Ministry of Justice (MOJ) officials, most registration applications were approved once proper documents were submitted. However, one request for registration from a Scientologist organization was denied during the year. The MOJ concluded that the practice of Scientology included elements of medicine and, therefore, it could not register as a religious organization. The law does not permit simultaneous registration of more than one religious group (church) in a single denomination or of a church that admits its connection to a previously existing confession. Eight congregations appealed this limitation in 2008. During the year these cases were forwarded to the Constitutional Court for review and were awaiting trial at year's end. The law stipulates that foreign missionaries may hold meetings and proselytize only if invited by domestic religious organizations to conduct such activities. Foreign religious denominations criticized this provision. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish community numbers approximately 10,000 and is largely secular and Russian-speaking. There were no reports of anti-Semitic attacks or vandalism during the year. However, anti-Semitic sentiments persisted in some segments of society, manifested on the Internet and in occasional public comments and resistance to laws and memorials designed to foster Holocaust remembrance. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. There were continued reports that authorities turned away persons attempting to enter the country at border checkpoints without establishing whether they may have been refugees or asylum seekers; the government disputed these claims. By November 1, the government received 43 applications for asylum, compared with 51 during the first eight months of 2008. Five individuals were granted refugee status. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to a country where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In June a new law was passed on the treatment of asylum seekers in response to a 2007 LCHR report on detention facilities for illegal immigrants. The report noted, among other problems, the failure of authorities to provide information to migrants and asylum seekers concerning their rights and government procedures. The new law, which was being implemented at year's end, included provisions on detention procedures, appeals, and the rights of detainees. The government claimed that it provided written explanation of the reasons for the denial to all immigrants denied entry. There were no developments in a police criminal investigation following a violent attack in 2007 by unidentified persons on two Somali refugees. The case remained under investigation at year's end. The government also provided temporary protection .''alternative statu.'') to individuals who might not qualify as refugees. During the first 10 months of the year, the government granted alternative status to two persons. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). According to UNHCR data, there were 365,417 stateless persons at the end of 2008, which included 365,151 stateless persons who were considered resident noncitizens and 266 other stateless persons who did not have rights available to resident noncitizens. The government recognized as stateless only those individuals who did not have a claim to foreign citizenship and were not eligible to apply for naturalization in the country. The number of stateless persons reflected in the UNHCR total consisted primarily of individuals of Slavic origin who moved to the country during the Soviet occupation and their descendents. They were not given automatic citizenship when the country regained sovereignty in 1991. There are laws and procedures for granting citizenship to the noncitizen population. The UNHCR noted that the country's laws grant a transitional legal status to permanently residing persons (noncitizens). This status entitles them to a set of rights and obligations beyond the minimum rights prescribed by the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and identical to those attached to the possession of nationality, with the exception of certain limited civil and political rights. At year's end most of the remaining 365,000 noncitizens were legally eligible for citizenship but had not applied for it. Noncitizens most frequently stated their reason for not applying was the perceived ``unfairness'' of the requirements and resentment at having to apply for citizenship rather than having it automatically granted when the country's independence was restored in 1991. The citizenship exam included a Latvian language test and an examination on various aspects of the constitution and history of the country. Resident noncitizens have permanent residence status, consular protection abroad, and the right to return to the country. Resident noncitizens have full rights to employment, except for some government jobs and private-sector positions deemed related to national security, and to most government social benefits; however, they cannot vote in local or national elections and cannot organize a political party without the participation of an equal number of citizens. Authorities reported that the number of naturalizations dropped significantly in 2007 after the EU granted noncitizen residents visa-free travel and work rights within the EU. The government claimed that Russia's decision in June 2008 to allow these individuals to visit Russia without a visa would similarly depress the rate of naturalization. During the year there were 3,470 applications for naturalization, compared with 2,601 during 2008. During the year 2,080 persons were granted citizenship, compared with 3,004 during 2008. In its 2008 report the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance noted that the naturalization process remained slow and there was an urgent need to solve the problems linked to the status of noncitizens, which made the persons concerned feel like second-class citizens. The government response, included as an appendix to the report, stated that it provides a path to citizenship for almost all noncitizen residents, but many noncitizens had chosen not to pursue citizenship for personal or ideological reasons. The government asserted that granting additional rights to noncitizens would only diminish the incentive to naturalize. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic and generally free and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Free and fair elections for parliament were held in 2006; parliament elected a new president in 2007. Citizens can organize political parties without restriction; however, the law prohibits the country's approximately 365,000 noncitizen residents from organizing political parties without the participation of an equal number of citizens in the party. The election law prohibits persons who remained active in the Communist Party or various other pro-Soviet organizations after 1991 or who worked for such institutions as the former Soviet Committee for State Security from holding office. At year's end there were 22 women in the 100-member parliament, and two women in the 15-member Cabinet of Ministers. Two of seven judges at the Constitutional Court were women, 22 of 43 judges at the Supreme Court were women, and in lower courts, 328 of 428 judges were women. Members of minorities, including ethnic Russians and Poles, served in various elected bodies. However, parliament no longer tracks the ethnicity of its members. On June 6, an ethnic Russian was elected mayor of Riga. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices. According to World Bank governance indicators for 2008, corruption was a problem. There was a widespread perception that corruption existed at all levels of government. The Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB) is responsible for fighting corruption. During the first half of the year, the KNAB initiated 14 criminal cases, and other legal institutions initiated three criminal cases, against government officials, including members of the judiciary. The KNAB also forwarded 14 criminal cases involving 62 individuals to the prosecutor's office. On February 2, two former KNAB officials were found guilty on charges related to theft from the bureau's vault. One official pleaded guilty to embezzlement and was sentenced to seven years in prison. The second was acquitted of embezzlement but sentenced to five years in prison for lack of proper oversight. In May the KNAB requested that the prosecutor general bring charges against 31 persons, including 17 current and former government employees, for their involvement in a long-running corruption scheme at the Riga vehicle inspection station. Inspectors allegedly agreed to allow vehicles to pass inspections in exchange for payments. In June the prosecutor general forwarded to the Jurmala Court a case against Jurmala's city prosecutor for extorting bribes from a criminal defendant in exchange for favorably resolving the case against the defendant. In August the KNAB began criminal proceedings against two state police inspectors accused of demanding a bribe from a suspect in exchange for not reporting a robbery. Several high-profile corruption cases from 2007 continued in court at year's end. The first involved Aivars Lembergs, the mayor of Ventspils, who was charged in Riga Regional Court with large-scale money laundering, bribery, abuse of office, and failure to declare property for tax purposes. Prosecutors also brought related charges against a Lembergs business associate and his son. In the second case, charges were filed against 20 persons, including Jurgis Liepnieks (former head of Prime Minister Kalvitis' office), for alleged participation in a fraudulent scheme to secure an agreement with a foreign company to introduce digital television. The law requires public officials to file income declarations annually, and irregularities are investigated. The state auditor annually reviews all governmental agency financial records, both classified and unclassified, and documents irregularities. Reports are forwarded to the prime minister. To combat corruption the KNAB arranged training and seminars for approximately 500 persons during the year on various aspects of conflict of interest and internal controls against corruption. In addition, the KNAB counseled 150 persons by telephone regarding potential conflicts of interest. A Cabinet of Ministers' regulation provides a mechanism for public access to government information, and the government generally provided access to citizens in practice. There were no reports that noncitizens and the foreign press were denied access. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials met with domestic NGO monitors and responded to their inquiries; however, the government often lacked the political will or resources to act on NGO reports or recommendations. Only a few domestic NGOs claimed to address the broad range of human rights problems. Among the most visible was the LCHR. Other NGOs dealt with specific issues. For example, Apeirons was concerned with persons with physical disabilities; Marta focused on protecting women's rights; Providus (the Center for Public Policy) and Delna (the national branch of Transparency International) worked to combat corruption; and Zelda focused on persons with mental disability. None of these organizations closely aligned with the government or political parties. The government cooperated with international organizations and permitted visits by their representatives. During the year a few international organizations issued reports on the country or visited. In February the UN assistant high commissioner for refugees visited the Olaine detention center for illegal immigrants. The parliament's Human Rights Committee was responsible for legislation and oversight concerning human rights issues. Human rights NGOs criticized the committee for its relative lack of activity. Human rights groups also continued to voice concern over the limited response of the ombudsman's office to human rights problems. During the year employees of the office petitioned the president and prime minister to dismiss the ombudsman, claiming that he was ineffective and susceptible to outside pressure to overrule recommendations from office staff. The ombudsman characterized the situation as an internal management dispute. Human rights NGOs and the parliament's Human Rights Committee expressed concern that the conflict was distracting the ombudsman's office from its work to protect human rights. During the year the ombudsman's office faced severe budget reductions. In particular the office's budget for the year was reduced more than 30 percent compared with 2008. For 2010 parliament further reduced the ombudsman's budget by 38 percent of its budget for this year. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, language, disability, or social status; and the government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively. Women.--The law specifically criminalizes rape but does not recognize spousal rape, although authorities can prosecute spousal rape under other sections of the law. Criminal penalties vary depending on the nature of the crime, the age of the victim, and the criminal history of the offender. Such penalties range from probation to life imprisonment. During the year there were 39 convictions on rape charges, compared with 44 convictions in 2008. A local NGO, the Skalbes Crisis Center, reported that rape laws were ineffective and that rapes were underreported due to a tendency by police to blame victims. Police reported that the number of criminal cases involving rape had remained stable in recent years, and few rapes were committed by strangers to the victims. Violence against women is against the law; however, there are no laws that deal specifically with spousal abuse. Violence against women is prosecuted under general laws against intentional bodily harm. NGOs and police agreed that domestic violence was a significant problem; however, the law was not effectively enforced. Victims were often uninformed about their rights and were reluctant to seek redress through the justice system. Human rights groups asserted that the legal system, including the courts, did not always take domestic violence cases seriously. Police stated they could only make arrests if either the victim or a witness agreed to file charges or if police caught someone in the act of committing the abuse. There were no shelters designed specifically for battered or abused women. Women who experienced violence could seek help in family crisis centers; however, these centers had limited capacity and gave priority to women with children. There were no dedicated rape or assault hotlines; however, NGOs managed approximately five general crisis hotlines. The NGO Marta Center operated Web sites that provided information and legal assistance for female victims of violence. Prostitution is legal, although procurement is not. Prostitution was widespread and at times linked to organized crime. Riga continued to be a destination for sex tourism. Sexual harassment is illegal; however, there was no record of complaints due in part to procedures to register incidents. The human rights ombudsman's office was the only designated location to file complaints. In addition, cultural factors tended to discourage women from filing sexual harassment complaints. Sexual harassment of women in the workplace reportedly was common. However, in the absence of complaints, the government was not able to enforce the law. Women enjoy the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. The law prohibits employment discrimination; however, in practice women frequently faced hiring and pay discrimination, particularly in the private sector. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health. There were no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives. According to Papardes Zieds, a local NGO focused on maternal health and family planning, approximately 70 percent of the population used these measures. The government provided free childbirth services but lack of sufficient doctors meant most women used nurses or midwives during childbirth. Women also used nurses and midwives for prenatal and postnatal care unless the mother or child suffered more serious health complications. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization in 2005, there were approximately 10 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, but local health NGOs and clinics reported that women were more likely than men to seek treatment and refer their partners for treatment. The law prohibits work and wage discrimination based on gender and requires employers to set equal pay for equal work; however, government regulatory agencies lacked the skills and resources to implement the law fully. According to the country's Central Statistics Bureau, in the first quarter of the year, the average female worker earned 16 percent less than the average male worker. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). However, children of noncitizen parents born in the country are registered immediately and are eligible to apply for citizenship. There were no reports of systematic or widespread failure to register births immediately. A local NGO working with abused children, the Dardedze Center Against Violence, stated that the number of reported instances of child abuse, including sexual abuse, had increased in the past several years. The center attributed this increase largely to better reporting due to increased awareness of the problem. Laws against child abuse were enforced effectively, although the center observed that coordination among agencies involved in the protection of children's rights was weak. Children from families that were unable to care for them had access to government-funded boarding schools that provided adequate living conditions; however, these schools had lower educational standards than regular state schools. Statutory rape and child pornography are illegal. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16 years. Statutory rape is punishable by four years imprisonment, or six years for particularly young victims. Purchase, display, reproduction, or distribution of child pornography is punishable by up to three years in prison. Involving a minor in the production of pornography is punishable by up to 12 years in prison, depending on the age of the child. A special police unit in Riga worked to prevent sexual abuse of minors and eradicate sex tourism through aggressive prosecution of pedophiles and other child abusers. The unit also publicized the potential dangers posed to minors by Internet chat rooms, and worked closely with local social networking sites to identify potential Internet predator cases. In one recent high-profile case, the courts sentenced a British citizen to more than eight years imprisonment for having sex with eight underage boys between 2005 and 2008. In July the UN special rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography released a report on a 2008 visit to the country. The report noted a low number of reported incidents, but expressed concern regarding an increase in pornography and child sex tourism--at times facilitated by the Internet and potentially exacerbated by the country's economic downturn. The report also noted the government's efforts to address the problem and recommended a holistic approach to the fundamental rights of children. In particular it encouraged the government to clarify legally that children under age 18 cannot consent to exploitation , to avoid stigmatization or criminalization of child victims, and to provide adequate resources to protect children. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons. However, there were widespread reports that women were trafficked from the country for purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor; during the year there were no new reports that persons were trafficked to, through, or within the country. In particular the country was a source for women destined for the commercial sex trade in Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Belgium, and Cyprus. At least one case of trafficking of men and women to the United Kingdom for agricultural work was still being prosecuted at year's end. During the year the Prosecutor General sought indictments in a case involving forced labor trafficking abroad facilitated by a local modeling agency. The number of trafficking victims, including possible underage trafficking victims, was difficult to ascertain. While the number of trafficking instances reported to law enforcement officials remained low, neither the government nor any local NGO conducted a large-scale survey to establish the extent of the problem in the country. Relaxed travel regulations within the EU and the Schengen Area allowed traffickers to target nationals of the country more easily. The unemployment rate rose during the year, and tens of thousands of men and women departed the country in search of economic opportunities. Some might have become victims of labor traffickers. Those most at risk were unemployed or marginally employed women and girls with little education that were between 17 and 25 years old. Police believed that most traffickers were small-scale criminal groups with well-established contacts in destination countries. Law enforcement agencies reported that, because of the country's strict law enforcement since 2006, trafficking organizers started sending trafficking victims to recruit their family and friends, rather than risking themselves by attempting to recruit directly. Recruitment over the Internet and through marriage brokers was also common. The country's antitrafficking squad reported that traffickers usually avoided threats or force when recruiting their victims. Although trafficking victims often consented to being transported abroad, they were generally misled by recruiters with offers of marriage or employment opportunities. The law provides for prison sentences of up to 15 years for trafficking. Most perpetrators continued to be prosecuted under a statute that prohibits persons being sent abroad or domestically for sexual exploitation. This law, like the antitrafficking statute, carries a prison sentence of up to 15 years. The legal definition of trafficking in persons includes internal trafficking and trafficking for labor exploitation. During the year police carried out two investigations under the antitrafficking section of the law and 30 investigations of cases of sending persons abroad for sexual exploitation. Thirty-two traffickers, nine of them women, were detained during the investigative process. The Prosecutor's Office sought indictment in at least 10 trafficking cases. During the year 15 traffickers, including five women, were convicted by the courts. Four were sentenced to prison terms ranging from three to 10 years. Under a four-year program adopted in August, the MOI is the government's lead agency in combating human trafficking. It gathers information and coordinates the antitrafficking activities of other ministries, government agencies, and NGOs. The government systematically monitors antitrafficking efforts and generally focuses its efforts on prosecution, victim protection, and prevention. In particular the MOI worked with local NGOs and international organizations to develop and implement a new five-year antitrafficking program for 2009-13. The government also maintained an antitrafficking Internet portal to educate the public and provide informational resources to specialists, such as law enforcement staff, educators, and social workers. Trafficking victims and witnesses can also use the portal to report instances of trafficking. There were several facilities in the country that cared for domestic and foreign victims of trafficking. However, the Shelter Association Safe Home (SASH) was the only provider of state-funded assistance to trafficking victims. During the year the government allocated approximately 40,000 lats (approximately $78,000) to assist and shelter trafficking victims in 2009-10. In the first eight months of the year, SASH identified and provided services to 17 trafficking victims, including trafficking victims who were identified in previous years. Law enforcement agencies in cooperation with NGO partners and local mass media participated in trafficking prevention campaigns to raise public awareness about brokered marriages as a form of human trafficking. Trafficking prevention was also part of the curricula at the primary and secondary schools and some institutions of higher education. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care and other state services, and the government generally enforced these provisions. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities; however, most buildings were not accessible. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Attacks against racial minorities continued to be a problem, although fewer cases were reported than in previous years. However, NGOs representing minority groups claimed that official statistics underreported the actual number of incidents, including physical assaults. In February unknown persons attacked two Armenians with apparent racial intent in Riga. Police classified the incident as ``hooliganism'' rather than a racially motivated attack. During the first eight months of the year, police registered six complaints of abusive behavior targeting ethnic or racial minorities, the same number as during the same period in 2008. All the complaints involved hate speech on the Internet. During the first eight months of the year, the ombudsman's office received 85 written complaints of discrimination, compared with 31 in 2008. In February the Riga Regional Court convicted four young men of a racially motivated crime in the beating of two Romani girls in 2007. The attackers were ordered to pay 20,000 lats ($40,000) to the victims and given suspended sentences and probation. The Romani community faced widespread societal discrimination as well as high levels of unemployment and illiteracy. In 2007 the government began implementing a national action plan to address problems affecting the country's estimated 8,000 Roma with respect to employment, education, and human rights. However, the plan was criticized for lacking adequate funding to substantially improve conditions for Roma. In 2008 28 members of the Romani community were trained as teacher's assistants to improve access and participation in the educational system. During the 2009-10 school year, eight of these assistants were working in schools. In 2008 the government eliminated the position of special assignment minister for integration and transferred responsibility for some of the functions formerly conducted by the secretariat to the Ministry for Child and Family Affairs. However, the Ministry for Child and Family Affairs was eliminated during the year and responsibility for some integration issues was transferred to the MOJ. The staff dedicated to integration issues was significantly smaller than in previous years. In its August 2008 annual report, the European Agency for Fundamental Rights criticized the country's ``limited'' capacity to collect data on incidents of racial crime or discrimination. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no official reports of societal violence or discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity; however, leaders of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) organizations complained of widespread intolerance and underreporting of physical attacks. Mozaika was the most prominent LGBT organization in the country. It worked on legal issues surrounding LGBT rights and organized the annual gay pride march. On May 16, after first revoking a previously approved permit on security grounds, the city of Riga respected a court order to grant a permit and allowed a Baltic gay pride march to take place in the city center under heavy police protection. An estimated 300 persons took part in the parade. Approximately 500 demonstrators behind police barricades jeered the marchers and carried signs accusing LGBT persons of being linked to AIDS and pedophilia. In contrast to previous years, there were no physical attacks but only minor violations of public order. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law entitles workers, except for the uniformed military, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. Approximately 15 percent of the workforce was unionized during the year. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law recognizes the right to strike, subject to limitations that include obligatory, prolonged prestrike procedures and the prohibition of some types of solidarity strikes and political strikes. While most workers were free to exercise the right to strike within these parameters, labor regulations prohibit judges, prosecutors, police, fire fighters, border guards, employees of state security institutions, prison guards, and military personnel from striking. The law identifies arbitration mechanisms that unions and members of professions that are forbidden from striking may use in lieu of striking. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right in practice. Approximately 18 percent of workers were covered by collective bargaining agreements. The law also prohibits antiunion discrimination and employer interference in union functions, and the government effectively protected this right throughout the year. There are four export processing zones; regular labor laws applied in all of them. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children. However, women were trafficked from the country for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Trafficking cases for forced labor are addressed by Section 154-1 of the criminal law, which criminalizes all forms of trafficking and provides a penalty of up to 15 years in prison for traffickers. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law and policies protect children from exploitation in the workplace, including policies regarding acceptable working conditions, and the government generally implemented these laws and policies in practice. During the year there were no reports of new trafficking cases involving minors. In previous years there were reports of some incidents involving trafficking of 16- and 17-year-old girls for prostitution. The law restricts employment of those under the age of 18 years by prohibiting nighttime- or overtime work. The statutory minimum age for employment is 15 years, although children who are 13 years old or older may work in certain jobs outside school hours with written permission from a parent. Inspectors from the Ministry of Welfare's State Labor Inspectorate are responsible for enforcing the child labor laws, and they did so effectively. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The legally mandated monthly minimum wage of 160 lats (approximately $317) did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The average monthly wage was approximately 180 lats (approximately $360). The Ministry of Welfare was responsible for establishing the minimum wage annually, based on consultations with employers' associations and labor unions. The State Revenue Service is responsible for enforcing minimum wage regulations and did so effectively. The law provides for a mandatory 40-hour maximum workweek with at least one 42-hour rest period weekly. The maximum permitted overtime is 144 hours in a four-month period. Excessive compulsory overtime is forbidden. The law requires premium pay in compensation for overtime, unless other forms of compensation are agreed in a contract. By law an employee working overtime receives premium pay that is at least equal to the regular pay rate. These standards were generally respected for both citizens and noncitizen workers. The law establishes minimum occupational health and safety standards for the workplace, which were effectively enforced. Workers have the legal right to remove themselves from situations that endangered health or safety without endangering their continued employment; however, authorities did not enforce this right. __________ LIECHTENSTEIN The Principality of Liechtenstein, with a population of approximately 35,400, is a multiparty constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. The unicameral Landtag (parliament) nominates, and the monarch appoints, the members of the government. A two-party coalition government was formed after free and fair parliamentary elections on February 8. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens, and the law and judiciary provided effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There were isolated reports of excessive force by police, societal discrimination against minorities, violence against women, including spousal abuse, and child abuse. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. In September 2008 a member of a special police unit was accused of injuring one person during a raid on an illegal gambling establishment. The state prosecutor reviewed the case and, on February 18, dismissed the accusation as lacking credibility in light of evidence supporting the statements of the police officer. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. The government has established an independent body to monitor prison conditions. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the regular and auxiliary police, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police arrest a suspect based on an arrest warrant issued by the national court. Within 48 hours of arrest, police must bring suspects before an examining magistrate who must either file formal charges or order release; authorities respected this right in practice. Release on personal recognizance or bail is permitted unless the examining magistrate has reason to believe that the suspect is a danger to society or would not appear for trial. The law grants suspects the right to legal counsel of their own choosing during pretrial detention, and counsel was provided at government expense to indigent persons. According to the criminal procedure code, every detainee has to be informed at the moment of detention or immediately thereafter of the reasons for the detention. The detainee also has to be told that he has the right to contact legal counsel and a relative. During investigative detention, visits can be monitored to prevent tampering with evidence. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants are presumed innocent. Trials involving minor offenses are heard by a single judge, more serious or complex cases by a panel of judges, and the most serious cases, including murder, by a public jury. The law grants defendants the right during trial to legal counsel of their own choosing; counsel is provided at government expense for indigent persons. Defendants may challenge witnesses or evidence and present witnesses or evidence on their own behalf. They have access to government held evidence relevant to their cases. Those convicted have the right to appeal, ultimately to the Supreme Court. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, and access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. However, the law prohibits public insult directed against a race, people, or ethnic group, with a possible prison sentence of up to two years. During the year no one was charged under the law. Independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 65 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The criminal code prohibits any form of discrimination or debasement of any religion or its adherents. The constitution makes the Roman Catholic Church the ``national church'' of the country. Funding for religious institutions comes from municipalities and from the general budget, as decided by parliament, and is not a direct ``tithe'' paid by citizens. The government gives money to non-Catholic churches as well. Catholic and Protestant churches receive regular annual contributions from the government in proportion to their membership, as determined in the census of 2000. Smaller religious groups are eligible to apply for grants for associations of foreigners or specific projects. All religious groups are exempt from taxes. Roman Catholic or Protestant religious education was compulsory in all primary schools, but authorities routinely granted exemptions for children whose parents requested them. At the secondary school level, parents and pupils chose between traditional confessional religious education organized by their religious community and the nonconfessional subject, ``religious education and culture.'' The government sponsored Islamic education classes in public primary schools in five municipalities. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--In its third country report released in April 2008, the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance noted that it had received reports of instances of verbal and physical abuse against Muslims, particularly women wearing headscarves. There were no such reports during the year. The report also recorded complaints of Muslim community leaders about the lack of an adequate mosque and Islamic cemetery, as well as about difficulties in finding suitable premises for their cultural activities. The government maintained that its working group on Islamic integration dealt intensively with the issue of a cemetery but that the Muslim members of the group had not always treated the issue as a priority. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts against persons or property. The Jewish community in the country is too small to have an organizational structure. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law does not prohibit forced exile, but the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. According to the law, persons entering the country from another safe country are not eligible for asylum. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government reported a considerable increase in asylum applications. While there were 26 asylum applications in 2008, the number increased to 227 during the year. According to government officials, 68 of the 227 asylum applicants had withdrawn their application as of year's end since they already had submitted an application to another European country, 75 had absconded, and 42 were transferred to Switzerland. The remaining 42 asylum applicants were awaiting adjudication. The government granted residency permits on humanitarian grounds to two applicants. The government also has a system for providing temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. There were no such cases during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. Prince Hans Adam II is the head of state. Since 2004 Hereditary Prince Alois has taken on the duties of head of state, exercising the rights of office on behalf of the reigning prince. All legislation enacted by the parliament must have the concurrence of the monarch and the prime minister. Elections and Political Participation.--On February 8, the country held parliamentary elections that were considered free and fair. Individuals and parties freely declared their candidacy and stood for election. There were six women in the 25-member parliament and two women in the five-seat cabinet. There were no known members of minorities in the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were no reports of government corruption during the year. The law prohibits public officials from requesting or accepting gifts or benefits in connection with their duties and places restrictions on public officials engaging in private commercial activities. The police and the prosecutor's office, respectively, are responsible for investigating and prosecuting official corruption. The police have an organizationally independent special investigative unit for corruption cases. An interdepartmental working group chaired by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs coordinated measures to prevent and combat corruption. Public officials are not subject to comprehensive financial disclosure laws. The law requires the government to inform the public of its activities, and government information was freely available to all persons living in the country, including domestic and foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A few domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials generally were cooperative and responsive to their views. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender, disability, language, or social status. The law also prohibits public incitement to violence or public agitation or insult directed against a race, people, or ethnic group. The government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense, and the government effectively prosecuted those accused of such crimes. Spousal rape has the same penalties as rape under other circumstances. The sentence may be reduced if the victim decides to remain with the abusive spouse. There was one investigation for spousal rape during the year. The law prohibits all forms of domestic violence and provides for restraining orders against violent family members. However, there were reports of violence against women, including spousal abuse. According to police, there were 32 police interventions in cases of domestic violence during the year. During the year, 21 women and 22 children received counseling and refuge at Frauenhaus, a women's shelter. The government has established centers that provide single-stop financial, administrative, legal, and psychological assistance to victims of domestic violence. Prostitution is illegal; however, police tolerated it in the country's few nightclubs as long as it did not cause public offense. Leading a person into prostitution is punishable by up to six months in prison, heavy fines, or both, and up to three years in prison if the victim was under 18. There were no reported arrests or prosecutions during the year. Stalking is a criminal offense. Sexual harassment is illegal and punishable by up to six months in prison or a fine, and the government effectively enforced these prohibitions. Employers are required to take reasonable measures to prevent sexual harassment; failing to do so may entail damages to a victim of up to 40,000 Swiss francs (approximately $38,600). No cases were reported during the year. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth. Women and men were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections equally, including for HIV. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. The Equal Opportunity Office and the Commission on Equality between Women and Men worked to eliminate all forms of gender discrimination. However, societal discrimination continued to limit opportunities for women in fields traditionally dominated by men. Generally, women earned 80 percent of men's earnings for equal work. The labor contract law and the equal opportunity law contain provisions to combat gender discrimination in the workplace. Children.--Citizenship is generally derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Every child born in the country, who otherwise would be stateless, can acquire citizenship. There were some reports of abuse of children. During the year the commission for the coordination of professionals in cases of sexual offenses against children reported that it was contacted concerning 10 cases of suspected sexual abuse. Possession of child pornographic material is a criminal offense. The code of criminal procedure specifies that children affected by sexual crimes are to be questioned in a sensitive manner, separate from the suspect. A new law on Children and Youth, which was developed with the participation of children and adolescents, entered into force on February 1 and improves the protection of children. The new law mandates that a special ombudsperson be available for children and adolescents. The government also created a working group to make specific proposals for revising the sexual criminal law to conform to provisions of relevant international conventions. The government supported programs to protect the rights of children and made financial contributions to three NGOs that monitored children's rights. The Office for Social Services oversaw the implementation of government-supported programs for children and youth. On March 10, a 21-year-old man was convicted for having downloaded video and audio recordings of sexual acts with minors from the Internet, fined 3,300 Swiss francs ($3,180), and sentenced to undergo psychotherapeutic treatment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes and provides for extraterritorial jurisdiction. There were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the country; however, some observers believed that trafficking in women occurred but was not reported. Trafficking in persons is punishable by a prison sentence of up to three years; the maximum sentence is increased to five years if the trafficker used or threatened violence. If the victim is a minor or the trafficker belongs to a criminal organization, uses excessive violence, or jeopardizes the life of the victim, the sentence may be up to 10 years. No arrests or prosecutions for trafficking offenses were reported during the year. The government's law enforcement, immigration, foreign affairs, and social welfare authorities, together with the NGO Frauenhaus, have established a consultation process and referral mechanism for victims of trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The 2007 Equal Opportunity Law for Persons with Disabilities prohibits discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services or other areas; the government effectively enforced these provisions. The law mandates that all public kindergartens and schools as well as public transportation systems must be accessible to persons with disabilities by 2012. Recently constructed public buildings must become barrier-free by 2027; older public buildings by 2019. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--In September 2008, at a public festival in the town of Mauren, a group of about 20 Swiss and Liechtenstein skinheads carrying stones and sticks had a violent confrontation with Turkish visitors. The clashes ultimately involved several dozen persons. The local police intervened to stop the violence; a police officer and a festival visitor required emergency medical treatment for injuries sustained in the violence. Ten right- wing extremists were detained, eight of whom were released from custody soon thereafter. On November 19, a court convicted a Swiss skinhead and gave him to a suspended prison sentence of four months and a fine of 1,800 Swiss francs (approximately $1,740). The court reduced the prison sentence of a second Swiss skinhead from 10 months in prison to a suspended sentence of six months and ordered him to pay a fine of 5,400 Swiss francs ($5,210). Three Liechtenstein skinheads also were convicted and had to pay fines. Police estimated the number of violent right-wing extremists, including skinheads, to be not more than 30 to 40 persons. The government continued to monitor right-wing groups. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--A government-contracted study published in December 2007 found evidence of discrimination based on sexual orientation. In October the Office of Equal Opportunity launched a awareness campaign using posters to reduce discrimination and stigmatization of homosexual activity. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides that all workers, including foreigners, are free to form and join independent unions of their choice and select their own union representatives, and workers exercised these rights in practice. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without government interference, and the government protected this right in practice. There was only one trade union, which represented approximately 3 percent of the workforce. The law does not prohibit antiunion discrimination, but there were no reports that antiunion discrimination occurred. The right to strike is not recognized explicitly in the constitution and labor law. A new Civil Servants Law came into force in July 2008, lifting the ban on strikes for civil servants. No strikes occurred during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively. Approximately 25 percent of workers were covered by collective bargaining agreements. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government effectively enforced these laws. The law prohibits the employment of children younger than 16; exceptions may be made for the limited employment of children who are 14 and older and of those who leave school after completing nine years of compulsory education. Children who are 14 and older may be employed in light duties for not more than nine hours per week during the school year and 15 hours per week at other times. The law prohibits labor that subjects children to physical, psychological, moral, or sexual abuse. There were no reports that any cases were brought under these provisions during the year. The government devoted adequate resources and oversight to child labor policies, and the Department for Worker Safety of the Office of the National Economy effectively supervised compliance with the law. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no national minimum wage. The Liechtenstein Workers Association negotiates minimum wages annually with the Chamber of Commerce and the Chamber for Economic Affairs. The average daily wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The law sets the maximum workweek at 45 hours for white-collar workers and employees of industrial firms and sales personnel, and 48 hours for other workers. The law provides for a daily mandatory one- hour break and an 11-hour rest period for full-time workers; with few exceptions, Sunday work is not allowed. Pay for overtime is required to be at least 25 percent higher than the standard rate, and overtime is generally restricted to two hours per day. The average workweek, including overtime, may not exceed 48 hours over a period of four months. Thousands of workers commuted from neighboring countries daily and were covered by the same standards. The law sets occupational health and safety standards, and the Department for Worker Safety generally enforced these provisions effectively. The law provides for the right of workers to remove themselves from work situations that endanger health or safety __________ LITHUANIA The Republic of Lithuania, population approximately 3.2 million, is a constitutional, multiparty, parliamentary democracy; legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Seimas (parliament). On May 18, Dalia Grybauskaite was elected as the country's first female president, and on September 17, Irena Degutiene was chosen as the first female speaker of the Seimas. Parliamentary elections in October 2008 led to the formation of a center-right coalition government. Both elections were free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that police physically mistreated detainees to obtain confessions. Prison conditions were poor, and physical mistreatment of prisoners and overcrowding were reported. Detention center conditions were poor. There was continued corruption in the police and government. Domestic violence and child abuse, trafficking in women and children, and intolerance of sexual and ethnic minorities were problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. As of December 1, prosecutors had forwarded five cases involving alleged war crimes or crimes against humanity during the periods of German or Soviet occupation to the courts for trial and opened eight new investigations. At year's end the Prosecutor's Office was reviewing 65 cases relating to those periods. By December military police opened six cases related to military hazing, compared with 10 in 2008. They forwarded three of the cases to the courts and terminated three due to lack of evidence. According to the national courts administration, three persons were convicted during the first six months of the year. The minimum sentence was three months (suspended sentence) and the maximum sentence was 22 months (suspended sentence). Most reports of hazing alleged that draftees physically abused each other or subjected each other to psychological pressure. Three persons were convicted during the first six months, compared with six persons throughout 2008. In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to life involving the deprivation of life as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. The case involved the 1998 deaths of two persons in a car being chased by police. The court ordered the government to pay each applicant 30,000 euros ($43,000) in damages. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; however, there were reports that police physically mistreated detainees. As of December 1, the Human Rights Ombudsman's Office had received 13 complaints that officials used force and psychological pressure to obtain evidence in an investigation. The Ombudsman's Office found eight complaints to be groundless, terminated four complaints because they did not fall within the competence of the ombudsman and found one complaint to be justified. On June 25, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on the April 2008 visit of a CPT delegation to the country. The report noted that, while the majority of individuals interviewed indicated they had been treated correctly, the delegation received a number of allegations of recent mistreatment by police officers during questioning, often apparently intended to obtain confessions. It noted that juveniles appeared to be particularly at risk. The report described the mistreatment as mainly consisting of ``kicks, punches, slaps, and blows with truncheons or other hard objects (such as wooden bats or chair legs).'' The delegation also heard allegations of extensive beating and asphyxiation using a plastic bag or gas mask. The delegation indicated that, in some cases, it was able to provide evidence consistent with the allegations. During the visit the delegation also received a number of allegations that prosecutors and judges did not act on claims of mistreatment when these were brought to their attention. Authorities responded that training of police to observe human rights of prisoners was a continuing policy. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions did not meet international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. Although government measures to upgrade prisons brought them closer to meeting international standards, domestic human rights advocates reported that conditions remained poor in some prisons. According to Prison Department data, as of mid-December there were 8,562 prisoners, including 363 women and 114 juveniles. In its June 25 report, the CPT delegation noted that at the Lukiskes Prison it received several allegations from prisoners of physical mistreatment by staff, consisting of punches, baton blows, and blows with books. In some cases the mistreatment was said to have been inflicted by drunken prison officers. Physical mistreatment was also alleged at the Pravieniskes-2 Correction Home No. 3 and at the Kaunas Juvenile Remand Prison and Correction Home. Four correctional institutions remained overcrowded. For example, the facility in Siauliai had a capacity of 382 inmates after a recent remodeling but held 544. The CPT report noted that recently renovated cells at the Lukiskes Prison were overcrowded, sometimes to ``an outrageous degree,'' with six prisoners in a cell measuring eight square meters (approximately 86 square feet). In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country involving the prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. The case related to detention conditions at Lukiskes Remand Prison and in the Rasu prison. As of December 1, the parliamentary ombudsman had received 267 prisoner complaints, compared with 309 during 2008. Most related to the failure of administrators to give proper attention to prisoners' grievances, which included poor prison conditions; mistreatment by prison department personnel; restrictions on prisoners' rights, such as by censoring their correspondence or failing to allow family visitors; inadequate medical services; and poor working conditions. The ombudsman's investigators found 18 complaints to be justified, while the others were outside the ombudsman's purview. As of December 1, the ombudsman had received two complaints alleging that working inmates received less than they were supposed to be paid; the ombudsman found both complaints to be groundless. The CPT report noted that the material conditions in police detention centers it visited in Jonava, Rokiskis, Kupiskis, Siaulai, and Trakai displayed a number of major shortcomings and could in some cases be considered inhuman and degrading. The majority of cells were filthy and in a poor state of repair, with little or no access to natural light, only dim artificial light, and poor ventilation. At Siaulai city police headquarters, the delegation observed that a juvenile detainee had been kept in a cell with two adults for over a week. In their September response to the CPT report, authorities acknowledged that only 10 of the country's 39 police detention centers were in good condition and the others did not meet international standards. They indicated they were in the process of closing several of them. Authorities noted that a number of new detention centers were under construction. As of December 1, authorities had not taken action in response to a 2006 ECHR ruling that the country should amend its regulations to eliminate inappropriate monitoring of inmate correspondence. The government permitted independent human rights observers and researchers to visit prisons. Representatives of the Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman made two visits to prisons. Media representatives also visited prisons. Neither the International Committee of the Red Cross nor other international or intergovernmental organizations visited the country's prisons during the year. During the year the government allocated 7.2 million litas (three million dollars) for renovation of the prison in Vilnius and two other facilities. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Nevertheless, there were complaints of illegally prolonged pretrial detention. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--A unified national police force is responsible for law enforcement and operates under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior. Police officers and other government officials who exceed their official authority are subject to prosecution or punishment. The State Security Department is responsible for internal security, intelligence operations, and investigating some economic crimes. It reports to parliament and the president. Corruption in the police force remained a problem. There is a broad legal and institutional anticorruption framework and a system for investigating public corruption; however, media outlets and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) indicated that corruption was a lingering problem. In the first six months of the year, authorities accused seven police officers of abuse of power, compared with 11 throughout 2008. In the first eleven months of the year, the ombudsman investigated 123 complaints about police activities, compared with 146 during 2008, and determined 44 to be valid, compared with 51 during 2008. In all cases where complaints were found to be valid, authorities disciplined the officers involved. In most cases police officers faced administrative disciplinary actions, such as demotion or reprimand. The 2008 appeal by a mother and daughter who contended that police violated their dignity with unnecessary physical force and by requiring the daughter to undress in front of neighbors and strangers, was pending in the ECHR. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Warrants are generally required for arrest and must be granted by judges upon the presentation of reliable evidence of criminal activity. Police may detain suspects for up to 48 hours before charging them. Detainees have the right to be informed of the charges against them, and there were no complaints of failure to comply with this requirement. Bail was available and was widely used. Detainees were allowed prompt access to family members. The law provides the right to an attorney from the moment of detention and, if the detainee is indigent, to one provided at state expense; however, these rights were not always respected in practice. The law entitles a detained person to a prompt judicial determination of the legality of the detention, and authorities respected this right in practice. In its report the CPT delegation noted that several detained persons it interviewed claimed they had been informed of their right of access to an attorney only at the time a ``protocol of apprehension'' was drawn up, i.e. several hours after apprehension. The CPT also found that most of the persons who had applied for legal aid complained that they had had no contact with state-appointed lawyers before their first interrogation or even before their first court hearing. Judges may order pretrial detention only for persons suspected of a felony and only to prevent flight or the commission of new crimes, to allow unhindered investigation, or to comply with extradition requests. The pretrial judge may order a suspect's detention for up to three months. In some cases the detention may be extended to 18 months (12 months for juveniles), subject to appeal to a higher court. Such extensions were frequent. The law provides for civil liability for damage caused by the unlawful actions of investigating officials, prosecutors, judges, and courts. As of September the average length of pretrial detention was seven months and 13 days; approximately 10 percent of the incarcerated population consisted of pretrial detainees. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government respected this provision in practice. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy the presumption of innocence. The law provides for public trials; juries are not used. While defendants have the right to be present, the law permits trials in absentia when a defendant is outside the country. The law establishes the right to legal counsel for defendants upon arrest. It provides for legal assistance for indigent persons; however, as of December 1, the human rights ombudsman had received eight complaints that authorities failed to provide such counsel. Defendants have access to government evidence and the right to present evidence and witnesses and confront or question witnesses against them. Defendants have the right to appeal. The law extends these rights to all citizens. Local human rights experts criticized the practice of holding trials in absentia, because defendants could not cross-examine witnesses or present evidence in their own defense. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found four violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, the applicant in one case alleged, inter alia, that he had been denied the opportunity to examine a key witness, who remained anonymous in criminal proceedings against him. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Plaintiffs may sue for legal or injunctive relief based on human rights violations. Apart from redress in the court system, victims of human rights abuses may appeal to the parliamentary ombudsman for a determination on the merits of their claims. Although the ombudsman may only make recommendations to the offending institution, his findings are commonly honored in practice. On a number of occasions, the government did not pay damages awarded by the ECHR within the period stipulated in the court's final judgments. Property Restitution.--The law on restitution places significant restrictions on claims for communal property, and as a result the Jewish community has regained only a fraction of the communal property owned by the country's prewar Jewish population of more than 200,000. Fewer than 30 properties have been returned to the Jewish community under the law, which applies only to the restitution of religious properties. The government introduced a bill that would provide more than 113 million litas ($48 million) in compensation for some expropriated properties, but the Jewish community rejected the bill as inadequate. The parliament had not acted on the bill by the end of the year. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference in an individual's personal correspondence or private and family life; however, there were reports that the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice. The law requires a judge's authorization to search an individual's premises and prohibits indiscriminate monitoring of the correspondence or communications of citizens. However, local human rights groups alleged that the government did not properly enforce the law. As of October 1, the State Data Protection Inspectorate had investigated 108 allegations of arbitrary interference by officials with privacy, compared with 97 investigated complaints during the same period in 2008. Most complaints involved claims by individuals that government agencies were collecting or using their personal data, such as personal identity numbers, without a legal basis or justification. The inspectorate also conducted 122 preventive investigations, unrelated to specific complaints, of companies, enterprises, and government agencies, compared with 102 such audits during 2008. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found five violations by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. A June 2008 law prohibiting the distribution or display in public gatherings of Soviet or Nazi-related symbols led to a court ruling in September 2008 that fined a woman in Vilnius 500 litas ($209) for selling souvenirs containing Soviet symbols. On March 17, parliament amended the law to safeguard other salesmen from such fines in the future. The amended law permits the ``collection and trade of antique and flea market items,'' that contain Soviet and Nazi symbols, as well as their use in museums and for purposes of education, science, and the arts. There would no longer be punishment for persons using the official symbols of an existing state or the wearing of uniforms by participants of World War II. Incitement to hatred and discriminatory speech are crimes punishable by up to two years' imprisonment. As of December 1, the Prosecutor's Office had opened 39 investigations of incitement to hatred (most of them over the Internet). There were no new investigations involving discriminatory speech. In the same period the Prosecutor's Office forwarded 10 cases to the courts for trial. Courts completed seven of these and convicted six persons, imposing fines of 650 to 5,000 litas ($271 to $2,085). Another 37 investigations (including some from previous years) were terminated during the year for lack of evidence. A number of investigations and court cases (including some from previous years) were ongoing. Most of the allegations of incitement to hatred involved racist, anti-Semitic, or homophobic expression. In July the parliament passed, over the president's veto, amendments to the Law on the Protection of Minors against the Detrimental Effect of Public Information. The amendments, which were to take effect in March 2010, would prohibit the dissemination of information that promoted hypnosis, ``bad eating habits,'' paranormal phenomena, gambling, lotteries, physical passivity, and other subjects considered ``detrimental'' to minors' bodies or thought processes, or which would promote homosexual, bisexual, and polygamous relations. The law specifically stated that it was to apply to movies and Web sites. Following complaints from human-rights organizations and the EU, the parliament in December passed another set of amendments to the law, which replaced the prohibition on promoting homosexual, bisexual and polygamous relations with a ban on information ``which promotes sexual abuse and harassment of minors and sexual relations by minors'' as well as information ``which promotes sexual relations'' in general. Human rights organizations remained skeptical, noting that the amendment bars the promotion of any concept of the family other than that set down in the constitution, which stipulates that marriage is between a man and a woman. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not attempt to impede criticism. Independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views. Radio and television broadcasting included a mix of independent and public stations. International media generally operated without restriction. The law prohibits the dissemination of information that is both untrue and damaging to an individual's honor and dignity. Libel is punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or up to two years for dissemination of libelous material through the mass media. No cases were reported during the year. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could generally engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail; however, authorities initiated criminal prosecutions against persons posting material they deemed incitement to hatred. According to the Department of Statistics, 58 percent of the country's residents between the ages of 16 and 74 had access to the Internet in the first quarter of the year, an increase from 47 percent in the same period in 2008. According to International Telegraphic Union statistics for 2008, approximately 54 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law and constitution provide for the right to assemble peacefully, and the government generally respected this right in practice for most groups; however, the government denied assembly permits to certain groups. On March 4, the Human Rights Monitoring Institute and the Center for Equality Advancement asked the Vilnius Municipality for a permit to hold a rally and march supporting democracy, human rights, and tolerance, on the country's Independence Day, March 11. However, city officials refused to issue the permit. At the same time, municipal officials issued a certificate for a march, scheduled the same day, organized by the Lithuanian National Center, a group that espoused and demonstrated intolerance toward other racial, ethnic, and religious groups, claimed that human rights and antifascism were examples of extremism, and openly sympathized with neo-Nazi groups. Local human rights organizations appealed to the Vilnius First District Court, claiming that the denial was discriminatory. On September 21, the court dismissed the complaint on the grounds that the police would not have been able to preserve public order if the two events had taken place on the same day. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the government continued to ban the Communist Party and other organizations associated with the former Soviet regime. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and the law provide for the free practice of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There is no state religion; however, some religious groups enjoyed government benefits not available to others. To have legal status, religious communities must receive official recognition in the form of registration. However, there were no reports that the government prevented unregistered groups from worshiping or seeking new members. There was no action during the year on pending applications for recognition from the United Methodist Church of Lithuania (applied in 2001), the New Apostolic Church (applied in 2003), or the Evangelical Belief Christian Union (Pentecostal, applied in 2002). The law stipulates that only traditional and other state-recognized religions may offer religious instruction in public educational institutions. Student participation in religious classes was not mandatory; parents could choose either religious instruction or secular ethics classes for their children. In June 2008 parliament approved amendments to the Law on Equal Rights adding prohibitions against discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, age, and disability to the already existing prohibitions of discrimination based on gender, race, nationality, language, origin, social status, beliefs, or creed. However, these prohibitions do not prevent religious schools from discriminating in favor of their believers in admissions policies or teaching their faith. In 2008 construction of a residential and commercial complex located on or near the site of a historic Jewish cemetery in Vilnius was completed. In May the government declared most of the cemetery site to be permanently protected from future development, but did not order any demolition or changes to buildings already built. The government continued to work with local and international Jewish communities and the developer to agree on final regulations concerning development of areas near the cemetery borders. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish community consists of about 4,000 members. No violent anti-Semitic attacks against individuals were reported during the year; however, anti-Semitism was widely manifested on the Internet. On August 20, a Jewish cemetery in Klaipeda region was vandalized with anti-Semitic symbols and language. Police started an investigation. Courts continued to hear cases against participants in a skinhead march in Vilnius in March 2008. On January 27, a court acquitted one participant of provoking ethnic hatred. The court reviewed video of the suspect singing and shouting ``Lithuania for Lithuanians!'' but not shouting ``Juden raus!'' .''Jews out!'' in German), as initially charged. On March 4, another participant in the march was sentenced to house arrest, although the court concluded that video recordings did not show him shouting nationalist and anti-Semitic slogans as charged. Three other participants, all 18 to 29 years old, were fined in June 2008. There were no reports of new developments in connection with a number of other anti-Semitic acts that took place in 2008, including the defacing with anti-Semitic symbols and phrases of buildings belonging to the Jewish community centers in Vilnius and Panevezys. In October 2008 a forest ranger in the Kelme Region, near the village of Pluskiai, reported that vandals broke stones and painted anti-Semitic graffiti on a Holocaust memorial. An investigation of the incident continued. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Authorities did not permit asylum seekers coming from ``safe'' countries of transit to enter the country; they returned them to the country of transit without reviewing the substantive merits of their applications. According to the Migration Department, authorities did not have a list of safe third countries, but defined such countries as ones in which the person's life or liberty would not be threatened on account of membership in one of the categories specified in the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol and from which the individual would not be sent to another country in contravention of his rights under these agreements. The government can grant ``temporary protection'' in the event of mass influx of aliens, but an individual alien has no right to apply for this protection. No persons were granted temporary protection during the year. The government also employs an additional form of protection, ``subsidiary protection,'' available to individuals who do not qualify as a refugee but who cannot return to their countries of origin because of fear of torture or inhuman treatment, prevailing violence or military conflict, or systematic violation of human rights in that country would endanger their basic rights or fundamental freedoms. In the first six months of the year, the government granted subsidiary protection to 59 persons. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship can be acquired either by birth in the country's territory or from one's parents. The government registers all births immediately. According to UNHCR statistics, there were approximately 8,700 stateless persons in the country at the end of 2008. Of these, approximately 7,500 had permanent residence permits. Virtually all stateless persons were individuals who resided in the country at the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union but did not qualify for automatic citizenship. According to the director of the Lithuanian Migration Department, persons in this category were entitled to apply for citizenship but these individuals did not do so. The law permits the naturalization of an individual living in the country for at least 10 years who has an unlimited residence permit, passes an official language test and an examination on the basic provisions of the constitution, takes an oath of allegiance, and is able to defray his living costs. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Presidential elections held on May 18 that resulted in the election of Dalia Grybauskaite, former European budget commissioner and former minister of finance, as the country's first female president, were considered free and fair, as were parliamentary elections held in October 2008. Elections to the European Parliament held on June 7 were also considered free and fair. The government continued to ban the Communist Party; other political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. In 2007 the Constitutional Court announced that the Law on Municipal Elections, which allowed election to municipal councils only by party lists, contradicted the constitution. The decision did not affect the 2007 municipal elections, but it obliged parliament to prepare a law that would allow citizens not on party lists to run for municipal councils. Parliament did not pass such a law during the year. At year's end there were 27 women in the 141-seat parliament and two women in the 15-member cabinet of ministers. Women accounted for 5 percent of mayors, 21 percent of municipal council members, and 5 percent of local administration directors. There were three members of ethnic minorities in parliament and no members of ethnic minorities in the cabinet of ministers. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government often did not implement the law effectively, and corruption was a problem. Although courts convicted and punished some officials for corruption, the penalties were usually minor, and many investigations did not result in convictions. The World Bank's worldwide governance indicators reflected that corruption was a problem. A number of government officials were under investigation, facing trial, or convicted and sentenced for corruption during the year. The Special Investigation Service continued its investigation of the mayor, deputy mayor, and head of administration of the Trakai municipality on suspicion of receiving bribes of 200,000 litas ($83,400) in connection with the development of a shopping and entertainment center. The officials were dismissed from their posts pending the outcome of the investigation. In November a Vilnius court vacated the conviction of Vilnius City Council member and former mayor Arturas Zuokas, who had been convicted and fined for bribing a city council member while he was mayor. An investigation continued of former parliamentary speaker Viktoras Muntianas, who resigned his post in March 2008 amid allegations that he bribed a deputy governor of Kaunas County to obtain assistance with a relative's business. On April 24, a deputy mayor of Vilnius and two other city council members were questioned by the Special Investigations Service on corruption charges. The investigation continued at year's end. Viktor Uspaskich, leader of the Labor Party continued to face legal charges for fraudulent accounting for party funds and providing false information to election commission officials. He initially fled to Russia but returned and was placed under house arrest. He acquired immunity from prosecution by being elected to parliament in October 2008. Parliament voted to lift his immunity, but it was restored again on June 7 when he was elected to the European Parliament. On July 14, the prosecutor general appealed to the Office of the President of the European Parliament to revoke Uspaskich's immunity; he had announced no response by year's end. The law provides for public access to government information, and government institutions generally provided access in practice. As of December 1, the parliamentary ombudsman had received 88 complaints of delays by government offices in providing information and found 45 of them to be valid. The ombudsman recommended disciplinary action against the officials involved. Although the ombudsman's recommendations are not binding, officials took disciplinary action in all of the cases forwarded by the ombudsman in the first eight months of the year. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The government cooperated with UN and other international organizations. The Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly's Human Rights Commissioner, Thomas Hammarberg, visited the country in October and participated in a seminar on discrimination issues. He discussed with President Grybauskaite the controversial Law on the Protection of Minors against the Detrimental Effect of Public Information, as well as additional amendments the president submitted to the Seimas aimed at countering some of the criticisms (see section 2.a). The Office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman is an independent public institution with responsibility for implementing and enforcing rights under the 2005 Law of Equal Treatment, and investigates individual complaints. A Children's Rights Ombudsman Institution oversees observance of children's rights and their legal interests. The ombudsman may initiate an investigation on a possible violation of children's rights upon receipt of a complaint or on his own initiative. A parliamentary ombudsman investigates complaints about the abuse of office or other violations of human rights and freedoms in the sphere of public administration. The human rights committee of the parliament prepares and reviews draft laws and other legal acts related to civil rights and presents recommendations to state institutions and other organizations on issues concerning the protection of civil rights. It also has oversight of the Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits and penalizes discrimination based on race, gender, social status, ethnic background, age, sexual orientation, disability, and religion or beliefs. Despite government programs and efforts at enforcement, discrimination against women and against ethnic and sexual minorities persisted. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape. Convicted rapists generally received three- to five-year prison sentences. In the first eleven months of the year, 144 rapes were reported compared with 149 during 2008. Societal violence against women, particularly alcohol-related domestic violence, remained a serious problem. There is no law specifically prohibiting domestic violence; however authorities prosecuted domestic violence under general assault laws. To initiate an investigation into cases of domestic abuse, the victim must file a complaint. Surveys showed that 56 percent of divorced women and 15 percent of married women had suffered domestic violence. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Interior, 359 women were abused by spouses and 96 by their children. In that year police registered 8,066 violent acts against women and initiated 680 investigations. Fines were imposed on 1,276 persons. In 2008, as part of the National Strategy for Reduction of Domestic Violence against Women for 2007-09, the government funded 29 projects aimed at prevention, education, and victim assistance. NGOs, which also received assistance from EU structural funds, implemented most of the projects. The government operated a specialized Web site aimed at preventing domestic violence. Municipal governments and NGOs funded and operated 39 shelters that provided assistance to victims of domestic violence. The government provides full funding for two shelters. One of them, the Shelter for Children and Mothers in Vilnius provided assistance to more than 80 victims of domestic violence, forced prostitution, and human trafficking during the first nine months of the year. Prostitution is illegal but remained a problem. The penalty is a fine of 300 to 500 litas ($125 to $209) for a single offense and up to 1,000 litas ($417) for repeat offenses. In the first six months of the year, police charged 42 women with administrative violations for prostitution. In 2008 police charged 11 men for using prostitution services. The law prohibits sexual harassment. According to the Ombudsman's Office, women remained reluctant to approach police or other institutions in cases of sexual harassment. According to the Office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman, approximately 20 percent of women had experienced sexual harassment. As of December 1, the opportunity ombudsman had received one complaint of sexual harassment, but found it groundless. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local NGOs are permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Public Health. There were no restrictions on access to contraceptives. According to United Nations data and the Kaunas Institute of Medicine, 47 percent of women used these measures. The government provided free childbirth services. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Men and women have the same legal rights in the judicial system, including family and property law. Women nevertheless continued to face discrimination. Government policy requires equal pay for equal work; however, women often earned less than their male counterparts. In 2008 women earned an average of 80 percent of what men earned in comparable jobs; the figure was 78 percent in the public sector. Women were significantly underrepresented at the managerial level. Children.--Citizenship can be acquired either by birth in the country's territory or from one's parents. The government registers all births immediately. Child abuse, particularly in connection with parental alcohol abuse, continued to be a problem. According to the Department of Statistics, in 2007 approximately 36,500 children lived in 16,400 abusive or dysfunctional families. Media sources reported that incidents of cruelty to children, including sexual abuse, intentional starvation, and beatings, were common. As of December 1, there had been 11 deaths from child abuse. The children's rights ombudsman reported 257 complaints during the same period, compared with 382 during 2008, and 387 in 2007; authorities initiated 209 investigations, compared with 199 during 2008. The penalty for violence or cruelty against minors is a one- to two-year prison sentence. Authorities may also remove abused children from their families and place them in foster care. Despite efforts to combat child abuse and aid abused children, the ombudsman reported that insufficient assistance was provided. In 2008 the Child Line (a children's hotline) and Youth Line received more than 175,000 calls and 2,000 letters from children about problems ranging from relations with their parents and friends to violence in their families and sexual abuse. The law provides for up to 13 years' imprisonment for sexual abuse of a child; however, sexual abuse of children remained a problem. As of July 1, the Interior Ministry had registered 26 cases of child sexual abuse (excluding child rape), compared with 55 cases during 2008. The government operated a children's rehabilitation center to provide special care for sexually abused children. There were no reports that children engaged in prostitution for survival, nor were there reports of child sex tourism. Laws against child pornography were enforced. Anyone involving a child in pornographic events or using a child in production of pornographic material can be imprisoned for up to five years. As of December 1, the children's rights ombudsman received 18 complaints and initiated 13 investigations regarding sexual exploitation of children. Complete statistics on street children were not available. According to the ombudsman for children's rights, during 2008 there were reports of 202 children living on the streets; 27 children were found begging in public areas. They were widely scattered among the country's cities. Most of the street children were runaways or from dysfunctional families. They had full access to free, government- sponsored services. Sixty children's rights protection agencies administered by regional governments, other institutions, and numerous NGOs routinely assisted vulnerable children. There were 105 orphanages and 36 foster homes. Orphanages still housed the vast majority of orphans and other children in need of care. In the first eight months of the year, the children's rights ombudsman initiated ten investigations of possible violations of children's rights in orphanages. One complaint was received about a foster home. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that women and girls were trafficked to, within, and from the country for purposes of sexual exploitation. The principal overseas destinations of trafficking victims were the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Denmark, and Norway. According to NGOs that focus on trafficking, source countries for women and girls trafficked to and through Lithuania for sexual exploitation included Russia and Belarus. During the year the press cited a British detective as stating that in recent years authorities rescued hundreds of Lithuanian women, some underage, who had become trafficking victims. A British Web site described the apprehension and subsequent conviction in the United Kingdom, of two Albanians in the process of selling a Lithuanian woman for 3,000 pounds ($4,860) to a brothel owner. Within the country trafficked women and girls in forced prostitution worked on streets, in illegal brothels, and as call girls. Individuals and organized groups, some belonging to international trafficking rings, engaged in trafficking. Traffickers approach women through advertising in newspapers, magazines and, increasingly, through the Internet. These advertisements often promised employment abroad in restaurants, bars, nightclubs, and hotels or invited women to work as nannies, nurses, or models. Other advertisements sought women to provide intimate services, such as massage and escort services. Police reported that nearly half of traffickers were linked to organized crime, including international groups. In many cases close relatives or friends of victims initiated the trafficking process. Victims' compliance was ensured through threats and the withholding of their personal documents. Families often were unaware of the victims' predicament and believed that they had been kidnapped. The law provides penalties for trafficking in persons of two to 12 years' imprisonment and two to 15 years for trafficking in children (minors or juveniles). Through December 1, the government opened seven criminal trafficking cases and referred three of these to the criminal court system. Courts handed down guilty verdicts in three cases in the same period with 11 persons sentenced to prison terms ranging from 24 months to nine years. In the first 11 months of the year, police identified 13 persons as victims of trafficking; investigations of cases from earlier years continued. The Ministries of Interior, Justice, Social Security and Labor, and Education and Science, along with the police department, the State Border Guard Service, the General Prosecutor's Office, and the National Courts Administration, are responsible for enforcement of trafficking laws. In March 2008 the government appointed an undersecretary-level official at the Interior Ministry to coordinate government antitrafficking activities. Police cooperated regularly with their British, German, Italian, Latvian, and Scandinavian counterparts in the fight against trafficking in persons. They cooperated with other European governments on several specific trafficking cases during the year. London police reported they often received help from Lithuania's judicial system and law enforcement officials in their efforts to accumulate evidence in trafficking cases involving Lithuanian victims. No persons were extradited from the country on trafficking offenses in the first eight months of the year. During the year prosecutors investigated 12 suspects in an organized crime gang charged with transporting nearly 100 young women to the United Kingdom. Charges were brought against seven suspects. The courts continued to deal with appeals stemming from a December 2008 conviction of five persons on trafficking charges. The Siauliai Regional Court sentenced Jolanta Razmiene, the head of a modeling agency, to five years in prison for selling 11 young women and gave four others prison terms of at least 21 months. The sentences also required the traffickers to pay 50,000 litas ($20,850) to 10 of the victims (the other victim would not accept any money). The prosecutor appealed the acquittal of one of those charged. The four persons who were convicted also filed appeals, but the victims failed to appear at the court hearing on their appeal. The court planned further hearings for 2010. The government partially funded 15 day centers that assisted various groups at risk, including trafficking victims. In contrast with previous years, it did not provide grants to NGOs that offered temporary shelter or other assistance to trafficking victims. Authorities implemented formal screening and referral procedures for trafficking victims. The government continued implementing a prevention campaign that included an educational presentation, Truth and Myths about Trafficking in Persons, that was posted on the Internet Web sites of 90 schools and also utilized posters, television and radio public service announcements, and antitrafficking brochures. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services. Through December 1, the equal opportunities ombudsman investigated 14 cases of alleged discrimination against persons with disabilities. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities; however, according to official data from 2008, 48 percent of housing was inaccessible. Individuals involuntarily declared incapacitated have no right to appeal the decision in court. The Ministry of Social Security and Labor and the Lithuanian Council for the Affairs of the Disabled are the two primary governmental organizations responsible for developing equal opportunities in the labor market and improving government effectiveness in meeting the needs of and augmenting the social security net for persons with disabilities. The Ministry of Health is responsible for making health services equally accessible to all inhabitants of the country. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law prohibits discrimination against ethnic or national minorities; however, intolerance and societal discrimination persisted. Minority ethnic groups, including Russians, Poles, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Tatars, and Karaites, constituted approximately 16.5 percent of the population. On September 8, Valdemar Tomasevski, the representative in the European Parliament of Lithuanian Polish Electoral Action, complained to European Commission president Barroso about alleged discrimination against the Polish minority. Tomasevski claimed that Poles were not allowed to conduct official business in Polish, even in settlements with as many as 80 percent Polish-speaking inhabitants and could not have street signs in their language. He asserted that the country's laws regulating the use of language in public life were contradictory and conflicted with EU law and international conventions. Through December 1 the Prosecutor's Office initiated 39 investigations of alleged discrimination or incitement to racial or ethnic hatred (most of the instances investigated involved the Internet), compared with 84 during 2008 and 37 in 2007. There were no reports of racially motivated incidents during the year. However, there were developments related to earlier incidents. On May 27, a court convicted Violeta Iljinych for her part in an April 2008 assault against a South African singer of Indian descent. Iljinych's appeal was pending at year's end. A police investigation of posters with the slogan ``no to the culture of black people'' displayed in a Klaipeda city park in 2008 was inconclusive. No developments were reported in the verbal assault of two black athletes by an inebriated man in Kaunas in April 2008. No developments were reported in connection with a number of incidents that occurred in 2007, including: assaults on several foreign students of the Lithuanian Christian College in Klaipeda; a fight in Vilnius between Lithuanian and Nigerian youths; an attack on a man from Ghana two days later, also in Vilnius; an August attack on an Italian exchange student by assailants who apparently thought he was a Muslim; and the December death in Vilnius of a former Somali student at Kaunas Medical University after he was beaten in October, allegedly because he spoke on television about racial violence he had experienced in the country. The small Romani community (approximately 3,000 persons) continued to experience problems, including discrimination in access to services such as education, housing, and healthcare; in employment (the unemployment rate was 50 percent); and in relations with police, although there were no official charges of police abuse. Minority advocates continued to criticize the Vilnius city government for focusing on law enforcement in the Romani community but doing little to integrate Roma into the broader community. At year's end the Vilnius Regional Court had not reached a decision on its reconsideration of claims for compensation by the residents of a Romani neighborhood for the destruction of their housing in 2004. The court initially awarded 100,000 litas ($41,700) to the inhabitants, but following appeals, the Supreme Administrative Court ordered the case to be reheard. On September 2, the government established a Commission for Affairs of Ethnic Minorities to make proposals for coordinating government actions to integrate ethnic minorities into the country's political, public, and cultural life, and to provide expertise on the preparation and expediency of draft legal acts relating to ethnic minorities. The commission will be headed by the prime minister and will include ministers of culture, finance, foreign affairs, social security and labor, education and science, and internal affairs, the chairman of the Council of Ethnic Communities and six representatives of ethnic communities. A 2007 study by the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights concluded that governmental responses to cases of ethnic discrimination were ineffective and that insufficient attention was given to the problem. According to the agency's research, the law provides possibilities to complain about ethnic discrimination, but the penalties usually applied in such cases were insufficient, and victims received insufficient or no compensation. On April 15, the government approved a new National Antidiscrimination Program for 2009-11. The government allocated no funds for the program during the year, but allocated 30,000 litas ($12,510) for 2010. The EU allocated 500,000 litas ($208,500) for the year, 1.9 million litas ($ 792,300) for 2010, and 2.1 million litas ($875,700) for 2011. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexual acts are not criminal, and there was no official discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT) persons, but society's attitude towards homosexuality remained negative. NGOs focusing on LGBT issues faced no legal impediments, but the few that functioned kept a low profile because of public hostility to their aims. The Lithuanian Gay League (LGL) is an advocacy organization dedicated to fighting homophobia and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Through education, support, and representation of the LGBT community, LGL promotes an inclusive social environment for LGBT persons. Local human rights organizations and members of the LGBT community reported that discrimination and persistent social exclusion of LGBT persons were problems. In November a court upheld the refusal of the Vilnius municipality to allow two NGOs that support gay rights and other human rights causes to organize a tolerance march on Independence Day, March 11 (see section 2.b.). In July 2008 the government paid 40,000 euros ($57,200) to a transsexual woman after the ECHR ruled in 2007 that authorities had violated her privacy rights. Amendments to a law protecting minors against certain public information were enacted in July over the president's veto. They were criticized by many human rights proponents on the grounds that they discriminated against homosexual persons. The law was amended again in December in response to those objections, but some human-rights activists remained skeptical of its possible use (see section 2.a.). Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDs. Through December 1, the equal opportunity ombudsman investigated 21 cases of age discrimination, compared with 12 in 2008. Most complaints concerned discrimination in obtaining employment, insurance, loans, or leases. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers, including members of the police and armed forces, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. Unions represented approximately 10 percent of the workforce. To register, company level unions must have at least 30 founding members in large enterprises or a membership of one-fifth of all employees in small enterprises. The law provides for the right to strike, except for government employees involved in law enforcement or other security-related activities; however, labor code procedures made it difficult for some to exercise this right. The law provides that only a union or a union's strike committee may call a strike, leaving nonunion employees unable to legally call a strike. However, in June the labor code was amended to relax strike ballot rules. A strike may be called if approved by half of the employees of a unit or enterprise in a secret ballot. According to the Department of Statistics, there were 112 strikes and warning strikes in 2008. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law protects collective bargaining for all workers except government employees involved in law enforcement and other security-related work. A Tripartite Council, consisting of representatives of labor, business, and government, estimated that between 5 and 25 percent of workers were covered under collective bargaining agreements. The law prohibits employer discrimination against union organizers and members; however, this prohibition was often ineffective in practice, and there were instances when employees were punished for attempting to organize. According to the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), the judicial system was slow in responding to cases of unfair dismissal, and no employer has ever faced the penal sanctions foreseen by law for antiunion discrimination. There are no labor courts or judges who specialize in labor disputes. Some large retail stores hired short-term contract labor and sometimes did not renew contracts of union members. Managers often determined wages without regard to union preferences, except in large factories with well-organized unions. The government periodically issued guidelines for state enterprise management in setting wage scales. The ITUC reported during the year that Svyturys Brewery, owned by Baltic Beverages Holding, intimidated and harassed female trade union leaders after workers complained of exhausting work schedules. The ITUC reported that management requested employees to make written statements of no confidence in the union. The union approached the Prosecutor's Office regarding the alleged interference into union affairs; prosecutors started an investigation but terminated it later because of a lack of evidence. At year's end the case was under review by the General Prosecutor's Office. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficked women and girls in forced prostitution worked on streets, in illegal brothels, or as call girls (see section 6). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits exploitation of children in the workplace, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively; however, statistics from 2007 indicated that 8 percent of children working did so illegally, mostly in the agricultural sector, where children sometimes received unlawfully low compensation. There were reports that children 15 to 17 years old were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. The law sets the minimum employment age at 16, but allows employment of persons as young as 14 years old for light labor with the written consent of the child's parents and school. The law mandates reduced work hours for children, allowing up to two hours per day or 12 hours per week during the school year and up to seven hours per day or 32 hours per week when school is not in session. Authorities generally enforced these laws. The State Labor Inspection is responsible for receiving complaints related to employment of persons under 18. By December, the inspectorate found seven cases of illegal child labor. However, unlike in 2008, there were no reports that school-age children performed farm fieldwork without contracts for little or no payment. The Ministries of Social Security and Labor, Education and Science, Health, and the Interior administered programs to protect children's rights. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The legal minimum wage of 800 litas ($334) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum wage is set by the government with the involvement of the Tripartite Council and is based on social and economic indicators. The poverty income level was 1,095 litas ($457). The law provides that the maximum time worked in any seven-day period, including overtime, may not exceed 40 hours for white-collar work and 48 hours for blue-collar work. Overtime is allowed only in cases stipulated by law, and both overtime and night work must be compensated by at least 1.5 times the hourly wage. The labor laws apply to both local and foreign workers. The State Labor Inspection is responsible for implementing labor laws. In the first 11 months of the year, it reported conducting nearly 15,000 company inspections. The most numerous abuses related to wage arrears, illegal employment, violation of labor contracts, faulty accounting for time off and hours worked, inadequate worker safety, and unsatisfactory investigation of accidents. Training provided by the State Labor Inspection helped reduce the scope of some of these abuses during the year. Workers dissatisfied with the result of an investigation could appeal to the court system. The law gives workers the right to safe and healthy working conditions, and this was generally enforced. As of the beginning of December the state labor inspection service recorded 44 fatal accidents at work, compared with 82 during 2008. These occurred mostly in construction work. To address the problem the state labor inspection service provided training, various prevention materials, and best practice examples to construction companies. Workers have the legal right to remove themselves from dangerous work environments without jeopardizing their continued employment and did so in practice. __________ LUXEMBOURG The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, with a population of approximately 494,000, is a constitutional monarchy with a democratic, parliamentary form of government. The role of the grand duke is mainly ceremonial and administrative. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Chamber of Deputies. The prime minister is the leader of the dominant party in the popularly elected parliament. On June 7, the country held parliamentary elections that were considered free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Some prison overcrowding and domestic violence were reported, as well as cases of human trafficking respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers. Between April 22 and 27, a delegation from the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture visited the country, where it examined safeguards afforded persons deprived of their liberty by the police, and reviewed conditions at the country's Schrassig Prison, the State Socio-Educational Center at Dreiborn, and the Neuropsychiatric hospital at Ettelbruck. The results of the visit had not been made public by year's end. According to press reports, overcrowding in the Schrassig Prison remained a problem despite a reduction of approximately 100 in the number of detainees. Legislation adopted in 2007 appropriated funding for the construction of a detention center for refused asylum seekers to relieve prison overcrowding. (Refused asylum seekers are imprisoned if they fail to depart the country voluntarily within a specified time period. They may be imprisoned for a maximum of four months while arrangements are made to deport them.) The construction of a new detention center began during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the Grand Ducal Police and the judiciary police, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Warrants issued by a duly authorized official are required for arrests in most cases. Within 24 hours of arrest, police must inform detainees of charges against them and bring them before a judge for determination of the legality of the detention. There is a functioning bail system, which judges freely employ. Detainees are given immediate access to an attorney, at government expense for indigents. Detainees are allowed prompt access to family members. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public except for those involving sexual or child abuse. There are no jury trials. Defendants have the right to be present and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. Defendants may confront or question witnesses against them or present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Defendants have the right of appeal. A legal basis exists for the establishment of religious and military courts under special circumstances, but no such action has occurred in the last 60 years. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The magistrate courts serve as an independent and impartial judiciary in civil and commercial matters and provide access to individuals who bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. A majority of the population had connections to the Internet. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 80 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There is no state religion, but the government paid the salaries and pensions of clergy of those religious groups that have signed conventions with the government: Roman Catholic; Greek, Russian, Romanian, and Serbian Orthodox; Anglican; some Protestant denominations; and Jewish congregations. Several local governments also maintained sectarian religious facilities. In an effort to receive similar government funding, the Muslim community named a national representative and single interlocutor for negotiations with the government. He resigned but was not replaced by year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reported acts of violence or discrimination against religious minorities during the year. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. The Jewish community numbered approximately 1,000 persons. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. There are no laws that deny asylum based on an applicant's country of origin. There is no ``black list'' for repatriation; each dossier is examined on its merits. In November the government conducted a repatriation flight to Kosovo with 22 refused asylum seekers. The law provides for the possibility of granting protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees; the government did not grant such protection during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On June 7, the country held elections for the 60 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The elections were considered free and fair. Also on June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operated without restrictions or outside interference. There were 12 women in the 60-member Chamber of Deputies and four women in the 15-member cabinet. There were 15 women in the 32-member Supreme Court. There was one member of a minority group in the Chamber of Deputies and one member of a minority group in the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were no reports of government corruption during the year. The Ministry of Justice is responsible for combating government corruption. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. There is no law providing public access to government information; in practice the government sometimes granted access to government information to members of the public. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government effectively enforced it. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape, and the government enforced the law effectively. The legal penalties range from five to 10 years' imprisonment. The law prohibits domestic violence, and the government effectively enforced it. The law is gender neutral and provides that abusers will be removed from their residences for 10 days; this can be extended an additional three months. Penalties may include fines and imprisonment. If a person approaches a nongovernmental organization (NGO) for assistance, the police are required to investigate. In 2008 there were approximately 565 cases of police intervention relating to spousal abuse and 263 police expulsions of the abusing spouse. The government funded organizations that provided shelter, counseling, and hotlines. There are three hotlines for abused women. In 2008 government-sponsored NGO shelters provided refuge to approximately 385 women and 559 children. The government also provided financial assistance to domestic violence victims. Prostitution is legal and was common, but the activities associated with organized prostitution, such as profiting from, aiding, or trafficking prostitutes are punishable by law. The law prohibits sexual harassment and requires employers to protect employees from sexual harassment. The law prohibits gender- based job discrimination and harassment of subordinates by superiors. Disciplinary measures against offenders are available, including dismissal. An employer's failure to take measures to protect employees from sexual harassment is considered a breach of contract, and an affected employee has the right to paid leave until the situation is rectified. Sexual harassment in the workplace was not widely considered a problem. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth. Women and men were equally diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. The law mandates equal pay for equal work; however, according to government reports, women were paid 14 to 16 percent less than men for comparable work. The Ministry of Equal Opportunity is responsible for protecting the legal and social rights of women. In 2008 the government launched the Gender Mainstreaming Center and continued a media campaign with NGOs, public administrations, and the press, including posters promoting equal rights for men and women. This campaign continued during the year. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). The government registered all births immediately. A special police unit is responsible for the protection of minors, and two call centers--one government-run, the other NGO-administered-- are available to child victims of abuse. Neither the government nor NGOs compiled statistics on child abuse during the year. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked for sexual exploitation. The country is a destination for women trafficked for sexual exploitation. Primary source countries during the year were Ukraine, France, and Belgium. During the year the government identified 21 victims of trafficking. Most traffickers were independent individuals involved in trafficking human beings and sometimes also in drug trafficking. They recruited their victims abroad directly or through agents. They generally arranged the travel and promised lucrative jobs in the country's cabarets. In most cases, the women were escorted to their destinations and the agents or procurers remained in the country or in one of the neighboring countries. The law criminalizes trafficking in human beings for sexual exploitation, but does not offer a comprehensive and workable definition of the offense and omits some forms of exploitation, such as forced labor. The law clearly differentiates human trafficking from human smuggling or illegal immigration and defines higher sanctions for traffickers. During the year the Chamber of Deputies enacted trafficking in persons legislation that provides fines of 50,000 to 100,000 euros ($73,000 to $146,000) and prison terms of five to 10 years for trafficking. In addition, the penal code provides for fines of 500 to 125,000 euros ($715 to $179,000) and prison terms of one month to three years for facilitating a foreigner's illegal entry and residence through direct or indirect assistance. Authorities may apply this law in cases of trafficking for purposes other than sexual exploitation. Prior to the new legislation, the law provided penalties of from six months' to three years' imprisonment and monetary fines for trafficking and, if there were aggravating circumstances, prison sentences of up to 10 years. Authorities indicated that laws against organized crime may also be used in trafficking cases. The penal code provides for fines of 500 to 125,000 euros ($715 to $179,000) and prison terms of six month to three years' imprisonment for trafficking. The new law provides fines of 50,000 to 100,000 euros ($71,500 to $143,000) and prison terms of five to 10 years for trafficking. There were several trafficking cases during the year. For example, in April an Italian and a French procurer were charged with procuring prostitution and human trafficking. The Italian was sentenced to four years' imprisonment and a 15,000 euro ($21,500) fine while the Frenchman was sentenced to 30 months imprisonment and a 5,000 euro ($7,150) fine. In May two Belgians were charged with procuring prostitution and human trafficking. Both were sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a 10,000 euro ($14,300) fine. In March an Italian and a Romanian citizen were charged with procuring prostitution and human trafficking. The Italian was sentenced to pay a 4,000 euro ($5,700) fine. The Romanian was sentenced to three years imprisonment and fined 4,000 euros ($5,720). There are no government services specifically for victims of trafficking; however, two NGOs which were fully financed by the government provided shelter and counseling assistance to women in distress. Although the country has no formal witness protection program, the government took substantial measures to protect victims' physical safety and identities. After the court proceedings had finished, a criminal investigative unit specialized in trafficking in persons' investigations assisted victims in creating new identities and settling them abroad. The Ministry of Justice is responsible for the government's antitrafficking efforts, in cooperation with the ministries of foreign affairs and equal opportunity as well as NGOs. There is no evidence that government officials participated in, facilitated, or condoned trafficking. In June the government and ECPAT, an NGO that combats the commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking of children, coordinated to launch a public outreach campaign against commercial sexual exploitation of children. ECPAT worked with travel agencies, tour operators, hotels, airlines, and the media to inform the public concerning the sexual exploitation of children. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services or other areas, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. The law does not require government or privately owned buildings to be accessible to persons with disabilities, but the government subsidized builders to construct ``disabled friendly'' structures. Despite these incentives, only a small proportion of buildings and public transportation vehicles had been modified to accommodate persons with disabilities. The NGO Aid for Handicapped Children advocated for the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities. The law establishes quotas requiring businesses that employ more than 25 persons to hire workers with disabilities and pay them prevailing wages, but the government acknowledged that these laws were not applied or enforced consistently. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There are no laws criminalizing homosexual conduct. There is one lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgenders (LGBT) organization and there were no impediments to its operation. In May the annual gay gathering celebrated 10 years in the country. The government authorized the event, and the police provided sufficient protection. There were no reported incidents of discrimination based on sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of official or societal discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights. Approximately 50 percent of the workforce (including transborder workers) was unionized. There are no exclusions of non-EU foreign workers to the unionization rate. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, except for government workers who provide essential services. Legal strikes may occur only after a lengthy conciliation procedure between the parties. For a strike to be legal, the government's national conciliation office must certify that conciliation efforts have ended. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right freely. Approximately 66 percent of workers were under collective bargaining agreements. There were no reported examples of antiunion discrimination. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports of trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace and the government effectively enforced these laws. Child labor did not exist. The law prohibits the employment of children under the age of 16. Apprentices who are 16 years old must attend school in addition to their job training. Workers under the age of 18 have additional legal protection, including limits on overtime and the number of hours that can be worked continuously. The ministries of labor and education effectively enforced the child labor laws. The Ombuds-committee for Children's Rights (a different institution from the ombudsman) carries out a series of inspections including inspections for child labor. There were no cases of child labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage for a single worker over the age of 18 was 1,642 euros ($2,380) per month for unskilled workers and 1,970 euros ($2,860) for skilled workers. The minimum wage was not sufficient to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family; however, most employees earned more than the minimum wage. The law mandates a maximum workweek of 40 hours. Premium pay is required for overtime or unusual hours. Sunday employment is permitted in continuous-process industries (steel, glass, and chemicals) and for certain maintenance and security personnel; other industries must request permission for Sunday work, which the government granted on a case-by-case basis. Work on Sunday, allowed for some retail employees, must be entirely voluntary and compensated at double the normal wage or with compensatory time off on another day, equal to the number of hours worked on Sunday. The law requires rest breaks for shift workers and limits all workers to a maximum of 10 hours per day, including overtime. The labor inspection court and the Superior Court of Justice are responsible for enforcing these laws. The law mandates a safe working environment. An inspection system provided penalties for infractions. The labor inspectorate of the Ministry of Labor and the accident insurance agency of the Social Security Ministry carried out effective inspections. No laws or regulations specifically provided workers with the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardy to their continued employment; however, every worker has the right to ask the labor inspectorate to make a determination regarding workplace safety, and the inspectorate usually did so expeditiously. __________ MACEDONIA The Republic of Macedonia is a parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 2.1 million. The president, who is popularly elected, is head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A unicameral parliament (Sobranie) exercises legislative authority. On March 22 and April 5, the country held presidential and municipal elections (with additional rounds in some municipalities on April 19 and May 3), and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) assessed them as meeting most international standards for democratic elections. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that law enforcement officers and prison officials beat detainees and prisoners and that authorities did not adequately investigate or prosecute allegations of abuse. Prisons were overcrowded and conditions were reported to be inhuman and degrading; observers reported widespread corruption among prison staff. Implementation of judicial reforms continued to be delayed, and political pressure and intimidation hindered the effectiveness of the judiciary. A dispute over government support for an Orthodox church in the main square in Skopje contributed to interethnic tensions and raised questions about government involvement in religious affairs. Lack of effective police protection for protestors raised concerns about freedom of assembly. There were reports of discrimination against persons with disabilities and Roma. Tensions between the ethnic Macedonian and ethnic Albanian populations continued to impact areas including education, employment, and political participation. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated or other disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were credible reports that police at times used excessive force during the apprehension of criminal suspects and that they abused detainees and prisoners. In November 2008 the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report on its June-July 2008 visit to the country's prisons and detention centers. The report noted that a number of detained persons alleged mistreatment by law enforcement officials, consisting mostly of kicks, punches, and blows with batons or the butts of pistols or various other objects, apparently often administered prior to or during questioning, either with a view to obtaining a confession or information or as punishment. Other allegations also referred to the use of excessive force at time of arrest. The CPT report noted that its delegation corroborated several allegations through interviews with inmates and, in one case, through medical evidence consistent with mistreatment. In many cases, the allegations concerned nonuniformed police officers, in particular members of the Special Mobile Police Units, commonly known as ``Alfa'' units. After the CPT visit, the Ministry of Interior disbanded the country's Alfa units, except for the one in Skopje. According to the European Commission's (EC) 2009 Progress Report on the country, released on October 17, the disbanding of the Alfa units significantly reduced complaints of mistreatment. The CPT also reported receiving allegations of mistreatment of prisoners by staff at the prisons it visited. The allegations mainly consisted of prisoners being beaten with truncheons as well as being kicked and punched. In addition, several juveniles at the Educational- Correctional Institution, located since 2001 at the Skopje Prison, alleged that prison officers hit them with truncheons, and many asked the CPT delegation to ensure that truncheons were removed from the institution's premises. During the first half of the year, the Professional Standards Unit (PSU) reported receiving received 33 complaints against police officers for use of excessive force, and it found grounds for investigation in two cases. In its November 2008 report, the CPT delegation stated that it received many allegations that prosecutors and judges did not act on claims of mistreatment when they were brought to their attention. The October 17 EC progress report stated that the country's procedures for dealing with allegations of prisoner mistreatment were still not effective and that allegations of mistreatment were not sufficiently investigated or prosecuted. The November 2008 CPT report also concluded that authorities had taken no action to strengthen protection against mistreatment by police and mistreatment of inmates (including juveniles) by prison officers. On May 27, the Skopje prosecutor opened an investigation of four prison guards accused of using excessive force against several detainees in the state detention center in Skopje's Shuto Orizari municipality on March 17. The Ombudsman's Office reported that video and medical evidence showed that guards tied the inmates to radiators and beat them until they gave statements. The Ministry of Justice initially suspended them, and later fined and reprimanded them, but then allowed them to resume their duties. The ombudsman submitted the prisoners' petition to the prosecutor for investigation and possible torture charges. The case was pending at year's end. During the year the PSU followed up on a report from Macedonia's Helsinki Committee for Human Rights of an October 2008 case of a Tetovo police officer using excessive force against a detained person. The PSU reported a lack of evidence and cited unwillingness on the part of the alleged victim to cooperate with the PSU. The PSU submitted a special report to the Tetovo Basic Public Prosecutor's Office, and the Tetovo Basic Court convicted the officer and issued a suspended sentence on July 2. On October 7, the appellate court overturned the suspended sentence and convicted the officer to eight months in prison. On September 24, PSU investigators determined that three Skopje officers committed a criminal act--mistreatment in performing a duty-- when they used coercive force in November 2008 against a person in an underground garage. The PSU submitted a special report to the Public Prosecutor's Office but did not follow up with an internal disciplinary action because the 90-day period to do so had expired. After reviewing the case, the Skopje Public Prosecutor's Office filed a request to open a criminal investigation. The investigation was ongoing at year's end. During the year the Ministry of Interior decreased an officer's salary by 15 percent for a period of three months following a PSU investigation into an August 2008 case of a Tetovo police inspector found to have used excessive force against a citizen. In its November 2008 report, the CPT noted receiving a credible allegation that a police officer sexually abused a person held overnight in a police station, after which two junior police officers reportedly hosed down the detained person in his cell. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Both the October 17 EC progress report and the November 2008 CPT report described conditions in several units at Idrizovo Prison as ``inhuman and degrading.'' The EC report noted that prison overcrowding remained a major problem and that the health-care system in the country's prisons was inadequate. During its June-July 2008 visit, the CPT observed few visible improvements in the prisons and found that, in general, the situation continued to deteriorate. At the Idrizovo Prison, the CPT found that the majority of living quarters were squalid, unsafe, and unhygienic. At the Skopje Prison, the CPT found pervasive dampness, dilapidation, and unhygienic conditions and stated that overcrowding had ``become more acute'' since the previous CPT visit on 2007. In one case, the CPT noted seven prisoners sharing a crowded, four-bed cell for 23 hours and 40 minutes a day. The CPT found prisoners being held in ``totally unacceptable'' conditions at both the Izdrizovo and Skopje prisons. Official reports indicated that three prisoners committed suicide in Idrizovo prison during the year and one prisoner committed suicide in Tetovo prison. The ombudsman noted a lack of appropriate security in the prisons for persons with mental health problems. On February 2, the Judicial Council removed investigative judge Miroslav Trifunovski from office for unprofessional and negligent conduct in the investigation into the suspicious 2008 prison death of journalist Vlado Tanevski, who was said to have drowned in a bucket of water in his cell. Tanevski's cell was occupied at the time by three other inmates, one of whom was a convicted murderer. The CPT delegation questioned why authorities placed Tanevski in a cell with three convicted prisoners when there were empty cells available for pretrial detainees who were remanded into custody, why following Tanevski's death the other prisoners were not separated and placed in different cells, and why Tanevski's three cellmates requested to clean the cell before the cause of death was determined, thereby rendering impossible an effective forensic examination of the scene of the death. The Ministry of Justice reported that, at the beginning of the year, the country housed a total of 2,379 detainees and prisoners, including juveniles, although the total capacity of all facilities was only 2,175. The ombudsman reported that although juvenile prisoners were separated from adult prisoners, there were opportunities for the two groups to associate during free-time activities in the yard of the prison. Both the EC and CPT reports cited problems with association of minors and adult prisoners, with the CPT report calling the arrangement ``totally unacceptable.'' The government usually granted independent humanitarian organizations and the ombudsman access to convicted prisoners. The law allows family members, physicians, diplomatic representatives, and representatives from the CPT and the International Committee of the Red Cross access to pretrial detainees with the approval of the investigative judge. Judges usually granted permission. However, the CPT highlighted ``unreliable information'' provided by authorities regarding use of means of restraint in prisons, screening of new prison arrivals, and access to outdoor exercise as ``clear examples'' of authorities' lack of cooperation with its visit. In its October 17 report, the EC noted that some progress was made in the prison systems, specifically that refurbishment work for the section for chronically ill detainees and detainees with disabilities in the Izdrivo Prison was finalized and a new remand wing in the Skopje Prison was completed. The ombudsman also reported that a system of anonymous complaint boxes in the prisons allowed them better access to concerns of prisoners. During the year the government continued refurbishment of several prison and detention facilities begun in 2008 and expanded capacity to accommodate an additional 420 prisoners/detainees. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, arbitrary arrest and detention were problems. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police are a centralized force, under the Ministry of the Interior, consisting of uniformed police, criminal (civilian) police, and border police. By midyear, 20.3 percent of the force were minorities, short of the government's 25 percent quota for minority officers. Ethnic Albanians made up 25.2 percent of the population and an estimated 16 percent of the police force. International observers and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) cited corruption, lack of transparency, and political pressure within the Ministry of the Interior as hindering efforts to fight crime, particularly organized crime. Police impunity remained a problem, although there were improvements with aggressive internal investigations and an active ombudsman. Corruption was reported among prison staff. According to the October 17 EC progress report, there were no effective mechanisms in place to prevent and combat corruption among prison staff. Following its June-July 2008 visit, the CPT reported receiving allegations from nearly every prisoner with whom it spoke at Idrozovo Prison concerning the involvement of staff in the trafficking in mobile telephones, drugs, and other illicit goods, while the director of the Skopje Prison acknowledged to the CPT the involvement of prison staff in the trafficking in mobile phones. The EC report also noted that political interference in appointments to some prison management positions persisted, disrupting the continuity and sustainability of strategic planning. In December 2008 the ombudsman opened an investigation into charges of discriminatory treatment favoring female prisoners in the Idrizivo facility. The media reported that a number of female prisoners, including those recently convicted of serious crimes, quickly earned a special status of more lenient treatment, including weekends away from the prison. The ombudsman was investigating to determine whether corruption or discrimination played any part in the lenient treatment. The PSU conducted all internal investigations into allegations of police misconduct. In its November 2008 report, the CPT noted that it was ``not convinced'' that the PSU could be considered as an authority independent from the police and that, when it came to investigating alleged mistreatment by law enforcement officials, the PSU ``cannot be considered as an independent body which is able to carry out prompt, thorough and effective investigations.'' Since the CPT visit, international observers noted increased independence of the PSU from police functions, an expansion of the unit, and enhanced training of PSU staff to improve investigative capacity. The October 17 EC progress report noted that ``control over the police in general, and special units in particular, was more effective, partly because of increased internal audits to ensure that professional standards were respected.'' The report further noted that ``investigations were carried out in accordance with international standards.'' The report stated that, although an independent external mechanism was lacking, oversight of police work was improved by strengthening the powers of the public prosecutor in the investigative phase. Although unit officials showed some improvement in efficiently conducting internal investigations, concerns remained about the low number of completed investigations and the lack of charges in outstanding human rights cases from previous years. During the year citizens filed 252 complaints related to police conduct with the ombudsman. During the first six months of the year, the Ministry of Interior, following PSU recommendations, reduced the pay of 101 employees, dismissed 12 from the police force, and reassigned 12. During the year the PSU filed charges against 26 employees. Representatives from a number of international organizations, including the OSCE, the EU, and foreign missions continued to monitor police operations and advise the Ministry of Interior on police reforms. Arrest and Detention.--The law requires warrants issued by an investigative judge for arrest and detention, and police generally followed this requirement in practice. The law states that prosecutors must arraign a detainee within 24 hours of arrest. An investigative judge, at the request of a prosecutor, may order detention of suspects for up to 72 hours. Police generally adhered to these procedures in practice. The law permits a detainee to have a lawyer present during police and court proceedings. Previously, an administrative requirement that visits be approved by the investigative judge and comply with general visitation hours rules of the detention facilities hindered detainees' access to their lawyers. In July the government took action to provide for defense attorneys' free access to clients in detention during normal business hours, with no court order requirement or other systematic requirement of government approval. The law requires that authorities give indigent defendants access to attorneys, and authorities generally respected this requirement in practice. The law permits immediate family members access to detainees and access was generally provided, although it was not always prompt. The law states that an investigative judge must approve access. There were reports that police continued to call suspects and witnesses to police stations for ``informative talks'' without informing them of their rights. Most allegations of this practice involved accusations that police targeted the individuals for political reasons. Police did not arrest the individuals, nor hold them for extended periods of time. In response to concerns about irregularities in the registration data and lack of respect for the rights of detained persons, the Ministry of Interior conducted inspections of the registers of detained persons and prepared standard operating procedures for their detention and the treatment. These procedures included designating officers responsible for proper processing and treatment of detained persons. There was a functioning bail system. The law sets the initial length of pretrial detention at 30 days, with possible extension to 180 days if a council of three judges orders a 60-day extension for further investigation and a superior court orders an additional 90-day extension. The 90-day extension is allowed only in cases for which the crime under investigation is subject to a sentencing guideline of at least five years. Following indictment, the maximum pretrial detention is two years depending on the crime. Data from the first half of the year showed a drop in the number of pretrial detention cases, as judges increased the use of home confinement and bail. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and laws provide for an independent judiciary; however, the government, political pressure, intimidation, and corruption influenced the judicial branch. A number of judicial officials accused the government of using its budgetary authority to exert control over the judiciary. The annual judiciary budget as a portion of the national budget has declined from approximately 2 percent in 2004 to 1.2 percent in 2009. During the year the judiciary budget was reduced by 4.5 percent, which resulted in cuts in the capital investments and salaries and allowances categories, making it difficult for the courts to carry out some of the projected facilities refurbishments and to fill vacant staff positions. Political pressure also influenced the election of new judges and work of the Judicial Council, the body responsible for election, discipline, and removal of judges. During the year the European Court for Human Rights issued 16 judgments that found two violations of the right to liberty and security, two violations of the right to fair trial, one violation of freedom of movement, one violation of right to association, and 10 violations of length of proceedings. The country has a three-tiered court system composed of trial courts, appellate courts, and an administrative court and the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which is not considered part of the judicial branch, deals with matters of constitutional interpretation and certain human rights protection issues. On June 1, seven ethnic-Albanians were each sentenced to 15 years in prison for planting an explosive device along the Kumanovo-Sopot road in 2003; the explosion killed two Polish NATO soldiers and one civilian, and seriously injured two others. One of the seven began serving his sentence; the other six had been tried in absentia. Four other ethnic-Albanians were convicted in 2004 and 2006 and were serving sentences of 10 to 14 years. In August a ``Sopot'' working group was formed in the parliament to determine whether there were human rights violations in the case and to make recommendations. The working group concluded that human rights violations did occur and presented its report to the parliamentary Standing Inquiry Committee on Human Rights in December. The committee tabled the discussion on adoption of the conclusions until early 2010. The government continued to delay the implementation of a number of judicial reform laws resulting in reduced efficiency of the courts. There was a serious backlog of cases, the majority of which were cases involving the enforcement of civil judgments. Based on unofficial reports from government authorities, through June, trial courts decided only 29.9 percent of the cases on their dockets. On June 30, the parliament moved the date for the transfer of enforcement cases to a private bailiff system from January 1, 2009, to July 1, 2010, leaving the responsibility for these backlogged cases with the courts. Trial Procedures.--Suspects are presumed innocent until proven guilty. Trials are generally open to the public. The country does not use juries. Less serious cases are heard by a single judge, and more serious cases are heard by a panel of one or two professional judges and two to three lay judges. The judicial panels determine guilt and impose sentences. The panel usually follows the recommendations of the presiding judge. Defendants have the right to an attorney in pretrial and trial proceedings. The law requires that courts provide indigent defendants an attorney at public expense, and authorities generally respected this requirement in practice. Defendants may question witnesses and present evidence on their own behalf. Defendants and their attorneys are entitled to government-held evidence, but this did not always occur in practice. Both the prosecution and defendants have the right to appeal verdicts. The law provides that courts may try defendants in absentia as long as they repeat the trials if convicted individuals later become accessible to justice officials. During the year the courts started selectively publishing civil and criminal judgments online, but public access to judgments and court decisions remained limited. During the year courts rejected at least seven separate requests for copies of certain more high-profile judgments. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens had access to courts to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. Individuals may file human rights cases in criminal or civil courts or the administrative court, depending upon the type of human rights violation in question or the perpetrator of the alleged violation. Individuals may also appeal adverse decisions. The law provides the right to timely adjudication of cases and a legal basis for raising excessive judicial delays to the Supreme Court. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. However, the law prohibits speech that incites national, religious, or ethnic hatred, and the law provides penalties for broadcasters who violate these laws. There were reports that government and businesses indirectly pressured the media and that journalists practiced self-censorship. The government was one of the largest purchasers of advertising in the country and favored outlets and journalists it perceived as friendly. On January 26, the head of the NGO Transparency Macedonia criticized the government for nontransparent expenditures and for advertising in selected media. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not attempt to impede criticism. Media institutions and reporting were divided along ethnic and political lines, with the most striking divisions visible in reporting on controversial political issues. There were complaints and allegations of government pressure and even threats against media outlets that did not report favorably on the government. In December 2008, following criticism from the media, the ruling political party, VMRO-DPMNE, announced that it was dropping slander charges that were then pending against 12 journalists in connection with their political reporting. On June 28, the Association of Macedonian Journalists stated at a news conference that the government had actually changed the criminal charges into civil charges, instead of dropping them entirely as suggested by the original VMRO-DPMNE announcement. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. However, several commentaries and editorials on International Press Freedom Day (May 3) noted that pressure from political and business interests was impeding the development of a more independent press. On June 30, the Center for Civil Communications reported that the country's media lacked a professional approach towards reporting on corruption. There were six major private daily newspapers in Macedonian and three in Albanian. International newspapers and magazines were available throughout the country. Macedonian Radio and Television (MRTV), which generally favored the government's views on political issues, was the country's sole public broadcaster. There were five private television broadcasters with national coverage, 16 national television stations broadcasting via satellite, and 57 private local and regional television stations. Most of them broadcast news programs and reflected a variety of viewpoints. There were 70 independent radio stations. All major broadcast and print media offered up-to-date web editions. Blogs and Internet-based social networks also contributed to developing freedom of speech. On June 16, parliamentarian Amdi Bajram verbally attacked journalists reporting from the parliament. Following numerous criticisms of his harsh attack, Bajram apologized to the press. On May 4, the Association of Macedonian Journalists announced that there were more than 160 ongoing defamation, libel, and slander suits. The law allows only fines as penalties in such cases. The association stated that courts had ordered journalists to pay over 250,000 euros ($358,000) for cases that were filed in 2007 and 2008. In several cases, the court did not fine accused offenders who apologized before the court. In October 2008 the appellate court granted the appeal of a journalist of a Bitola court decision to fine the journalist 720,000 denars ($14,400) for publishing a report on a judge being fined by police for driving under the influence of alcohol. The appellate court returned the case to the basic court for retrial. The retrial was ongoing at year's end. On May 28, the Skopje Appellate Court rejected Ljubomir Frckoski's appeal of a December 2008 judgment against him for slandering Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski in a 2007 column he published. Subsequently, Frckoski requested the prosecutor's office file a special motion for protection of legality before the Supreme Court on his behalf. At year's end, the prosecutor's office had not responded to his request, although the 30-day deadline for such a motion had expired. NGO Reporters without Borders criticized the decision as harmful to freedom of the press. The European Court of Human Rights has accepted Frckoski's application to hear the case. On March 25, the Supreme Court overturned the appellate court's acquittal of three defendants, including the owner of a cable television station, accused of the January 2008 assault and attempted murder of Goran Gavrilov, the owner of the national radio station Kanal 77. Gavirlov believed that the crimes were related to his reporting on the conditions at cable station Telekabel, as well as his efforts to regulate relations between cable operators and private broadcast media. Although the Supreme Court found violations of law in the earlier trials, it did not order a retrial. On February 11, a Skopje court acquitted one officer and sentenced two others to prison terms of seven months and one year, respectively, in the 2007 attack by police officers on Alsat Television cameraman Igor Ljubocevski while he was filming police stopping a member of parliament. During the year the prosecution dropped criminal charges against a security guard for the political party Democratic Union for Integration who in 2007 slapped a television journalist covering developments in the parliament. A civil case was still pending at year's end. There was no progress in the May 2008 theft of six television transmitters belonging to Alsat Television and the local television station Art outside of Tetovo during the parliamentary campaign. Media observers considered the theft an attempt to silence the media and deny citizens information about elections. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. The government tried to increase Internet use and operated Internet cafes throughout the country that provided free Internet access to persons under the age of 27 and to senior citizens. In October the State Statistical Office released data on Internet penetration indicating that 41.8 percent of homes had Internet access and that a full half of the population had used the Internet during the first quarter of the year, up 8.5 percent over the first quarter of 2008. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. For public gatherings of any kind, organizers must notify the Ministry of Interior so that the venue can be made secure. On March 28, a group of approximately 100 protestors, who opposed government plans to construct an Orthodox Church in Skopje, gathered on the center square. They were countered by a group of several thousand protestors who supported the construction. Police tried to separate the two groups but did not fully succeed, and subsequent violence, including assaults and shouting, effectively prevented the protest from proceeding. The Ministry of Interior charged 23 participants from both sides, mainly for violating public order. Trials were ongoing at year's end. The March 28 incident fueled interest by a broad range of NGOs and civil society groups in the rights to assemble peaceably and to protest. On April 11, a group of several hundred protestors gathered in the city square under the motto ``protest for the right to protest.'' Considerable additional police forces were present for the second protest, which occurred without incident. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right. However, during the year the court charged with registering religious organizations failed to meet registration deadlines and rejected the applications of more than ten communities, effectively blocking their ability to gain legal status. The law does not require a group or individual be part of a legally registered religious community in order to practice religion in public or in private. During the year a dispute over government support for the construction of an Orthodox church in the main square of Skopje increased interethnic tensions and raised questions about the separation of church and state. During the year nuns and clergy of the Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid, a group recognized by the Serbian Orthodox Church but without legal status, continued to claim undue monitoring and harassment based on its religious beliefs, especially at border crossing points, where they reported that border guards instructed them to take off their monastic clothes in order to facilitate border crossing formalities. The law requires that the State Commission for Relations with Religious Communities and Groups approve foreigners entering the country to carry out religious work or perform religious rites. Persons planning to perform religious work must submit a letter of invitation from representatives of a registered religious group in the country when applying for visas. The commission normally issued approvals within one week. The restitution of religious properties expropriated by the former Yugoslav government was not fully resolved. Members of the Islamic Community of Macedonia (ICM) continued to point to a higher rate of restitution of properties belonging to the Macedonian Orthodox Church than those belonging to the Islamic Community. The Bektashi Community, a Sufi order whose application for registration as an Islamic organization separate from the ICM was rejected in September, filed suit against the government in 2002 for failure to restitute the Arabati Baba Tekke to the community. There were no developments in the suit. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were isolated reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. On August 31, local residents informed police in Struga that several graves in a Muslim cemetery had been desecrated. There were several reports of damage to gravestones in Orthodox cemeteries near the predominantly ethnic Albanian cities of Tetovo and Aracinovo during the year, although the damage was reported to be minimal and it was not clear if the vandalism was religiously motivated. In June serious tensions developed between the ICM and the Bektashi community over the burial of a community member on the grounds of the disputed Arabati Baba Tekke in Tetovo. The ICM threatened to exhume the body and move it to another location. The international community and local police became involved in an effort to prevent violence between the two groups. Although tensions lessened during the year, the two groups continued to debate the legality of the burial. The Jewish community estimated that approximately 250 to 300 Jews lived in the country. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not use forced exile, internal or external. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--The government reported 644 persons remained displaced from the 2001 internal conflict. Of these, 265 persons lived in collective centers, and 379 were lodged with host families. IDPs received basic assistance, mostly from the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy, but had few opportunities for work due to the country's high unemployment rate. The UNHCR assisted 39 IDPs to regulate their civil status and identity documents. During the year the government encouraged IDPs to return to their homes of origin in areas the authorities considered safe. Some IDPs continued to assert that the government was not providing adequate support for the return process. Roma IDPs faced additional challenges due to lack of documentation of tenancy for properties where they previously resided. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum both to those individuals meeting the criteria for refugee status and those meeting the criteria for subsidiary protection. The government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The law provides for protection of refugees and persons under subsidiary protection in accordance with EU standards. During the year the government continued to transform the mechanism of protection for asylum seekers who were not granted refugee status in the country from ``asylum for humanitarian protection'' to ``asylum for subsidiary protection'' in line with EU directives. Although the UNHCR assessed that there was some improvement in the refugee status determination mechanism, the government did not grant refugee status to any asylum seekers during the year. During the year the speed of adjudication of asylum claims improved considerably, but nearly all decisions were negative. The government did not deport any individuals from Kosovo whose asylum applications were rejected. The Ministry of Interior issued identification documents and temporary residence permits to those whose applications for asylum were rejected. The temporary residence permits are subject to extension as individual circumstances warrant. For the first time, the Administrative Court, the only appeals body that can address the asylum cases, accepted the appeals of 15 individuals and returned the cases for readjudication. On December 15, a new law entered into force that amended the law on asylum and temporary protection, significantly improving the quality of national asylum legislation. The working group that drafted the law consulted closely with the UNHCR. The country experienced a significant increase in arrivals of new asylum seekers from outside the region, including 50 Afghans. Nearly all departed to unknown destinations after applying for asylum. By the end of November, the number of registered asylum seekers decreased from 100 to 81. The government issued identity documents to all asylum seekers, recognized refugees, and other persons under humanitarian protection. There were some delays noted issuing identity documents to new asylum seekers. By the end of November, 31 asylum seekers, refugees, and other persons of concern from Kosovo, including Roma whose asylum applications were rejected, obtained Macedonian citizenship. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, or in which they would be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. A total of 1,643 asylum seekers, refugees, persons under humanitarian/subsidiary protection, and other persons of concern remained in the country from the 1999 conflict in Kosovo, most of them Roma. The UNHCR noted progress in the return process of Roma to Kosovo, which it has been facilitating on the basis of individual voluntary requests. In early November the country adopted the new National Plan for Integration of Refugees and Foreigners that focuses on housing, education, health, social protection, employment, and community development. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, generally free and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On March 22 and April 5, the country held national presidential and municipal elections. In contrast to the 2008 parliamentary elections, the elections were peaceful, and the OSCE stated that police provided a secure environment. The OSCE characterized the elections as meeting most commitments and other international standards, and noted that the overall administration of the elections was professional and transparent. However, the OSCE and other observers noted that intimidation of voters was a problem. Public sector employees were particularly vulnerable to threats that their jobs would be in danger if they did not support the governing party. Some citizens receiving pensions or social services were also threatened with the loss of this income if they did not vote as instructed. In October the Ministry of Justice began a pilot project in two municipalities, Gostivar and Vinica, aimed at updating the voters' lists. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. There were 39 women in the 120-seat parliament and two women in the 22-member Council of Ministers. The law requires gender diversity in each political party's candidate list; at least one in every three candidates must be of the gender opposite of the majority gender on the list. None of the country's 85 mayors were female. There were 29 ethnic Albanians, four ethnic Serbs, two ethnic Vlachs, one ethnic Turk, one ethnic Roma, one ethnic Bosniak, and one person formally declared as being of ``other'' nationality in the 120- seat parliament. There were eight members of minorities in the 22- member Council of Ministers. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials often engaged in corruption with impunity. There were several claims during the year of government interference in high profile cases of ``abuse of office'' or ``misuse of official position'' in order to threaten noncompliant government officials or party members or to intimidate key opposition leaders. A number of current and former government officials faced charges of misuse of position or abuse of office, while other officials and opposition leaders reported threats that they would face such charges. Former manager of the Health Fund, Georgi Trenkoski was arrested, detained, and charged in November with malpractice of official duty after resigning his position in August, reportedly over disagreements with government policy. Supporters claim that the media was tipped off ahead of his arrest to ensure a ``perp walk.'' Media coverage of his case was derogatory, implying guilt ahead of his trial. Police and judicial corruption were problems. During the year the Judicial Council removed 11 judges for unprofessional and unethical conduct. On July 16, the Judicial Council suspended Judge Liljana Jankova, pending the outcome of a corruption-related investigation. During the year three judges from Struga along with 10 other persons went on trial for embezzlement and defrauding investors. On January 28, the Ministry of Interior initiated an investigation into corruption by police and customs officials accused of taking bribes at the country's border crossings. In August and September, the Ministry of Interior arrested 61 border police and three customs officers and filed criminal charges against them with the Public Prosecutors Office. Trials for 45 defendants were underway at year's end. Trials for the remaining 16 are scheduled for January 2010. The investigation was ongoing at year's end. On December 16, the former governor of the National Bank of Macedonia, Ljube Trpeski, began serving his sentence of 4.5 years, after being convicted in February 2008 of embezzling approximately 950 million denars ($22 million). On December 9, the appellate court annulled the decisions of a first instance court in the cases of Vasil Tupurkovski, a former deputy prime minister and director of the Agency for Reconstruction and Development, and former prime minister and minister of defense Vlado Buckovski, charged with corruption and abuse of office respectively. The appellate court found procedural flaws with both trials and sent them back to the first instance court for retrial. There was no retrial date at year's end. In April court hearings began in the case of the former director general of the electric company, Pande Lazarov, on trial for taking kickbacks and money laundering. Lazarov was released on bond into home detention pending the outcome of the trial. The trial was ongoing at year's end. In April the Supreme Court granted the appeal of the former director of the Public Revenue Office, Petra Miteva, convicted and sentenced to three years in prison on charges of misuse of official position for improperly purchasing office space. The Supreme Court ruled that the case should have been tried as a civil case and that there was no basis for a criminal complaint. The State Commission for the Prevention of Corruption was responsible for investigating charges of corruption as well as complaints submitted by citizens. From January to September, the commission received 298 complaints. Members of parliament and high-ranking public officials were subject to financial disclosure laws. The law provides for public access to government information. Implementation lagged, especially in respect to citizens' access to court judgments and other court decisions. However, there were notable improvements in public access to court judgments during the year. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings. The government was generally cooperative and responsive to their views. Approximately 500 domestic and internationally registered NGOs operated in the country, including a number focused on human rights and civil society issues including women's rights, interethnic dialogue, LGBT rights, children's issues, and concerns of disabled persons. The international community also engaged the government on human rights issues, and many foreign and multilateral missions implemented projects on a range of human rights and civil society issues, including projects related to free and fair elections and improved relations between ethnic Macedonians and ethnic Albanians. The ombudsman worked to protect citizens against infringement of their rights by public institutions, to reduce discrimination against minority communities and persons with special needs and to promote their equitable representation in public life, and to address issues of children's rights. The ombudsman has the right to visit all detained persons and to report findings to the UN. Most cases concerned violations of judicial procedures, police abuse, and labor, consumer, or property rights. The ombudsman reported good cooperation and communication with the government but noted that while government responses to its inquiries were usually timely, they were often not substantive and at times lacked requested information. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and permitted visits by representatives of the UN and other organizations, including a January visit by the OSCE high commissioner on national minorities and an April visit by the UN special rapporteur for freedom of religion or belief. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on gender, race, disability, religion, or national, social, or political affiliation, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. A number of NGOs criticized the piecemeal nature of legal prohibitions against discrimination and raised concerns about the lack of clear systems for legal remedies for victims of discrimination. A coalition of NGOs representing a broad range of interest groups called for comprehensive antidiscrimination legislation, and a number of international organizations supported efforts to develop such legislation. Women.--The law specifically prohibits rape, including spousal rape; however, legal sanctions were not a significant deterrent. The penalties for rape or forcible sexual assault range from one to 15 years' imprisonment. As with domestic violence, police and judicial officials were reluctant to prosecute spousal rape, and many victims did not come forward due to social stigma. Domestic and other violence against women was a persistent and common problem. An NGO that maintained centers for victims of domestic violence reported increased use of their facilities by victims of domestic violence. Ministry of Interior statistics for the first six months of the year indicated that there were 271 reports of physical violence against women and 194 reports of psychological violence against women. Cultural norms, including victims' concerns over possible shame to the family, discouraged the reporting of violence against women, including filing criminal charges. Domestic violence is illegal, but authorities rarely enforced the law in practice. There were reports that police officers were unaware of provisions of the law that allowed them to act to protect victims of family violence. There was one NGO-operated and six limited-capacity government shelters for women at risk, a national NGO-operated hotline, and a crisis center for temporary (24- to 48-hour) shelter for victims of domestic violence. Local NGOs combating domestic violence relied largely on international donors. Some women's groups worked to raise awareness of the problem. The government sponsored a public campaign against domestic violence, using well-known athletes. Prostitution is illegal; however, authorities did not always enforce the law. The government deported some foreign women accused of prostitution and prosecuted some men for ``mediating'' in prostitution. Those deported were screened by qualified antitrafficking professionals prior to deportation to assure they were not victims of trafficking in persons. Sexual harassment of women in the workplace was a problem, particularly in the private sector. Sexual harassment in the workplace is prohibited under the Law on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women, and is addressed specifically in the criminal code with a sentencing guideline of three months to three years. Authorities could prosecute sexual harassment under antidiscrimination provisions under Macedonian law, but victims have generally not brought cases forward due to lack of clarity of antidiscrimination provisions in the absence of comprehensive legislation. Although women remained underrepresented in the higher levels of the government and the private sector, there were several prominent professional women in the public sector, including the interior and culture ministers. The rights of women to make reproductive decisions are not infringed. Contraceptives were very widely available and affordable. Obstetric and postpartum care was available at hospitals throughout the country and was accessible to expectant/new mothers through medical coverage provided to employed persons through their employers and to unemployed persons through the national welfare systems. Women and men were equally diagnosed with and treated for sexually transmitted infections. The Department of Gender Equality in the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy was responsible for ensuring the legal rights of women. There were gender commissions at the municipal council level. Women from ethnic Albanian and Romani communities did not have equal opportunities for employment and education due to traditional or religious restrictions on their education and role in society. In some Albanian communities, the practice of men voting on behalf of female family members disenfranchised women. Children.--Citizenship is derived primarily by citizenship of parents, but the law allows for acquisition of citizenship by birth in the country's territory (jus soli)for a child found in the territory of Macedonia with unknown parents, in the case that his/her parents are not discovered to be foreigners before the child reaches the age of 18. Births of all children in hospitals and medical institutions are registered automatically, and law requires that all children, including those born at home or elsewhere, be registered at magistrate offices within 15 days of birth. Some Roma families delayed registration of newborns, but NGOs provided free legal assistance to ensure that families could register children even after the administrative deadline. As in previous years, poor physical conditions of schools and insufficient classroom space were common complaints, with many schools offering classes in shifts as a result. In many places these shifts were along ethnic lines. Boys and girls generally had equal access to education, although there were isolated instances of discrimination against girls in educational institutions in some ethnic Albanian areas. Child abuse was a problem in some areas. The Center for Social Work of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy and the Department for Juvenile Delinquency of the Ministry of Interior were responsible for addressing child abuse. NGOs were also active in this area. There were reports that Roma often organized their children into groups to beg for money in public places. Child marriage occurred in the Romani community and, to a lesser extent, in the ethnic Albanian community, but it was difficult to estimate the number because child marriages were rarely registered. According to 2005-06 UNICEF data, there were between 500 and 1,000 street children in the country; most of them were Roma. With international support, the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy operated a day center for street children, although Romani leaders reported that the center was not effective in providing long-term assistance to street children. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, through, within, and from the country. The prevalence of trafficking in persons in the country was minor. Women and children were trafficked internally for the purpose of sexual exploitation and forced labor. Roma children were internally trafficked for the purpose of forced begging. Victims were trafficked into the country from Kosovo and Albania, and to South-Central and Western Europe. During the year eight trafficking victims were identified. Seven of those were minors, and all were Macedonian citizens. Police raids and testimony by victims confirmed that traffickers subjected a small number of trafficking victims to threats and physical or psychological abuse. However, NGOs and international community representatives reported that, to ensure that they did not identify themselves as trafficked victims if police questioned them, traffickers increasingly arranged for their victims to reside in the country legally, paid them some money for their services, and granted them limited freedom of movement. Traffickers' modus operandi continued to evolve in response to law enforcement tactics, including increased use of more hidden, private sectors, such as beauty salons and massage parlors. The Ministry of Interior, in cooperation with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), began a training program in November for 250 local and border police to focus on indentifying the new, more discreet, victim profile and adapting police methods to the changing methods of traffickers. Victims were trafficked both by large, international trafficking and smuggling organizations and smaller, one-off traffickers. Most traffickers had previous criminal backgrounds. The traffickers used coercion tactics more often than outright kidnapping or abduction. Traffickers used devices such as false marriage proposals and enticing job offers to lure their victims. There were also reports of the involvement of friends and family members in the recruitment phase and eventual trafficking of the victims, especially in cases that involved minors. The law specifies a minimum sentence of four years for trafficking through the use of force, fraud or coercion, and a minimum of 10 years for trafficking minors. The government's National Commission for Combatting of Trafficking and Illegal Migration coordinated antitrafficking efforts. The Ministry of Interior led law enforcement efforts, while the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy coordinated victim protection. A total of eight ministries, the Chief Public Prosecutor's Office, NGOs and international organizations, and court representatives also participated. The government's increased enforcement of trafficking and the courts' aggressive prosecution resulted in increased sentences for traffickers, although one organization reported that basic courts sometimes still prosecuted traffickers under smuggling laws. Authorities discovered most victims of trafficking during police raids on bars and nightclubs. Reports indicated that corruption continued to directly hamper the country's antitrafficking efforts. For example, local brothel owners were occasionally tipped off prior to raids, allowing traffickers to elude law enforcement and brothel owners to hide potential trafficking victims. During the year police conducted 59 raids of suspicious bars and nightclubs. Local NGOs and international organizations trained police on the proper identification and treatment of trafficking victims and participated in postraid interviews. By the end of the year, the police brought six cases of trafficking of minors to the Office of the Chief Prosecutor. Of those six, two were indicted and the trials were ongoing; one was under judicial investigation, pending indictment; two were sent back to the police for further evidence gathering; and one was rejected for lack of evidence. The total number of individuals charged with trafficking in persons was 18. The average sentence for traffickers was more than five years. NGOs, international organizations such as the OSCE and the IOM, and a number of foreign embassies in Skopje participated in an antitrafficking steering committee led by the government's antitrafficking commission. The government offered assistance to potential victims, including shelter, legal and medical assistance, witness protection, psychological assistance, and vocational training. The law provides for a residency permit of up to six months and a reflection period for foreign victims to allow them more time to receive assistance and decide whether to testify against their traffickers. To date, no foreign trafficking victims requested the residency permit. The government continued to improve implementation of its victim-centered standard operating procedures for victim identification. In order to ensure consistent use of standard operating procedures by local police, the government, in partnership with the international community, began extensive trainings during the year that focused on the continued implementation of the standard operating procedures. The government continued to operate a reception center for foreign migrants and foreign trafficking victims; victims' freedom of movement in this center is limited. The government continued to conduct trafficking prevention and awareness campaigns and provided antitrafficking training to its military forces deployed abroad. The Ministry of Interior conducted two major operations to root out police and border officers who facilitated smuggling and illegal migration. On July 1, authorities arrested 13 people, including one senior police officer, and charged them with human smuggling for the smuggling of Asian migrants from Serbia, through Macedonia, to Greece. On August 25, the Organized Crime Unit began arresting border police and customs officers for allegedly taking and/or soliciting bribes at border entry points. While there was no direct evidence linking either case to trafficking crimes, authorities noted that both operations aided in securing the borders against vulnerabilities to international trafficking crimes. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--Persons with disabilities faced discrimination in employment, education, access to health care, and other state services. The law requires persons with physical or mental disabilities to get approval from a medical commission of the government to serve in supervisory positions in both the private sector and the government. The law also offers incentives to certain ``shelter companies'' to provide employment for persons with disabilities, but NGOs reported that restrictions on which companies qualified limited employment opportunities for persons with disabilities. Laws require only that new buildings be made accessible to persons with disabilities. Many public buildings remained inaccessible. Inconsistent inspection resulted in construction of new facilities that were not accessible for persons with disabilities. Advocates stated that employers were reluctant to hire persons with disabilities and that the difficulty of accessing educational and other opportunities prevented the full integration into society of persons with disabilities. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy is responsible for integrating persons with disabilities into economic life and for the payment of benefits. In practice, disability benefits did not cover the cost of living. Advocates indicated that employment and life-skills training programs for persons with mental and physical disabilities were very limited and did not contribute significantly to economic integration. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--According to the 2002 census, the population was 64.2 percent ethnic Macedonian, 25.2 percent ethnic Albanian, 3.9 percent ethnic Turkish, 2.7 percent ethnic Romani, 1.8 percent ethnic Serb, 0.8 percent ethnic Bosniak, and 0.5 percent ethnic Vlach. According to a Roma NGO, societal hostility toward Roma continued, but instances of direct attacks on Roma diminished. Relations between the ethnic Macedonian majority and the ethnic Albanian minority were strained. From late March until the end of the 2008-09 school year, ethnic Macedonian students who sought ethnically separated shifts boycotted a secondary school in Struga. During the summer, construction began on two new schools in Struga to alleviate overcrowding, but those projects were not scheduled to be completed during the year. The 2009-10 school year started with ethnically separated shifts and an expectation that the separation would continue for the foreseeable future. In other locations as well, students from different ethnic groups sometimes studied in separate shifts or at separate facilities, either due to linguistic differences or at their parents' request. On August 16, there were violent clashes between a group of ethnic Macedonian soccer fans and ethnic Albanian residents following a soccer game in Skopje. The local police were criticized for failing to respond quickly to the incident; however, the Ministry of Interior launched an investigation and arrested eight persons in connection with the incident. Ethnic Albanians continued to complain of unequal representation in government ministries. Ethnic Macedonians often claimed that employers targeted them for reverse discrimination in downsizing, regardless of performance. Some ethnic Albanians claimed that discrimination in citizenship decisions by the Ministry of Interior, which has authority to grant, revoke, interrupt, or confirm a person's citizenship, effectively disenfranchised them. Following the adoption of the Ohrid Framework Agreement in 2001, the law provides for protection of minority rights and integration of all sectors of society. The government has a secretariat for implementation of the Agreement to hold accountable those state institutions that do not comply with the strategy for equitable minority representation. According to the secretariat, there were 800 new public administration jobs advertised and 360 new jobs offered to ethnic minorities during the year under the equitable representation requirements of the Agreement. Data from September showed that ethnic minorities accounted for 23.9 percent of employees of state institutions. Seventy-two percent of the budgeted 220 million denars ($4.4 million) was used by the secretariat during the year. The government adopted a budget of 436 million denars ($8.7 million) for the secretariat for 2010. Ethnic Albanians remained underrepresented in the military and police, despite efforts to recruit qualified minority candidates. The law provides for primary and secondary education in Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish, and Serbian. The number of minority students who received secondary education in their native languages continued to increase, especially after secondary education became mandatory. Ethnic Turks complained of discrimination. Their main concerns were slow progress in achieving equitable representation in government institutions, the absence of ethnic Turkish majority municipalities in the 2004 municipal redistricting, and the inadequacy of Turkish- language education and media. Roma complained of widespread societal discrimination. NGOs and international experts reported that employers often denied Roma job opportunities, and some Roma complained of lack of access to public welfare funds. Romani NGOs also reported that proprietors occasionally denied Roma entrance to their establishments. The government funded implementation of the national strategy for the Roma Decade, including assistance with education, housing, employment, and infrastructure development. The government also continued to fund Roma information centers that directed Roma to educational, health care, and social welfare resources. Increased NGO and government funding to eliminate barriers to education for Romani students resulted in continued increases in school attendance rates. For the 2009-10 school year, there were 13.4 percent more Romani students enrolled in primary education and 26 percent more in secondary education versus during the previous school year. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were two registered NGOs addressing lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues, including one dedicated to gay health issues. Activists representing the rights of LGBT individuals reported incidents of societal prejudice, including harassment and use of derogatory language, including in the media. LGBT activists joined a coalition of NGOs called ``Macedonia without Discrimination'' and were subjected to derogatory language when they participated in protests against the construction of an Orthodox church in Skopje's main square. LGBT organizations also reported societal discrimination and violence against transgender persons in the Skopje municipality of Shuto Orizari, noting that victims felt unsafe to report violence against them to authorities. On November 16, an NGO coalition led a march through the city center for LGBT tolerance under the motto ``Love is love.'' In contrast to a 2007 denial of a permit to an LBGT NGO to organize an event in the Skopje city center, organizers were issued a permit and reported excellent cooperation with the Ministry of Interior. Police coverage of the march was very substantial, allowing the event to occur without incident. Nearly all media outlets covered the event and the reporting was largely fact-based and straightforward. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence and isolated reports of discrimination, in the form of employment discrimination and impeded access to health care, against persons with HIV or AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right to form and join independent unions without previous authorization or excessive requirements and workers did so in practice. Unions may freely register with the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. More than 50 percent of the legal workforce was unionized, and unions were particularly well represented in the public sector. There were two major union federations, the Confederation of Trade Unions of Macedonia (SSM) and the Confederation of Free Trade Unions (KSS). Several unions were not affiliated with either of the two confederations, including unions of journalists, police officers, farmers, financial sector workers, and health care workers. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers, including civil servants, exercised this right in practice. The law grants members of the military and police a restricted right to strike. During a strike, the law allows employers to ``exclude'' or temporarily release up to 2 percent of workers whom they believe are potentially violent. These workers would be rehired after the strike. The unions maintained that this provision allows employers to exclude union leaders from negotiations during a strike. If a strike is declared illegal, participants may be dismissed or sued for damages. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions to operate without interference; however, the government did not always enforce these laws in practice. The law protects the right to bargain collectively, and most unions had collective bargaining agreements. The law, however, requires that trade unions represent at least 33 percent of workers or employers in order to negotiate these agreements. All legally employed workers were covered by collective bargaining agreements for the public or private sectors. Although collective bargaining took place, employees had very little practical negotiating leverage due to the country's weak economic environment, and many agreements failed to keep pace with changes in the environment and workplace. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, it existed in practice. In some cases former employees accused private companies of firing workers for participation in union activities, although the companies usually had other justifications. Because of the delays in the court system, it could take a worker who was unjustly fired two to three years to regain employment through legal action. Employers were rumored at times to have interfered in the internal affairs of unions by dominating union election campaigns or running their own candidates in union elections. There is one export processing zone where two foreign-owned companies began operating this year and where several other companies were in the process of building factories. There were no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the zone. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, forced labor still occurred. Criminal convictions for forced labor were handed down in several cases. Women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor in the service sector. Roma children were especially vulnerable to trafficking for forced begging which often took place at busy intersections, on street corners, and in restaurants. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, including a prohibition of forced or compulsory labor. The law mandates a prison sentence of at least eight years for anyone who buys, sells, keeps, or takes children or minors for the purpose of exploitation. The minimum age for employment is 15 years. Children 14 years of age can work as apprentices or as part of an official education program. The law prohibits employing minors under the age of 18 in work that is detrimental to their physical or psychological health and morality. The law also prohibits minors from working nights or more than 40 hours per week. There were no official reports of illegal child labor during the year; however, there was evidence that such labor was used in the gray economy, primarily involving children who begged and sold cigarettes and other small items at open markets, in the streets, and in bars or restaurants, sometimes at night. The children involved in these activities were primarily Roma and most often worked for their parents. Officials did not punish such violations, and children remained vulnerable to exploitation. A 2005-06 report funded by the UN Children's Fund estimated that approximately 500-1000 children worked in such activities. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy was responsible for enforcing laws regulating the employment of children. Government efforts to eliminate forced begging by children have been largely ineffective; while the necessary laws are in place, there has been little practical implementation of them. During the year the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy funded two centers in Skopje that provided education, medical, and psychological services to children who beg on the street. NGOs funded two additional centers for children in Skopje with support from the government. International donors supported programs to prevent children from begging on the street and to increase school enrollment of children at risk for such work. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The country does not have a national minimum wage established by law. According to official statistics, the average monthly net wage by September was 20,044 denars ($400), which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The government statistics office estimated that approximately 28.7 percent of the population lived below the poverty line in 2008, the most recent year for which data were available. The law establishes a 40-hour workweek with a minimum 24-hour- rest period and vacation and sick leave benefits. Employees may not legally work more than 10 hours of overtime per week, 20 hours per month, or 190 hours per year. According to the collective agreement between the government and the SSM, employees have a right to overtime pay of 135 percent of regular pay. In addition, employees who work more than 150 hours of overtime per year are entitled to a bonus of one month's salary. However, high unemployment and difficult economic conditions allowed many employers to hire workers without complying with the law. In particular, small retail businesses often required employees to work well beyond the legal limits. During the year the Labor Inspectorate of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy filed complaints against several private businesses for forcing workers to work long hours without the breaks required by law and for not legally registering all employees. In the case of such violations, labor inspectors have the legal authority to close an establishment until the violations are corrected. In cases of repeated violations, the owners can be fined. During the year authorities temporarily closed more than 1,000 companies due to labor violations and nonregistered workers. No record of the number of employers fined was available. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy did not strictly enforce laws and regulations on worker safety. While workers have the legal right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their future employment, employers did not always respect this right in practice. __________ MALTA Malta is a constitutional republic and parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 400,000. The president is the head of state and is appointed by the unicameral parliament (House of Representatives). The president appoints as prime minister the leader of the party that gains a majority of seats in parliamentary elections. General elections held in March 2008 were free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that the government detained irregular migrants under harsh conditions; there were some restrictions on free speech. Societal problems included child abuse, trafficking in persons, and substandard work conditions for irregular migrants. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, authorities detained irregular immigrants under poor conditions for up to 18 months during review for protected status. In August 2008 authorities charged four prison wardens with assaulting and seriously injuring a prisoner following his attempt to escape from a government correctional facility. The case was ongoing at year's end. During the year the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) continued to provide training for authorities in handling detainees. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in most prisons and detention centers for domestic detainees generally met international standards; however, there continued to be reports of poor conditions in government-run detention centers for irregular migrants. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. As of December the prison population of 556 inmates consisted of 489 men, 32 women, and 35 juveniles (30 boys and five girls). Male and female prisoners were held separately. Several European and international organizations, including the Council of Europe's (COE's) Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT), the UNHCR, and the EU, criticized conditions in the country's detention centers for irregular migrants. Problems included overcrowded and unsanitary prison space, guards who were insensitive to the need for separating men and women in confined spaces, the absence of meaningful vocational or recreational activity within the centers, and lack of access to legal counsel. There were no reports that the government took any specific action during the year in response to the CPT's criticism (in its 2007 report) that authorities detained some unsuccessful asylum seekers for up to 40 days in airport facilities appropriate only for 20-hour detention. However, during the year the problem was resolved as a result of a decline in the number of asylum seekers and faster processing of asylum applications by an enlarged staff in the Refugee Commissioner's Office. The government permitted occasional visits to its detention centers by independent human rights observers, including foreign diplomats. In January a mission of the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concluded a visit to the country undertaken at the government's request. Authorities granted the mission access to the Safi and Lyster Barracks, the Corradino Correctional Facility, the closed wards at Mount Carmel Hospital, and to detention facilities at the Police General Headquarters, the Valletta Police Station, and the Armed Forces of Malta. While noting a number of positive features of the institutions and laws in place to prevent arbitrary detention, the delegation observed that the detention regime imposed on irregular migrants arriving by sea was not in line with international human rights law. It noted that such detainees remained for long periods in substandard conditions which, in the case of the Safi and Lyster Barracks, it described as adversely affecting the health, including the mental health, of some of the detainees. It expressed particular concern over the detention of migrants deemed vulnerable, e.g., minors, pregnant women, and families with children. In March Doctors without Borders (MSF) suspended activities at three detention centers for migrants on the grounds that it could not ``offer adequate medical care'' in what it referred to as ``appalling'' living conditions. In July the organization resumed its activities at the Ta'Kandja ``closed center'' after discussions with authorities. Following MSF's departure, authorities removed tent housing from the camps mentioned in its report and replaced them with trailer-type living facilities. They rehabilitated the facilities at Lyster Barracks to include upgraded toilet and kitchen facilities. The government was also receptive to donations of clothing and other materials, and to provision of educational assistance by outside groups, including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and a foreign embassy. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the police force, the security service, and the armed forces, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reported problems related to impunity within the police force or security service. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--With the exception of irregular migrants, whom authorities almost always detained for six to 18 months pending adjudication of any asylum requests, an arrest warrant issued by a magistrate is generally necessary to detain a person for questioning and may be issued on the basis of reasonable suspicion. According to the constitution, police must either file charges or release a suspect within 48 hours; in all cases authorities must inform detainees of the grounds for their arrest. Police generally respected these requirements in practice. During the 48-hour detention period, which generally included initial interrogation by police, arrested persons have neither the right to legal counsel nor to meetings with family members. Once authorities file charges, they give pretrial detainees access to counsel and family. Authorities adjudicated applications for bail on a case-by-case basis but normally granted them. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair and public jury trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public and juries are used. Defendants have the right to counsel of their choice or, if they cannot afford counsel, to court- appointed counsel at public expense. Defendants and their lawyers have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Defendants may confront witnesses and present evidence; defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have the right to appeal. All citizens enjoy these rights. Lengthy delays in both criminal and civil trials were frequently reported. During 2008 the European Court of Human Rights issued judgments that found one violation by the country of the right to a fair trial and one violation involving length of proceedings. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution provides for an independent and impartial court in civil matters, including for the determination of civil rights or obligations, and for access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Persons who have exhausted their right to appeal in the national court system could apply to bring an alleged breach of human rights covered by the European Convention on Human Rights before the European Court of Human Rights. Civil and judicial procedures for the exercise of this right exist, and citizens regularly made use of them. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected this prohibition in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of speech and of the press; however, there are restrictions on ``vilification'' of, or ``giving offense'' to, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Religion, the country's official church. Also illegal, but carrying a lesser punishment, is vilification of, or giving offense to, any ``cult tolerated by law.'' It is an offense to publicly utter any obscene or indecent words or make obscene acts or gestures, or in any other way offend public ``morality, propriety, or decency. According to the Times of Malta, the home affairs minister told parliament in October that in the first three months of the year, authorities initiated criminal proceedings against 162 persons for blaspheming in public; they began similar proceedings against 621 persons during 2008. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. International media operated freely, and there was no indication of reprisals against individuals for either public or private criticism of the government. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet use was widespread; an estimated 59 percent of households and 90 percent of schools (state, church, and private) had Internet access. Numerous Internet cafes and many blogs operated freely throughout the islands. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 49 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet; however, a November Eurostat study showed that 64 percent of households had Internet access (up from 53 percent in 2006). Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom. The law restricts cultural activities that publicly vilify the Catholic Church. In March authorities arrested, tried, and gave a suspended one-month prison sentence to a man convicted of giving offense to the Roman Catholic Apostolic Religion by dressing up as Jesus Christ during February carnival festivities in the village of Nadur. In February the Board of Film and Stage Classification prohibited production of the Anthony Neilson play, Stitching, on the basis that it was blasphemous and obscene. The production company, Unifaun Theatre Company, instituted legal proceedings against the prohibition; at year's end the case was before the courts. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution establishes Roman Catholicism as the state religion; however, numerous non-Catholic religious groups, including an Islamic community, various Protestant and evangelical denominations, and a small Jewish community, practiced their faiths freely. Religious instruction in Catholicism is included as part of compulsory primary education in all state schools; however, both the constitution and law establish the right not to receive this instruction if the student, parent, or guardian objects. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of anti- Semitic acts during the year. The Jewish community numbered approximately 120 persons. There was some hostile speech toward Muslims in blogs, letters to the editor, and comments associated with Internet-based articles on migration problems; the focus was primarily on the irregular immigrant status of many Muslims rather than on their religion. There were no reports that the government instituted any steps to prevent or punish such hostile speech under this or other provisions of law. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government generally cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. However, irregular migrants were subject to mandatory incarceration while their immigration status was under review. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would potentially be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Authorities detained irregular migrants for up to 18 months after they arrived in the country, in most cases in closed detention centers. Such migrants could file asylum claims within two months of their detention and remained in detention while their cases were processed. Detainees also included persons who did not apply for asylum and those whose asylum applications and appeals were rejected or were under review. Individuals awaiting decisions on their cases occasionally protested their detention or attempted to escape from detention centers. Shortly after their initial detention, authorities usually moved ``vulnerable individuals'' such as children, pregnant women, elderly persons, and parents with infants to ``open centers,'' where they were free to come and go. The armed forces are responsible for the management of the closed detention centers and report directly to the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs, while the Agency for the Welfare of Asylum Seekers (AWAS), a part of the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs, has responsibility for the welfare and accommodation of persons transferred from detention centers to open centers. Authorities released all detainees whose cases were not resolved within 18 months, whether or not police had arranged to repatriate them. They were permitted to remain in the country, allowed to stay in ``open centers,'' and given work permits. EU law prohibited them from travelling to other EU countries, and they were not eligible to bring family members to the EU. They were eligible for voluntary repatriation programs, but most did not choose to participate. For some applicants not legally entitled to asylum, the government provides ``subsidiary protection,'' and provided it to 1,030 persons from January through August. Beneficiaries of subsidiary protection, introduced in 2008 with the implementation into domestic law of an EU Council directive, were entitled to remain in the country; move freely; be granted personal identification documents, including a one-year renewable residence permit; and obtain travel documents, especially in emergency situations. They could be employed, subject to labor market considerations; receive core social welfare benefits; seek appropriate accommodations; and could benefit from integration programs, public education and training, and essential medical care, especially in the case of vulnerable persons. Their dependents, if in the country when the status is conferred, enjoy the same rights and benefits. However, this status does not provide family reunification, a path to citizenship, or other benefits of refugee status under the 1951 convention. The government also provides ``temporary humanitarian protection'' as an administrative procedure granted in special and extraordinary cases in which applicants are found not to be eligible for asylum or subsidiary protection but are considered to be in need of protection for special humanitarian reasons. This protection was provided to six persons from January through August. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In March 2008 the country held parliamentary elections that observers considered to free and fair. On June 6, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. There were six women in the 65-seat parliament and two in the 14- member Cabinet of Ministers. Approximately 13 percent of senior government officials were women, and two women held ambassadorial rank. There were two female judges and six female magistrates. None of the country's five members of the European Parliament was a woman. There were no members of minorities in the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. In November a court found former chief justice Noel Arrigo guilty of accepting money to reduce the sentence of a drug trafficker, of trading in influence, and of revealing official secrets. On November 26, he received a sentence of two years and nine months in prison. One of his colleagues on the three-member Criminal Court of Appeals pleaded guilty to related charges in 2007, apologized, and served a two-year sentence. Arrigo indicated he would appeal the verdict and the sentence. In October the COE's Group of States against Corruption issued a report indicating their judgment that penalties for judicial corruption were too low. Government officials are subject to financial disclosure laws; the court has the right to order financial disclosure, depending on its judgment of the circumstances. The police and the Permanent Commission against Corruption were responsible for combating official corruption. Laws relating to certain sectors of the economy give the press and public access to certain government-held information relating to those sectors. For government activities in areas not specified in these laws, there was no legal entitlement to government-held information; however, authorities generally provided access. A freedom of information law enacted in 2008 was scheduled to enter into full force in 2010. A newly established Information and Data Protections Commission, the regulatory agency responsible for implementing the act, began to issue initial directives establishing the scope of its jurisdiction. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and generally responsive to their views. The government cooperated with UN and other international bodies. The Standing Committee on Foreign and European Affairs and the Standing Committee on Social Affairs of the parliament have responsibilities for human rights issues. The president appoints an ombudsman with the consent of two thirds of the members of parliament. The ombudsman is empowered to investigate complaints about the activities of governmental bodies, including activities that affect human rights. The ombudsman only investigates complaints when administrative or judicial remedies are not available. When the ombudsman concludes that a complaint is wholly or partly justified, he submits recommendations to the public entity concerned with the aim of undoing the harm the complainant suffered. The ombudsman has no power to force acceptance of any recommended remedy; however, most of his recommendations were accepted. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense, and the government effectively prosecuted such crimes. The crimes of rape, spousal rape, and indecent assault carry sentences of up to 10 years in prison. Rape was not perceived to be a widespread problem. However, there were convictions for rape during the year. From January through October, the police domestic violence unit received 467 reports of domestic violence. The law makes domestic violence a criminal offense, and the government effectively enforced the laws prohibiting it. Penalties ranged from three months to 20 years in prison. Some NGOs and victims' assistance advocates asserted that domestic violence was underreported, primarily because of concerns by women that they would not be believed or protected by law enforcement personnel. A special police unit and several voluntary organizations provided support to victims of domestic violence. There was a hotline to assist victims of abuse through counseling and shelter referrals. The government also supported victims through the Ministry for Social Policy. A government-supported shelter for women and children was in operation throughout the year; the government also provided financial support to other shelters, including one operated by the Catholic Church. The law prohibits prostitution, and the government effectively enforced it. The law provides for sentences of several months to two years in prison and fines. From January through October, police recorded 71 separate cases of prostitution. There were a number of prosecutions during the year. There were no reports that police or other security forces participated in or tolerated prostitution or targeted persons in prostitution for abuse. Sexual harassment is unlawful and punishable by a 2,329 euro ($3,260) fine, six months' imprisonment, or both. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning. There were no restrictions on access to contraceptives. There was a free and effective government health program which provides for prenatal and postnatal care and delivery, as well as other related medical services. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women have the same legal rights as men, including, but not limited to, family and property law. Redress in the courts for sexual discrimination was available. The Ministry for Social Policy and the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality were responsible for gender equality and focused on broader integration of women into society and advising the government on the implementation of policies promoting equality of women and men. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on gender. This prohibition was generally enforced in practice. Although women constituted a growing proportion of higher education graduates and of the workforce, they were underrepresented in management and their earnings were generally less than those of their male counterparts. According to second quarter statistics, the unemployment rate for women was 6.9 percent compared with 7.0 percent for men. Figures on the wage disparity between women and men differed moderately; the National Statistical Office indicated that for 2008, men were paid 17 percent more than women in comparable jobs, and the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) reported in January that the pay gap was 23 percent. Between the end of 2007 and the end of 2008 (the latest period for which statistics are available), the female employment rate rose from 36.3 percent to 38.5 percent, while the male employment rate decreased from 73.5 percent to 71.6 percent. Children.--Citizenship is generally derived from one's parents, although some specific applications of the law can be complex. In 2008 the Child Protection Service of Appogg, the social welfare services arm of the Ministry for Social Policy, received 854 referrals of possibly abused children, down from 1,060 in 2007. The case turnover total was 1,256, down from 1,512 the prior year. There were 464 new cases, down from 716 in 2007. Courts convicted a number of persons for the sexual abuse of minors during the year. Some observers speculated that part of the decline was due to an increase in the legal drinking age from 16 to 17, resulting in significantly fewer minors in potentially predatory situations. A number of sources consistently claimed that authorities did not pursue cases of alleged sexual abuse of children by Catholic clerics unless a parent or adult filed a formal complaint but instead allowed the church to handle the matter internally. Once a complaint was filed, however, authorities followed the same police investigative and judicial processes as for other such complaints. Statutory rape is punishable by three to six years in prison. The minimum age of consent is 18. Rape committed by violence carries a penalty of imprisonment for three to nine years, with or without solitary confinement. Creation of child pornography is prohibited and punishable by imprisonment from one to five years (up to eight years in special circumstances). Possession of child pornography is also prohibited and punishable by imprisonment not exceeding two years. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were rare reports that persons were trafficked to the country for sexual exploitation. The number of cases was too small to constitute a pattern, but the country has been a destination for women trafficked from Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Sweden, and other European countries. In addition irregular migrants from African countries who arrived en route to Italy and elsewhere may be vulnerable to human trafficking. Most traffickers appeared to be Maltese nationals acting independently. In some earlier cases, traffickers appear to have identified vulnerable targets for sexual exploitation after the potential victims arrived in the country. In other cases traffickers recruited their victims abroad, telling them they would be performing legitimate work in Malta, and later forcing them into prostitution. The law makes trafficking an offense punishable by two to nine years in prison. Punishment is more severe for offenses which are accompanied by grievous bodily harm, generate proceeds of more than 11,646 euros ($16,654), or are organized by a criminal network. Authorities may prosecute alleged traffickers regardless of citizenship if the suspected offense took place within the country. The law states that a person who uses violence, deceit, or threats to force a person to depart, or come to, the country for the purpose of prostitution is subject to imprisonment for up to two years with or without solitary confinement. The maximum sentence increases to five years if victims are less than 21 years of age and may be as high as 10 years if there are aggravating circumstances. There were no reports of new prosecutions for trafficking during the year. A case in which four persons were apprehended in 2006 for trafficking a Romanian woman for commercial sexual exploitation was not concluded; the judge heard the case in March 2007 but delayed further proceedings pending resolution of a related case that was on appeal. There were no reports that authorities condoned or facilitated trafficking in persons during the year; however, a police officer convicted of complicity in trafficking in 2005 remained free on appeal. No domestic NGOs specialized in assisting human trafficking victims; the government assisted foreign victims through government- funded shelters used primarily for victims of domestic violence. Authorities also offered assistance through the social welfare system. Authorities developed a formal system for referring all women in prostitution apprehended by police to government social workers and began proactively seeking to identify trafficking victims among asylum seekers. However, authorities did not identify any trafficking victims during the first 11 months of the year. There were no reports that authorities punished trafficking victims for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of their being trafficked. Authorities arrested suspected traffickers and offered protection to victims. They also provided protection to witnesses and encouraged victims to assist in the investigation and prosecution of traffickers; victims were willing to testify only in closed hearings. Once victims provided evidence, authorities returned them to the care of social services, at which time they typically requested repatriation to their countries of origin. In March 2008 police and the Ministry for Social Policy signed a memorandum of understanding to formalize a screening process for all persons arrested for engaging in prostitution to determine whether they were victims of trafficking or other abuses. NGOs interviewed all migrants in an effort to determine whether they might be potential victims of trafficking. Authorities may issue residence permits to nonnationals who have been trafficking victims or were implicated in facilitating trafficking, provided that they cooperate with the competent authorities. The government cooperated with other governments in the investigation of trafficking. In 2008 police cooperated with the International Criminal Police Organization-INTERPOL and Russian authorities to arrest individuals in Moscow based on information gathered through local trafficking investigations. Authorities also improved efforts to protect victims of trafficking. In February Appogg conducted a training session on victim assistance for government social workers, including those who work with the irregular migrant population. Also in February more than 80 police personnel and social workers participated in training to prevent trafficking and identify and protect trafficking victims. The government boosted prevention activities during the last year. To raise awareness, Appogg produced detailed brochures that included information to help identify possible and potential victims and described sources of assistance. They were distributed at health clinics, community centers, churches, and, to target potential clients of the sex trade, at entertainment centers. In January police provided training in identifying and assisting trafficking victims to 60 officers. The government publishes brochures and supports a Web site with links to a hotline to educate the public on prevention of trafficking. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits both the public and private sectors from discriminating against persons with disabilities in employment, education, health care, access to goods and services, housing, and insurance, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. As of the end of September, the National Commission for Persons with Disabilities (NCPD), the agency responsible for enforcement of this law, was working on 113 discrimination complaints pending from previous years. During the year ending in September, the NCPD opened investigations into 130 new cases and satisfactorily concluded 137. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The population included more than 10,000 persons of Arab, African, and eastern European origin. There continued to be isolated reports that owners of some bars and discos periodically discouraged or prohibited darker-skinned persons, particularly of African or Arab origin, from entering their establishments. In June authorities charged a bouncer at a popular entertainment area with causing a serious injury followed by death after a Sudanese migrant, whom he allegedly hit in the face, died of head trauma. The case was ongoing at year's end. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity From October 29 to November 1, the Malta Gay Rights Movement hosted the International Lesbian and Gay Association-Europe Conference with an estimated 300 participants from 48 countries. It also freely carried out other public activities. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution allows workers to form and join unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers did so in practice. The law does not allow uniformed military and police personnel to join unions. Approximately 55 percent of the workforce was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Workers, with the exception of uniformed military and police personnel, have the right to strike, and during the year they exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. The government did not respond to urging by the International Labor Organization that it amend the labor law to eliminate compulsory arbitration; however, this provision was not employed during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, and it was freely practiced. Many employees without the right to strike or join unions participated in associations, such as the police association, through which they sought to protect their interests. The law protects collective bargaining. During the year there were no reports of antiunion discrimination or other forms of employer interference in union activities. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's one export processing zone. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women were trafficked, primarily from abroad, for purposes of forced commercial sexual exploitation (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government generally implemented them effectively; however, there were reports that underage children worked as domestic laborers, restaurant kitchen help, or vendors, and during the summer in family-owned businesses. The law prohibits the employment of children younger than 16. The director general of the directorate for educational services may grant an exemption for employment only after determining that it would not harm the health or normal development of the minor. The Employment Training Corporation (ETC), a government entity under the Ministry for Social Policy, is responsible for labor and employment issues. It generally enforced the law effectively in most formal sectors of the economy but allowed summer employment of underage youth in businesses operated by their families. No assessment was available of the effectiveness with which the ETC monitored the often unregistered employment of children as domestic employees, restaurant workers, and street vendors. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national weekly minimum wage of 146.47 euros ($209), combined with an annual mandatory bonus of 270 euros ($386) and a cost-of-living increase of 242 euros ($346) (automatically adjusted annually), provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Following consultations with workers and employers, the government established the minimum wage, which it revised annually based on changes in the cost of living. Irregular migrant workers from Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan, and other sub-Saharan African countries, who comprised a small but unquantifiable percentage of the workforce, sometimes worked under conditions that did not meet the government's minimum standards for employment. In September 2008, according to press accounts, the General Workers' Union (GWU) issued a report documenting what it called the ``exploitation'' of migrant workers. The general secretary of the GWU told a press conference that such workers were often employed in the most hazardous of occupations, such as road construction and highway refuse cleanup, where traffic and environmental conditions pose a danger, and in the building trades, where accidents such as collapses may occur. In many cases, migrants received less than the minimum wage. In November 2008 AWAS (then called the Organization for the Integration and Welfare of Asylum Seekers), in coordination with the ETC, established informational programs to help individuals understand how to pursue employment and obtain work permits. The GWU and AWAS believed that the programs were beneficial, but there was no data to validate this assessment. During the year the government ended an assisted voluntary return program called ``Dar'' (Maltese and Arabic for ``Hom.''), through which irregular migrants who volunteered to leave the country could receive free rail or air fare to their country of origin, plus 5,000 euros ($7,350). At year's end the program had successfully repatriated 112 immigrants, the majority from Ghana, Nigeria, and Sudan. The Dar program was replaced by an 80-percent EU-funded program called ``Restart I,'' administered for the government by the International Office of Migration. Restart provided 200 euros ($288) cash, and up to 2,000 euros ($2,880) toward education or business start-up costs, as well as additional educational preparation toward a migrant's return. By year's end Restart I had repatriated 29 migrants to their countries of origin. This program was scheduled to continue under the name ``Restart II'' in 2010. The standard workweek was 40 hours, but in some occupations, such as health care providers, airport workers, and civil protection services, it was 43 or 45 hours. Government regulations provided for a daily rest period, which is normally one hour, and one day of rest per week. Premium pay is required for overtime. Excessive compulsory overtime is prohibited, and workers cannot be obligated to work more than 48 hours, inclusive of overtime. The Ministry of Social Policy generally enforced these requirements effectively in the formal economy. The Occupational Health and Safety Authority (OHSA), a government entity composed of representatives of the government, unions, and employers, conducted regular inspections at work sites and cited a number of offenders. Enforcement of health and safety standards continued to be uneven; industrial accidents remained frequent, particularly in the manufacturing and building and construction sectors. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered health or safety without jeopardizing their employment, and OHSA generally enforced this right. __________ MOLDOVA Moldova is a republic with a form of parliamentary democracy. The country has an estimated total population of 3.95 million, including 532,000 in the secessionist-controlled region of Transnistria.\1\ An estimated 900,000 citizens, including approximately 250,000 Transnistrians, lived outside the country. The constitution provides for a multiparty democracy with legislative and executive branches, as well as an independent judiciary and a clear separation of powers between them; however, under the previous government led by the Party of Communists (PCRM), which was in power until September 25, the three branches of government were heavily influenced by the president. On April 5, the country held parliamentary elections that failed to fully comply with international standards. In that election the ruling PCRM increased its previous majority in parliament. Following that parliament's failure to elect a president, as prescribed by law, new parliamentary elections took place on July 29, and the four opposition parties won enough seats to establish a governing coalition, known as the Alliance for European Integration, which entered office on September 25. International observers noted some of the same problems in the July elections as in April but also reported improvement in the electoral process. On September 11, parliament appointed Mihai Ghimpu interim president. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- \1\ Unless otherwise noted, all references in this report exclude the secessionist region of Transnistria. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Security forces committed killings and engaged in widespread beatings and unlawful detentions during and after the April 7-8 election-related protests. Security forces beat persons in custody and while apprehending them, and they held some persons in incommunicado detention. Prison conditions remained harsh. Under the previous government, security forces occasionally harassed and intimidated the political opposition and media. There were reports of police corruption, arbitrary detention by police, and occasional illegal searches. The government attempted to influence the media and intimidate journalists, maintained some restrictions on freedom of assembly, and refused official registration to some religious groups. Judicial corruption was a problem. Persistent societal violence and discrimination against women and children, trafficking of women and girls for sexual exploitation and men for labor, discrimination against Roma, difficulties registering minority religious groups, limits on workers' rights, and child labor were also reported. Following the April 5 parliamentary election and announcement that the PCRM had increased its majority, a group of between 10,000 and 15,000 persons gathered in Chisinau on April 7 to protest the election results. Protesters initially demonstrated peacefully, and police largely stood by and did not intervene. During the course of the day, a small group of demonstrators began to throw rocks at the police. Violence intensified as protestors set fire to the parliament building and severely damaged the presidential building. Several protesters and approximately 200 police officers were injured. After midnight, as police used force in an attempt to disperse the remaining demonstrators; human rights groups alleged that security forces killed as many as three persons. That night and during the days that followed, police arrested more than 300 demonstrators; many reported being beaten and abused while being taken into custody and while in detention. During the days that followed, security forces conducted a campaign of harassment and intimidation against members of the political opposition, journalists, and others assumed to be opponents of the PCRM government. Plainclothes police abducted and detained persons suspected of involvement in the protests. Security forces beat journalists and destroyed cameras; plainclothes police abducted and detained the editor of an independent newspaper. Police visited high schools and universities, seeking the identities of protesters and threatening students with expulsion if they participated in protests. Following the disturbances on the night of April 7-8, crowds declined rapidly, and demonstrations ceased within a few days. The arbitrary arrests also ceased. In 1990 separatists supported by Soviet military forces declared a ``Transdniester Moldovan Republic'' (Transnistria) in the area along the eastern border with Ukraine. The central government had very limited authority in the region, and Transnistrian authorities governed through parallel administrative structures. The most commonly spoken language in the region was Russian, although many Transnistrians spoke Romanian and Ukrainian as their mother tongue. A 1992 ceasefire agreement established a tripartite peacekeeping force composed of Moldovan, Russian, and Transnistrian units. Transnistrian residents were prevented from voting in both rounds of Moldova's parliamentary elections in April and July. Transnistrian authorities held ``legislative'' elections in 2005 and ``presidential'' elections in 2006. Transnistrian elections were neither recognized nor monitored by international organizations. In Transnistria authorities restricted the ability of residents to freely change their government and interfered with the ability of Moldovan citizens living in Transnistria to vote in Moldovan elections. Transnistrian residents were expected to vote in the 2005 and 2006 Transnistrian elections, but some individuals were unable to freely run as candidates, while authorities prevented the media from reporting freely on candidates or issues. Torture and arbitrary arrest and detention continued to be reported, and prison conditions remained harsh. Transnistrian authorities continued to harass independent media and opposition lawmakers; restrict freedom of association, movement, and religion; and discriminate against Romanian speakers. Trafficking in persons was a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) alleged that government agents committed unlawful killings in connection with the postelection violence on April 7-8. The Council of Europe (COE) commissioner for human rights noted that three persons were found dead in Chisinau shortly after the postelection violence. NGOs accused police of beating to death Valeriu Boboc, age 23, during demonstrations at the parliament building and presidency on the night of April 7-8. Witnesses reported seeing police beat Boboc in front of the main government building with truncheons and rifle butts. A British forensics expert examined Boboc's body after it was exhumed on June 15 and concluded that Boboc was killed by severe blows to his head, which provoked a ``diffuse injury of the brain'' shortly before his death. Experts working for the PCRM government, however, concluded that Boboc's head and facial injuries could not have led to his death and at first attributed his death to poisoning by an unknown gas. The COE commissioner for human rights noted that the injuries revealed in the autopsy ``clearly indicate that the person was beaten'' but concluded that ``it was not certain whether the beating alone was the cause of death.'' Ion Matiusenco, the prosecutor investigating Boboc's case, resigned on July 31 and was replaced by another prosecutor. At year's end there were no further developments in the case. On April 8, the body of Ion Tabuleac was found on a road approximately a mile and a half outside the Chisinau city center. According to the autopsy report, the body showed evidence of internal and external injuries, including multiple bone fractures. The local medical expert concluded that the injuries to the body were consistent with a fall from a height. While there was no evidence directly linking Tabuleac to the previous night's protests, the timing of the death and nature of his injuries led observers to speculate that his death was likely connected to the protests and related violence. Eugen Tapu was also found dead shortly after the April 7 protests. On April 16, Tapu's father was summoned by police to Chisinau to retrieve his son's body, which was severely decayed and showed signs of beating. The elder Tapu was told at the morgue that his son had hanged himself with shoestrings. Oleg Rusu, the prosecutor investigating the case, stated that the dead body was found on April 15, but that the death occurred approximately two weeks before that date. Following the determination of suicide, prosecutors did not initiate court proceedings. b. Disappearance.--There was one report of a potentially politically motivated disappearance. Gheorghe Ionel, mayor of Vorniceni village and member of the then-opposition party, Our Moldova Alliance (AMN), was arrested by police on February 27 on charges of abusing his authority, but was acquitted by Straseni District Court. While the judge was reading the judgment of acquittal, police surrounded the courthouse and forced their way into the courtroom. During the commotion Ionel disappeared and remained incommunicado through year's end. It was not clear whether he was taken into custody or was sequestered by friends or AMN officials for his own protection. At year's end, Ionel's whereabouts remained unknown. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices and criminalizes inhuman treatment and torture; however, police used cruel and degrading arrest and interrogation methods and guards beat prison inmates. Under the law, inhuman treatment carries a sentence of eight to 15 years' imprisonment; torture carries a sentence of 16 to 25 years. Coercing an individual to testify is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment and if such coercion involves cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, it is punishable by three to eight years' imprisonment. Torture inflicted by an official in order to punish, intimidate, or obtain information from a person is punishable by two to five years' imprisonment. Although the law provides torture victims the right to file complaints, in practice they had little chance of being heard under the previous government. At times courts declined to hear their complaints, and long delays in legal process caused petitioners to abandon their claims. Victims carried the burden of proving that they had been mistreated, which was difficult since prisoners often remained in detention for months before having access to courts. By the time they were able to appear in court, the physical evidence of abuse had disappeared. Following the change in power, the new government established an April 7 commission which heard the cases of those detained after the demonstrations; police were prosecuted for related abuses. Local and international NGOs reported widespread incidents of abuse and torture of persons detained after the April 7-8 demonstrations. The Moldovan Institute for Human Rights, which interviewed detainees, reported that nearly all who were arrested were abused. According to local NGOs, 81 percent of persons detained following the April 7-8 demonstrations alleged that they were beaten while being apprehended, and 64 percent claimed that they were subsequently beaten and abused in police custody. According to a December 14 report by the COE Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT), members of the ``Fulger'' special purpose police force figured prominently in reports of excessive force and mistreatment during the demonstrations. During the afternoon of April 7, Fulger members threw approximately three stun grenades into crowds of protesters, causing injuries that included burns and ear and brain trauma. At approximately 1:00 a.m. the following morning, Fulger members, allegedly wearing ski masks in addition to their police helmets, initiated mass arrests of all persons remaining in or near the square in front of the government building. Officers from the Chisinau General Police Directorate assisted the Fulger officers. During these arrests officers allegedly kicked demonstrators and struck them with batons and the butts of firearms. Once in police custody, methods of physical abuse included beatings by multiple persons, burning with cigarettes, exposure to cold, and deprivation of food and sleep. Methods of psychological abuse included threats of death or long-term imprisonment, restriction of communication with the outside world, forced signing of false confessions, and being forced to strip in front of interrogators. Local NGO Memoria reported approximately seven cases of rape and sexual abuse by police officers. Memoria also reported that women and girls were subjected to other types of degrading treatment, including being forced to do push-ups and sit-ups while naked. These abuses were not widely publicized because of victims' embarrassment and reluctance to come forward. According to the Prosecutor General's Office, most abuses occurred at the time of apprehension; during transport to a detention facility; and within detention facilities, including during questioning designed to extract a confession. The abuse did not continue after sentencing. The COE commissioner for human rights visited the country on April 25-28. The majority of persons interviewed by the commissioner's delegation reported that police physically abused them on the night of April 7-8. In most cases the victims of abuse were under the age of 25. In his report on the visit, the commissioner noted claims that prisoner abuse led to loss of consciousness and permanent nerve damage; he also noted claims by female prisoners that male officers forced them to squat naked and stand up repeatedly to verify that they were not concealing objects inside their bodies. The commissioner also noted that, in the period following the riots, 115 persons sought medical attention at the Chisinau Emergency Hospital for injuries caused by the police. Of those, 24 were severe enough to require hospitalization, including concussions, kidney contusions, and multiple fractures. According to the minister of justice, 28 of the 111 persons brought by police to Prison Number 13 in Chisinau displayed signs of physical injuries. In several cases the medical expert accompanying the COE commissioner for human rights directly observed physical marks consistent with allegations of abuse, although more than two weeks had elapsed since the time the alleged abuses occurred. The files studied by the commissioner's medical expert contained records of injuries that were consistent with the accounts of physical abuse given by the alleged victims. For example, a person interviewed by the commissioner's delegation alleged that he was beaten at the time of his arrest on April 7 and subsequently during his detention in the General Police Directorate, where he reportedly lost consciousness. The person claimed that he sustained multiple injuries as a result of the mistreatment, including a fractured finger from a blow with the butt of a gun and being trampled or kicked by combat boots. The person was admitted to the Emergency Medical Hospital on April 20; his hospital records indicated that he had a concussion, contusion of the rear of his head and thorax, fracture of the index finger of the right hand, and contusions of the right leg and both arms. In the view of the expert, those injuries were consistent with the person having sustained a heavy beating in the manner that he described. In another case a parliamentarian indicated that she was present near the parliament building when, following what appeared to have been a verbal dispute, two police officers grabbed her left arm and twisted it, causing her great pain. According to her account, the officers dragged her by her hair along the asphalt pavement, and one of them kicked her in the right buttock while the other struck her in the back of the neck. She reportedly lost consciousness as she was thrown to the ground by the officers. The parliamentarian was hospitalized in the Emergency Hospital from April 9 to 24; hospital records indicated that she had a fracture of the left forearm in the area of the wrist and a concussion. Another person apprehended on April 7 claimed that he was beaten at the time of apprehension and again upon reaching the Central District police station. On the way from the police vehicle to the station he was allegedly forced to pass through a ``corridor'' of police officers, who punched, kicked, and beat him with batons. On April 21, he was examined by a doctor, who found that his nose was fractured and that he had a concussion and trauma of the sternum and ribs. Local authorities in Chisinau, led by the city's mayor, strongly condemned police abuses during and after the April protests, and demanded that the Ministry of Interior fully investigate these cases. Between April 12 and September 10, the Prosecutor General's Office reported that it had initiated 25 cases involving police mistreatment of citizens and registered 76 additional citizen-initiated complaints in connection with events of April 7-8. Of these 101 cases, 51 involved complaints of violence by police at the point of arrest and 50 related to abuses committed by police at local police stations. As of September 10, the Prosecutor General's Office had initiated 14 criminal cases and declined to refer 54 cases for criminal prosecution. Four of the 14 criminal cases involved allegations of torture, eight involved excessive use of authority, one involved police theft of a news camera, and one involved intentional infliction of nonthreatening injuries. The Prosecutor General's Office and official forensic examiners concluded that, out of 90 persons examined, 32 had no injuries, 14 had light injuries, 33 had injuries that did not affect general health, seven had medium injuries, and four cases required additional investigation. Officials concluded that the majority of injuries occurred when police tried to restrain protestors or stop scuffles between protestors and police. Some arrestees complained that they were unable to identify those who beat them, because members of security forces were masked or hidden from their view at the time of arrest. According to the CPT, during its late-April visit, authorities were investigating 99 cases of alleged police abuse related to the April 7-8 demonstrations. At the time of the CPT's return visit in July, prosecutors had not initiated criminal charges against any members of the police. After the new government came to power, prosecutors initiated 106 investigations of alleged police torture and other abuses. Through these investigations, prosecutors pursued 46 criminal cases against members of the police, including 26 cases involving torture, 12 cases of abuse of power, and other cases involving murder, attempted murder, and attempted kidnapping. At year's end prosecutors had forwarded eight cases to the courts. These cases involved a total of 15 officers, four facing torture charges and 11 facing abuse of power charges. In a September 16 report, the Prosecutor General's Office stated that between January and September, it had examined 554 complaints of mistreatment; opened 33 cases alleging torture; and opened 31 cases alleging excessive use of authority by the police officers. The office forwarded 20 of these cases to court, 16 of which led to convictions and one to a prison sentence. Between April 12 and September 10, the Prosecutor General's Office received 101 complaints regarding use of force and physical violence by police against protestors: 51 allegations of abuse at the time of arrest and 50 allegations of abuse while in police stations. In July 2008 the UN special rapporteur on torture stated that police abuses remained common, and prosecutors, judges, medical staff, and staff at penitentiaries failed to investigate allegations of mistreatment and torture promptly. Alleged torture methods included severe beatings, electroshock, asphyxiation through oxygen deprivation while wearing gas masks, and putting needles under fingernails. In his February 12 report, the rapporteur acknowledged some improvements by the government but also noted the widespread prevalence of mistreatment of prisoners in preventive detention and the continued use of torture by some police. The rapporteur also noted that complaint mechanisms were inefficient, that a statute of limitations impedes justice in torture cases, and that in a majority of cases prosecutors refused to allow independent medical examinations. On January 29, the Chisinau Court of Appeals reinstated charges against penitentiary officer Sergiu Perdeleanu for allegedly torturing prison inmates in October 2008. The court downgraded the charges from a criminal to an administrative offense. On May 19, the Supreme Court of Justice annulled the decision of the Appeals Court, and requested reconsideration by a different judge in the same court. The case remained under reconsideration at year's end. On September 14, during a visit to Prison No. 13, the ombudsman reported that detainees complained of suffering continuous psychological pressure from other detainees and intimidation from prison authorities--including the imposition of unjustified disciplinary sanctions to force them to withdraw their testimony in the criminal case against Perdeleanu. The ombudsman requested that the Ministry of Justice and prosecutors take all legal measures necessary to protect the witnesses. There were developments in the April 2008 case of Serghei Bezman, a prisoner at the Taraclia penitentiary who reported to the local Helsinki Committee that Alexander Ivanovich Malina, an employee at the penitentiary, insulted, threatened, and beat him. Bezman also claimed that guards kicked him in the chest for writing complaints to officials and then forced him to eat his written complaint. During the year Bezman alleged that he was visited in prison by former deputy justice minister Nicolae Esanu, who threatened to make his ``life more difficult'' if Bezman continued to accept legal assistance from the Helsinki Committee and did not abandon his case against Malina. In July Bezman's attorney received a letter from prosecutors stating that the case was closed for lack of evidence. Bezman's legal representative reported that he was denied access both to the Taraclia penitentiary and the Department of Penitentiaries. Following the change in government, Bezman's attorney again contacted the prosecutor's office, which replied on November 19 that the opportunity to file appeals had lapsed. There was no information available on the German citizen prisoner who was reported by the Helsinki Committee in 2008 to be suffering malnutrition and was reportedly forced to repair his cell in four different prisons from his own funds. Between December 2008 and July, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found three violations of the prohibition against torture and six violations involving inhuman or degrading under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In December 2008 the ECHR ruled that brothers Pavel and Vitalie Levinta had been tortured after they were extradited to the country from Russia in 2000. Mistreatment included beating the soles of their feet and the interruption of oxygen supply to gas masks the two were forced to wear. Following this abuse the brothers confessed to charges of membership in criminal organizations and were sentenced to 20 years in prison. The ECHR ruled that the two had been subjected to torture and denied proper medical care and access to lawyers, that the government had failed to explain their injuries, and that their convictions were based on illegally obtained evidence. The brothers were awarded 8,000 euros (approximately $11,440) for nonpecuniary damage. During the year the ombudsman's office reported that the two brothers remained in prison pending the completion of their sentence. The government maintained that since the ECHR ruled only on the torture and not on the underlying criminal charges, there was nothing improper about the brothers continuing to serve their sentences. On June 16, the ECHR ruled that Sergei Gurgurov, arrested in 2005 on allegations of theft of a mobile phone, was tortured by authorities. Gurgurov accused police of suspending him from a metal bar (by his hands and legs, which were tied behind his back), forcing him to wear a gas mask and then interrupting the oxygen supply, and applying electrical shocks to his ears. After his release on bail in 2005, he was diagnosed with fracture of his cranial bones, cerebral contusion, injury to his spine, paralysis of his legs, and posttraumatic deafness. In its judgment the ECHR criticized the Office of the Prosecutor General for failing to seriously investigate the case and for pressuring Gurgurov's lawyer not to appeal the case to international human rights bodies. The court awarded Gurgurov 45,000 euros (approximately $64,350) in damages. On June 23, the ECHR ruled that Petru Buzilov, arrested in May 2002 on suspicion of racketeering, was tortured shortly after his arrest. Buzilov was doused in cold water while receiving electrical shocks and forced to wear a gas mask, then deprived of oxygen. The court ruled that authorities failed to carry out an adequate investigation into the incident and awarded Buzilov 30,000 euros (approximately $42,900) in damages. In the separatist region of Transnistria, former detainees alleged they had been subject to torture and mistreatment in detention centers. According to NGO Promo-LEX, approximately 90 detainees in a Tiraspol pretrial detention center began a hunger strike on October 10 to protest ``cruel, degrading, and inhuman treatment,'' that included arbitrary detention, torture, and denial of medical care and legal assistance. Promo-Lex reported that many of the detainees had been held for more than six months without a court hearing, and some relatives claimed that they had not been able to visit detainees or deliver food packages. There were continued reports of mistreatment of military conscripts in Transnistria. NGOs and international bodies working in the region reported that local ``prosecutor's offices'' failed to examine detainee complaints of torture and did not initiate criminal cases against police officers accused of torture. An independent torture monitoring mechanism did not exist in the region. In Transnistria the closed military court system regularly ignored reports of alleged hazing and abuse of conscripts in the Transnistrian ``army.'' According to NGOs the treatment of conscripts improved slightly during the year: food was reported to be better and parents were allowed to visit their conscripted sons. In contrast with previous years, there were no reports of conscripts being forced to march and run in boots that were several sizes too small. There were unconfirmed reports that Transnistrian authorities drafted men who had already completed mandatory military service in the Moldovan armed forces. However, reports of hazing continued, and officers warned conscripts not to report it and harm the army's reputation. Transnistrian military authorities continued to restrict information on deaths of conscripts, although there were reports of at least two such deaths during the year. One conscript allegedly killed himself by jumping from a third-floor window. On January 21, Serghei Verbitskii was found dead in a trailer used by Transnistrian soldiers working in the kitchen facilities of a military unit. Verbitskii died as a result of a fire reportedly caused by a short circuit. On January 30, the Transnistrian Military Prosecutor's Office stated that military commanders violated local legislation that forbids housing soldiers in facilities other than barracks. The Military Prosecutor's Office mentioned that similar violations occurred very often in Transnistria. No further developments in this case were reported by year's end. No further developments were reported in the case of Eugen Kolobyshko, a 19-year-old Ukrainian citizen who served in a Transnistrian military unit. In February 2008 Kolobyshko's body was found in the Dniester River. Kolobyshko's relatives reported that his body bore signs of violent injuries, and he had complained that others in his military unit were humiliating, insulting, and extorting money from him. Following the death the military unit offered Kolobyshko's parents 7,000 euros (approximately $10,000) in compensation. After Kolobyshko's father declared that he intended to emigrate, his phones were allegedly tapped and Transnistrian authorities refused to allow him to cross checkpoints and subjected him to regular ``preventive discussions.'' Because Kolobyshko held Ukrainian citizenship, his father appealed for help from the Ukrainian Embassy in Chisinau. At year's end there were no further developments in the case. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Conditions in most prisons, including those in Transnistria, remained harsh, dangerously overcrowded, and in some instances life threatening, notably in the Balti and Tiraspol prisons. Prisons and pretrial detention facilities fell far short of meeting international standards. Conditions were particularly harsh in pretrial and presentencing facilities, where suspects were sometimes held for months or years awaiting trial. Convicted prisoners were frequently held in pretrial detention facilities. Pretrial detention facilities remained dark and overcrowded. Inmates' access to healthcare was also inadequate. Juveniles were routinely held with adults, and prisoners suffered from insufficient ventilation and low quality food. Prisons did not provide for recreational activities. Cell sizes did not conform to local law or international standards. The incidence of malnutrition and disease, particularly tuberculosis, was high in all prisons. During the year parliamentary ombudsmen noted that the government had completed renovations in two of the country's 18 penitentiaries; the renovations reduced overcrowding and improved medical facilities. However, the ombudsmen reported that overcrowding in unventilated spaces, lack of timely access to healthcare, and poor sanitation continued to be the norm in the other 16 penitentiaries. In all penitentiaries they noted poor relations between prison authorities and prisoners. In a February report, the UN special rapporteur on torture noted that police kept most detainees in custody for several weeks or months; they often returned to pretrial detention facilities only when physical signs of torture were no longer visible. In the Transnistrian region, prisoners transferred by police were packed together in poorly ventilated vans and were often held in such conditions for hours. Prisoners with diseases, such as tuberculosis, were routinely held with healthy prisoners. Local NGOs reported that persons arrested following the April 7-8 demonstrations were kept in cramped conditions (15to 20 persons in a 108 square foot cell) and moved from location to location in overcrowded vehicles with no ventilation. The Ministry of Interior reported that it apprehended 166 persons, including 17 minors, who were released to their parents by April 9. However, local NGOs and Chisinau municipal authorities estimated that the accurate number of persons apprehended was as high as 700. According to the COE commissioner for human rights, persons arrested in the aftermath of the April 7-8 demonstrations were brought to several police facilities in Chisinau. Those initially detained in one of the district police stations were then transferred to the detention facility at the General Police Directorate. Because of the large number of persons detained in Chisinau, some detainees were transferred to police facilities in other parts of the country, including Drochia, Taraclia, and Vulcanesti. Police transferred 111 persons from police facilities under the authority of the Interior Ministry to Prison No. 13 in Chisinau (under the Ministry of Justice). The commissioner did not receive any complaints regarding the treatment of protesters held in Prison No. 13. Most persons interviewed by the commissioner claimed that they had been stopped (and assaulted) on the street by plainclothes officers, who allegedly did not identify themselves, and then taken away in unmarked cars; many said that they were not certain whether they were being apprehended by law enforcement officials or being kidnapped. On April 11, representatives of the Consultative Council for the Prevention of Torture (the National Preventive Mechanism under the UN Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture) were reportedly prevented from visiting some Chisinau police establishments where persons were being held. The commissioner received many complaints about the conditions of detention in police establishments following the large-scale arrests; most of these involved reports of serious overcrowding, very poor hygiene, lighting, and ventilation, as well as the lack of provision of food, clean bedding, and personal hygiene or sanitary items. Some detainees reported that they were subjected to severe or prolonged abuse that made them lose consciousness at least once or caused bone fractures or nerve damage. Many victims also reported that they had been threatened with physical violence or summary execution, verbally abused, and subjected to other forms of humiliating treatment. Senior police officers confirmed to the commissioner that no female police officers were assigned to the detention facility at the General Police Directorate in Chisinau. According to the minister of justice, 28 of the 111 persons admitted to Prison No. 13 following detention by the police displayed injury. The commissioner's medical expert observed that the records of injuries kept in the detention facility at the General Police Directorate in Chisinau were extremely cursory and superficial, in contrast to the prison and hospital medical records. A CPT delegation also noted deficiencies in the recording of injuries at police establishments in a report on its 2007 visit to the country. The government permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights observers, and prison officials generally allowed observers to interview inmates in private. Representatives of international organizations and embassies were allowed to make visits to detainees arrested after the April 7-8 demonstrations but only several days after the arrests. The government cooperated with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and permitted visits to prisoners in accordance with the ICRC's standard practices. On July 27-31, a delegation of the COE Committee for the Prevention of Torture carried out an unplanned visit to the country. In July 2008 Transnistrian authorities allowed the UN special rapporteur on torture to visit detention facilities. The rapporteur expressed concern about the practice of permanent solitary confinement for persons sentenced to life imprisonment or execution. Transnistrian civil society representatives complained that it was extremely difficult to gain access to Transnistrian detention facilities. Conditions in those facilities were grave, particularly in the Tiraspol prison. Sick and contagious prisoners shared quarters with healthy prisoners. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--While the law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, authorities did not observe these prohibitions in practice. A parliamentary ombudsman employed by the government regularly visited various places of detention, including police stations and detention rooms at psychiatric hospitals, railway stations, and the Chisinau airport. The ombudsman found that many arrestees were not registered in log books and railway police arbitrarily arrested citizens before their trains departed and released them after their trains left the station. Police at the airport often detained travelers for document checks and then released them without explanation. Most of the persons placed in detention at police stations were arrested for petty crimes, insulting police, or for document checks, although they were carrying valid documents. In May 2008 Moldovan police allegedly detained and verbally harassed the chairperson of the Transnistrian youth organization Proryv as she traveled to the Transnistrian region; she was held for two hours at a Moldovan checkpoint near the city of Bender. In May 2008 in the government-controlled village of Dorotcaia, Transnistrian authorities arrested 26-year-old Stefan Berzan for allegedly passing counterfeit currency. Berzan had earlier reported the counterfeit currency to Transnistrian police, who directed him to accompany them to the separatist-controlled city of Grigoriopol, denying his request that Moldovan police also accompany him. According to NGO reports, Transnistrian police mistreated Berzan during detention and forced him to confess to the crime. In August 2008 the Grigoriopol court in Transnistria convicted Berzan and sentenced him to six years in prison, but released him to five years' probation. In September 2008 the Moldovan interior ministry dismissed Berzan from his job as a fireman because of the criminal conviction. On June 24, the Chisinau Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Berzan and ordered him to be reinstated. In its February report, parliamentary ombudsmen noted several cases in which police record books contained no mention of the arrest of prisoners who were in jail, thus allowing authorities to extend custody beyond the 72-hour limit prescribed by law. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police force is the primary law enforcement body. It is subdivided into regional and city police commissariats, which are subordinated to the interior ministry. Police corruption remained a problem. The Prosecutor General's Office is responsible for investigating police activities. According to the office's staff, the interior ministry often ignored, or only superficially examined, their reports of violations by police. An internal affairs unit that reported to the ministry investigated incidents of impunity and corruption. A Transparency International survey conducted between February and March reported that 51 percent of the persons interviewed said they paid bribes to the police. According to the latest available statistics, 600 citizens lodged complaints with prosecutors' offices in 2007 regarding abusive police behavior. Following the complaints 258 criminal cases were opened, 32 police officers were dismissed, 12 were prosecuted for bribery, and 24 former officers were imprisoned. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law allows judges to issue arrest warrants based on evidence from prosecutors. Authorities must promptly inform detainees why they were arrested and describe the charges against them. Suspects may be detained without charge for 72 hours. Although the law provides the right to appear before a judge to challenge the lawfulness of the arrest and detention, this right was not always respected in practice, particularly in the case of those arrested after the April 7-8 demonstrations. Once charged, a detainee may be released on personal recognizance pending trial. The law provides for bail, but it was rarely permitted, and the bail system did not function well. Authorities generally did not authorize bail for detainees accused of violent or serious crimes. Detainees have the right to a defense attorney; at times this right was restricted. Authorities generally did not grant detainees access to a lawyer until 24 hours after being detained. Police often told persons that they were witnesses in a case, questioned them without a lawyer present, and subsequently detained them as suspects. Detainees were often informed of the charges against them without a lawyer being present. The government required the local bar association to provide representation to indigent defendants but did not pay legal fees; such defendants often did not have adequate counsel. The large-scale arrests following the April 7-8 demonstrations were characterized by a failure to implement some fundamental rights of persons in custody, including their right to notify a third party (e.g. a family member), to have access to a lawyer and to a doctor, and to receive clear information about these basic rights. The parliamentary ombudsman visited police stations and the prison in Chisinau on April 13 and stated that he found a number of ``irregularities'' in the implementation of fundamental safeguards; in particular, the rights of notification of custody and access to a lawyer were not fully respected or were subject to delays. The law permits pretrial detention for up to 30 days. The courts may extend pretrial detention for up to 12 months, depending on the severity of the charges. Pretrial detentions lasting several months were common. Amnesty.--The government generally granted amnesty to persons sentenced to less than four years in prison, with the result that such persons rarely served jail time. On April 15, then-president Voronin announced a ``total amnesty'' for all persons facing administrative charges related to the events of April 7-8 in an effort to ``bring society together.'' The gesture was complicated by the fact that several high-profile arrestees remained in custody after the ``amnesty'' was announced and most other detainees released. The law provides for amnesty only after a person is convicted of a crime, so some legal experts questioned the effect of Voronin's announcement. Seven persons facing criminal charges for organizing the April 7-8 protests were excluded from the ``amnesty.'' These persons remained under investigation until the new government entered office. At that time the Prosecutor General's Office announced that it was closing these investigations without charges. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, official pressure and corruption remained problems. There continued to be credible reports that local prosecutors and judges occasionally asked for bribes in return for reducing charges or sentences, and observers asserted that judges were sometimes politically influenced. Political factors played a role in the reappointment of judges. According to Freedom House, judges were appointed and promoted on the basis of subjective and nontransparent factors. Younger judges, who held initial five-year appointments, were particularly vulnerable to influence by the executive branch. In April 2008 national bar association president Gheorghe Amihalachioaie stated that lawyers, particularly those involved in actions against the government and those representing opposition parties, were politicized and discriminated against. Amihalachioaie also claimed that the judicial system favored the prosecution and judges favored the ruling authorities. Some politicians claimed judicial harassment by the PCRM government. Before the April 5 elections, authorities brought charges, some of them a decade old, against opposition party leaders. On June 12, prosecutors charged Chisinau mayor and Liberal Party Deputy Chairman Dorin Chirtoaca with organizing mass disorder and attempting a coup on April 7. On November 16, after the new government was in place, the Prosecutor General's Office announced that it was dropping its criminal investigation of Chirtoaca because investigators could not find elements of a crime in the mayor's actions. After the April 7-8 demonstrations, the Prosecutor General's Office published a list of politicians whom it planned to investigate in connection with the riots. As of year's end, no further development had been reported. After the new government assumed office, all outstanding charges were dropped. During the year the case against Serafim Urechean, leader of the Our Moldova Alliance (AMN) for abusing his position as Chisinau mayor for personal gain remained active. Urechean had also been charged with attempted murder of the then-deputy speaker Iurie Rosca, but in October after the new government assumed power, the Prosecutor General's Office sent a letter of apology to Urechean, stating that the attempted murder charges had been dropped. At the time the charges were initially filed, the AMN was one of the largest opposition political parties. In 2008 prosecutors resurrected charges against Nicolae Andronic, leader of the Popular Republican Party, at the court in Buiucani. Prosecutors alleged that Andronic authorized the withdrawal of 200 tons of wheat from the state reserve as a loan to a private company during his term as deputy prime minister in 1998-99. Andronic claimed that the case was politically motivated and aimed at eliminating his party from the parliamentary election. On November 11, after the new government was in place, the Buiucani court acquitted Andronic of all charges. During 2008 the ECHR issued judgments which found 15 violations by the country of the right to a fair trial and three violation involving length of proceedings; both were violations of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Of the 16 cases that the government lost during the year, 10 concerned--in part or in whole-- denial of a fair public trial. On July 28, the ECHR ruled against the government in the case Olaru v. Moldova. The court found that the authorities' failure to comply with final local court judgments in the applicants' favor delivered by domestic courts represented a violation of their right to a fair trial. The court invited the parties to reach an agreement. On July 16, the ECHR found that local courts had violated an applicant's property rights in the case of Baroul Partners v. Moldova. The ECHR ruled that a domestic court had acted improperly when it annulled the privatization of the applicant's quarry and had denied the applicant his right to a fair trial. According to an April 2008 EU report, the government was lacking in its implementation of a judicial code of conduct, developed in 2007, and establishment, in January 2008, of a Department for Judicial Administration to monitor the organizational, administrative, and fiscal effectiveness of the courts and propose improvements. The judiciary consists of lower courts, courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court of Justice. A separate Constitutional Court has exclusive authority in cases relating to the constitutionality of draft and final legislation, decrees, and other governmental acts. The Constitutional Court was the only court generally regarded as reasonably fair and objective. By law the Prosecutor General's Office is autonomous and answers to parliament. It is responsible for overseeing criminal investigations, filing charges, and protecting the rule of law and civil freedoms. Prosecutors have discretion to close cases before they reach trial for lack of sufficient evidence. However, the injured party can appeal this decision to the investigative judge. This discretion gives prosecutors considerable influence over the judicial process. Many NGOs and opposition politicians asserted that the Prosecutor General's Office was under the political control of the PCRM during its eight-year rule. The military court system is separate but generally experienced problems with corruption and inefficiency similar to those of the civilian courts. The jurisdiction of military courts extends to crimes committed by active duty, reserve, and retired military personnel. Military courts can also try civilians for crimes committed against military personnel. Trial Procedures.--The law provides that defendants in criminal cases are presumed innocent; however, in practice this presumption had little effect. On some occasions judges' remarks jeopardized the presumption of innocence. NGOs expressed concern that the practice of keeping defendants in handcuffs and metal cages during court proceedings went beyond what was necessary to secure public order and failed to ensure the presumption of innocence. Cases are presented to a judge or to panel of judges. Defendants have the right to a lawyer, to attend proceedings, to confront witnesses, and to present evidence. The law requires the local bar association to provide an attorney to indigent defendants. The practice of appointing ex officio defense lawyers without allowing them to prepare adequately was common and infringed upon the right to legal assistance. Prosecutors occasionally used bureaucratic maneuvers to restrict lawyers' access to clients. Defense attorneys were able to review evidence against their clients when preparing cases. The law provides a right to appeal convictions to a higher court. According to a May 2008 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) report, based on a six-month project that monitored thousands of hearings in hundreds of criminal cases at all levels of the justice system, legal guarantees of a fair trial functioned only partially. While legal reforms in recent years helped provide an improved framework for guaranteeing a fair trial, implementation remained a problem. Although the law provides for defendants to have an interpreter, the OSCE observed a shortage of interpreters, a lack of knowledge of legal terminology, and a tendency to mix Romanian and Russian terms. Nearly 40 percent of court interpreters did not translate in a fully satisfactory manner. The OSCE also noted that judges at times ordered proceedings to be conducted in Russian, even though some participants complained they could not understand the language. The OSCE noted that proceedings were often not open to the public; court facilities were inadequate; and a large number of judges, prosecutors, and defense lawyers failed to treat victims and witnesses with respect. In September 2008 a witness protection law entered into force to ensure the protection of persons whose life and property are threatened as a result of their participation in trial proceedings. However, implementation of the law was inconsistent. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Three persons arrested in connection with the April 7 disturbances were considered to be political prisoners. On April 8, Sergiu Mocanu, leader of the People's Action Movement and former advisor to former president Voronin, was detained by persons in plain clothes who claimed to be police but refused to show any identification. Mocanu was arrested on charges of plotting and participating in activities of mass disorder. The Court of Appeals refused to hear his appeals, and he was subsequently released without being charged on July 31. On April 8, in Odessa, Ukraine, police arrested businessman Gabriel Stati and subsequently extradited him to Moldova at the request of Moldovan police. Stati was charged with fomenting and financing the April 7 unrest. On June 18, the Court of Appeals changed his status to house arrest for 30 days. He was freed without charge on July 8, but was forbidden to leave the country for 30 days. On April 8, police arrested Anatol Matasaru and accused him of organizing and participating in mass disorder on April 7. Matasaru had been arrested in other incidents earlier in the year, in which he protested while wearing a pig suit. Matasaru's lawyers stated that police used excessive force in arresting him and tried to compel him to sign confessions that he had received money from opposition leaders to organize the April 7 protests. On June 6, authorities released Matasaru to house arrest. On August 6, he was freed from house arrest but forbidden to leave the country for 90 days. The Biuiucani District Court rejected the prosecutor's request to extend the arrest warrant for another 90 days. On July 10, police arrested Matasaru again in Orhei on charges of committing a theft in November 2007. On July 22, the Orhei District Court reviewed the theft charges and the charges of hooliganism in connection with the April 7 demonstrations, and ordered him to be held in custody until August 9. On November 12, the Prosecutor General's Office stated that it had dropped all charges against Matasaru. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for citizens to seek damages in civil courts for human rights violations. Under the constitution the government is liable in cases where authorities violate a person's rights by administrative means; fail to reply in a timely manner to an application for relief; or commit misconduct during prosecution. Judgments awarded in such cases were small and frequently not enforced. Citizens may also seek damages in the ECHR for violations of the European Convention of Human Rights. From January 1 through August 16, the ECHR issued 16 judgments that found at least one violation of the convention. In 2008 the ECHR issued 28 judgments that found at least one violation by the country. A mediation law, which entered into force in July 2008, establishes an alternative mechanism for resolving civil and criminal cases voluntarily between parties and establishes rules for the status of professional mediators. However, the country still lacked an implementation mechanism. Observers noted that a lack of financial resources and institutional capacity were the main impediments to implementation of the law. Property Restitution.--While the law provides for restitution of property and compensation for victims of political repression, commissions established to receive petitions were not funded to make payments. In Chisinau, where six million lei (approximately $576,823) of funding was allocated for compensation, no commission existed to make payments. Applicants must prove a direct causal connection between political repression and the seizure of their properties to receive restitution. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions; however, the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice. It was widely believed that law enforcement authorities, including the Interior Ministry, the Prosecutor General's Office, and the Security and Intelligence Service (SIS), continued to conduct illegal searches and wiretaps. Under the law the SIS is the only institution that can legally conduct wiretaps, including those made at the request of prosecutors or police. Judges may authorize legal wiretaps only in course of investigation a serious crime. The ECHR has ruled that the country's criminal procedure law fails to provide a clear and detailed interpretation of reasonable suspicion required to authorize a wiretap. The ECHR also noted that the law does not contain safeguards against the overuse of wiretaps and does not provide adequate protection against the abuse of power by the government as a result of wiretapping. Courts continued to accept illegally obtained evidence. Opposition leaders reported that they observed vehicles following them during the election campaigns and noted their belief that authorities monitored and intercepted their conversations. On February 10, in the case Iordachi and Others v. Moldova, the ECHR issued a judgment that found a violation by the country of the right to respect for private and family life, as provided under Article 8 the European Convention on Human Rights. In its judgment the court noted that the country's law did not clearly define the offences for which wiretapping may be sought or the categories of persons who may be liable to have their telephones monitored. The law also did not provide a clear time limit on interception warrants and on what constitutes a reasonable suspicion that could justify telephone interception. The court observed that, when the tapping takes place, the investigating judge played a limited role, and no clear rules existed regarding the screening, preserving, and destroying of data collected. Since the country's courts authorized virtually all requests by authorities in 2007 for interception, the ECHR concluded that the system of secret surveillance was largely overused. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government did not respect these rights in practice. Individuals could criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, although authorities attempted to impede criticism by limiting the access of some media to government information and events and by repressing media outlets deemed ``nonloyal'' during and after the April parliamentary elections. In addition, individuals and organizations critical of the government risked being monitored and subjected to abusive tax and registration inspections. According to Freedom House, media independence in the country was at its lowest point in 10 years. During 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found three violations by the country of freedom of expression, as provided by Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The print media expressed diverse political views and commentary. There were approximately 260 newspapers and magazines in the country. The government owned the Moldpress News Agency; local and city governments subsidized approximately 25 newspapers. Political parties and professional organizations also published newspapers. Formerly government-owned newspapers, Moldova Suverana and Nezavisimaia Moldova, continued to favor the PCRM in their coverage. These papers often used inflammatory language and photo-edited portrayals of opponents as Nazis in articles criticizing the opposition. The newspaper Flux, a mouthpiece for the Christian Democratic Party, published articles in favor of the party and against its opponents,but sometimes critical of both. Newspapers such as Timpul, Jurnal de Chisinau, Ziarul de Garda, and Moldavskie Vedomosti published more diverse views and articles critical of the PCRM government and its policies. At times these outlets sensationalized coverage, including by using graphic images to denigrate opponents, such as photo-editing heads of public figures onto naked bodies and superimposing images with photos of Nazis. The government did not restrict foreign publications, but most were not widely circulated because of high cost. Newspapers from Russia were available; some published special weekly local editions. The broadcast media were weaker with regard to diversity of expression because local private broadcasting was limited. The government continued to influence the media through its role in distributing broadcast licenses and its financial support for privatized media outlets, including the public radio and television broadcaster Teleradio Moldova (TRM), which covered most of the country. According to the Audiovisual Coordinating Council (ACC), 46 radio stations, 38 television stations, and 166 cable providers operated in the country. Most stations rebroadcast programs from Romania, Russia, and Ukraine and offered limited locally produced programming. Other foreign programs, including a range of international news broadcasts, were available by subscription from private cable television operators. Some local governments, including that of Gagauzia, operated television and radio stations and newspapers. The law requires TRM to be a genuine public institution, although it remained financially dependent on the government. While the PCRM was in power, TRM was widely viewed as strongly progovernment in its programming and rarely aired opposing viewpoints; following the change in power, coverage became more balanced. Reports from local and international election observing missions during the year noted that the public broadcaster failed to cover the election campaigns in a balanced and impartial manner. Observers noted that public national television channel Moldova 1 (part of TRM) provided coverage of the July 29 repeat elections that mostly favored the PCRM. The broadcasting code regulates the activity of private television and radio stations, public broadcaster TRM, and the government's main regulatory authority for broadcasting, the ACC. In December 2008 the ACC announced that it would not automatically extend the expiring license of the private television channel PRO TV, along with those of other broadcasters, although the law provides for automatic extension if no major violations have occurred. The ACC announced that it would offer all of PRO TV's frequencies for competitive bid. Media observers criticized the ACC decision, while noting that ambiguities in the law allowed for such political actions, and PRO TV initiated a court challenge of the ACC ruling. In June the ACC placed a moratorium on the competition for PRO TV's frequencies during the electoral campaign. On November 12, the Supreme Court of Justice ruled that the ACC should automatically extend PRO TV's license and those of other broadcasters. NGOs and media representatives criticized the ACC for disproportionately allocating radio and television frequencies to progovernment stations. In May 2008 the ACC distributed 40 provincial television frequencies to two progovernment stations, significantly expanding their coverage; the ACC did not consider other applications. In September 2008 the Gagauz People's Assembly dissolved the supervisory board of the public company Teleradio Gagauzia, raising concerns among the company's journalists, who feared that Gagauz authorities were attempting to control regional public television. According to NGOs one of the major television channels was owned by business persons affiliated with the PCRM, and several displayed a political bias towards the party. As a result, there were fewer outlets for opposing viewpoints. However, certain television channels owned by persons affiliated with the opposition aired alternative views. After the new government assumed power, analysts noted a shift in coverage; although some outlets still displayed political bias toward the PCRM party, other outlets expressed pro-Alliance views. In 2008 opposition members of the Balti municipal council criticized the nontransparent manner in which the public broadcaster Teleradio Balti was being privatized, noting that the privatization commission was staffed exclusively by councilors belonging to the majority PCRM. On November 14, Teleradio Balti suspended broadcasting following a ruling by the ACC that the station did not have the right to broadcast until it was privatized. At the end of November, the ACC revised its earlier decision and allowed Teleradio Balti to continue broadcasting under the condition that it complete its privatization by February 1, 2010. Journalists and NGOs reported that the government denied independent media access to various official events. On May 26 and August 18, the interior ministry prevented journalists from Internet- based Jurnal TV from covering its press conferences. On July 9, a television crew from TV-Prim was prevented from covering a public meeting of the prime minister in Glodeni. On July 14, police in Donduseni expelled two journalists from the Moldavskie Vedomosti newspaper from a hall where the prime minister had been meeting with local residents. During the protests that followed the parliamentary elections on April 5, government harassment and aggression against journalists dramatically increased. The government frequently denied access to its public events to media representatives it considered disloyal. On occasion journalists were intimidated into practicing self-censorship. During and after the protests following the April 5 elections, law enforcement bodies launched a campaign of intimidation and aggression against the media. Police and security forces illegally detained and interrogated many journalists. On April 7-8, more than 20 Romanian journalists were denied entry to the country, as the government publicly accused Romania of playing a role in organizing the April 7-8 violence. On April 8, several plainclothes police officers severely beat a cameraman from Jurnal TV, who was filming in public and also seized and destroyed his video equipment. On April 9, police detained a Realitatea TV crew from Romania, held them in custody for several hours, and then expelled them from the country. Members of the television crew reported that they were intimidated by police officers while in custody. On April 10, several plainclothes police abducted the editor in chief of the Jurnal de Chisinau newspaper on the street and took her to an unknown destination. She told the media that, after several hours of detention, she was taken to the Special Mission Department of the Interior Ministry and was accused of assessing and collecting information to help attack the government buildings. Media observers voiced numerous concerns about the postelection restrictions on the media and on reporting. These included the assault and detention of local and foreign journalists reporting on the postelection violence; the refusal of entry to the country to certain foreign journalists; the requirement that some journalists leave the country despite having valid press accreditation; and restrictions on access to Internet services or particular Web sites. On April 14, the OSCE representative on freedom of the media called on authorities to ensure journalists' access and to investigate cases of obstruction and intimidation. During his visit to the country on April 25-28, the COE commissioner for human rights was shown a copy of a letter sent by the Ministry of the Interior on April 21 to several newspapers. The letter expressed concern about the content of articles published in those newspapers and stated that the articles ``do not represent the truth and are misleading to the public.'' The letter further stated that the information published ``contains unjustified serious accusations against the police affecting the reputation of the police officers, who exercise their duties correctly and according to the law for maintaining public order and security.'' The letter asked the newspapers to present, within 10 days, ``any specific information and solid evidence which served as a basis for the articles.'' If no such information was available, the letter instructed the newspapers to publish retractions of the articles. The COE commissioner for human rights characterized such pressure on media as unacceptable. Instead of requesting media outlets to justify their critical reporting, he noted, authorities should encourage victims and witnesses to come forward and contribute to the investigations. In March Interior Ministry representatives searched the Nisporeni- based Albasat television station and failed to present a warrant. Ministry investigators later told the media that Albasat TV was suspected of failing to report revenue in its 2007 financial reports. The International Federation of Journalists expressed concern regarding the incident and urged the government to respect freedom of the press. Although libel is not a criminal offense, and the law limits the amount of fines that can be claimed for slander, some newspapers continued to practice self-censorship and avoid controversial issues out of concern that government officials and other public figures could use civil defamation laws to retaliate against critical news coverage. In April 2008 a district court in Chisinau froze the bank account of the Jurnal de Chisinau newspaper to sequester funds in a libel case. The case was filed against the newspaper by a former prosecutor, who sued for alleged damages inflicted on him by articles published in 2003 and 2004. The newspaper appealed, and in May 2008 the Court of Appeals unblocked the bank account. At year's end the case was before the Chisinau Court of Appeals for reconsideration. In June 2008 parliament passed amendments to the editing law, making it illegal to edit and publish literature that contains ``denial and defamation of the state and the people; calls to war or aggression, to ethnic, racial or religious hatred; [or] incitement of discrimination, territorial separatism, or public violence.'' Several private publishing houses opposed the new law, claiming that it imposed censorship. The law decriminalizing defamation was widely viewed as allowing progovernment media even greater latitude to insult opposition leaders, while at the same time not being clear enough to eliminate the perceived need for self-censorship by independent media or to prevent spurious lawsuits and investigations against opposition activists and media. Both pro-PCRM government and pro-opposition media at times used graphically insulting political cartoons, particularly during the electoral campaign. On September 17, in the case of Manole v. Moldova, the ECHR unanimously ruled in favor of a group of TRM journalists who filed a case in 2002 accusing TRM of severe censorship and violating their freedom of expression after the PCRM came to power. In Transnistria authorities greatly limited freedom of speech and of the press. Alternative viewpoints were subject to widespread censorship, and residents were wary of voicing alternative opinions and engaging in meaningful debate over key issues affecting the separatist region. It was difficult to register, maintain, and financially sustain independent newspapers, radio stations, or television stations in Transnistria, although several existed. Most newspapers from government-controlled areas did not circulate widely in Transnistria, although they were available in Tiraspol. Foreign publications, including publications edited in Chisinau, were difficult to obtain, as separatist authorities imposed a 100 percent customs duty. Both of Transnistria's major newspapers, Pridnestrovie and Dnestrovskaya Pravda, were official publications of the separatist administration. Separatist authorities harassed independent newspapers for critical reporting of the regime. Independent newspapers such as Novaia Gazeta and Chelovek i yevo Prava were published, but had a limited circulation of about 3,000. Authorities controlled all printing houses and, at times, threatened to stop the printing of independent newspapers. One independent weekly newspaper was published in Bender and another in the northern city of Ribnita. According to a study by a western academic researcher, the Ribnita-based Dobryi Den newspaper did not publish any articles critical of Transnistria or separatist authorities. Other Transnistrian media that printed reports critical of secessionist authorities also had small circulations and appeared either weekly or monthly. There were few Romanian and Ukrainian language publications available to the ethnic Ukrainians and Moldovans in the region. Apart from the publicly financed Gomin (Ukrainian), Adevarul Nistrean (Romanian in Cyrillic script), and the political party-controlled newspaper Drujba (Romanian in Cyrillic script), most publications were in the Russian language. The authorities controlled the majority of television and radio stations in Transnistria and largely dictated editorial policies and financial operations. Some broadcast networks, such as the TSV television station and the INTER-FM radio station, were owned by Transnistria's largest commercial entity, Sheriff Enterprises. The company also effectively controlled the Obnovlenie Party, which held a majority of seats in the region's legislature and represented a voice other than that of the executive branch. Transnistrian authorities operated the other major television station, Transnistrian Moldovan Republic Television. While these outlets on occasion expressed alternative views on social and economic policy, Transnistrian authorities sharply criticized any mention of compromise with the central government or any questioning of the Transnistrian goal of ``independence.'' Internet Freedom.--During and after the April protests, the government restricted use of the Internet. Internet users complained that state-owned Moldtelecom blocked access to the most popular news portals and social networking websites on April 9 and 10. At the end of June, the state company MoldData, the official registrar of the .md domain, sent a letter to the UNIMEDIA news portal saying that the prosecutor's office noticed that UNIMEDIA had published readers' comments calling for violence and overthrow of the government. In the letter MoldData threatened that it could withdraw UNIMEDIA's domain name for such violations of regulations. Nonetheless, UNIMEDIA continued to function. On June 29, MoldData suspended the domain of faces.md, one of the largest social networking Web sites in the country. At year's end, faces.md was back online. There were 41 Internet service providers (ISPs) in the country. While most citizens could not afford computers and private access to the Internet, public access at cafes in major cities was readily available. In August a local ISP created public Wi-Fi hot spots in several public parks in Chisinau. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 23 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Between January and September, the number of broadband Internet users increased by 43.5 percent, reaching 165,200. The number of mobile broadband Internet users reached 62,000. During the same period, the number of dial-up Internet users decreased 50 percent to 20,000. In Transnistria Internet connections were available in most parts of the region, and most residents accessed the Internet through publicly available computers at cafes. One company, Sherriff Enterprises, was the sole ISP in the region. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--During 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found a violation by the country of freedom of assembly and association, as provided by Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly; however, at times the government limited this right in practice. In spite of various changes to the law on public assembly in 2008, NGOs continued to express concern that the government limited freedom of assembly. Liberal Democratic Party supporters from outside Chisinau reported that they were prevented from traveling to Chisinau to protest against incumbent PCRM authorities during the election campaigns in March and April and again in July. Law enforcement instructed bus and taxi drivers not to transport persons to Chisinau. In some cases traffic police detained buses full of persons heading to Chisinaufor hours; the police used various pretexts to hold the buses until the protests concluded. On January 29, three police officers arrested Anatol Matasaru, who was protesting in front of the prosecutor general dressed as a pig and wearing a sign which punned on the word ``pig'' and ``prosecutor'' in Romanian. On February 11, the Interior Ministry reprimanded the officers for failing to explain to Matasaru why they arrested him. In Transnistria authorities generally discouraged free assembly. On those occasions when they issued permits for demonstrations, authorities often harassed organizers and participants and ordered that the demonstrations take place in obscure locations away from city centers. Permits for demonstrations and public meetings were issued predominantly to organizations and groups loyal to the authorities. In November authorities granted the Transnistrian Communist Party a permit to organize a rally in Dubasari to protest the government's social and economic policies and to request the resignation of the region's leader, Igor Smirnov. Two days before the demonstration, local authorities prohibited all public meetings and events because of the pandemic flu threat, although no cases of the H1N1 flu had been reported in the region. Authorities also revoked the permit they had issued earlier. Party activists attempted to hold their demonstration despite the prohibition, but they were dispersed by police. Police arrested and fined some demonstrators. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of association and states that citizens are free to form parties and other social and political organizations. However, the constitution prohibits organizations that are ``engaged in fighting against political pluralism, the principles of the rule of law, or the sovereignty and independence or territorial integrity'' of the country. Some political parties accused the government of restricting their freedom of association in advance of the April 5 parliamentary elections. In Transnistria separatist authorities granted the legal right of association only to those they recognized as citizens of Transnistria. However, separatist authorities restricted freedom of association in practice, either by intimidation and prosecution for alleged offenses or based on fabricated charges. All associations favoring reintegration with the Moldovan national government were strictly prohibited. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the law includes restrictions that inhibit the activities of unregistered religious groups. Although there is no state religion, the religion law notes the special status of the Moldovan Orthodox Church in the country's history and culture and, in practice, the government gave favorable treatment to the Moldovan Orthodox Church. For example, the Metropolitan of Chisinau and all Moldova held a diplomatic passport, a privilege not accorded to any other religious leader. The law on religion, adopted in 2007, requires religious groups to register with the justice ministry. Unregistered religious groups may not buy land or obtain construction permits to build houses of worship or seminaries. Under the law groups must obtain signatures from 100 citizens to register as a new national religious organization. The law allows religious groups access to public places and permits congregations to switch denominational allegiance. The religion law also prohibits ``abusive proselytizing,'' which is defined as including psychological manipulation and subliminal techniques. Of the 24 groups that submitted applications since the law entered into force, only the Unification Church (in May 2008), Armenian Christian Apostolic Denomination (on March 31), and Ukrainian Orthodox Patriarchate (on October 22), successfully registered. In its decision to reject the remaining applications, the ministry cited various provisions of the civil code, which normally applies to the conduct of businesses. Several religious groups declined to appeal the rejections, arguing that the religion law, rather than the civil code, should govern their activities. The Central Muslim Spiritual Board of Moldova, a variety of Protestant congregations, and the Spiritual Organization of Muslims in Moldova continued to encounter bureaucratic obstacles to their repeated attempts to register, and many simply abandoned their registration efforts in the face of what they perceived to be bias disguised as excessive application of the rules. On August 15, several hundred Moldovan Orthodox protestors, led by priests, demonstrated against a decision by the mayor of Chisinau to grant Seventh-day Adventists a permit to hold a concert on the public square between the main government building and the Moldovan Orthodox cathedral. The protestors asserted that other religions should not be allowed to hold public displays on the site. Seeking to avoid a confrontation, concert organizers moved the event to a Seventh-day Adventist church on the outskirts of the city. In Transnistria separatist authorities continued to deny registration to a number of minority religious groups and harassed their members. Jehovah's Witnesses faced significant difficulties operating, and only two of more than 30 Jehovah's Witnesses' congregations had legal status in the region. Court cases brought by Jehovah's Witnesses were prolonged by the Transnistrian officials; occasional court victories were overturned and new trials ordered. The Transnistrian religion law, which entered into force on March 4, requires religious communities to submit documents proving that they have existed continuously for the past decade. Local authorities refused to certify the documents submitted by Jehovah's Witnesses, and the community submitted numerous appeals that remained pending with local authorities. On December 10, following a five-year effort by the Tiraspol Community of Jehovah's Witnesses, the Transnistrian finance ministry granted the community a fiscal code which allowed it to maintain bank accounts and pay employees. Despite a 2007 Tiraspol court decision stating that Jehovah's Witnesses should be accredited and permitted to import literature, Transnistrian authorities attacked the legal status of Jehovah's Witnesses. Authorities challenged the Witnesses' 1994 registration in Tiraspol; refused to accredit the leaders of the Tiraspol community; refused to register new Jehovah's Witnesses charters in Tiraspol, Ribnita, Grigoriopol, and Tighina; sought to cancel their tax identification number; confiscated religious literature; illegally confiscated the Ribnita community's registration certificate; interfered with a religious ceremony in Parcani; and fined and sentenced members to one-year probation terms. On May 12, the ECHR ruled in favor of Talgat Masaev, a Muslim leader who was arrested in January 2004 for organizing prayers in a private home. The court ruled that his arrest amounted to the exclusion of minority religious beliefs not formally registered with the state, and awarded him 1,500 euros (approximately $2,150) in damages. On May 31, a new contraventions code (formerly known as the code of administrative offenses) entered into force. Article 54 of the code provides for expulsion of foreign religious believers who hold religious activities in public places without first notifying the local mayor's office. Because the article was in conflict with ECHR rulings, the government commission charged with implementing ECHR decisions urged the Interior Ministry, the Prosecutor General's Office, and the Supreme Court to take steps to prevent expulsion of foreign religious believers who violated this provision. As a result, on February 23, the Interior Ministry issued an order stating that Article 54 was not to be applied. At year's end, there were no reports that Article 54 sanctions had been applied. On December 22, an opposition Communist parliamentarian accused the government of backing extremism by registering the National Christian Movement (NCM) as an NGO on November 12. The member of parliament pointed out that NCM members display photographs of Corneliu Codreanu, who founded the anti-Semitic Legion of the Archangel Michael in Romania in the 1930s. The minister of justice responded that the ministry registered all groups that presented the correct paperwork, and the parliamentarian needed to provide proof of the group's extremism for the ministry to take further action. Foreign missionaries, like other foreigners, may enter the country for 90 days on a tourist visa. Although the law prohibits ``abusive proselytizing,'' the government did not take legal action against individuals or organizations for proselytizing. Police and other local authorities frequently called visiting foreign missionaries into police stations for extensive questioning about the religious and charitable services they offered. The law provides for restitution of property confiscated from religious communities during the Nazi and Soviet regimes. Claims by the Moldovan Orthodox Church were frequently favored over those of other religious groups, and the church had recovered nearly all of its property. In cases where property was destroyed, the government offered alternative compensation. Property disputes between the majority Moldovan and minority Bessarabian branches of the Orthodox Church remained unresolved; representatives of the Bessarabian Orthodox Church claimed that their property rights were still being violated. While the Lutheran Church reported that authorities had not returned or provided compensation for any of its pre-World War II properties, the Jewish community had several of its properties restored. In Transnistria the Jewish community in Bender continued to actively seek restoration of its synagogue building which was being used as a boxing school. At year's end the case remained unresolved. Transnistria has no law that would provide a civilian service alternative to military conscription. On December 11, the Ribnita city court sentenced Oleksandr Iakovlev to one year in prison for refusing to serve in the Transnistrian military. On December 15, Iakovlev appealed to the Transnistrian Supreme Court; his appeal was pending at year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--During the year leaders of the Orthodox Church spoke out against public religious displays by other faiths, including the Jewish community. From January through August, Jehovah's Witnesses reported 23 incidents of violence or harassment against its members, 11 of which involved Orthodox priests physically or verbally attacking a member of Jehovah's Witness. One additional incident involved the wife of a priest and another involved an assistant to a priest. In 2008 the group reported 15 cases of violence or harassment against its members, compared with 18 such cases in 2007. Members of Jehovah's Witnesses complained that local town councils, Orthodox priests, and laypersons continued to impede their ability to freely practice their faith. While the group reported numerous successes in court cases against local authorities seeking to block construction of houses of worship, members noted that social prejudices remained strong. Between December 15 and 21, residents of the Chisinau district of Riscani blocked the clearing of a site for construction of a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall, for which the religious organization had permits. On several occasions, the protestors assaulted workers. On December 22, the Chisinau mayor's office ordered a revocation of the permits and a halt to construction ``until the situation improves.'' In Transnistria non-Orthodox groups reported that they were generally not allowed to rent property and were often harassed during religious services. They also complained that authorities refused them permission to construct religious buildings. The Jewish community had approximately 25,000 members, including 2,600 living in Transnistria. In March after one of Chisinau's synagogues received a shipment of kosher food from abroad for the upcoming Passover holiday, police officers made several visits to the synagogue to search the food parcels. On December 11, the Chisinau Jewish community organized the dedication of a five-foot-high menorah in the city's central park. On December 13, Moldovan Orthodox priest Anatolie Cibric gathered a crowd of supporters at the site of the menorah, and in a speech denounced Jews as ``enemies'' and ``Yids.'' Following the speech Cibric's followers dismantled and removed the menorah from its base, and placed it upside down at the feet of a nearby statue of Stephen the Great, the medieval Moldovan king who is also a Moldovan Orthodox saint. Later that day members of the Jewish community reassembled the menorah and placed it at the Holocaust memorial, approximately half a mile from its original location. The menorah remained in that location without further incident. On December 14, the official press service denounced ``hatred, intolerance, and xenophobia'' and the prime minister and acting president condemned the incident. The justice minister condemned the demonstrators' actions as a ``xenophobic and barbaric act.'' Later in the day, the minister met representatives of the Jewish community and demanded that law-enforcement authorities ensure their religious freedom. Cibric faced administrative charges and was ultimately fined for his role in the incident. On December 17, the Moldovan Orthodox Church issued a statement condemning the ``methods'' used by the protestors in removing the menorah, but it also criticized city authorities for allowing a Jewish symbol to be displayed in a public place important to the faith and history of ``Moldovans.'' For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Transnistrian authorities at times restricted travel of Transnistrian residents and other Moldovans to and from the separatist region. On July 13, customs officials at Cahul stopped 160 students and teachers from Transnistrian Latin-script Romanian-language schools, who were returning from a summer camp in Romania. School officials reported that customs officers interrogated them for two hours regarding reasons for their visit to Romania and confiscated Romanian-language dictionaries and encyclopedias. Transnistrian authorities often stopped and searched vehicles traveling between the region and the government-controlled area. According to the local Helsinki Committee, waits of up to two hours at Transnistrian checkpoints occasionally occurred, as did arbitrary fines and seizures of goods from persons entering or exiting the region. Short-term visitors from government-controlled areas to Transnistria were permitted to remain for 10 hours. A longer stay required an official letter of invitation and registration at a local passport office. Transnistrian authorities allowed farmers from government-controlled villages in the Dubasari region of Transnistria to travel to areas outside Transnistria to sell their produce. On several occasions during the year, Transnistrian authorities denied western diplomats stationed in Chisinau entry into the region for routine visits but at other times allowed them entry. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. There were no reports that Transnistrian authorities exiled persons from their territory during the year. Although citizens generally were able to depart from and return to the country freely, there were some limitations on emigration. Before persons are allowed to emigrate, the law requires that they satisfy all outstanding financial obligations to other persons or legal entities. This requirement was not strictly enforced in practice. The law also provides that close relatives who are financially dependent on a potential emigrant must give their concurrence before the emigrant is allowed to depart the country; however, this law was not enforced in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. On May 14, local refugee advocates complained that the government had not issued an identity card to any of the more than 300 refugees living in the country. Without the identity card, refugees were unable to seek employment. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived by birth within the country's territory and from one's parents. According to UNHCR statistics, there were 1,752 stateless persons in the country at the end of September. At year's end the government and the UNHCR reported that there were no stateless persons with permanent or temporary residence in the country. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice in most of the country through periodic elections based on universal suffrage. However, during the year authorities harassed and intimidated the political opposition, misused administrative resources in favor of government-supported candidates, and restricted opposition access to public media. In Transnistria authorities restricted the right of residents to vote in elections and interfered with the right of Moldovan citizens to vote in Moldovan elections. The constitution provides for a form of parliamentary government. The parliament is elected by popular vote; it then elects the president by a three-fifths majority vote. The president nominates the prime minister, who in turn names a cabinet. Parliament must then approve both the prime minister and the cabinet. Citizens and party representatives reported interference with their political activities during the year. All political parties in opposition to the incumbent PCRM complained of intimidation and pressure against local party representatives during the March and July campaigns. Reported abuses included threats of physical mistreatment, job loss and blackmail to discourage political campaigning and attendance at rallies. Opposition party leaders also accused PCRM authorities of cutting off heat and electricity to public buildings where political meetings were scheduled. There were no developments in the June 2008 case of Mihai Tarsa, an opposition party official, who claimed that he was assaulted by the mayor of Criva for leading the signature collection effort in the village for the constitutional amendment. Elections and Political Participation.--International and local observers noted that, while the April 5 parliamentary elections complied with many international standards, they were not entirely free and not fully in accordance with many international norms. Local and international NGOs reported complaints of intimidation of voters during the campaign; misuse of administrative resources by government officials; requirements that civil servants, including doctors and teachers, attend PCRM rallies; harassment of voters and opposition party candidates; barriers to the right to vote for students in the country and by citizens living overseas; and limitations on opposition parties' access to public media. Opposition parties and domestic NGOs also reported faulty voter lists, instances of multiple voting, and misuse of mobile ballot boxes to the benefit of the PCRM. International observers, including the OSCE and Council of Europe, noted a number of shortcomings in the election process, including credible and verified allegations of police intimidation of voters and candidates; misuse of administrative resources; lack of uniformity in compilation of voter lists; an imbalance in media coverage that favored the ruling PCRM and the failure of the ACC to address the problem; and Central Election Commission regulations on media coverage that conflicted with constitutional rights of freedom of expression and access to information. In the April 5 election, the PCRM increased its parliamentary majority from 56 to 60, leaving it one seat short of the 61 votes needed to elect a president. Following two failed attempts to elect a president, parliament was dissolved on June 15, and the government scheduled repeat elections for July 29. International observers noted that, while the same problems existed in the repeat election as in the March-April campaign, there were some improvements in voter-list management, training of election officials and observers, and access of opposition parties to public media. On election day observers noted improvements in the efficiency of polling place management, both in the country and at polling stations at consulates and embassies abroad; in the willingness of NGO and political-party observers to challenge voter list entries; and in the publication of figures showing turnout and preliminary results. Prior to the July 29 election, the Central Election Commission denied accreditation to many international election observers from the European Network of Election Monitoring Observers (ENEMO), including the head of the mission. After first admitting a reduced number of ENEMO observers to the country, police detained, harassed, and deported members of the ENEMO mission. The July 29 election resulted in the PCRM losing 12 parliamentary seats. Four former opposition parties with a combined strength of 53 seats joined to create a majority coalition known as the Alliance for European Integration. There were 25 women in the 101-seat parliament. Members of ethnic Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Azeri, Jewish, and Gagauz communities were represented in parliament, and a Gagauz was elected as deputy speaker. Under the election code, parties are prohibited from forming electoral blocs before an election and must have 6 percent of the popular vote to enter parliament, making it difficult for small parties to gain seats. The law also requires holders of dual nationality to declare their non-Moldovan citizenship before running and to give it up if they win election. The new parliament lifted the citizenship restriction on September 17. During the country's parliamentary elections on April 5 and July 29, Transnistrian authorities aggressively blocked a polling station at the Transnistrian town of Corjova, which was technically under central government administration, thereby preventing local residents from voting. In Transnistria authorities interfered with citizens' ability to vote. Lack of education about voting rights, lack of transparency regarding the location of polling places, restrictions on media, widespread progovernment propaganda, and complex rules for transferring one's right to vote to one's district of residence interfered with residents exercising their right to vote. Since most election monitoring organizations did not recognize Transnistria or its elections, international monitoring was conducted only on an informal basis by Russian NGOs, and it was difficult to determine whether Transnistrian elections met international standards. During the 2006 Transnistrian ``presidential'' elections, authorities interfered with the electoral process and there were indications of voting irregularities. Igor Smirnov was reelected ``president'' after receiving 82.4 percent of the vote according to official results, while exit polls indicated that he received 63.3 percent of the vote. Transnistrian residents were expected to vote in Transnistrian elections, but in one case an individual was unable to stand freely as a candidate, while authorities prevented the tightly controlled media from reporting freely on candidates or issues. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement these laws effectively, and various NGOs and international organizations reported corruption was pervasive throughout government and society. An April 2008 Transparency International survey revealed that 39 percent of rural citizens and 53 percent of businesspersons said they gave bribes to customs officers, police, medical and educational institutions, fiscal inspectors, courts, or utility meter readers. Corruption in the educational system was widespread. The law provides for punishing university rectors, deans, and chairs for corrupt acts, including grade buying and influence peddling, with fines or imprisonment of two to seven years. However, the law does not apply to professors and lecturers. Ministry of Education and Youth regulations do not address corruption explicitly, and the bylaws of the major universities do not provide sanctions for cheating or bribery. The PCRM government acknowledged that corruption was a major problem and established special law enforcement agencies, such as the Center for Combating Economic Crimes and Corruption (CCECC), and judicial units to fight corruption. However, NGOs and political party representatives asserted that authorities used these units to harass political opponents. Although the government dismissed 140 police officers in 2007, the CCECC opened only five criminal cases against officers regarded as suspects in cases of corruption. The law provides free public access to official information; however, the government did not fully implement the law. According to Freedom House, access to information remained limited, and laws adopted in February 2008 barred civil servants other than press officers from speaking to the media. A bill on state secrets approved by parliament in November 2008 drew criticism for its broad scope and potential conflicts with the existing law on access to information. NGOs complained that gaining access to information required repeated, often unsuccessful, requests to authorities. Court decisions ordering release of information were not implemented fully or in a timely manner. According to the NGO Access-Info Center, between January and August public officials frequently denied the media access to information in violation of law and procedures. Since coming into office, the new government made some improvements; however, Access-Info Center noted that full responses to information access requests remained low, averaging 24 percent, because of a lack of information management policies. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Domestic and international human rights groups generally operated in the country without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government agencies were frequently cooperative and responsive to their views. However, in the aftermath of the April 7-8 violence, many human rights organizations reported consistent monitoring of their activities, telephone interception, abusive fiscal checks, and intimidation by law enforcement bodies. On February 3, masked men attacked representatives of several human rights organizations, including Amnesty International (AI) and Hyde Park, while they were protesting in front of the Prosecutor General's Office, punching them and spraying them with paint. Several demonstrators were injured. Despite the location of the attack, police did not intervene. After the protestors filed a complaint with police on February 4, the Prosecutor General's Office opened a criminal case and subsequently detained five persons who allegedly attacked the protestors. At year's end no further details on the incident had emerged. On April 16, AI reported that six human rights NGOs had received letters from the Ministry of Justice requesting their position on the April 7-8 events and a description of measures they had taken to stop the violence. AI also stated that tax inspectors visited its offices on April 28 and demanded a list of persons who had paid membership fees. On April 11, human rights NGO CREDO reported that police intimidated its members and those of several other groups that comprise the National Mechanism for Preventing Torture at the Chisinau center district police headquarters, when they attempted to visit youths arrested after the events of April 7-8. According to CREDO the deputy police commissar warned them to stop their activities, while police officials filmed the encounter. A member of the Institute for Human Rights, an NGO that assisted victims of torture in the aftermath of the April 7-8 events, reported that he was followed by unmarked cars and persons sitting in unmarked cars parked outside the NGO's headquarters appeared to be monitoring visitors. The activist also noted technical difficulties with the organization's phones and faxes and reported evidence that his phone was tapped. For example, one day after he had called a London-based pathologist seeking assistance in investigating the death of Valeriu Boboc, the prosecutor's office called Boboc's father and promised to bring in the same pathologist to investigate the case. In Transnistria authorities continued to impede activities of human rights groups. For example, the migration service of the ``ministry of interior'' frequently blocked entry into the region by NGOs seeking to meet human rights counterparts and contacts. In February 2008 Transnistrian police arrested and interrogated Igor Gavrilov, director of the NGO Accord Travel, for illegally downloading NGO-related documents. Although Transnistrian authorities registered the organization in 2007, they warned it to halt its activities on various occasions. Transnistrian authorities frequently limited OSCE access to the separatist region, including to the four- to eight-mile security zone dividing Transnistria from the rest of the country. The former OSCE regional office in Transnistrian-controlled Bender remained closed, and the OSCE continued to operate from an office near Bender in a government-controlled area. The law provides for four parliamentary ombudsmen who make up the independent Moldovan Human Rights Center (MHRC). Parliament appoints the ombudsmen to examine claims of human rights violations, advise parliament on human rights problems, submit legislation to the Constitutional Court for review, and oversee MHRC operations. MHRC personnel also provided training for lawyers and journalists, visited prisons, made recommendations on legislation, and organized roundtable discussions. During the year the ombudsmen released a report on prison and police station visits conducted in 2008, which noted violations of the procedural rights of detainees and prisoners and violations of living and health standards in prisons. In March 2008 parliament criticized the MHRC for its failure to act more vigorously on human rights violations. According to NGOs, cumbersome and nontransparent procedures for appointing new ombudsmen created uncertainty and impeded the MHRC's ability to function effectively after one ombudsman died and the terms of two others expired. The government appointed a new ombudsman in October 2008. Between his appointment and November, the ombudsman initiated 154 complaints against the government. Members of the ombudsman's office made 115 visits to detention centers during the first nine months of the year and persuaded prosecutors to initiate cases against four prison officers allegedly involved in torture. In Transnistria authorities continued to control and intimidate NGOs by ``inviting'' NGO representatives to meetings with security officials and pressuring landlords not to renew leases for office space. Authorities restricted NGOs to providing legal advice and other assistance on apolitical programs, such as domestic disputes, access for the handicapped, and pension rights. Transnistrian authorities encouraged NGOs operating in Transnistria to cooperate with Russian, Abkhazian, and South Ossetian organizations rather than western NGOs and those operating in the rest of Moldova. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, ethnicity, or social status; however, the government did not always enforce these prohibitions effectively. Women.--The law criminalizes rape or forcible sexual assault; penalties range from three years to life in prison. The law also addresses spousal rape. Rape remained a problem, and there were no specific government activities to combat rape. During the year prosecutors opened 260 criminal cases of rape. Of these cases, 66 were dismissed and 115 were forwarded to courts for trial. In 11 of these cases, prosecutors sought prison sentences. NGOs believed that many rapes were not reported. The law defines domestic violence as a criminal offense, provides for punishment of perpetrators, defines mechanisms to obtain restraining orders against abusive individuals, and extends protection to unmarried individuals and children of unmarried individuals. The law also allows the possibility of granting protective orders obliging the perpetrator to stay away from the victim; provides for cooperation between public administration and civil society organizations; establishes the protection of the victim as a human rights principle; and allows the possibility for third parties to file complaints. According to the local NGO La Strada, there are no government standards for the quality of services or for the identification, assessment, or monitoring of domestic violence cases. Domestic violence against women and spousal abuse remained widespread problems. A 2008 survey indicated that at least 40 percent of women in the country had been victims of a violent act at least once in their life. Domestic violence was closely linked to human trafficking. According to local NGOs, at least 80 percent of trafficking victims had previously been victims of domestic violence. Victims of domestic violence generally endured in silence, as the problem received little recognition from government, society, or women themselves. Unless such violence resulted in serious injuries, it was accepted as a normal aspect of private life by both men and women and not considered a problem warranting legal intervention. Women's groups continued to assert credibly that incidents of spousal abuse were underreported. According to the Interior Ministry, 2,519 cases of spousal abuse were reported in 2007; in 2006, 2,855 domestic violence complaints were reported. The actual numbers were believed to be much higher. The government supported education efforts, usually undertaken with foreign assistance, to increase public awareness of domestic violence and to instruct the public and law enforcement officials in ways to address the problem. The city of Chisinau operated a women's shelter for victims of domestic violence. Private organizations operated services for abused spouses, including a hotline for battered women. Access to such assistance remained difficult for some. La Strada reported that, because of cultural concerns, a large majority of domestic violence victims it interviewed did not request assistance for specialized services. Following a July 2008 visit, the UN special rapporteur on violence against women noted that government officials and public authorities did not recognize violence against women as a systemic problem; rather, they treated such assaults as a single law enforcement event. Police failed to intervene effectively in cases of violence against women. There was insufficient care available for victims and only one shelter where victims and their children could seek refuge. In Transnistria there is no law prohibiting violence against women. Prostitution is punishable by a fine of 50 to 75 euros (approximately $72 to $107) or administrative arrest for up to 20 days. Pimping is a crime with penalties ranging from two to seven years in prison. Advertising prostitution in the media is punished with a fine of 150 euros (approximately $215). Sex tourism existed, and the government failed to implement laws or programs to prevent it. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) worked to raise awareness of the problem among hotel staff and owners. The NGO La Strada reported that during the year authorities attempted to reduce demand for prostitution by raiding saunas and hotels and by checking the identification and purpose of visit of foreigners, particularly those observed accompanying women after 10:00 p.m. Trafficking in women for commercial sexual exploitation continued to be a problem, although according to IOM, there were fewer identified victims during the year than in previous years, and the average period of exploitation for victims had also declined. Both law enforcement agencies and NGOs reported that over the last decade, the number of identified trafficking victims steadily declined, so that the number of identified victims during the year was approximately half of what it was in 2000. Greater awareness on the part of potential victims as a result of public awareness programs could have led some to be more prudent, while simultaneously, remittances from abroad may have decreased the economic necessity driving some potential victims to leave home. Additionally, with so many persons already abroad, the pool of potential victims may have declined. According to IOM the average time victims were trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation, decreased from one to two years to four months. According to IOM the pattern of trafficking has also changed, so that many victims were believed to be more frequently recruited abroad, paid small amounts of money, allowed to contact their families and are given greater freedom of movement. The law does not prohibit sexual harassment, but it was a common problem. The government adopted laws and implemented policies to increase the birthrate by ensuring free obstetric and postpartum care to all citizens and also by paying child benefits (approximately $120 for first child in a family, and approximately $150 for each subsequent child). Applying to receive child benefits was sometimes difficult because of excessive bureaucracy, but no cases of denial of payment have been reported. The mandatory (state) medical insurance program covered all expenses related to pregnancy, birth, and postpartum care. During pregnancy the government provided essential medicines free of charge. Most medical institutions, both state and private, had free-of- charge booklets and leaflets about family planning and contraception. There were no reports of women discriminated against when diagnosed with or treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. There were reports that some employers failed to provide women with paid maternity leave or threatened pregnant women with termination of employment. There were no reports of Romani women being denied obstetrical, childbirth or postpartum care. However, many Romani women failed to take advantage of free government-administered medical care during pregnancy. There was no reliable information on Romani access to contraception. The law provides for full gender equality. The National Bureau of Statistics reported women experienced higher levels of employment than men. Women earned approximately 85 percent of what men earned for equal work. According to an EU report released in April 2008, the country's implementation of a 2006 law on equal opportunities for men and women was slow. In some cases especially in rural areas, women encountered strong patriarchal attitudes and deep-rooted stereotypes that served to perpetuate the subordinate position of women in the family and in society. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parent(s). Registration of birth is free of charge for all citizens. In April the government began enforcing a new law that simplified birth registration procedures by establishing civil registration offices within maternity hospitals which issue birth certificates before the mother and newborn are discharged from the hospital. Prior to its abolition of the practice on November 25, the government issued optional free-of-charge identity cards for newborns if parents requested them. Primary education was free and compulsory until the ninth grade, although many inadequately funded schools, particularly in rural areas, charged parents for school supplies and textbooks. Although they were not illegal, such fees contradicted the government's policies and resulted in some parents keeping their children home. Government and local authorities provided 300 lei ($29) for school supplies annually to children from vulnerable families. The Romani organization Vocea Romilor reported that 2,800 Romani children were unable to attend school because of poverty. The law prohibits child neglect and specific forms of abuse, such as forced begging; however, child abuse was believed to be widespread. By December 1, law enforcement agencies opened 405 cases for crimes against children, including 97 cases of sexual abuse, 20 cases of serious bodily injuries to children, and 10 cases of premeditated murder. The Interior Ministry is responsible for investigating and prosecuting child sexual abuse cases, but declined to release statistics on the scope of the problem. According to the Ministry of Social Protection, Family, and the Child, efforts to protect children from abuse were hampered by inadequate victims' services, lack of reliable methods to track cases, and insufficient legal mechanisms to prevent such abuse or to provide special protection to victims. According to the ministry, more than 25 percent of minors admitted to being beaten by their parents, 20 percent said they experienced parental verbal abuse, and 15 percent said they lacked food and care. Approximately 10 percent of parents admitted to emotionally or physically abusing their children. During the year there were reports of cases of child prostitution. Commercial sex with minors is punished as statutory rape. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16. The law prohibits production, distribution, broadcasting, import, export, sale, exchange, use, or possession of child pornography, and violators face one to three years' imprisonment. Trafficking of children for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation and begging remained a serious problem. According to the Center for Combating Trafficking in Persons (CCTIP), 19 cases of trafficking of minors were opened during the first 11 months of the year. Police forwarded 16 cases to prosecutors, and prosecutors referred nine to courts for trial. The Justice Ministry reported that five persons (in eight criminal cases) were sentenced to imprisonment for child trafficking during the year. Conditions for children in orphanages and other institutions remained generally very poor. Underfunding caused major problems such as inadequate food, ``warehousing'' of children, lack of heat in winter, and disease. NGOs estimated that some 25 percent of the children in orphanages actually had one or two living parents, but they were abandoned when parents left the country in search of employment. Observers estimated that approximately one third of children lived in households where one or both parents had left the country in search of work. Such children often lived in poverty and were particularly vulnerable to trafficking and labor exploitation. Various government ministries ran their own orphanages and boarding schools. The Ministry of Labor, Social Protection, and Family maintained two boarding schools with a population of 675 children with disabilities and three asylums providing temporary shelter (for up to one year), counseling, and other assistance to up to 110 children from socially vulnerable families. The Ministry of Education oversaw 19 boarding schools with 5,932 students and two orphanages with 137 children. The ministry reported that 35 percent of the children in its care were orphans or abandoned. The other 65 percent came from socially vulnerable families in which parents were unable to maintain even basic living conditions. The Education Ministry also supervised 42 institutions for children with disabilities, housing up to 5,487 children. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes and provides for criminal penalties; however, trafficking was a serious problem, and the country remained a source, and to a lesser extent, a transit and destination point for trafficked persons, particularly women and girls trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and men trafficked for forced labor. Women and children were trafficked for sexual exploitation to Turkey, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, Ukraine, Russia, Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Austria, France, Italy, and Portugal. Men and children were trafficked to Russia and neighboring countries for forced labor and begging. The trafficking of men for work in the construction, agriculture, and service sectors was an increasing problem. Of the approximately 900,000 citizens working abroad, slightly less than 1 percent were believed to be victims of trafficking. The country was to a lesser extent also a transit point for trafficked victims from Ukraine. There were reports of some internal trafficking of girls from rural areas to Chisinau. Some traffickers used false newspaper advertisements promising well-paying jobs abroad to attract victims. NGOs working with trafficking victims noted that, in recent years, face-to-face contact, most frequently with friends or relatives who have worked abroad, had become the leading means of recruitment. Anecdotal evidence indicated that traffickers offered some female victims their freedom if they recruited a friend or relative to work in the sex trade. The International Labor Organization (ILO) reported that, in many cases, traffickers of children were Roma. Victims were transported across borders by car, van, train, or on foot. Sometimes false documents were used, but increasingly victims traveled willingly by plane with valid documents, believing that they were headed for legitimate jobs. Travel and employment agencies remained some of the principal channels for trafficking and other forms of illegal migration. In the first nine months of the year, IOM reported that it had assisted 102 victims of trafficking, of whom 43 were victims of sexual exploitation and 37 were victims of labor exploitation. This compared to 158 victims assisted in 2008. The Ministry of Labor, Social Protection, and Family reported that it had assisted 59 victims and 118 potential victims through the national referral system during the same period. CCTIP reported a growing number of victims willing to cooperate in criminal proceedings and an overall decrease in number of victims, declining from 271 in 2008 to 189 during the year. During the year the Interior Ministry reported that it conducted 15 raids to inspect 16 travel and employment agencies; it suspended the licenses of five agencies and withdrew the licenses of nine agencies for suspected trafficking. Authorities opened eight criminal cases against travel agencies, eight cases against employment agencies, and one case against a sports club. In the first 11 months of the year, CCTIP reported that authorities had opened 179 trafficking-related cases and 19 additional cases involving trafficking in children. Of these 94 cases of trafficked adults and nine cases involving children were forwarded to courts. During the year the Justice Ministry reported 60 persons sentenced to imprisonment for trafficking in 57 criminal cases. For example, in February a Cantemir court sentenced Violeta Gorceag and Cristian Botusneanu to 10 years' imprisonment for trafficking a woman to Turkey. In March a Chisinau court sentenced Brian Deacon, a United Kingdom citizen, to seven and a half years' imprisonment for sexual molestation of children. In March the Chisinau Court of Appeals sentenced a young woman to six years and eight months' imprisonment for trafficking a woman to Turkey. In June a Chisinau court sentenced a young woman to 10 years' imprisonment for trafficking two minors to Turkey. In July the Court of Appeals sentenced Marin Cernei to seven years' imprisonment for trafficking two young women to the Russian Federation. Following an intervention by prosecutors, the court of appeals upgraded this case from conviction for pimping to conviction for trafficking in persons. In October a Chisinau court sentenced Alexandr Plohotniuc, residing in Transnistria, to seven years' imprisonment for attempting, as part of a criminal network, to traffic a Ukrainian woman to Turkey for sexual exploitation under the pretense that she would work there as a shop assistant. The law provides criminal penalties for trafficking ranging from seven years to life imprisonment, depending on the circumstances and severity of the offense. During the year the government reduced the length of all trafficking-related criminal penalties in an effort to harmonize local law with EU standards. For example, the government reduced the punishment for trafficking from seven to 15 years to five to 12 years; for repeat or aggravated trafficking, the punishment was reduced from 10 to 20 to seven to 15 years. Penalties for child trafficking in were reduced from 10 to 15 to eight to 12 years. There were continued anecdotal reports that both low- and high- ranking government officials, as well as border guards and police officers, were involved in trafficking. International organizations and foreign governments criticized the government for making insufficient efforts to investigate, prosecute, convict, and sentence complicit officials. In 2008 prosecutors began criminal investigations into allegations that former Interior Ministry antitrafficking employees protected some criminal networks under investigation; those investigations continued during the year. While there were no new cases opened during the year, in October CCTIP requested that prosecutors reopen their investigation into a former head of the CCTIP. In June 2008 then-president Voronin accused the CCTIP of having a poor record, stating that some employees protected criminal schemes that trafficked citizens abroad and failed to file or close cases in exchange for monetary compensation. In July 2008 the president appointed a new CCTIP director and temporarily suspended CCTIP staff, pending reinvestigation of employees. Of the 63 staff members investigated, only 18 elected to stay or were retained. One of the staff members who departed was under investigation for possible corruption. In September 2008 the government announced the restructuring of the center, increasing its staffing. The Interior Ministry reported that, during the first 11 months of the year, it investigated and closed 40 illegal migration and trafficking networks. Of that number nine networks trafficked for sexual and labor exploitation; seven for external pimping; six for illegal movement of children out of the country; and 18 for organizing illegal migration. In 2008 the National Referral System for Protection and Assistance of Victims and Potential Victims of Trafficking (NRS) began operating in 16 regions and two municipalities, offering protection and assistance to victims and potential victims of trafficking. The NRS trained local specialists in skills such as direct contact with the victims, their reintegration into their family and society, and the prevention of societal stigmatization. During the year the NRS was expanded to include 23 regions, two municipalities and one town. During the first 11 months of the year, NRS referred 59 victims (compared to 24 in 2008) and 118 potential victims (compared to 34 in 2008) to assistance providers. Antitrafficking NGOs noted that no special protection measures were available to child trafficking victims; there were no special interviewing rooms, and children were often interviewed as many as 10 times, often being confronted by the alleged trafficker. The government did not provide any funding to antitrafficking NGOs; such NGOs were supported by grants from foreign institutions and governments. According to the IOM, the government increased its financing of the Center for Rehabilitation of Victims of Trafficking from 512,000 lei (approximately $46,500) in 2008 to 680,000 lei (approximately $61,800) during the year. The government provided free national identity and health insurance cards and free access to vocational training programs to victims of trafficking. There is a government regulation on the repatriation of trafficked persons and victims of illegal migration that has special provisions for minors, victim protection, rehabilitation, and monitoring. According to antitrafficking NGOs, the government had in some cases provided free passports to trafficking victims abroad, repatriation, police protection, reception by social workers at the point of entry into the country, and rehabilitation and vocational assistance. The role of government in victim assistance increased during the year because of the consolidation and extension of the NRS, but it continued to rely on NGOs and international organizations for victim assistance and actively cooperated with NGOs. Several NGOs offered repatriation assistance, temporary housing, medical care, and job training for victims. The NGO Save the Children worked with trafficking victims, particularly repatriated girls. Local NGO La Strada provided informational and educational services as well as a national toll free hotline. IOM continued a public information program aimed at helping citizens going abroad to avoid exploitation. Local NGOs also operated public school programs to educate young women about the dangers of prostitution. The government participated in international conferences designed to increase multilateral effectiveness in dealing with trafficking, frequently in collaboration with law enforcement officials from neighboring countries and other European governments. There were continued reports of trafficking from and through the separatist region of Transnistria. The only major effort in the region to combat trafficking and provide assistance to victims was by the Transnistrian NGO Interaction, which maintained a trafficking hotline. According to Interaction Transnistrian authorities did not take any action to combat trafficking in persons. In contrast to previous years, Interaction reported a drop in trafficking in the region. On April 1, Interaction opened a second hotline to assist victims of domestic violence in Transnistria. Through year's end the hotline received nearly 1,000 calls, including calls for information, 206 emergency calls from trafficking victims or their relatives, and calls from international organizations dealing with trafficking problems. Interaction also provided emergency assistance, help in resettlement, and psychological counseling to victims, close to half of whom were 16 to 18 years old. Transnistrian authorities neither helped nor hindered Interaction's activities. On November 9, the new government convened its first meeting of the National Committee for Preventing Trafficking in Persons, chaired by Prime Minister Filat, who appointed Foreign Minister Iurie Leanca to lead the committee. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to public facilities, healthcare, or the provision of other state services; however, the government generally did not enforce the law. The local NGO Gaudeamus reported continued widespread discrimination against students with disabilities. The government has national strategies for reforming the residential childcare system and rehabilitating and integrating persons with disabilities, but it did not provide funding to implement them. Government regulations mandate access to buildings for persons with disabilities; with few exceptions most government buildings provided such access. While most newly built or reconstructed buildings had such access, few older buildings provided it. The government also provided few resources to training persons with disabilities. The Social Assistance Division in the Ministry of Social Protection, Family, and Child, and the National Labor Force Agency are responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. In June 2008 officials estimated that the number of persons with disabilities in the country was more than 170,000 and growing and noted that government assistance did not satisfy their needs. The ILO attributed this increase to greater public awareness. The director of the Center for Services for Students with Disabilities stated that the structure of educational institutions and the lack of materials for teaching persons who are deaf or blind exemplified the government's failure to meet the needs of persons with disabilities. In Transnistria children with disabilities and special educational requirements rarely attended school and lacked access to specialized resources. Although the law provides for equal employment opportunities and prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities (with the exception of jobs where certain health conditions are required), in practice many employers failed to provide accommodation to persons with disabilities and avoided employing persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Roma were subject to violence, harassment, and discrimination. Romani NGOs reported that Roma were denied medical services, told that promised jobs were already filled when they reported to employment centers, and subjected to arbitrary arrests. Roma were the country's poorest minority group and continued to live in unsanitary conditions in segregated communities lacking basic infrastructure. These conditions often led to segregated education and schools with even fewer resources than existed elsewhere in the country. Many Romani children did not attend school, very few received a secondary or higher education, and the government did not provide education in the Romani language. Romani NGOs estimated that 80 percent of Romani children were illiterate. According to a 2007 UNDP report, 43 percent of Romani children between the ages of seven to 15 did not attend school, compared with approximately 6 percent of non- Romani children. On March 24, the Roma Association reported that 2,800 Romani children were unable to attend school because of poverty. Official statistics put the number of Roma at 11,600. However, Romani NGOs estimated it to be 250,000, including 100,000 persons of voting age. NGOs asserted that government census forms allowed persons to identify only with one ethnic group, and that many Roma declined to identify themselves as Roma. In Transnistria authorities continued to discriminate against Romanian speakers. Under a temporary arrangement, the Transnistrian authorities allowed eight Latin-script schools under the Moldovan Ministry of Education to operate in Transnistria. School employees complained that authorities could arbitrarily rescind the arrangement-- which applied to all Latin-script schools--at any time. Approximately 7,700 children in the region attended these eight Latin-script schools. The situation was more difficult for approximately 26 ``Moldovan language'' Cyrillic-script schools that operated under the Transnistrian Ministry of Education. Authorities failed to fund those schools sufficiently, and did not supply them with sufficient numbers of Cyrillic-language books. Although lacking books and other supplies, school principals declined to accept donations of books from the Moldovan government because of pressure and threats from Transnistrian authorities. In August 2008 Transnistrian police in Dubasari summoned the director of the Romanian-language (Latin script) Harmatca school after an NGO initiated a fundraising drive to repair the building and prepare it for the upcoming school year. Police interrogated him about the July fundraising events and prohibited him from participating in the campaign to collect funds and equipment. Police also threatened and intimidated other school officials. As a result of the intimidation and threats, school authorities refused further contacts with NGOs. At year's end negotiations between the central government and local Transnistrian educational authorities on the operation of Romanian- language schools had not resumed, nor was there progress on returning the confiscated school buildings of the Evrica high school in Ribnita and the Stefan cel Mare high school in Grigoriopol. The Evrica high school continued to meet in temporary rented quarters after authorities confiscated its building after the central government finished its construction in 2004. During the year three parents complained of intimidation and threats that they would be dismissed from their jobs if they sent their children to Evrica. Classes were often interrupted by unknown persons who broke windows. Transnistrian authorities and police repeatedly failed to identify the perpetrators. The central government provided Grigoriopol students with transportation and facilities in the government-controlled town of Dorotcaia. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were reports of governmental and societal discrimination based on sexual orientation. According to the gay rights NGO GenderDoc-M, lack of community recognition, negative media portrayals, and condemnation by the Orthodox Church often led to public ostracism of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) persons, and their families. In recent years public officials spoke out against homosexual conduct. In a speech before parliament in May 2008, then-deputy speaker Iurie Rosca stated that citizens should respect personal privacy and the freedom to choose sexual orientation, but reject ``public displays'' of homosexual behavior. He noted that parades and such ``public displays'' have a negative effect on children's psychological and moral development. During a May 2008 pride parade organized by GenderDoc-M, security forces observed from a distance as hundreds of persons aggressively blocked the bus carrying GenderDoc-M participants. Police failed to address emergency calls from the participants. According to one participant who called the police emergency line, a police officer stated, ``Yes, we know you are being attacked; what do you want us to do about it?'' Although the Chisinau mayor's office initially approved the group's plan for the march, Mayor Dorin Chirtoaca withdrew permission, claiming that he did so to avoid violence. In May 2008 Chisinau municipal authorities prohibited GenderDoc-M from holding a protolerance, antidiscrimination rally. Authorities based the denial on the need to avoid societal tensions and religious organizations' disapproval of homosexual conduct. In light of the problems in 2008 and the heightened tensions following the April elections, the LGBT community canceled plans for a public demonstration on May 7 and instead held a festival at a local nightclub without incident. In Transnistria homosexual activity is illegal, and LGBT persons were subject to governmental and societal discrimination. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Several NGOs reported instances of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, particularly in rural villages. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to form and join independent unions and conduct their activities without government interference; however, this right was not always respected in practice. Some unions were unable to register to gain full legal status since by law, only national, sectoral, and intersectoral level trade unions may acquire status as a legal entity. Approximately 50 percent of the workforce was unionized. Civil servants, police, and members of the military, are forbidden by law from joining unions. In February 2008 delegates from 30 workplace organizations convened in Chisinau to establish the Trade Union Association of Public Administration and the Civil Service. However, the Ministry of Justice refused to register the new trade union, asserting that the district organizations of the 30 entities had not been registered. Labor rights groups noted that the law requires only national registration and makes no provision for registration of district trade union associations. In November 2008 the Supreme Court upheld the denial of registration. This decision was criticized by the International Trade Union Confederation and other international and domestic labor rights organizations. The law does not provide sanctions for violations of freedom of association, and labor organizations reported that labor inspectorates and prosecutors' offices failed to monitor and enforce the right to organize effectively. The law provides for the right to strike, except for government workers and workers in essential services such as law enforcement. Healthcare providers and public utility employees were not allowed to strike during duty hours. Political strikes are prohibited. Compulsory arbitration may be imposed at the request of only one party to the conflict. Workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining and the right to organize; however, the government did not always respect these rights in practice. The law does not stipulate penalties for violating trade union rights. As a result prosecutors may reject appeals by trade unions alleging antiunion behavior by employers and the government; violations of the trade union law remained unpunished. In March 2008 the government ignored a request by the Education and Science Trade Union (ESTU) to enter into collective bargaining in favor of a salary increase. In September 2008 ESTU organized a picket line in front of government buildings in protest. Since coming into office, the new government announced that teachers would be the only government employees to receive a scheduled annual salary increase. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, with exceptions. The law and a government decision allow central and local authorities as well as military bodies to mobilize the adult population under certain conditions and employ such labor to develop the national economy. However, the government did not invoke this provision during the year. Men, women, and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities were trafficked for begging, primarily to Moscow and other large cities in Russia. The NGO Pacifists without Borders accused military centers and conscription commissions of violating the rights of the persons who have reached the age of conscription for military service (18 years). The NGO stated that, to reach conscription targets, military centers and conscription commissions declared some men to be physically and mentally fit for conscription without medical examinations and without taking into account their beliefs and values. The law prohibits forced or compulsory child labor. On several occasions during the autumn harvest, the ombudsman responsible for children investigated reports of children working in fields and vineyards; she sent the children back to their schools, and threatened school authorities with fines. d. Prohibition of Child Labor Practices and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law sets standards for child labor, including the minimum age for employment, hours of work, and working conditions, and prohibits the worst forms of child labor; however, the government did not effectively enforce these protections, and child labor was a problem. Parents often sent children to work in fields or to find other work, and those children living in rural areas often assisted in the agricultural sector. According to a 2007 ILO report, two-thirds of rural children were engaged in farm work by the age of 14. There were also reports that farms and agricultural cooperatives signed contracts with school directors to have students help with harvesting during the high season in autumn; the children were paid for the work. The minimum age for unrestricted employment is 18. Persons between the ages of 16 and 18 are permitted to work under special conditions, including shorter workdays; no night, weekend, or holiday shifts; no overtime; and longer vacations. Fifteen-year-old children are permitted to work if they obtain written permission from a parent or guardian. There were reports that children were trafficked within and to points outside the country for commercial sexual exploitation, labor, and begging. The law provides for 10 to 15 years' imprisonment for persons involving children in the worst forms of child labor; under aggravated circumstances the sentence could be life imprisonment. Efforts by the Labor Inspectorate Office (LIO) to enforce child labor laws did not deter violations. In 2008 labor inspectors discovered violations at 26 enterprises involving 184 cases of employees under the age of 18. At 10 businesses inspectors found 89 persons without work contracts, employment orders, or records of working hours. The most common violations involving persons under age 18 concerned failure to issue work contracts, illegal overtime, scheduling work during school hours, and underpayment or nonpayment of wages. In 2007 the LIO reported that of 371 child labor cases it investigated, 298 cases concerned hazardous work conditions. Fifteen of these cases were deemed abusive and involved children working cultivating mushrooms, assembling boxes for agricultural goods, and smoking fish. The cases classified as nonabusive but hazardous involved children working without medical checks; children working evenings, late, or extended hours; and children under the age of 16 years working without parental consent. According to the LIO, during the first six months of 2008, it had investigated 96 child labor cases out of 4,061 inspections. Children also worked illegally in the production of factory goods such as clothing, toys, and automobile electrical parts. Children also commonly worked in theaters, car washes, and in carpentry, agriculture, trade, and transportation. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The legal minimum monthly wage was 400 lei ($38) per month. The minimum wage was set by the government in yearly consultations with trade unions and employer associations. If the government takes a decision to revise the minimum wage, it sets a new minimum wage taking into account basic macroeconomic indicators, the consumer price index, and average wages. According to the law, no employer (whether state or private) may pay wages below the official minimum salary. The minimum salary set by the government is the basic pay rate and cannot include premium pay. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, the average gross salary was 2,686 lei ($243) per month. The government estimated that the minimum living wage was 1,315 lei ($126). Average disposable income was only 1,094 lei ($105) per month. The LIO is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage, but it did not do so effectively during the year. The government as well as private sector employers often did not pay wages on time. The law sets the maximum workweek at 40 hours with extra compensation for overtime and provides for at least one day off per week. LIO field visits led to the sanctioning of violations when discovered, but staff and funding deficiencies limited the frequency of such visits. While the country had few foreign or migrant workers, the law provides them equal status to domestic workers. A thriving informal economy and black market accounted for a majority of the country's economic activity, which helped explain unrealistically low income statistics. In 2008 analyst Veaceslav Ionita estimated that there was a turnover of an estimated 50 billion lei (approximately $4.8 billion) in the informal economy and that, while official statistics indicated only 620,000 persons of the 2.3 million person labor force were officially employed, more than 1.2 million persons were actually working. Under the labor code, work contracts must be concluded even by private farmers, who have to register them with the mayor's office and send copies to the local labor inspectorate. However, there were no reports of such contracts being concluded, and the central government did not have a mechanism to monitor compliance with this requirement. The government is required to establish and monitor safety standards in the workplace, and the LIO was responsible for enforcing health and safety standards. During the first four months of 2008, the LIO conducted 4,061 health and safety inspections. The Prosecutor General's Office accused the LIO of limiting its activity to finding violations, while failing to undertake measures necessary to ensure future compliance. Monitoring carried out by prosecutors revealed that the most frequent violations were related to citizens' rights to work (including reasonable conditions of work and right to a paid vacation), payment and labor protection, and social and medical assistance. According to a September report by the National Bureau of Statistics, during 2008, 21,750 workers, including more than 6,000 teachers, were working in unsanitary conditions, an increase of approximately 3,000 over 2007. Examples of unsanitary conditions include lack of heating in winter and lack of water supplies in some rural areas. Women represented 50 percent of the persons working in unsanitary conditions. The number of employees engaged in hard labor fell from 1,692 in 2006 to 1,371 in 2008. In September the National Bureau of Statistics reported that the number of workplace accidents decreased from 1,946 in 1996 to 540 in 2008. The law provides workers the right to refuse work if conditions represent a serious health or safety threat; there were no reports that workers exercised this right in practice. Poor economic conditions led enterprises to economize on safety equipment and provide inadequate attention to worker safety. __________ MONACO The Principality of Monaco has a resident population of 35,000, of whom approximately 7,000 have Monegasque citizenship. It is a constitutional monarchy in which the sovereign prince plays the leading governmental role. The prince appoints the government consisting of a minister of state chosen from a list proposed by the French government and five counselors responsible for finance, interior, health and social affairs, environment and city planning, and external affairs. The prince shares the country's legislative power with the popularly elected 24-member National Council. In February 2008 the principality held multiparty elections for the National Council; they were considered free and fair. The National Council meets at least twice a year to consider bills proposed by the prince's government. The prince may dissolve the National Council at any time provided that new elections are held within three months. The Crown Council must also be consulted before ratification of international treaties or substantive changes in the principality's citizenship laws. The Crown Council has seven members, three chosen directly by the prince and four chosen by the prince from nominees put forward by the National Council. The electoral system allows citizens to change many aspects of their government, but there is no constitutional provision to allow the citizens to change the monarchical nature of the government. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention centers meet or exceed international standards. The government permits monitoring by human rights observers. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police force and the Carbiniers du Prince, the ceremonial military unit that guards the prince's palace. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Arrest warrants are required, except when a suspect is arrested while committing an offense. Police must bring a detainee before an investigating magistrate within 24 hours to inform the detainee of the charges against him and of his rights under the law. Most detainees were released without bail, but the investigating magistrate may order detention on grounds that the suspect might flee or interfere with the investigation of the case. The government works with the French to return any fugitive who flees the principality into France. The investigating magistrate may extend the initial two-month detention for additional two-month periods indefinitely. The investigating magistrate customarily permits family members to see detainees. On July 16, the European Court of Human Rights upheld in part a complaint against excessive pretrial detention by the defendant in a criminal bank embezzlement case. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Under the law, the prince delegates his judicial powers to the judiciary. Trial Procedures.--The law provides the right to a fair, public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. As under French law, in criminal cases a three-judge tribunal considers the evidence collected by the investigating magistrate and hears the arguments made by prosecuting attorney/s and defense attorney/s. Juries are not used. The defendant enjoys a presumption of innocence and the right of appeal. The defendant has the right to be present and the right to counsel, at public expense if necessary. Defendants have the right to question witnesses against them and to present their own witnesses. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government- held evidence relevant to their cases. After being found guilty and receiving a definitive sentence, convicts are transferred to a French prison to serve out their terms. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The principality has an independent and impartial judiciary for civil matters, and residents have access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Plaintiffs regularly use available administrative remedies to seek redress for alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights. Articles 58 and 60 of the Penal Code prohibit public denunciations of the ruling family, provisions that the media followed in practice. The law provides for imprisonment of between six months to five years for violation of Articles 58 and 60. No one was charged with violation of these statutes during the year. As limited by the provisions of Articles 58 and 60, an independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 67 percent of the principality's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Roman Catholicism is the state religion. Churches serving several Christian denominations and synagogues operate freely. There are no mosques. The government denies permission to operate to religious organizations found on the French Interministerial Monitoring Mission against Sectarian Abuses (MIVILUDES) ``cult'' list. During the year the government neither received nor denied any registration applications. There is no law against proselytizing by religious organizations formally registered by the Ministry of State. However, proselytizing in public, which the authorities deem to be detrimental to the public order, is not allowed. There were no such incidents during the year. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence, harassment, or discrimination against members of any religious group. The Jewish community is extremely small. There were no reports of anti-Semitic incidents. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the principality, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The principality is party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, but not to the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of refuge and asylum status. In theory, the government is committed to following international norms regarding protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In practice, the principality depends on bilateral arrangements with France in all matters relating to refugees and asylum. During the year there were no reported cases of the government granting refugee status or political asylum. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The authority to change the government and to initiate laws rests solely with the prince. The constitution can be revised by common agreement between the prince and the elected National Council. Elections and Political Participation.--As head of state, the prince names the minister of state, in effect the prime minister, frequently a French citizen chosen in coordination with the government of France. The prince also names the five other counselors who make up the government. Only the prince may formally initiate legislation, but the 24- member National Council may propose legislation to the government. All legislation and the adoption of the budget require the National Council's assent. Elections for the National Council are held every five years and are based on universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot. The National Council elections in February 2008 were considered free and fair. Several political parties exist, operate freely, and are active on both the national and municipal level. There were six women in the 24-member National Council, and two women in the seven-member Crown Council. There were no members of minorities in the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of governmental corruption alleged during the year, but no formal proceedings against government officials for corruption. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government provided access in practice for citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Although the government did not restrict the establishment or operation of groups devoted to monitoring human rights, none currently exists in the principality, nor does the government have an ombudsman for human rights issues. The government has pledged full cooperation with any UN or other international human rights organization, but no monitoring visits by international human rights organizations took place during the year. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides that all nationals are equal before the law. It differentiates between rights accorded to nationals (including preference in employment, free education, and assistance to the ill or unemployed) and those accorded to all residents (including inviolability of the home). The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced it. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense. There were no arrests or prosecutions for any form of rape during the year. Instances of violence against women were rarely reported. Spousal abuse is prohibited by law, and victims may bring criminal charges against their spouses. Prostitution is illegal, and overt prostitution is uncommon, although it exists in a well-hidden form. There were no prosecutions for prostitution during the year. Sexual harassment is illegal, and the government effectively enforced the law. There were no reports of sexual harassment during the year. Although the law provides for the equality of men and women, there is no institution with a mandate to monitor gender inequalities. The law governing transmission of citizenship provides for equality of treatment between men and women. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women were represented well in the professions, but less well in business and financial fields. While no data was available, observers believe that there was a small and gradually diminishing gender pay discrepancy. Children.--Citizenship may be transmitted through either parent (jus sanguinis). Citizenship is not derived from birth within the territory. The government registers all births immediately. During the year there were few reports of child abuse. The government sponsors public service programs against child abuse, and the government hotline service provides a means of reporting and addressing child abuse. Statistics estimate that 2 percent of minors (under 18), either those with disabilities or considered in danger, need assistance from the Social Welfare Services. Trafficking in Persons.--The law does not prohibit trafficking in persons, and there were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the principality. There was no evidence of forced prostitution. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and the law prohibit discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government effectively enforced these provisions. There was no reported governmental or societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The government has largely fulfilled the legal requirement to provide access to public buildings for persons with disabilities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There are no specific laws protecting lesbians, gays, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) persons from discrimination. There were no reports of official or societal discrimination against LGBT persons during the year. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--By law, workers are free to form and join independent unions of their choice, but fewer than five percent of workers were unionized. Non-Monegasque workers, about 97 percent of the work force, have the right to join unions. Of the larger foreign work force, nearly 70 percent are French or Italian citizens. Unions were independent of both the government and political parties. The constitution and law provide for the right to strike, but government workers may not strike. There have been no reported instances of retaliation against strikers. The law protects workers' rights in terms of trade union membership. Nonrespect of workers' rights related to trade unions can subject employers to a fine or in some cases to imprisonment from three months to a year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the free exercise of union activity, and workers exercise this right in practice. In reality, strike actions are infrequent. Employer organizations and trade unions negotiate agreements on working conditions. Collective bargaining is protected by law; however, it was rarely used because of the widespread use of individual contracts. Contracts are individual contracts; they are negotiated between employers and workers and are subject to work law and regulations. The law determines all regulations and specific dispositions related to work contracts and describes both parties' (employer and worker) commitments. Antiunion discrimination is prohibited. Union representatives may be fired only with the agreement of a national commission that includes two members from the employers' association and two from the labor movement. During the year no cases were brought before this commission. Allegations of dismissal for union activity may be brought before the labor court, which can order redress, such as the payment of damages with interest. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution and law prohibit forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The minimum age for employment is 16 years; those employing children under that age may be subject to a fine under criminal law. Workers between the ages of 16 to 18 years old may not perform nighttime work. The counselor of government for the interior is responsible for enforcing the child labor laws and regulations, and they were effectively enforced. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The legal minimum wage for full- time work is the French minimum wage, 8.82 euros per hour (approximately $12.61), plus a 5 percent adjustment to compensate for the travel costs of the three-quarters of the workforce who commute daily. The minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Most workers received more than the minimum wage. The legal workweek is 39 hours. The government allows companies to reduce the workweek to 35 hours if they so choose. Regulations provide for a minimum number of rest periods and premium pay for overtime. Law and government decree fix health and safety standards, which were enforced by health and safety committees in the workplace and by the government labor inspector. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardy to their employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ MONTENEGRO Montenegro is a mixed parliamentary and presidential republic with a population of approximately 670,000. Both the unicameral parliament (the Assembly) and the president are elected by popular vote. International observers reported that parliamentary elections held in March met almost all international standards, but problems, such as the use of offices for both government and political party purposes, underscored the need for further democratic development. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of security forces. Human rights problems included: police mistreatment of suspects in detention, substandard prison conditions, abusive and arbitrary arrests, police impunity, lengthy pretrial detention, delayed and inefficient trials, widespread perception of corruption in law enforcement agencies and the judiciary, physical assaults on journalists, excessive monetary judgments against the media for slander, denial of public and press access to information, mistreatment and discrimination against the large number of refugees and internally displaced persons, sectarian intolerance and homophobia, discrimination against women, trafficking in persons, and discrimination against ethnic minorities, particularly Roma. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. On the night of June 9 in Gornja Polja, Mojkovac municipality, off-duty policeman Rade Popovic reportedly punched Danijel Dedeic in the face. On June 14, Dedeic died. The High Court opened an investigation of Popovic and detained him. The case was ongoing at year's end. Authorities pursued several cases of alleged war crimes during the year. On March 19, after the suspects had engaged in hunger strikes and made complaints regarding their prolonged detention, the trial began of eight officers and soldiers of the Podgorica Corps of the former Yugoslav Army on charges of killing 23 Albanian civilians in Kaludjerski Laz near Rozaje in 1999. The killings occurred as the Albanians were trying to escape from the war in Kosovo during the NATO intervention. The trial continued, following interruptions, at year's end. All of the alleged victims' families also filed civil suits. On December 7, the Podgorica Basic Court decided one civil case, requiring the government to pay 15,000 euros ($21,450) to Hadzija Ahmeti from Novo Selo (near Pec, in Kosovo) for mental anguish. During the year the Bijelo Polje Superior Court completed an investigation of allegations that seven former military and police personnel committed war crimes against Muslims in 1992 and 1993 in the Bukovica region. The court forwarded the case for further action to the special prosecutor for suppression of organized crime, corruption, terrorism, and war crimes. Several families whose members were victims of the alleged crimes filed civil suits with the Podgorica Basic Court. On January 19, the deputy special prosecutor charged nine defendants in connection with the deportation of Muslims and Serbs who fled Bosnia in 1992 to the Republika Srpska; he ordered that they be detained. While four defendants were taken into custody immediately, five remained at large at year's end. A trial of all of those charged began on November 26. The deported Bosnians reportedly were killed by Republika Srpska forces, and the deported Serbs, mostly deserters from the Republika Srpska army, were turned over to that army. During the year the private vehicle of Slobodan Pejovic, a witness in the case and a former police inspector from Herceg Novi, was vandalized three times. The perpetrators were not found. Pejovic said that he had received information that he could be killed by some members of the Agency for National Security to keep him from appearing at trial. Police officials described Pejovic's statements as exaggerated and called on him to identify the persons who threatened him. Pejovic refused formal witness protection but agreed that police should look after his house, car, and other property. Local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) appealed to authorities to give Pejovic adequate protection. On March 12, in the Podgorica Superior Court, the trial began of six former Yugoslav People's Army soldiers and reservists accused of war crimes in the Morinj prisoner of war camp; it continued during the year. Five defendents pled not quilty, while one remained at large and was being tried in absentia. In May an investigating judge of the Podgorica Superior Court acquitted three Yugoslav Army pilots of war crimes in Metkovic, On November 20, the police in Podgorica arrested Stanko Kovacevic, based on a 2001 Interpol arrest warrant issued in Zagreb alleging that he committed war crimes in Croatia during the 1990s. At year's end he was awaiting extradition. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, police at times beat and harassed suspects while arresting them or detaining them for questioning. On December 22, the NGO Youth Initiative for Human Rights (YIHR) asserted that the number of cases of police misconduct decreased during the year. Authorities informed the Council of Europe's (COE's) Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) that in 2007 district attorneys received 92 cases involving allegations of torture and abuse. Prosecutors pressed charges against 30 persons and declined to press charges against 34. Including held-over cases, prosecutors reviewed a total of 157 and indicted a total of 96 persons. During the same year, the courts resolved 46 cases of torture and mistreatment and rendered 25 guilty verdicts, nine acquittals, and 12 dismissals for lack of evidence. Two of the guilty verdicts resulted in prison sentences, five in fines, and 18 in suspended sentences. A CPT visit took place in September 2008, but the CPT did not publish its report during the year. The NGO Human Rights Action appealed to the government to make its findings public, as the NGO believed the report's findings might disclose some human rights violations. Although there is a legally mandated agency, the Council for Civilian Control of Police Operations, to which citizens could address complaints of abuse, it could only make recommendations. Since its establishment in 2004, the council has reviewed and forwarded approximately 350 citizen complaints. In some cases police failed to respond to these recommendations. During the year the Department for Internal Control of Police Administration received 137 complaints about police conduct and found 113 justified and 23 unjustified (one case was pending). Police stated that they took disciplinary actions in response to those complaints they considered justified. There were 65 (32.5 percent) fewer complaints during the year than in 2008. There were reports that police often filed countercharges against individuals who reported police abuse. Partly as a result, there was a widespread belief that citizens often failed to report mistreatment. During the year there were a number of incidents in which authorities were charged with, or convicted of, mistreating persons in their custody. For example, on May 10, police officer Kenan Osmankadic wounded mental patient Batric Knezevic in the lower leg as police were escorting Knezevic to the mental hospital in Kotor. Authorities acknowledged that Osmanakadic made some professional mistakes and pressed charges against him. On June 18, Mladen Stevic received serious body injuries when he allegedly jumped with tied hands from the second floor of the police station in Bar. Police stated that Stevic tried to escape from the police station while he was talking with his attorney. Police internal control officials concluded that police officers on duty acted in accordance with their responsibilities. On September 14, the Podgorica prosecutor filed charges against six police officers accused of beating Aleksandar Pejanovic while he was in custody. On December 15, during the trial, one of the indicted police officers, Goran Stankovic, alleged that several of his colleagues, mostly supervising and higher-ranking officers, committed a series of offenses related to ordering, enabling, and covering up the torture of Pejanovic, including forging official records. Stankovic's statements fully corresponded to Pejanovic's allegations, including the claim that several masked men in police uniforms beat him on several occasions in police detention. Authorities had arrested Pejanovic for allegedly assaulting a police officer during a protest against the government's decision to recognize the independence of Kosovo in October 2008. On November 10, the Podgorica Superior Court overturned a verdict by a court of first instance that had found five members of the government's special antiterrorist unit guilty of exceeding their authority. The alleged abuses occurred during a 2006 raid in which members of the unit arrested 17 persons, who were subsequently convicted of participation in a terrorist plot. The initial court finding concluded that the five had acted as ``coexecutioners'' of the torture and abuse of the father of two of the plotters. Trials were underway or pending in a number of cases involving earlier alleged police misconduct, including six police officers in Bar (Nesko Jaredic, Veselin Buskovic, Rifat Ramusovic, Ivica Raicevic, and Jagos Pivljanin) charged with beating Predrag Djukic and Ivan Abramovic in a police station in 2007, and two former police officers charged with abuse of power, extortion, and mistreatment of a flower seller in Herceg Novi. No new information was available concerning the investigation of former Podgorica police chief Milan Vujanovic, who reportedly ordered the beating of prisoners during a raid on Spuz prison in 2005. During the year the Berane Basic Court charged police officers Ivan Bojovic, Nebojsa Veljic, and Zeljko Devic with abusing four Kosovo Albanians detained in 2007. The trial was pending with the Berane Basic Court at year's end. On December 22, YIHR reported that the number of cases of politically motivated violence, including physical and verbal assaults against journalists, NGO activists, professors, and public figures, increased during the year. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prisons, and especially facilities for pretrial detainees, did not meet international standards and were dilapidated, overcrowded, and poorly maintained, although there were some improvements. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. The law permits inmates to serve their sentences through voluntary service in a state institution or agency, but this alternative, which observers have noted could reduce overcrowding, was used only in a few cases. In June detainees in the pretrial detention unit of the Spuz prison carried out two strikes protesting prison conditions. During the year one prisoner tried to commit suicide. Although the Spuz prison hospital contains a department for treating alcoholics and drug addicts, it was overcrowded, and such prisoners, along with mentally ill prisoners, were often treated in the Kotor psychiatric hospital, which lacked the facilities and personnel to house mentally ill patients together with dangerous convicts. On October 30, inmate Alen Harovic was found dead in his cell at the Spuz prison. An investigation showed that he died of a heroin overdose. The Podgorica Superior Court opened an investigation of four persons for distributing heroin inside the prison. Disciplinary procedures were initiated against five prison wardens, and the prison director resigned. Inmates Dalibor Nikezic and Igor Milic claimed that on October 27, wardens in the Spuz prison brutally beat them. Their families filed legal charges against prison officials for mistreatment, and the case was pending in the basic court in Danilovgrad. The prison director stated that wardens acted in line with their authorities. Deputy ombudsman Marijana Lakovic, who visited Dalibor Nikezic in prison, said that he had visible injuries on his body and wanted to have the right to file a legal suit with the competent authorities. An investigation continued during the year of two female prison guards accused of beating and injuring detainee Vladana Kljajic in the women's detention unit in the Spuz Prison. Prison authorities claimed that Kljajic broke prison rules and was appropriately disciplined but not beaten. Prison authorities filed charges against Kljajic for assaulting an official, while Kljajic's mother filed charges against the prison wardens. In October the Ministry of Justice reported that officials at the Spuz Prison had fired a prison employee for stealing money from prisoners. In September the total prison population was 1,395, of whom 795 were convicts and 600 were detainees. In contrast to previous years, there were no reports of juveniles held in the same cells with adult prisoners. The government permitted human rights observers, including the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and local NGOs, to visit the prisons and detention units and to speak with the prisoners without the presence of a guard. The ICRC and the Helsinki Committee of Montenegro made several visits during the year. Representatives of the human rights ombudsman's office routinely visited prisons without prior notice, meeting with detainees and inmates. Authorities completed a project to equip detention units in all police stations with video surveillance equipment in an effort to reduce police abuse. The main prison in Spuz opened a new pavilion to house 144 minors, women, foreigners, and inmates serving sentences of less than six months. The government renovated existing facilities and installed a permanent water supply to the prison; however, adequate facilities for treating mentally ill prisoners or those with special needs were lacking. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national and border police were responsible for law and order. They worked under the supervision of the Ministry of Interior and Public Administration and were generally effective. By the end of the year, internal control responsibility was moved from the Police Directorate to the Ministry of Interior and Public Administration in an effort to improve control of the police force. The country's security organization, the National Security Agency, is a separate entity within the Ministry of Interior and Public Administration. Its responsibilities include intelligence and counterintelligence. The Ministry of Defense is responsible for military and security matters. The Assembly's Committee for Defense and Security held regular meetings with the directors of police and the National Security Agency. Parliament is responsible for overseeing the democratic and civilian control of the army and security services; however, there is no specific law to regulate parliamentary oversight of defense and security. Pursuant to the amendments to the Law on Secrecy of Information, Assembly members sitting on the Committee for Defense and Security have access to classified documents without prior approval or security clearances. Police corruption and inappropriate government influence on police behavior remained problems; the small, close-knit society discouraged the reporting of corruption and made criminal's access to law enforcement officers easy. According to the COE's Commissioner for Human Rights, who visited the country in June 2008, ``criminal proceedings against law enforcement officers for extortion of evidence, mistreatment, torture, or abuse of office seldom occurred and were not conducted efficiently. Courts rendered verdicts in a small number of reported cases but only issued admonitions, suspended sentences, and fines.'' During the first eight months of the year, authorities dismissed one officer and fined eight for abuse of office and exceeding authority. During the year the Interior Ministry's Internal Affairs Unit took disciplinary measures to address those problems. Internal investigations, combined with the work of the ombudsman and human rights activists, reduced impunity. In response to reports of police misconduct, authorities usually reacted more rapidly to discipline the officers responsible. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and foreign donor governments provided training for police, security, and border and customs officers on combating terrorism, corruption, and money laundering. According to a report by the European Commission, there was ``some progress'' in the area of policing and police reform in the year that ended in August, and a ``track record'' was being established in this regard. The commission reported that disciplinary measures were imposed on 124 police officers in this period, while from February to July criminal charges were brought against 27. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Arrests require a judicial warrant or a ``strong suspicion that the suspect committed an offense.'' Authorities may detain suspects for up to 48 hours before bringing them before a judge and charging them. At arraignment the judge makes an initial determination about the legality of the detention. In practice arraignment generally occurred within the prescribed period. The law permits a detainee to have an attorney present during police and court proceedings. Detainees generally had prompt access to family members. There is a system of bail; however, it was not widely used because citizens could rarely raise money for bail. The law sets the initial length of pretrial detention at 30 days with a possible extension to five months. These time limits were generally respected. Police continued to summon suspects and witnesses to police stations for ``informative talks'' without holding them for extended period of times in most cases. In principle, those who have been summoned have the right not to respond. The law forbids use of force, threats, and coercion by police to obtain evidence; however, there were a few allegations that police sometimes used those methods to obtain evidence. Long trial delays, combined with difficulties faced by detainees in meeting bail conditions, frequently led to lengthy pretrial detention. The law prohibits excessive delays by authorities in filing formal charges against suspects and in opening investigations; however such delays occurred regularly. Due to the inefficiency of the courts, cases often took an excessively long time to come to trial without any apparent reason, and trials themselves were subject to frequent interruptions. Pretrial detainees on average accounted for 50 percent of the prison population. The average length of pretrial detention was approximately six months. Amnesty.--Officials pardoned 28 inmates under the country's amnesty law. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary; however, some observers asserted that the judiciary was not always independent and that government officials at times influenced prosecutors for political and personal reasons. Some observers contended that the executive and legislative branches, through the process of proposing and adopting the budget for the courts, could influence the independence of the judiciary. Some contended that the regulation of housing allocations for judges, who receive state-funded housing, should be more transparent in order to eliminate any concerns about inappropriate influence. Some observers also asserted that the system of appointing judicial and prosecutorial officials contained inadequate protections against political influence on the judiciary. Insufficient cooperation between police and prosecutors, a large backlog of cases, frequently primitive courtroom facilities, and judicial corruption also remained problems. Many cases took years to resolve; however, courts made progress in reducing the backlogs of civil and criminal cases. The court system consists of basic courts (courts of first instance), superior (district) courts, commercial courts, a Court of Appeals, an Administrative Court, the Supreme Court, and the Constitutional Court. On July 27, a new criminal procedures code was adopted that transfers investigative powers, previously vested in courts, to prosecutors and introduces plea-bargaining for all cases with punishment up to 10 years. The Judicial Council is responsible for the election, discipline, and removal of judges. Since the existing Judicial Council was established in 2008, several judges have been fired, suspended, or sanctioned for unprofessional behavior. On June 1, the Judicial Council prohibited judges from sitting on various commissions (for restitution, election, etc.), due to the incompatibility of such service with the judicial function. Authorities generally respected and implemented court decisions, although often with delays. On July 30, the Court of Appeals confirmed the August 2008 conviction of 17 persons, including four foreign citizens, of planning a rebellion against the government in 2006 with a view to creating an autonomous region for ethnic Albanians. During the year five of those convicted completed their sentences and were released from prison. In July the Assembly enacted a Law on Cooperation with the International Criminal Court (ICC), which provides for an immediate response of domestic courts and state institutions to requests from the ICC and asserts the competency of domestic courts to try war crimes committed on its territory by its nationals. On October 23, Judge Lazar Akovic of the Superior Court resigned after the Judicial Council agreed to Superior Court President Musika Dujovic's proposal that dismissal proceedings be initiated against him. He was accused of improperly carrying out a judicial function in the case of the 2005 killing of police officer Slavoljub Scekic (see section 2.a.). The press reported that Akovic accused Dujovic of initiating the dismissal proceedings because of personal animosity and pressure from ``high circles.'' A number of human rights activists and media sources expressed respect for Akovic and regret over his departure. On March 6, police arrested Arif Spahic, a judge of the Bijelo Polje Superior Court, on suspicion of taking a bribe to reduce a sentence and release a man convicted of vehicular homicide. Police also arrested the secretary of the municipality of Bijelo Polje, Dzemal Ljuca, and accused him of brokering the deal. They were also seeking Nenad Brcvak, who was accused of offering and paying the bribe. The investigative judge ordered 30 days' detention for Spahic and Ljuca. Trial Procedures.--Criminal trials are generally public, but sessions may be closed during the testimony of a state-protected witness. Juries are not used. Professional judges preside over trials. Lay judges assisted them in determining verdicts but the judges generally make the sentencing decision on their own. Defendants have the right to be present at their trials and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner in pretrial and trial proceedings. Defendants have a right to an attorney; an attorney is generally provided at public expense when a defendant is destitute or following indictment on a charge carrying a possible sentence greater than 10 years in prison. Defendants and their attorneys have the right to access government-held evidence relevant to their cases; defendants enjoy a legal presumption of innocence. Courts may try defendants in absentia as long as they repeat the trials if convicted individuals are later apprehended. Both the defense and the prosecution have the right of appeal. The government at times influenced the judiciary--for example, in some trials for slander or corruption involving prominent persons or senior officials--and such influence contributed to continued public distrust of the judiciary; however, defendants' rights were generally respected and extended to all citizens. A report on a two-year OSCE-sponsored trial-monitoring project, completed in June, indicated that progress was made in prosecuting cases but also noted problems with the duration of trials, their fairness, and the insufficient capacity of the judiciary. However, backlogs in civil and criminal cases have been reduced, and the Judicial Council continued to redistribute cases to courts that were less burdened to meet increasing caseloads. The courts gave priority to cases related to corruption, organized crime, and war crimes. A COE report issued in September described the country's progress in reducing backlogs court cases as ``impressive.'' Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary in civil matters, and citizens had access to courts to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. Although parties have brought suits alleging human rights violations and at times prevailed, there was high public distrust in the independence of the judiciary, which discouraged some citizens from making use of these procedures. Citizens may also appeal violations of their human rights to the Constitutional Court and, after national remedies are exhausted, to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). At year's end 300 cases involving the country were pending before the ECHR. Most related to property restitution, property rights, length of pretrial detention, media freedom, treatment of citizens by police, the right to a timely trial, and slander. On April 28, the ECHR issued its first ruling against the country for a violation of the European Convention on Human Rights. It related to a disputed eviction. Authorities immediately implemented the ruling. In July an attorney filed a claim for 1.1 million euros ($1.6 million) in eight cases (involving 46 plaintiffs), related to the 1992 deportation of Muslims and Bosniaks to Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), where they subsequently were killed or disappeared. These cases were in addition to earlier ones in which 196 plaintiffs were awarded 4.1 million euros ($5.9 million). Litigation over one of the eight new cases was underway at year's end. Property Restitution.--There was no reported progress on the restitution of church property; most claims involved property taken after 1918 and 1945. The Montenegrin Orthodox Church and the Serbian Orthodox Church had outstanding property restitution claims. The Roman Catholic Church and Islamic community also asserted claims to property in several locations. The Jewish community from Belgrade, Serbia, asked for the return of a rest and rehabilitation center for women in Pr?anj, in the municipality of Kotor. The Law on Restitution provides specific remedies for seeking restitution of private property but envisages that separate legislation, not yet adopted, would govern property confiscated from religious communities. Consequently, religious communities could file restitution claims, but authorities could not take action on them. The number of unresolved restitution claims related to religious property was unknown, but the Ministry of Finance confirmed that all three primary religious communities (Orthodox, Catholic, and Muslim) had submitted claims. The restitution of private property seized since 1945 continued during the year. Of the 11,200 applications filed with the competent commissions since the process began in 2004, the commissions had approved 969 by the end of August. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. The law requires the National Security Agency (NSA) to obtain court authorization for a wiretap; however, some observers believed that authorities selectively used wiretapping and surveillance against opposition parties and other groups without court authorization. Many individuals and organizations operated on the assumption that they were, or could be, under surveillance. An opposition party leader and a member of the Parliamentary Council for Defense and Security claimed that a group of operatives within the Defense Ministry abused the technical devices alleging that they illegally performed some intelligence activities. The Ministry of Defense denied those claims. In his reply to questions from members of parliament, the interior minister said that during the year different forms of secret surveillance were employed in 24 cases. During the first nine months of the year, one citizen requested permission to inspect secret files kept by security services from 1945 to 1989. The NSA responded that there was no information concerning that person. During the year the Constitutional Court did not respond to a complaint filed by the Network for Affirmation of the NGO Sector (MANS), challenging the law giving police direct access to the databases of mobile telephone providers without judicial oversight for the purpose of monitoring potential criminal activity. MANS asserted that this violated citizens' rights to privacy. Police responded that all communications monitoring had to be approved by the competent prosecutor's office. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press; however, there were some restrictions of freedom of the press in practice. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and there were no reports that the authorities monitored political meetings or otherwise attempted to impede criticism. The print media consisted of private newspapers and a state-owned newspaper with a national circulation. The independent media were active and generally expressed a wide variety of political and social views without government restriction. The government did not restrict the distribution of foreign publications. A 2008 attempt by the government to sell off 51 percent of its shares in the public company that publishes the state-owned newspaper failed. The only bidder withdrew after lengthy negotiations. A previous tender in 2007 also failed when no company placed a bid. No tender was offered during the year, leaving the legal requirement to privatize the state-owned newspaper unfulfilled at year's end. Opposition politicians criticized the government's September 11 decision to name the political director of the ruling Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS) and three more members of the ruling coalition as the government's representatives to the five-member board of the state- owned newspaper. They asserted that the newspaper clearly favored the government in its reporting. A wide variety of public and private broadcast media included a national public radio and a television broadcaster; 14 local public radio and four local public television stations; and 41 private radio and 19 private television stations. According to a law on electronic communications that took effect in August 2008, a new Agency for Electronic Communication and Postal Activity (AECPA) was authorized to take responsibility for issuing licenses to broadcasters. AECPA published its first tender for 20 television frequencies on November 26. It blamed the delay on gaps in the law. On December 28, the bids received for the new television frequencies were opened publicly. AECPA promised to announce its decision within 30 days. The private television broadcaster Vijesti, often seen as a strong critic of the government and the prime minister, had accused the government of blocking its access to a wider market for political reasons by delaying the tender process. Foreign governments and international organizations had also expressed concerns over this delay. Physical attacks on journalists continued to be a problem. On August 3, Mayor Miomir Mugosa of Podgorica, who is also a member of the Assembly and a high official of the ruling DPS, together with his son, Miljan, allegedly attacked Deputy Editor in Chief Mihailo Jovovic and photo-reporter Boris Pejovic of the Podgorica-based daily Vijesti. The incident reportedly began while Pejovic was photographing the mayor's official car, which allegedly was parked illegally. Jovovic and Pejovic further claimed that Miljan Mugosa drew a gun during the encounter and that Jovovic suffered a ruptured eardrum. On October 5, the Podgorica prosecutor pressed charges against both the mayor's son and Vijesti's deputy editor in chief for committing criminal acts resulting in severe injuries. The investigation also focused on an allegation made two days after the incident that Jovovic injured the mayor's driver, Dragan Radonjic. On November 19, the Podgorica Basic Court returned the indictment against Jovovic to the prosecution service because it was not corroborated by evidence that Jovovic inflicted heavy corporal injury to the mayor's driver. Following that, the court expert repeated her findings that the driver's injuries contradicted facts alleged in the indictment. Court proceedings continued at year's end. There were no developments in investigations of several earlier physical attacks on journalists. Police reported no progress during the year in identifying the perpetrators or the motives behind the May 2008 attack on Mladen Stojovic, a journalist of the Serbian daily Danas and former stringer for Podgorica-based daily Vijesti. Stojovic suffered head and body trauma. He quit journalism in the aftermath of the assault. Police also had not identified the perpetrators or the motives behind the 2007 physical assault on Republika correspondent Tufik Softic. On August 7, the Podgorica Superior Court convicted five members of a criminal gang of murdering senior police officer Slavoljub Scekic in front of his home in Podgorica in 2005. Three of those charged received 30-year sentences; one received 20 years and one received two years. A sixth defendant, Milan Scekic, who was charged with being the shooter, was acquitted for lack of evidence. Slavoljub Scekic was killed while he was investigating a series of bomb attacks at Hotel Splendid on the country's coast. He had also investigated the 2004 killing of Dan editor Dusko Jovanovic and other killings that were unresolved at the time. The trial of 10 persons indicted for his murder lasted for more than two years. On December 23, the Court of Appeals reduced the superior court sentence of Damir Mandic, an accessory in Jovanovic's murder, from 30 to 19 years of imprisonment. The Podgorica Superior Court had previously, on April 27, reversed a lower court acquittal of Mandic. Officials frequently brought, or threatened to bring, libel suits against media organizations that accused them of wrongdoing. Some NGOs warned that criminal libel charges against journalists could deter them from reporting candidly on events. Criminal libel charges could carry fines of up to 14,000 euros ($20,000). On June 28, the Podgorica Basic Court fined the daily newspaper Dan 30,000 euros ($42,900) for defaming Veselin Barovic, Branko Vujosevic, and Danilo Mitrovic, by reprinting articles that originally appeared in the Croatian newspaper Nacional in 2001, in which the three were named as members of the country's ``tobacco mafia.'' The court found that Dan caused mental pain and damaged the dignity of the plaintiffs. On September 7, the Podgorica Basic Court fined Vijesti, along with Nebojsa Medojevic, the leader of the opposition Movement for Change political party, 33,000 euros ($47,290) for tarnishing the reputation of the firm MNSS BV, owner of the Niksic Steelworks. The case involved an opinion piece, written by Medojevic and published in February 2008, warning of the potential for money laundering following MNSS BV's purchase of the steelworks. The court dismissed Vijesti's argument that, since the article in question was published as an opinion piece by a presidential candidate (Medojevic was running for president at the time) the newspaper could not be held accountable for any damage the article may have caused. On September 8, the Supreme Court upheld a 2008 superior court ruling ordering the weekly newspaper Monitor and its journalist, Andrej Nikolaidis, to pay 12,000 euros ($17,000) in libel damages to Serbian movie director Emir Kusturica. In a 2004 commentary entitled ``Hangman's Apprentice,'' Nikolaidis claimed that Kusturica was a supporter of former Serbian/Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic in the 1990s. The OSCE voiced concerns over the judgment against Monitor and Nikolaidis, noting among other things that public figures should demonstrate a greater degree of tolerance of criticism than ordinary citizens and that fines for libel cases should be proportionate to the economic power of the media company and the damage caused. On October 7, the Podgorica Basic Court fined Petar Komnenic, a journalist for the weekly newspaper Monitor, 3,000 euros ($4,200) for libeling the then president of the Podgorica Superior Court, Ivica Stankovic, in a 2007 article. The article claimed police secretly had wiretapped Stankovic at the request of the special prosecutor for organized crime because of Stankovic's alleged connections with criminals. A former judge of the court, Radovan Mandic, testified during the trial that he and a majority of the other Podgorica Superior Court judges were illegally wiretapped for more than two months in 2005. At year's end a defamation lawsuit Stankovic brought against the Vijesti editor in chief was pending. He sued over an article alleging that in a closed session of the Assembly's security committee, the director of police named Stankovic as one of the judges who obstructed several police investigations. On October 21, the Podgorica Superior Court fined Vijesti's director Zeljko Ivanovic and the newspaper's publisher, Daily Press, 10,000 euros ($14,300) for defaming Prime Minister Milo Djukanovic. Djukanovic sued in 2007 after Ivanovic told reporters he thought Djukanovic had arranged a physical attack on him in retaliation for press coverage of alleged corruption and mafia influence in the government. The Podgorica Basic Court ruled in 2008 that Ivanovic and Daily Press were guilty of defaming Djukanovic and fined them 20,000 euros ($28,600). Vijesti's owners claimed that the conviction and the lawsuit represented an attempt to suppress freedom of expression. Milan Popovic, a professor at the law faculty in Podgorica, was interrogated by Supreme State Prosecutor Ranka Carapic about issues he raised in a January 26 opinion piece, ``Revolutionaries,'' published in Vijesti. In the piece, Popovic alleged that the major problems of the country were corruption, conflicts of interest, and organized crime and referred to allegations that the prime minister was involved in such activities. Popovic claimed that Carapic asked him for evidence to support the allegations. A group of intellectuals protested against the prosecutor's actions, calling it a violation of Popovic's right to freedom of speech. Despite these developments, observers noted a modest increase in the willingness of the media to criticize the government. The prominence of articles and television programs critical of the authorities during the year suggested that self-censorship was not a major problem; however, observers noted that some journalists were susceptible to various political and business influences due to their lack of expertise and to their political affiliations. Government opponents continued to criticize the Assembly's 2008 passage of legal amendments regulating the functioning of the country's public radio and television broadcaster, Radio and Television of Montenegro (RTCG). They alleged that the change in the method of funding of the public broadcaster, substituting government subsidies for user fees, made it more dependent on the government. They also criticized changes in the method of selection of the members of the governing board of the public outlets, increasing the role of the Assembly at the expense of civil society. During the year the Assembly elected all nine members of the RTCG council. Some observers noted that a majority of the nine entities authorized to nominate candidates for the RTCG council were state-funded institutions or organizations and that the public broadcaster favored the government in its programming and reporting. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to data published by the International Telecommunication Union, there were 294,000 Internet users in the country in 2008; government data showed 44 percent of the population using the Internet in December, up from 36 percent in October 2008. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Citing the organizer's noncompliance with a legal requirement to announce a public gathering in advance, police in May banned a series of assemblies of workers of the Podgorica Aluminum Plant who wanted to demonstrate against the company's management for failing to pay salaries. The workers complained to the Ministry of Interior and Public Administration, asserting that this requirement violated the constitution. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Religious communities are separate from the state, equal under the law, and were free to perform their rituals and services. Religious institutions, organizations, and communities may be formed with prior notification to a local police station. The law forbids the abuse of religious institutions and activities for political purposes. It also forbids actions to prevent or hinder religious services, the expression of religious beliefs, or forced induction into a religious community. However, the law fails to address a number of issues regarding the relations between the state and religious communities. Critics asserted that the law, dating from 1977, contained outdated terms, lacked provisions to prohibit discrimination on the basis of religious affiliation, and failed to set some generally accepted OSCE and COE standards. On September 2, the Ministry of Economic Development announced the execution of a decision of the former Urban Planning Ministry to remove a Serbian Orthodox church from the top of Rumija Mountain in the southern part of the country. However, the church was not removed by the end of the year. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Religion and ethnicity were closely intertwined, and in many cases it was difficult to determine whether discriminatory acts were primarily religious or ethnic in nature. There continued to be friction between adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church and Montenegrin Orthodox Church over official recognition and property ownership. On August 23, Sultan Nurkovic from Rozaje attacked Imam Asmir Kujevic on his apartment doorstep. Nurkovic injured Kujevic with a knife, and when police arrived and tried to arrest him, he wounded two of them as well. Nurkovic was believed to be a fundamentalist Muslim who was protesting the imam's method of praying. On September 23, in the community of Zagoric in Podgorica municipality, the apartment of Rizo Alkovic was spray painted with anti-Islamic graffiti on the second day of the Ramadan Bayram holiday. Police took a statement but initiated no further action. Alkovic accused his immediate neighbors of religious intolerance. During the year the Serbian Orthodox Church continued to report vandalism of its cemeteries and other religious sites. There were no reports of efforts to apprehend the culprits. On August 19, followers of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church clashed in Ivanova Korita, near Cetinje, where both groups had gathered to celebrate the holy day of Transfiguration. Media reported that some Serbian Orthodox Church followers locked themselves inside the local church and prevented Montenegrin Orthodox Church Metropolitan Mihailo from serving the liturgy. The incident left three police officers with light injuries. No new information was available in the case of Miodrag Baletic, head of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church chapter in Niksic, whose car was set on fire in October 2008; or on the 2007 planting of a bomb in Podgorica's New Martyrs' Church belonging to the Serbian Orthodox Church; or on the 2007 removal of a plaque that identified the Islamic community's offices in Bar. The country's Jewish population was small and widely distributed across the country. A 2004 survey by the government statistics office concluded that there was no organized Jewish community; an international Jewish NGO reached a similar conclusion. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--IDPs included the 16,197 persons who fled Kosovo when Montenegro was a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, mainly ethnic Montenegrins, Serbs, Roma, Ashkali, Balkan Egyptians, Muslims, Bosniaks, and ethnic Albanians, and a number of Albanian citizens, mostly ethnic Serbs and Montenegrins who were granted refugee status under the federal laws of the former Yugoslavia. In addition, the government recognized a separate category of 7,820 ``displaced persons'' (DPs) that included individuals from Croatia and BiH who fled to Montenegro in 1991 and 1992. In the view of many observers and the UNHCR, the legal status accorded to IDPs and DPs does not meet the standards of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees in terms of access to rights. The temporary nature and less protected status of these groups has left the futures of such persons uncertain and limited their access to important economic and social rights, directly leading to increasing the economic and social vulnerability of the country's refugees. Treatment of these categories of displaced persons was not equal. The law recognizes DPs as lawful residents, a designation that could lead to citizenship through refugee status or through marriage with a citizen. However, the law omits IDPs from Kosovo from the description of persons meeting the required criteria for lawful residence. During the year the government completed a program of reregistration of DPs from Bosnia and Croatia and reported that 5,700 of the initial 8,023 successfully registered. IDPs from Kosovo also were reregistered, and their numbers decreased from 16,197 to 10,950, but the government left the registration period open until February 2010 for IDPs who were unable to register for justified medical reasons during the campaign. The reregistration was intended to help authorities decide on the future status of these persons--those who did not register or were not entitled to reregister would not be eligible for ``permanent residence'' status, while their present status would be terminated. On September 17, the government adopted a new mechanism for resolving the status of displaced persons from the former Yugoslav republics and IDPs from Kosovo in order to meet the benchmark for visa liberalization with the EU. The new provisions would give such persons the opportunity to seek the status of foreigners with permanent residence, while exempting them from the minimum income and some other requirements usually required of foreigners with permanent residence. In the UNHCR's view, this mechanism involved many difficult hurdles. They would be required to provide valid travel documents from their countries of origin and have no criminal records. The requirement to prove citizenship was of particular concern in regard to the Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian (RAE) communities, due either to their never having been registered at birth or having their records destroyed during the conflict. However, related legislation permits refugees unable to present a valid travel documents to obtain ``temporary'' residence for foreigners, with all the rights accorded to the permanently residing foreigner. They will then have three years to obtain valid travel documents and have their status made permanent. Although UNHCR considers all persons from Croatia, BiH, and Kosovo who sought refuge in Montenegro during the 1990s due to regional conflict to have been ``refugees,'' at the time of their arrival, they had not crossed an international border. However, Montenegrin authorities never recognized these persons as refugees or granted them the same rights as refugees under the Law on Asylum or the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 protocol. Many IDPs and refugees continued to live in generally deplorable conditions in unofficial collective centers and other accommodations. However, authorities gave them access to domestic and international humanitarian organizations and permitted them to accept assistance provided by these groups. The government did not attack or target IDPs or forcibly return or resettle them under dangerous conditions. A law governing the employment of aliens entered into force in January. It removes the right of IDPs or DPs to engage in seasonal work, a provision whose implementation was delayed until 2010 after intervention by the UNHCR. However, in 2010 and beyond, IDPs and DPs who have not applied for or received permanent residence will no longer be permitted to work. During the year the government continued to encourage IDPs to return to their places of origin. Some continued to assert that the government was not providing adequate support to enable them to do so. However, after many years in the country, the numbers participating in voluntary repatriation have declined. During the reregistration 9,949 IDPs expressed their will to remain in the country. Some 1,600 IDPs, mostly RAE, have returned to Kosovo since 2001; 161 returned during the year. Among DPs, only 35 refugees returned to BiH and Croatia in 2006, nine returned in 2007, five in 2008, and 10 in 2009. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. A path to citizenship was effectively accessible to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. At the beginning of 2008, the government assumed responsibility for refugee status determination, although the UNHCR, which previously exercised this responsibility, continued to provide technical support. Conditions for refugees varied; those with relatives or property in the country were able to find housing and, in some cases, to rejoin family members. However, between 2,000 and 3,000 refugees remained in barely habitable facilities (mainly on the coast) that had been privatized. Although the 2007 law that governs asylum affords a number of protections, the failure of the government to harmonize other legislation with this law deprived asylum seekers rights to identity documents, the right to employment, and access to health care. Construction continued on a reception center designed to house approximately 100 asylum seekers. During the year authorities processed 21 asylum applications; no person was granted asylum during the year. Stateless Persons.--The biggest problem related to statelessness was the lack of personal documentation for many inhabitants, primarily in the RAE communities, both those of local origin and those who entered the country from Kosovo. Government data published in May reported a total of 9,934 RAE, of whom 4,476 were RAE refugees from Kosovo. The UNHCR estimated that approximately 1,500 local RAE and 2,200 RAE refugees from Kosovo were at risk of statelessness due to lack of personal documentation, as they were either never registered at birth or lacked proof of registration. As of year's end, the government had not developed a procedure for systematically identifying, documenting, and registering stateless persons or persons at risk of statelessness. UNHCR experience showed that lack of documentation is the most significant factor leading to statelessness or the loss of an effective citizenship. The UNHCR continued a regional project, in cooperation with partner NGOs, to register RAE community members and assist them to obtain personal identity documents. In addition, during the year the UNHCR and Legal Center helped approximately 1,800 displaced persons from Bosnia, Croatia, and Kosovo, as well as asylum seekers from Montenegro, to obtain personal documents for submission to various administrative and judicial entities in an effort to obtain access to basic rights. A further 1,500 persons were at risk of statelessness because they faced difficulties proving citizenship. These were mostly RAE from within the country or Kosovo, and were either never registered at birth or lacked proof of such registration. The prospect of acquiring citizenship remained problematic for IDPs from other areas of the former Yugoslavia. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The OSCE Election Observation Mission stated that the March 29 parliamentary elections met almost all OSCE and COE commitments, although the process again underscored the need for further democratic development. The statement indicated achieving public confidence was a key challenge; it noted frequent allegations of electoral fraud and a blurring of state and party structures that created a negative atmosphere among many voters. As in previous elections, most opposition parties raised issues regarding campaign and party financing and the overlap of state and political party structures. Allegations of pressure on voters and the purchase of voter identification documents again were reported by some opposition parties, the media, and certain individuals. The March 29 Assembly elections and several local elections were held according to electoral legislation that has not been reconciled with the constitution adopted in 2007. The deadline for reconciliation had been extended three times. The Assembly established a special working group to change the electoral framework to meet constitutional requirements. Political parties generally operated without restrictions or outside interference. The simultaneous use of the same office space by political parties and government entities created the potential for a blurring of their respective roles. No new information was available on the case of Suad Muratbasic, a former police officer from Rozaje, who filed a civil suit against the Police Directorate. Muratbasic sought compensation on the grounds that he was suspended and then terminated because of his refusal to influence his Muslim neighbors to vote for the DPS during the 2006 Assembly elections. A teacher in the Dragisa Ivanovic primary school in Podgorica, Aila Soskic, reported to the media that Niko Raicevic, the principal, exerted pressure on teachers to vote for the ruling party in the March 29 Assembly elections. Following a lawsuit filed by Soskic on October 9, the basic court fined Raicevic 2,000 euros ($2,860) for defamation. There were nine women in the 81-seat Assembly and one in the cabinet. There was one female mayor in the country's 21 municipalities. Four of the 11 parties in the Assembly had female Assembly members in their respective caucuses. There were 18 members of ethnic minorities in the 81-seat Assembly and three members of ethnic minorities in the cabinet. The law reserves five Assembly seats for ethnic Albanians. No Roma ran for, or held, a seat in the Assembly, and Roma were significantly underrepresented in the government; only one person of Romani ethnicity held elective office at any level in the country. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials at times engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. There was a widespread perception of public sector corruption, particularly in the executive and judicial branches. While many prerequisites for effective anticorruption policies were in place, implementataion lagged. The World Bank's worldwide governance indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem. In the first six months of the year, police forwarded 887 corruption cases involving 1,420 persons to prosecutors. In the same period, courts convicted 206 defendants in 151 cases. Local NGOs, media, and opposition political parties accused the government of not taking sufficient measures against corruption and organized crime. No convictions for serious or high-level corruption were handed down by any court during the year, nor were there any reports of investigations of alleged high-level corruption. Public officials were subject to financial disclosure under a conflict of interest law that requires state officials, including members of the legislature, to disclose their salaries and property. In line with the Law on Prevention of the Conflict of Interest, adopted in December 2008, a Commission for Determining Conflicts of Interest initiated legal proceedings against the 313 state officials (13 percent of all state officials) who failed to comply in 2008 and against 52 during the year. Many observers noted that the law had significant loopholes and that it was weakly implemented in practice. During the year there was one case of apparent retaliation against a whistleblower for exposing official abuse. On September 22, a veterinarian inspector with 28 years of experience was fired after she made public statements about irregularities in the work of the Veterinarian Directorate and Ministry of Agriculture. According to press reports, in June inspector Mirjana Draskovic filed charges with the Special Prosecutor for Organized Crime against the minister of agriculture, Milutin Simovic, the head of the Veterinarian Directorate, Ivan Popovic, and the chief veterinarian inspector, Biljana Blecic. Draskovic accused them of abusing their positions and disregarding the norms regulating the work of the veterinarian service. On July 21, she filed additional charges alleging that authorities gave illegal authorization for the import of 55 tons of frozen chicken meat from Brazil. The head of the Veterinarian Directorate Ivan Popovic told the press that Draskovic was fired in accordance with the law. The Center for Development of NGOs called on the president of the National Commission for the Fight against Corruption to review protections for persons who report on corruption. While open bidding was the most commonly used procedure for public procurement, many auditing reports identified inconsistent or irregular application of legal provisions or circumvention of the law in practice. The Commission for the Control of Public Procurement Procedures received 270 complaints during the year involving violation of procurement procedures. The commission found 86 complaints to be valid and rejected 184. There was an Office for Reporting Corruption in the Judiciary in the Judicial Council, where citizens can report judicial corruption. However, the authorities claimed that citizens tended to object to the outcome of court decisions, rather than complain about any corruption that might have led to an adverse outcome. The constitution and law provide for public access to government information; however, overall implementation of the law was weak and inconsistent. Some ministries were supportive, while others at times publicly criticized information requests. The level of access was not different for noncitizens and the foreign and domestic press. On December 10, the government classified as ``secret'' its answers to a questionnaire that countries seeking admission to the EU must complete. The questionnaire contained responses to detailed questions about reforms being made on the country's road towards integration with the EU. The government stated that publishing this information would jeopardize national political and economic interests. NGOs reported that their requests for government-held information frequently went unanswered. The NGO MANS reported that competent authorities provided timely responses to information requests in approximately 40 percent of cases, citing as the least timely the ministries of Interior, Health, Finance and Education as well as the Privatization Council. MANS claimed that agencies usually provided general information but nothing that could compromise anyone in the government or judiciary and asserted that the government did not have the political will to publish major privatization agreements. The law requires a ministry or agency to respond to a request within eight days of receiving a request for information. Authorities usually provided reasons for denials, and these could be appealed to the higher-level state bodies or courts. While the courts usually supported access to information, their orders to the ministries concerning compliance were often ambiguous and, consequently, sometimes ignored. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. A number of NGOs and international organizations investigated human rights cases. According to its January 2008 report, the UN Human Rights Council Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearance and Missing Persons forwarded 16 cases involving disappearances that took place in 1992 and 1993 to the government for their response; the government provided an explanation in one case; 15 cases remained outstanding. Almost 4,000 domestic registered NGOs operated in the country, including those specializing in human and minority rights and women's rights. Authorities provided nominal, rather than substantive, cooperation. The OSCE and EU led international community efforts to engage the government on human rights issues. The government cooperated with international human rights and humanitarian NGOs. Amnesty International visited the country in November. There is an ombudsman for human rights, which operated without government or party interference, and received adequate resources. Upon finding a violation of human rights or freedoms, the ombudsman could initiate disciplinary procedures against the violator, including dismissal. In addition to 111 unresolved cases from earlier years, the office received 430 complaints in 2008. The largest number involved the work of the courts, followed by the public administration, public services, police and prison, local governments, and the prosecutors' offices. The government and the courts generally implemented the ombudsman's recommendations. Failure to comply with the ombudsman's request for access to official data, documents, or premises, or with the ombudsman's request to testify at a hearing, is punishable by fines of 10 to 20 times the minimum monthly wage, or 550 to 1,100 euros ($786 to $1,573). The ombudsman's office generally did not have to resort to these measures; however, on April 11, the ombudsman sought assistance from the speaker of the Assembly when Chief State Prosecutor Ranka Carapic refused to provide documentation regarding one case. On April 23, a group of 30 NGOs requested that the chief state prosecutor provide an update on the 2006 case of an alleged physical assault by the bodyguard of Police Director Mirko Banovic against independent human rights researcher Aleksandar Zekovic. As of year's end the state prosecutor's office had neither responded nor taken any action in the case. During the year the Assembly's Committee for Human Rights and Freedoms met several times, but its contribution was perceived by many observers as insignificant. Authorities cooperated with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Court, of which the country is a member. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not enforce effectively these prohibitions in practice. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal; however, enforcement remained a serious problem. Instances of rape were significantly underreported due to the cultural stigma that attaches to victims and even their families. There were no arrests or convictions for spousal rape during the year. Deeply ingrained societal attitudes hampered prosecutions; judges frequently allowed aspersions on a victim's character to be entered into court proceedings. As a result, victims were reluctant to report rape. Punishment for rape, including spousal rape, is one to 10 years in prison; however, authorities can only prosecute the crime if the victim brings charges. According to police and judiciary statistics, 19 cases of rape were reported in 2008 compared with seven in 2007. Domestic and other violence against women was a persistent and common problem. According to NGO estimates, one out of four women has been a victim of some form of domestic violence. The NGO SOS, which operated a hotline for victims of domestic violence, reported that, during the first six months of the year, it worked with 87 persons (including 25 men). None of the cases reported by men involved physical violence against them, but rather were requests for support in family conflicts. Monitors of domestic violence reported a high level of violence against women and children. There is no law on protection against family violence; instead, authorities employed a provision of the law prohibiting physical violence in a family setting but this provision does not cover psychological violence. The press reported that during the first 10 months of the year, police investigated 395 instances of possible domestic violence. They pressed charges in 394 cases against 406 persons. In 95 percent of cases, the perpetrators were men. The NGO Safe Woman's House, which ran a shelter for victims of family violence, claimed that the number of calls during the year significantly decreased in comparison with the corresponding period the preceding year. Financial dependence, multifamily living arrangements, and the lack of support from extended family discouraged victims from reporting abuses. Domestic violence is a crime punishable by a fine or a prison sentence, depending on the seriousness of the offense. Local NGOs working to combat domestic violence relied to a large extent on international donor assistance. During the year official agencies, including police, and to some extent the judiciary, improved their response to domestic violence; however, efforts remained inadequate. According to NGOs, many female victims of domestic violence complained about the inadequate response of social welfare centers to their appeals for help. On September 30, the Administrative Court overruled a decision of the Judicial Council to suspend Milorad Marotic, a superior court judge from Niksic, who was indicted by the Niksic district attorney on charges of domestic violence. The court found that the Judicial Council was not competent to determine the existence of a criminal offense and had deprived Marotic of an opportunity to defend himself. NGOs operated two shelters for victims of domestic violence. Prostitution and offering sexual services are crimes, but using the services of a prostituted person is not a criminal offense. Prostitution existed but was not widespread. Sexual harassment in the workplace was a problem, but public awareness of it remained low. Although it is illegal, society at large tolerated harassment. While victims were hesitant to report harassment, police were usually effective in intervening when asked to do so. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health. There are no restrictions on access to contraceptives. The government guaranteed free childbirth services. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women have the same rights as men in property law, family law, and the judicial system; however, in practice women did not enjoy equal social status with men. However, traditional patriarchal ideas of gender, which maintain that women should be subservient to male members of their families, persisted and resulted in continued discrimination against women in the home. For example, 84 percent of illiterate persons were women. In rural areas women could not always exercise their right to control property, and husbands occasionally directed wives' voting. Representation of women in government was low. They constituted 6.3 percent of central government employees and 11.4 percent of employees of local governments. There were no official statistics about women in managerial positions. Some job announcements openly advertised discriminatory criteria, such as age and physical appearance, for female applicants. Few women held senior management positions in government or commerce. There were, however, some signs of improvement; an increasing number of women served as judges, and there were many women in professional fields such as law, science, and medicine. NGOs pointed out that it was difficult for women to achieve the property rights in divorce suits. One emerging trend involved husbands in divorce proceedings titling their property in the name of other family members or friends rather than their wives. Women from Romani communities did not have equal opportunities for education due to traditional values and restrictions on their participation in society. Due to low education and harsh living conditions, Romani women seldom visited gynecologists, with negative consequences for their health and for infant mortality rates. Although the law incorporates the general principle of nondiscrimination against women, it does not explicitly address the principle of equal pay for equal work; in practice, women's wages were lower than those of men for comparable work. There remained a deeply rooted division between male and female professions. On April 16, the government transformed its Office for Gender Equality into a department within the Ministry for Protection of Human and Minority Rights. Women's advocacy groups worked to combat domestic violence through awareness campaigns and sought to improve women's access to legal services and workshops. Children.--Citizenship is based on family ties (jus sanguinis). RAE often are not aware of the importance of civil registration. Many gave birth to their children at home and failed to comply with the 30-day deadline to properly register their child's birth. While this lack of awareness was probably the main reason for the lack of registration, human rights observers noted other causes. The phased separation of Montenegro from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and subsequently from the state of Serbia and Montenegro, together with changes in citizenship legislation, made it almost impossible for some of the RAE who were born outside the country to prove a link to Montenegro for the purpose of obtaining citizenship. There were also instances where authorities required marriage certificates from RAE to register the birth of their children, leaving those born of common law marriages unregistered. By law education was compulsory and free; however, according to Romani community leaders, nearly one-third of Romani children never enrolled in school. Of Roma who complete primary school, the proportion continuing for secondary and higher education was much smaller than that of non-Romani children. The government did not undertake adequate efforts to monitor or encourage continued school attendance of Roma, and there were instances in which schools failed to enroll Romani children because of insufficient classroom space. There was some progress; the proportion of RAE children who enrolled in the first grade of secondary school increased from 50 percent in the 2008-09 school year to 55 percent in 2009-10. On September 9, two teachers of the Drago Milovic elementary school in Tivat refused to permit six Romani children to attend classes because they supposedly had lice. The teachers subsequently apologized, and the 'father returned his children to classes, but his car was then vandalized in front of the school. Some ethnic Albanians criticized the government for not providing textbooks on history, music, and visual arts oriented to Albanian primary school children. The first privately funded Muslim religious secondary school opened in Malesija near Podgorica in 2007; by year's end, the authorities had not given it full accreditation. There was one fully accredited Albanian-language private school. While tuition for primary education was free, students had to provide their own books and stationary, except for families who benefited from social welfare. NGO programs and grants helped provide books and other school resources for Romani students. In an effort to reduce dropouts among Romani children, the UNHCR and the local NGO Foundation for Providing Scholarships to Roma started a pilot project for 15 pupils of the sixth and seventh grades of the school in the refugee camp in Konik. A deputy ombudsman investigated complaints of violations of children's rights. His office received 53 complaints during the year, mainly involving the educational rights of children with disabilities, children's freedom of expression, and contacts with parents after divorce. According to survey by the NGO Center for Children's Rights, children whose rights were most often violated included children without parents, children living in institutions, and refugee and Romani children. The survey showed that physical, emotional, and sexual mistreatment and violence against and serious negligence of children were common but not widely discussed. During the first six months of the year, social welfare centers received complaints about the mistreatment of 30 children from 19 families; 40 children were accommodated in the shelter for victims of family violence run by the NGO Safe Woman's House. Child abuse was an underreported problem that the government took little action to address. The country lacked proper facilities for children who suffered family violence. In May the NGO Children Above All introduced a hotline through which children could report violence or mistreatment or ask for advice or assistance. The law does not allow a juvenile to make an allegation of a crime without a parent or guardian present. Consequently, there was almost no reporting of incest or other child abuse to authorities. In 2007 the police reported four cases of child sexual abuse. Child marriage was a problem, particularly in Romani communities, where boys and girls generally married around age 14. It was difficult to estimate the extent of underage marriage in the Romani community because the Roma frequently did not register such marriages. Romani children were disadvantaged by poverty, leading many to start work both at home and in the streets at an early age, typically around age seven, in order to contribute to the family income. Romani children were also disadvantaged by having to attend school in a nonnative language, since many spoke Romani at home. The government generally ignored the problem. There is a statutory rape law. The penalties for rape are higher if the victim was a minor. Child pornography is illegal, with penalties ranging from six months in prison for displays of child pornography, to a maximum of five years imprisonment for using a child in the production of child pornography. Street children, most of them Roma, were organized into groups to beg at busy intersections, on street corners, and in restaurants and cafes. During the year police charged 10 persons with organizing the begging and removed 76 children from the streets; the children were temporarily accommodated in the Center for Children and Youth and then sent back to their places of origin in Serbia, BiH, and Montenegro. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked through, within, and to a lesser extent, to the country. The country was primarily a transit point, and to a lesser extent, a destination, for trafficked persons, mostly women and girls from Eastern Europe, other Balkan countries, and the former USSR. Most victims were trafficked for commercial sexual and labor exploitation. There was anecdotal evidence that foreign children, mainly Roma, were also trafficked through the country for forced begging. Western Europe was the primary destination of victims trafficked through the country. Authorities reported identifying one trafficking victim during the year. Traffickers increasingly avoided holding their victims in such public locales as bars and nightclubs, using more hidden locales like private apartments to avoid detection. Government officials reported that the number of identified victims continued to decrease, stressing their belief that trafficking was not widespread but remained confined to individual cases. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported in September that the overall level of trafficking remained the same as in 2008. Persons were trafficked primarily for commercial sexual exploitation, but many observers believed that trafficking for labor existed as well, particularly within the construction sector. Trafficking victims were generally women and girls with less-than- average education and were usually poor. Traffickers were often citizens, sometimes working with foreign partners, and were often affiliated with organized crime. They usually used fraud (false advertisements for travel or employment) to entice their victims and resorted to force and coercion to keep victims from escaping. The maximum sentence for trafficking in persons is 10 years. Police raids of nightclubs, bars, and hotels were frequent. During the year police filed criminal charges against four persons in two separate cases for trafficking. During the year courts convicted 10 persons in three separate cases; they acquitted three persons. On May 15, the basic court in Rozaje sentenced Sead Kurpejovic to 15 months in prison, also sentencing Senad Kurpejovic and Mirsad Dacic to one year in prison each on charges of human trafficking and of having forced a waitress from Belgrade into prostitution. Hazbija Demic was also found guilty in the case for violating labor regulations. On July 2, the superior court in Podgorica sentenced three traffickers, members of the Matovic family, to five years in prison each. On October 5, the family appealed to the Court of Appeals and the case was pending at year's end. On July 21, the superior court in Podgorica opened an investigation of a doctor from Tivat, arrested on suspicion of involvement in trafficking. Police alleged that the doctor asked a patient for sexual services instead of normal payment. The patient pressed charges against the doctor, indicating that she had been providing him sexual services in lieu of payment since June 2008. Police suspected that the doctor had been pimping the woman to his friends as well. Authorities also detained two of the doctor's associates. During the year the state prosecutor pressed charges against three additional persons. An antitrafficking working group, including representatives of several ministries, the Office of the State Prosecutor, two NGOs, the IOM, and the OSCE, coordinated government efforts to combat trafficking. The working group reports to the deputy prime minister. The appointment of a new national antitrafficking coordinator in February led to more energetic efforts to deter, identify, and prosecute traffickers. The new coordinator focused on the trafficking of children, particularly Romani children and orphans. He also met with his Albanian, Serbian, and Croatian counterparts to discuss transnational border cooperation. The government assisted in international investigations of human trafficking. Observers and NGOs viewed the police force as generally well trained and active in combating trafficking, although some claimed that retaining trained antitrafficking police personnel was a problem. The government continued its policy of making temporary visas and shelter available to trafficking victims who agreed to testify against traffickers, giving them protection and refraining from prosecuting them for their activities. They offered such protections to one individual during the year. Police antitrafficking efforts were led by the organized crime department of the criminal police. During the year international organizations, with the cooperation of local authorities, sponsored training on trafficking problems for police (including border police), prosecutors, and judges. In April the coordinator's office reported that it had successfully implemented four phases of a regional project to develop a transnational referral mechanism and was working on the fifth phase, compiling a database of victims and perpetrators. On March 9, the coordinator announced that those receiving new passports would also receive an information card on how to identify trafficking victims and situations. There were no reports of official involvement in trafficking during the year. The law provided some protection to trafficking victims, distinguishing trafficked individuals from others engaged in prostitution, who were subject to fines, and distinguishing undocumented migrants who were victims of trafficking from other undocumented migrants, who were subject to deportation. Authorities generally observed these distinctions, establishing procedures for referring trafficking victims to social service agencies and repatriating them with IOM assistance. The government funded one shelter in Podgorica, which was operated by a local NGO. According to the coordinator, in the period from January 25 to May 4, one trafficking victim was housed in the shelter. Public awareness campaigns, sponsored by the government with OSCE and IOM support, continued throughout the country. They included conferences on trafficking, public service announcements, and campaigns in schools. NGOs continued to organize public information campaigns. The coordinator's office held a series of workshops at primary and secondary schools to improve public information and also polled students on their awareness of trafficking. The government implemented an existing antitrafficking action plan that, in addition to specifying measures to be taken, allotting agency responsibilities, and setting deadlines, included financial support for NGOs conducting trafficking prevention and awareness campaigns. It also adopted a new action plan for 2010-11. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at: www.state.gov/j/tip Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, pensions, allowances, family care and support, rights to be placed in an adequate residential institution, and right to foster care and support or other state services; however, societal discrimination against persons with disabilities effectively limited their access to these benefits, and authorities did not actively prosecute infractions. While laws mandating that new public buildings have access for persons with disabilities were generally enforced, lack of access to older public buildings and public transportation was a problem. Facilities for persons with disabilities were inadequate at polling stations, although authorities provided mobile voting for voters who could not come to polling stations because of illness or disability. Society often stigmatized persons with disabilities, and such persons depended greatly on disability allowances, which were not adequate. The ministries of Health, Labor and Social Welfare, Education, and Culture, Sports, and Media were responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. Unemployment remained a serious problem for persons with disabilities, although employers usually gave other reasons for not hiring them. Only 2 percent of the approximately 63,000 persons with disabilities were employed during the year. At midyear estimates of the number of children with special needs ranged between 6,000 and 7,000. A study conducted in 2008 by the UN Development Program (UNDP) with the Strategic Studies and Prognosis Institute, cited estimates of the number of persons with disabilities in the education system that varied from 2 to 10 percent. Although they were entitled to healthcare from the state, the numerous obstacles they faced, including the physical inaccessibility of most health institutions, unequal access to various medical treatment, and the limited availability of prosthetic tools, blocked full access to adequate health care. Mental health care was inadequate. Facilities for treating persons with mental disorders were out of date and underfunded. Institutional isolation perpetuated stigmatization and discrimination against the mentally ill. Institutionalized persons often became the sole responsibility of the state and often lived in isolation. On July 27, the Podgorica Basic Court ruled that Marijana Mugosa was entitled to enter her office with a guide dog. The local government of Podgorica lodged an appeal against the decision. Mugosa filed a lawsuit against the city of Podgorica for mental anguish asking for 130,000 euros ($185,900) compensation. The case went to trial on December 5. On November 10, the country adopted a law allowing guide dogs in business premises. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The constitution provides both individual and collective rights for minorities, and for most groups these rights were generally observed in practice; however, Roma were disadvantaged in access to social services and experienced societal discrimination. The leaders of ethnic Serbians, Albanians, and Bosniaks, and of Muslims continued to complain of their underrepresentation in government, the judiciary, and state-owned economic enterprises. During the year there were reports of physical attacks against persons for what appeared to be ethnic reasons. On September 22, Vladimir Medovic, president of the Bar municipal board of the Croatian Civic Initiative, was attacked in the municipality of Bar. Medovic, who was wearing a Croatian checkerboard shirt at the time, told the press that two unknown young men, dressed in black, attacked him during his walk through the town of Sutomore, near his home. Police pressed charges against two persons of Serbian ethnicity. In an incident that appeared to reflect animosity based on ethnic differences, police detained Milan Dobrovic, Mladen Cadjenovic, and an unnamed minor (all from Podgorica) for throwing stones at a convoy of buses from Kosovo, Bosnia, and Macedonia on June 28, in Zeta, near Podgorica. Police believed that Dobrovic and Cadjenovic also stoned buses from Kosovo on June 7 and April 21 at the same place. A survey by the NGO Human Rights Initiative indicated that, despite the existence of a satisfactory legal framework, the availability of information in minority languages and the protection of minority culture and tradition needed improvement. According to a joint survey conducted in October 2008 by the National Statistics Office, the Roma National Council, and the local NGO Roma Circle, there were approximately 11,000 Roma in the country, of whom 4,500 were IDPs or DPs and 6,500 were long-term residents. Many Roma, including IDPs from Kosovo, lived illegally in squatter settlements, often far apart from each other and lacking such basic services as public utilities, medical care, and sewage facilities. Social prejudice and negative stereotypes strongly impacted the RAE populations. They did not have political representatives and generally stayed out of politics. They often lacked identity documents and therefore did not have access to basic social services. Some settlements were located on property whose owners wanted to reassume control or on the premises of companies due to be privatized, and their residents were at risk of eviction; however, no evictions were reported during the year. The RAE population faced many challenges related to social inclusion, including access to secondary medical protection (such as surgeries and specialist doctors) afforded to other residents. A well-known human rights researcher, Aleksandar Sasa Zekovic, alleged that the relevant social and health institutions failed to prevent and report the death of two Romani children in Niksic in October 2008 and on July 7. According to the latest UN data, approximately 40 percent of the RAE population in the country, 70 percent of them children, lacked birth or citizenship certificates. Seven percent of the population held citizenship, and 11 percent applied for it. The Law on Citizenship and its accompanying regulations posed numerous obstacles for RAE members in obtaining citizenship, as many lacked personal identity documents (see section 6, Children). Prejudice against Roma, who comprised 0.42 percent of the population, was widespread, and local authorities often ignored or tacitly condoned their intimidation or mistreatment. According to the UNDP, approximately 70 percent of Roma were illiterate, 50 percent were unemployed, and 36 percent lived below the poverty level. During the year authorities appropriated approximately 600,000 euros ($858,000) to improve conditions for Roma under the ``Strategy for Improvement of the Roma Position in Montenegro 2008-12.'' Priorities included better housing, a database of the RAE population, clarification of their legal status, improved education, the preservation of their culture, the protection of Romani children, and enhanced Romani participation in social and political life. The government also appointed a new national coordinator and established a commission for monitoring the implementation of the strategy including the representatives of Roma and NGOs; however, the coordinator, who operated within the Ministry for Human and Minority Rights lacked basic logistical and informational resources, and was relatively unsuccessful in accomplishing the goals set by the strategy. Overall, government efforts did not result in significant improvements during the year. During the year the government continued to fund the operating costs of national councils, elected bodies established in 2007 and 2008 to represent the interests of minority groups. It also provided 900,000 euros ($1,287,000) to the councils for implementation of projects, apportioned according to the size of each group, i.e., Serbs, Bosniaks, Albanians, Muslims, Croats, and Roma. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The constitution calls for respect for human rights on all grounds and prohibits the instigation of hatred or intolerance on any grounds. Nevertheless, antipathy toward homosexual persons existed, and at times it was mirrored in the views of leaders. On November 6, Ferhat Dinosa, the minister of human and minority rights, told television Vijesti that, ``I would be unhappy'' if homosexuality were present in Montenegro. The remarks provoked a public reaction, particularly from NGO activists, some of whom demanded his immediate resignation. However, at a November 18 meeting on human rights organized by the European Commission, Dinosa continued to express these views. The Ombudsman's office noted that the country should be devoted to the protection of human rights guaranteed by the constitution. There were infrequent reports of violence and discrimination directed against gay men; there were no reports that the government condoned such actions. There were no reports that persons were denied equal opportunities in education and employment on the basis of gender orientation. Societal antipathy towards homosexual persons led most of them to conceal their orientation. The print media at times reinforced these attitudes by publishing articles with negative overtones about homosexual conduct. On March 1, the NGO Juventas opened the country's first Web portal for homosexual persons. In August the Serbian Orthodox Church issued a statement calling for equal treatment for transgender believers. During the year the NGO Human Rights Action estimated that there were between 30,000 and 62,000 homosexual persons in the country. A group of 14 NGOs wrote to the president requesting that he use his authority to explain to people that homosexual conduct is not a disease. Other Societal Discrimination.--There were no reports of violence against persons with HIV/AIDs; however, the NGO ``Juventas'' stated that persons with HIV/AIDS were stigmatized and experienced discrimination. Observers believed that fear of discrimination prevented many persons from seeking HIV testing. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law entitles workers, except for uniformed military and police personnel, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and authorities effectively applied them. Approximately 95 percent of the workforce in the formal economy was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes; however, the law prohibits strikes by military and police personnel and public servants. According to some trade union activists, during the year there were cases of dismissal and suspension for suspected union activity. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right of collective bargaining; however, collective bargaining remained at a rudimentary level. By law collective bargaining agreements covered the registered workforce. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, there were press reports of discrimination. Because of delays in the court system, it could take a worker who claimed to have been unjustly fired several years to regain employment through legal action. There were some reports of antiunion discrimination. Janko Vucinic, president of the trade union at the foundry in Niksic, filed suit against the management alleging that they fired him in November 2008 for criticizing foundry management. The basic court in Niksic ruled in November that Vucinic should be returned to work. A 2006 collective agreement regulating the rights, obligations, and responsibilities of employers and employees is revised annually. The agreement applies to large state and former state companies, and the state administration and private sector employers usually used it as a framework for employer-employee relations. As reported in the 2009 International Trade Union Confederation Survey, the Montenegrin Trade Union Confederation accused employers of bullying trade unionists. Members of the Trade Union of Leather, Shoes, and Chemical Industry at the Lenka factory (in the town of Bijelo Polje) went on a hunger strike to protest the harassment. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that individuals were trafficked from abroad and within the country for exploitation in the sex industry and possibly for labor, particularly in construction (see Section 6, Trafficking in Persons). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, including those prohibiting forced or compulsory labor and those establishing acceptable working conditions. The government generally enforced these laws and regulations effectively in the formal economy. The official minimum age for employment is 15 years; however, in farming communities it was common to find younger children assisting their families. Romani children also worked in a variety of unofficial retail jobs, typically washing car windows, collecting items such as scrap metal, or selling old newspapers. Many Romani children also engaged in begging (see Section 6, Trafficking in Persons). In Podgorica and the coastal areas, police continued an initiative aimed at suppressing begging. They arrested and charged several adults with organizing and forcing their relatives-- young Romani children--to beg. Most of these children were temporarily accommodated in the Center for Children and Youth. Police asserted that the practice constituted family begging rather than organized begging. Police pressed charges against the perpetrators while children were sent to their families. Inspectors from the State Labor Inspector's Office were responsible for enforcing the child labor laws within the formal economy. Inspectors reported no violations of the child labor laws during the year. The ministry has 40 inspectors covering labor issues, although there were no resources devoted exclusively to investigating child labor. The government has not provided awareness training for officials charged with enforcing child labor laws. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 55 euros ($79) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. According to statistics released at the end of August, the average salary was approximately 461 euros ($658) per month and was also not adequate for a worker and family to live comfortably. The minimum wage was fixed through negotiations between the government, labor unions, and employers' associations, which represented a significant number of entrepreneurs. Significant portions of the workforce, particularly in rural areas and the informal sector, were not covered by the minimum wage. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare enforced the minimum wage; there were no reports during the year of employers failing to pay it. The law requires a 30-minute rest period daily, limits hours worked to 40 per week except in specified unusual circumstances, and requires an unspecified premium for work in excess of 40 hours per week. However, seasonal workers often worked much longer hours. There is no specific prohibition of excessive compulsory overtime. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare effectively enforced the regulations on hours of work. Many workers from privatized or bankrupt companies had outstanding claims for back payment of salaries and severance pay. The law provides some recourse, and the parties have reached settlements involving some compensation in the past; however, these were the exception. The law requires employers to make substantial contributions to pension and health care funds. To avoid these payments, employers often did not officially register their employees. During the first nine months of the year, the employment agency granted licenses for the employment of 14,647 foreigners, 90 percent of them seasonal workers (in tourism, catering, and construction). The quota for nonresident employees for the year was 39,450. Labor law provisions governing temporary employment places no limitation on extending the temporary employment of a worker, putting employers in a position to considerable leverage over workers, particularly women, older workers, and those with disabilities. The government establishes mandatory health and safety regulations. The employer is obliged to report any serious injury or death at work; however, authorities did not strictly enforce laws and regulations on worker safety; in practice workers often lacked safety equipment. During the first eight months of the year, there were 28 serious injuries and seven deaths from injuries at work. Burdened by the deadlines imposed by investors, construction workers (mostly foreigners) usually exceeded eight hours a day; sometimes, to offset low wages, they worked additional hours in second jobs. During the first eight months of the year, authorities conducted 7,746 inspections and found 4,489 violations of labor standards. Labor inspectors have legal authority to close an establishment until violations are corrected. In cases of repeated violations, the owners can be fined. Workers did not have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger health and safety without jeopardy to their employment. As a part of the agreement with the European Agency for Protection and Health at Work, the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Welfare distributed 18,000 fliers to raise awareness about the potential hazards. __________ THE NETHERLANDS The Kingdom of the Netherlands includes the Netherlands (population approximately 16.5 million), the Netherlands Antilles (230,000), and Aruba (103,000). The Netherlands (the term used to designate the European part of the Kingdom) is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliamentary legislative system. The country's 12 provincial councils elect a First Chamber; citizens directly elect a Second Chamber. The most recent general elections, held in 2006, were considered free and fair. A prime minister and a cabinet representing the governing political parties (traditionally a coalition of at least two major parties) exercise executive authority. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control over the security forces. The Netherlands Antilles and Aruba are largely autonomous, except for foreign policy and defense, which are ``Kingdom matters.'' They have unicameral parliamentary systems. The Netherlands Antilles held free and fair parliamentary elections in 2006, and Aruba did so on September 25, 2009. The Kingdom (the term commonly used to designate the governance of all of the territories) is required, according to its charter, to safeguard fundamental human rights and freedoms, good governance, legal certainty, and the soundness of administration in all of the territories. In the Netherlands, conflict between the values of free speech and the protection of religious and ethnic minorities was a continuing subject of debate; there were reports of societal discrimination and violence against some religious and ethnic minorities, of violence against women and children, and of trafficking in persons for sexual exploitation. In Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, prison conditions remained substandard in some respects and lengthy pretrial detention was a problem, although authorities took a number of measures to reduce it. Trafficking was a problem in the Netherlands Antilles. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and in the Netherlands, there were no reports that government officials employed them. In the Netherlands Antilles, the St. Maarten court on September 9 ordered the immediate release of a prisoner, D.S. Armstrong, whom authorities in 2007 forced to serve seven months of a 10-year sentence sleeping on the concrete floors of unhygienic and overcrowded jail cells in Philipsburg before transferring him to Pointe Blanche Prison. Authorities appealed the verdict. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--In the Netherlands, prison and detention conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. In the Netherlands, almost 12,000 persons were held in detention as of September 2008, approximately 7 percent of them women. The total included 5,450 persons in provisional detention awaiting judicial disposition, 4,400 serving prison sentences, approximately 500 in detention for not paying a fine, and approximately 500 in detention for failing to meet their community service obligations. During 2008 an average of 490 juveniles were housed in separate institutions, of whom fewer than 100 were serving sentences; 320 were in provisional detention awaiting judicial disposition. In the Netherlands Antilles, authorities have not increased prison capacity sufficiently to allow separate facilities for juvenile offenders, and judges may sentence juveniles under the age of 16 who have committed serious offenses to prisons where they serve time together with adults. A pilot project, begun in 2007, that replaced prison with house arrest for selected inmates continued. At Bon Futuro Prison on Curacao, there were several escapes, and several altercations resulting in injured inmates. Prison guards went on strike in March and September in Curacao over labor conditions. In 2008 researchers from the government of the Netherlands investigated detention facilities in Curacao and St. Maarten and found them to be unacceptable. The government of the Netherlands made eight million euros ($11.4 million) available to the Netherlands Antilles for improving prison and detention facilities, based on recommendations by the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT). Authorities completed the renovation of the Bonaire detention center during the year in accordance with CPT standards. During the year the Netherlands government deployed prison guards and management staff from the Netherlands to the Bon Futuro Prison in Curacao, based upon recommendations following a visit by the Crisis Investigation Team at the request of the Ministry of Home Affairs and Kingdom Relations. Work began on a construction and renovation project for separate holding facilities for undocumented foreign nationals in Curacao and St. Maarten. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the regional police forces, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police officers, acting under the authority of the public prosecutor, conduct criminal investigations. A prosecutor or senior police officer must order any arrests. Authorities must promptly inform detainees of the charges against them. Police may question suspects for a maximum of 12 hours (six hours in Aruba and Netherlands Antilles) and detain them for up to three days (two days in Aruba and Netherlands Antilles), with the possibility of an additional three days' extension in cases of ``urgent necessity,'' by order of the public prosecutor without the permission of a magistrate. However, by the fourth day (the third day in Aruba and Netherlands Antilles), the prosecutor must bring detainees before an examining magistrate for questioning and a decision whether to extend detention for another 14 days, and the court subsequently reviews the validity of continued detention every 90 days. Extension depends on progress in the preliminary investigation. In the Netherlands, in terrorist-related cases, the examining magistrate may order detention for the first 14 days on the lesser charge of ``reasonable suspicion'' rather than ``serious suspicion'' required for other crimes. By law defendants have the right to have access to an attorney during questioning; however, after a 2007 visit, the CPT expressed concern that authorities in the Netherlands did not always permit attorneys to be present during the initial period of detention, which may last up to 12 hours. Accordingly, pilot projects initiated in several towns in 2008 allow suspects to consult an attorney prior to questioning by the police and to inform suspects of their right to an attorney. In Aruba authorities indicated that if a detainee requested a lawyer, no interrogation would take place without one unless the severity of the case dictated otherwise. A legal aid system existed to provide indigent detainees with legal aid, but such lawyers did not always appear before questioning began. In the Netherlands Antilles, beginning in mid-November, authorities reportedly instituted procedures requiring that police inform defendants of their right to have a family member or other person informed of their arrest and that police document this procedure. There is no provision for bail, but in the Netherlands authorities avoided lengthy detention before trial unless there were compelling reasons to keep a person in custody. In Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, the Convention Against Torture in 2007 criticized the excessive length of pretrial detention and the high number of detainees not convicted of a crime. The governments of the two territories have sought to correct this problem by reducing the number of crimes requiring pretrial detention and implementing other policies aimed at reducing the case backlog, particularly more expeditious processing of cases involving illegal drugs. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public. Juries are not used. The law requires that authorities fully inform defendants about the proceedings at every stage. In criminal trials the law provides for prompt access to counsel (inexpensively, for persons with low incomes), the presumption of innocence, and the right to appeal. In most instances, defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases; however, in certain cases involving national security, special procedures permit an examining judge to assess the reliability of official intelligence reports without exposing the identities of intelligence officers or releasing confidential intelligence information to the public or the defendant. The defense has the right to submit written questions to these witnesses through the examining judge. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Individuals may bring lawsuits for damages related to a possible human rights violation before the regular court system or specific appeal boards, and once individuals exhaust national remedies, they may appeal to the European Court for Human Rights (ECHR). f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected this prohibition in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these freedoms in practice. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisals. It is a crime to engage in public speech that incites hatred, discrimination, or violence against persons because of their race, religion, convictions, gender, sexual orientation, or disability. During the year the government successfully prosecuted several cases, notably cases in which judges considered the language in question to be ``unnecessarily offensive.'' The government urged prosecutors and police to give proper attention to incidents of ``discrimination,'' which in the country's jurisprudence includes racially offensive speech. Convictions for these offenses were rare because courts were reluctant to restrict freedom of expression, especially when it took place within the context of a public debate. However, on January 21, the Amsterdam Court of Appeals ordered the Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office to prosecute politician and Islam critic Geert Wilders for incitement. The prosecutor earlier declined to indict despite dozens of complaints filed by several organizations and private persons about his anti-Islamic statements in the press and his ``Fitna'' movie, which many considered offensive to Muslims. The appeals court found that his anti-Islamic statements yielded ``a reasonable suspicion of guilt,'' thus requiring review by a criminal judge. The court recognized the paramount importance of the right to freedom of opinion, but noted that this right was not unlimited. It also stated that such a prosecution would serve the general interest in drawing a clear boundary as to what was permissible in public debate. On August 18, the Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office dismissed complaints over the dissemination of a series of controversial cartoons, including those of a Danish artist depicting the Prophet Mohammed, determining that they were not offensive to Muslims as a group, nor that they incited hatred, discrimination, or violence against Muslims. The prosecutor's office found one cartoon, which the Arabic European League (AEL) had put on its Web site in reaction to the Danish cartoons, punishable because it offended Jews as a group on grounds of their race or religion. The cartoon expressed the idea that Jews deliberately invented or exaggerated the Holocaust. The AEL accused the prosecutor's office of double standards. The Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office did not decide by year's end whether to prosecute Gregorius Nekschot .''Deathblo.'') for some cartoons that the prosecutor believed violated the law on intentional discrimination and incitement to hatred. Internet Freedom.--There were no governmental restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. More than 90 percent of the population had access to the Internet. During the year the government took legal action against four right-wing Web sites. On February 2, a judge convicted the former leader of the National Alliance for not removing discriminatory texts deemed offensive to Jews and Muslims from the organization's Web site. During the year authorities took measures to deal more effectively with incitement to discrimination on the Internet. Despite the priority given to such cases, there were only three convictions in 2007, the latest year for which data were available. The police maintained a list of Web sites they have judged to be purveyors of child pornography and reviewed the list periodically. All major Internet service providers in the Netherlands have agreed not to permit access to those sites. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There were no reports that the government attempted to limit the freedom or exercise of religion during the year. Rulings of the courts and the Equal Opportunities Committee generally held that any restriction on wearing headscarves in schools or places of employment should be limited and based on security or other narrow grounds. The government banned clothing covering the full face in the administrative and educational sectors. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were some reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. Jews and Muslims faced instances of abuse during the year, although the experiences of the two communities differed. The government repeatedly criticized any form of anti-Semitism or anti- Islamic activity and worked with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to combat such abuses. Muslims, who numbered approximately 850,000, faced societal resentment, attributable to perceptions that Islam is incompatible with Western values, that Muslim immigrants have failed to integrate, and that levels of criminal activity among Muslim youth are higher than the national average. Major incidents of violence against Muslims were rare, but minor incidents, including intimidation, brawls, vandalism, and graffiti with abusive language, were common. The Registration Center for Discrimination on the Internet (MDI) noted that the highest instance of reported offensive expressions (346) in 2008 concerned hatred of Muslims. Some right-wing politicians depicted Islam as incompatible with the country's traditions and social values; however, the government continued a comprehensive outreach campaign to counter anti-Muslim sentiments and right-wing nationalism, including a 25 million euro (35 million dollar) grant for programs in neighborhoods and schools in 2008-11. These efforts raised public awareness and triggered debate, but concerns about the policy's effectiveness remained. The government made clear that it would combat groups espousing violence in support of an Islamist extremist agenda. It is a crime to engage in public speech that incites hatred, discrimination, or violence against persons because of their race, religion, convictions, gender, sexual orientation, or disability. During the year the government successfully prosecuted several cases, notably cases in which judges considered the language in question to be ``unnecessarily offensive.'' The government urged prosecutors and police to give proper attention to incidents of ``discrimination,'' which in the country's jurisprudence includes racially offensive speech. Convictions for these offenses were rare because courts were reluctant to restrict freedom of expression, especially when it took place within the context of a public debate. However, on January 21, the Amsterdam Court of Appeals ordered the Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office to prosecute politician and Islam critic Geert Wilders, for incitement. The prosecutor earlier declined to indict despite dozens of complaints filed by several organizations and private persons about his anti-Islamic statements in the press and his movie, Fitna, which many considered offensive to Muslims. The appeals court found that his anti-Islamic statements yielded ``a reasonable suspicion of guilt,'' thus requiring review by a criminal judge. The court recognized the paramount importance of the right to freedom of opinion, but noted that this right was not unlimited. It also stated that such a prosecution would serve the general interest in drawing a clear boundary as to what was permissible in public debate. On August 18, the Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office dismissed complaints over the dissemination of a series of controversial cartoons, including those of a Danish artist depicting the prophet Mohammed, determining that they were not offensive to Muslims as a group, nor did they incite hatred, discrimination, or violence against Muslims. The prosecutor's office found one cartoon that the Arabic European League (AEL) had put on its Web site in reaction to the Danish cartoons, punishable because it offended Jews as a group on grounds of their race or religion. The cartoon expressed the idea that Jews deliberately invented or exaggerated the Holocaust. The AEL accused the prosecutor's office of double standards. The Amsterdam Prosecutor's Office has not yet decided whether or not to prosecute Gregorius Nekschot .''Deathblo.'') for some cartoons that the prosecutor believed violated the law on intentional discrimination and incitement to hatred. The population included approximately 45,000 Jews. Anti-Semitic incidents, including verbal threats, cursing, and desecration of monuments and cemeteries, continued to occur. For example, at the time of the Israeli incursion into Gaza, three Moroccan boys in Amsterdam harassed and beat a 16-year-old girl wearing a Star of David pendant. Certain groups opposed to Israeli policies in the Occupied Territories, such as the Arab European League and the Stop the Occupation Movement, frequently used anti-Semitic language and images to express political views. Explicitly anti-Semitic sentiments also prevailed among certain segments of the Muslim community and among fringe nationalist and neo-Nazi groups. During the year the frequency of incidents appeared to be correlated with the political situation in the Middle East. For example, incidents sharply increased during the December 2008-January 2009 Israeli intervention in Gaza. During subsequent anti-Israel demonstrations in various cities, some individuals chanted the slogan ``Hamas, Hamas, Jews should be gassed.'' Police made several arrests, and courts convicted a dozen persons, including four minors whom they ordered to visit the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam. MDI received 296 reports of expressions of hostility toward Jews in 2008. MDI noted that whereas anti-Semitic sentiments on the Internet used to be confined to extremist Web sites, they also appeared more recently on mainstream, interactive sites. MDI also stressed the correlation with the situation in the Middle East. The Center for Information and Documentation on Israel (CIDI) called for stronger government action against anti-Semitic Web sites, describing the Internet as one of the main sources for dissemination of anti-Semitic and racist ideologies. Anti-Semitism was the subject of 123 of the 4,808 complaints received by a network of antidiscrimination bureaus across the country in 2008. Authorities continued to work with NGOs to combat anti-Semitism. The government urged prosecutors and police to give proper attention to incidents of discrimination, including discrimination on religious grounds. It maintained a cyber crime Web site through which citizens could report radical statements and hate e-mail. The government took legal action against four right-wing Web sites. On February 2, a judge convicted the former leader of the National Alliance for not removing discriminatory texts offensive to Jews and Muslims from the organization's Web site. There were no reports of anti-Semitic incidents in the Netherlands Antilles or Aruba. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The laws provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Authorities denied asylum to persons who came from so-called safe countries of origin or who resided for some time in safe countries of transit. They used EU guidelines to define such countries. In practice, authorities generally provided protection against the expulsion or return of asylum seekers to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. However, some observers contended that some of the government's procedures were inadequate to avoid this risk. Authorities provided economic assistance to persons who were denied asylum and who chose to return home voluntarily. The UNHCR and NGOs, including Amnesty International (AI), raised cases in which the right of persons to protection from return to countries where they might be at risk appeared to have been violated and called for stricter policies to prevent future instances. The authorities promised to investigate the allegations. The charges drew intense political scrutiny and resulted in pressure to maintain the temporary protection granted to asylum seekers from Somalia, Iraq, Sudan, and Ivory Coast, as well as homosexuals and Christian converts from Iran. During the year, however, the government ended its policy of granting automatic temporary protection to certain categories of asylum seekers based on country of origin or other established criteria--a policy favored by the UNHCR and many NGOs. Instead, it adopted a policy of investigating individual asylum applications and determining on a case-by-case basis whether the individuals concerned would face mistreatment if returned to their countries of origin. Several organizations, including AI and the Council for the Administration of Criminal Law, criticized the manner of detention of aliens prior to deportation. They maintained that since the aliens were not criminals, authorities should not subject them to a criminal regime or keep them in detention for extended periods of time, especially if there was little or no prospect of actual deportation. Courts have ordered the aliens' release if there was no prospect of actual deportation. The state secretary for justice noted that there was no evidence of structural abuse in the treatment of aliens in detention centers. Some NGOs continued to argue that the government did not always keep families with children out of detention. The state secretary countered that it was at times unfair and inhumane to separate families awaiting deportation. Authorities did not permit asylum seekers still awaiting decisions on their applications, or whose asylum applications had been rejected, to work and denied them many social services; however, they were provided with basic sustenance and health care, and their children were permitted to attend schools. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is primarily based on the mother's citizenship (jus sanguinis). According to UNHCR statistics, there were 4,591 stateless persons in the country at the end of 2008. Parliament has revised the law governing citizenship repeatedly to counter and prevent statelessness, including by providing the opportunity to gain Dutch citizenship. Immigrants may naturalize after five years of legal residence, or three years if they are married to a citizen. Migrants who are not naturalized are allowed to work, including in the civil service, with the exception of the police force and the army. After five years of legal residence, nonnationals have the right to vote in local elections. To become citizens, they must complete a written naturalization examination that tests both their Dutch language proficiency and their knowledge of the country's culture and society. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. These constitutional rights also apply to the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, where they were also exercised in practice. Elections and Political Participation.--Parliamentary elections in the Netherlands held in 2006 were considered free and fair. On June 4, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. One of the oldest political parties, the Protestant Political Reformed Party (SGP), continued to deny women the right to run for office, despite a 2007 ruling by The Hague Appellate Court that, by doing so, it was in violation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Discrimination against Women. The same court ruling ordered the government to take action to force the SGP to change its policy. At year's end both the SGP and the government had appeals pending with the Supreme Court against the ruling. There were 63 women in the 150-seat Second Chamber of parliament, four female ministers in the 15-member cabinet, and six women among the 11 junior ministers. Women also held positions in the parliaments and cabinets of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, including the position of prime minister of the Netherlands Antilles. Approximately 15 members of ethnic minorities--Turkish, Moroccan, and Surinamese--served in the 150-seat Second Chamber of parliament. One junior minister in the cabinet was a Muslim of Turkish background. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented the law effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. In 2008, the most recent year for which information was available, authorities imposed disciplinary sanctions on 399 central government employees for abusing their positions. There were no laws requiring officials to make financial disclosures. The government pursued an active anticorruption policy coordinated by the Internal Affairs Ministry's Bureau for Promotion of Integrity of the Public Sector. The National Criminal Investigation Service coordinated investigations under the supervision of the national prosecutor for corruption. The law provides for public access to government information, and authorities generally respected that right for both citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Whenever information is denied, authorities provide reasons based on the law. Those seeking information could appeal any refusal to the regular courts. Disputes occasionally arose in court over the scope of the government's right to withhold information based on the public interest. For example, there were disputes over whether to release certain classified internal memos. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Several domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. A delegation representing the UN Children's Fund visited St. Maarten in March and met with government agencies and NGOs for preliminary discussions regarding the implementation and monitoring of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In the Netherlands there are no ombudsmen or parliamentary committees dealing exclusively with human rights. However, a citizen may bring any complaint before the civil and criminal courts, the Equal Opportunity Commission (CGB), the national ombudsman, the Commercial Code Council, the Council of Journalism, the European Court of Justice, or the ECHR, depending on the circumstances. On April 20, the government reacted to the recommendations made by the Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights following his visit to the Netherlands in September 2008. It noted that a number of his recommendations were in the process of implementation. The government has a long tradition of hosting international legal tribunals, including the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Court, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on age, race, gender, disability, language, political preference, sexual orientation, and social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a crime and the government effectively prosecuted such crimes. The penalty for rape is imprisonment not exceeding 15 years or a fine. The maximum sentence for marital rape is eight years' imprisonment. Domestic violence was the most prevalent form of violence in society. A fact sheet issued by the Ministry of Justice in May indicated that there were approximately 500,000 incidents of household violence annually. Approximately 40 percent of the population experienced some form of domestic violence during their lives; 10 percent of these reported experiencing some form of physical, sexual, or mental abuse at least weekly; and 4 percent had been raped. According to police records, approximately 85 percent of victims were women. Police estimated that victims reported approximately 12 percent of all cases. The government was implementing a 2008-11 national action plan to intensify the fight against household violence that included a national survey on its scope. Spousal abuse carries a penalty one third more severe than ordinary battery. Police records indicated that approximately 3 percent of spousal abuse cases reported to police resulted in arrests. The government provided support to the national organization Movisie (formerly TransAct), which assisted victims of domestic violence and those investigating and prosecuting related crimes. The government subsidized shelters for battered women. In January legislation became effective that enabled mayors to impose temporary restraining orders on perpetrators of household violence. In September the government repeated a public information campaign against domestic violence. In June the Justice Ministry, together with several NGOs, started a national information campaign to combat both forced marriages and the abandonment by immigrants of their spouses in their country of origin. The campaign used informational programs to inform young persons of the risks of these forms of mistreatment. There were no recent statistics on so-called honor killings or honor-related violence. In 2006 there were 279 and 158 reports of honor-related violence in The Hague and Amsterdam respectively. The government continued a 2006 program to combat honor-related violence; authorities allocated approximately 13 million euros ($18.6 million) to the program, which focused on prevention, protection, and criminal prosecution. In November 2008 authorities set up a National Expertise Center for Honor-Related Violence (LEC) with the regional police department in The Hague. The Justice Ministry commissioned the LEC to develop and exchange expertise among Dutch police forces about honor cases. In the Netherlands, prostitution is legal for persons age 18 or older who engage in the practice voluntarily. It is also legal in the Netherlands Antilles. In Aruba prostitution was not a criminal offense but soliciting in public places was prohibited. The law provides penalties for Dutch nationals and legal residents who abuse minor children abroad, even if the offense is not a crime in the country where the abuse occurs. Sexual harassment was a problem. In July an NGO (the Rutgers Nisso Group) published a study on sexual violence in the Netherlands indicating that one in three women and one in 20 men had been victims of physical sexual aggression at some point in their lives. The law requires employers to take measures to protect workers from sexual harassment. The government continued a public awareness campaign and continued to take measures to counter harassment among civil servants, but no information was available on their effectiveness. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There were no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives. The government provided skilled attendance during childbirth, including essential obstetric and postpartum care. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Under the law women have the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. In the Netherlands, approximately 65 percent of women were employed, nearly 75 percent of them part time. Female and male unemployment rates were 5.2 and 4.2 percent, respectively. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment reported that the higher rate of unemployment among women, their reduced chances for promotion, and their generally lower-ranking positions than men resulted primarily from their part-time employment. According to the ministry, the disparity between men's and women's earnings in the private sector narrowed from 23 percent in 2006 to 18 percent in 2007; adjusted for level of experience and expertise required for the jobs, the differential was 7 percent. The government provided affirmative action programs for women, and collective labor agreements usually included provisions to strengthen the position of women. In 2008 the Netherlands' Equal Treatment Commission received 432 complaints of discrimination, 13 percent of which related to gender. Children.--Children obtain citizenship through their parents (jus sanguinis). Birth registration is mandatory. Child abuse was a problem. In a study conducted in 2007, Leiden University concluded that more than 100,000 children were victims of abuse. Many of them were physically or emotionally neglected. The study estimated that 4,700 children were victims of sexual abuse and 19,000 experienced physical abuse. Experts estimated that approximately 50 to 80 children died each year from some form of abuse. In 2008 the Child Abuse Reporting Center received almost 53,000 reports of possible child abuse, 5 percent more than in 2007. In March the government launched a two-year publicity campaign to encourage the population to report signs of possible child abuse. In September 2008 the government began to require physicians to report child abuse, overriding professional confidentiality. Despite increased government funding for the Council for the Protection of Children, there still were long waiting lists for assistance. The law prohibits female genital mutilation (FGM). In May the Ministry of Health published an FGM prevalence study showing that, of the 1,200 pregnant women and girls from high-risk countries (Somalia, Ethiopia, and Egypt) examined by Dutch midwives in 2008, a total of 470 had undergone FGM. In 2007 the government's National Public Health Council estimated that at least 50 girls a year underwent FGM; the FGM committee established by the Ministry of Health estimated the number of girls and women at risk at 16,000 and 34,000 respectively. In 2006 the government launched a long-term program to combat FGM through primary prevention and early identification. Through 2008 authorities committed more than one million euros (approximately $1.5 million) per year to combat FGM. The maximum penalty for FGM is six to nine years in prison. The country has a statutory rape law. The penalty for rape is imprisonment not exceeding 15 years, a fine, or both. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16. The law prohibits production, possession, and distribution of child pornography for which there is a maximum penalty of eight years' imprisonment. In November parliament approved legislation to ratify the Lanzarote Treaty, which makes gaining access to child pornography on the Internet a crime with a maximum penalty of four years' imprisonment. In Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, this treaty awaited ratification. Trafficking in Persons.--Trafficking in persons occurred in the Netherlands, in Aruba, and in the Netherlands Antilles. The laws, the trafficking patterns, and the responses of the authorities differed in the three territories. In the Netherlands, the law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, trafficking in persons was a problem. The country was a destination and country of transit for trafficked persons, and trafficking within the country was also a problem. NGOs and police estimated that the number of women and girls trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation ranged from 1,000 to 3,600. The antitrafficking NGO Comensha registered 826 victims in 2008, an increase from 716 in 2007. The top five countries of origin were the Netherlands (320 victims), China (78), Nigeria (64), Hungary (45), and Sierra Leone (44). Men and boys accounted for 46 of the victims, and 169 were girls and boys younger than 18. According to Comensha, most female victims were exploited through prostitution. In addition, 13 of them worked in massage parlors, six as domestic servants, and three in the catering sector. Of the male victims, seven were exploited through prostitution, four in catering, one in the cleaning sector, and one in the illegal drug trade. Girls seduced and coerced into prostitution by ``pimp boys,'' primarily young men and boys of Moroccan or Turkish ethnicity, accounted for 180 of the Dutch trafficking victims registered by Comensha in 2008. Most traffickers used threats of violence towards victims or their families to control their victims. Underage girls and young women of Moroccan and Turkish descent, underage asylum seekers, women with dependent residence status obtained through fraudulent marriages, and women recruited in Africa were the most vulnerable. In July Dutch authorities increased the maximum sentences for trafficking in persons from six to eight years' imprisonment for a single offense, from 12 to 15 years in case of serious physical injury, and from 15 to 18 years in case of death. Longer sentences for trafficking also allowed the public prosecutor to try traffickers for certain punishable preparatory acts of human trafficking, such as creating a Web site for the purpose of recruiting trafficking victims. In 2007 the Dutch Public Prosecutor's Office prosecuted 221 traffickers, compared with 216 in 2006; courts rendered decisions in 120 cases, convicting 97 suspects, acquitting 14, and dismissing nine. In July 2008 the court sentenced six members of a Turkish-German trafficking gang to prison terms ranging from eight months to seven- and-a-half years. The considered the sentences too low and appealed the verdict; the appeal was pending at year's end. In 2008 there was only one conviction for labor trafficking. In two other cases that resulted in acquittals, the Public Prosecutor's Office exercised its right to appeal in hope of obtaining a guilty verdict. In one case involving Chinese workers in a restaurant, the Supreme Court in October annulled the verdict by the appellate court and referred the case back to the appellate court for re-trial. In the Netherlands, the Ministries of Justice, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Welfare and Health, and Social Affairs are the principal government agencies for combating trafficking in persons. Local police forces established special units to deal with trafficking, and the National Crime Squad's Expertise Center on People Trafficking and Smuggling (EMM) brought together experts from the National Police Criminal Investigation Service, military border police, regional police forces, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the Social Information and Investigation Service. The national prosecutor for trafficking in persons supervised investigations conducted by the EMM, which also provided specialized training to police in the identification and protection of trafficking victims. The national rapporteur on trafficking in human beings headed an independent, publicly funded agency that reported annually to the government on the nature, extent, and mechanisms of trafficking as well as on the effects of national policies. Authorities participated in international investigations and cooperated closely with other governments on trafficking. In February 2008 a human trafficking task force was set up that included the chief public prosecutor in Amsterdam, the national rapporteur, senior officials of various ministries, police, and local government and judicial officials. The central government provides a temporary residence mechanism that gives trafficking victims three months to consider pressing charges against their traffickers. A victim who does so may remain in the country until the legal process has been completed. During this period the victim receives legal, financial, and psychological assistance, and may work or receive vocational training. Victims may request a permanent residence permit on humanitarian grounds. Specially trained police conducted regular inspections of brothels and other commercial sex establishments to verify that individuals in the sector were working voluntarily and to identify any potential trafficking victims. The central government subsidized NGOs working with trafficking victims. For example, Comensha offered victims social support, legal advice, medical aid, shelters, and counseling. The Justice Ministry cofinanced the La Strada program, which focused on preventing trafficking in women from Central and East European countries. The Justice Ministry continued to fund the Anonymous Crime Reporting Center to extend and expand its multiyear campaign against trafficking and sexual exploitation. Reports suggested that the five Antillean islands were transit and destination points for the trafficking of men, women, and possibly children for sexual exploitation and domestic servitude, as well as forced labor in the construction and agriculture sectors. According to local observers, the Antillean islands of Curacao and Dutch St. Maarten were destinations for women trafficked for the sex trade from Peru, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Over the course of a year, an estimated 500 foreign women, some of whom had been trafficked, were reportedly involved for part of that time in prostitution. Groups vulnerable to labor trafficking included Haitian men in the agriculture and gardening sectors and Latin American and Caribbean men in construction. Concern continued that debt bondage could be taking place, especially among some Asian migrants in restaurants and local businesses; accordingly, authorities monitored the situation closely. There is no specific antitrafficking law in the Netherlands Antilles; however, authorities successfully used existing criminal statutes, including those penalizing smuggling, slavery, abduction, and coercion to prosecute traffickers. Antilles authorities gave training to government and service providers that provided counseling and protection to victims of trafficking. The Web site of the Antillean Ministry of Justice provided information on trafficking. The national coordinator on trafficking gave lectures to the public at large, to teachers, and to groups considered vulnerable (e.g. scouts, other youth groups). The ministry funded public service announcements, including the telephone number of a trafficking hotline, that were broadcast over a six-week period. The national coordinator on trafficking maintained a personal Facebook page for outreach, from which she regularly updated key officials and others with information pertaining to the prevention of trafficking. In Aruba the law prohibits all forms of trafficking. During the year authorities in Aruba investigated several cases of suspected trafficking, including that of a 15-year-old girl and 12 Haitian youths who may have been trafficked. The foreign victims were almost immediately repatriated and the offenders were arrested pending prosecution. In January the justice ministers of the Netherlands Antilles, the Netherlands, and Aruba signed a memorandum of understanding to promote increased anti-trafficking cooperation. With the help and expertise of the Netherlands, organizational changes were begun, including in the areas of prevention of trafficking, prosecution of traffickers and protection of victims. A joint team of Antillean, Aruban, and Netherlands representatives was created to investigate trafficking cases with the participation of Netherlands experts to provide greater expertise to police and prosecutors. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--Discrimination against persons with disabilities is prohibited in all three territories, but government enforcement was inadequate, and there were some reports that such discrimination occurred. The penal code provides penalties for discrimination in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of state services. In the Netherlands, the CGB received several dozen complaints, mostly labor related, of such discrimination. Although CGB rulings are not binding, they were usually implemented. The law requires access to public buildings for persons with disabilities, but public buildings and public transport often were not easily accessible in practice. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands prohibits racial, national, or ethnic discrimination in all three territories. In the Netherlands, incidents of physical assault against minorities were rare, but members of minority groups experienced verbal abuse and intimidation and were at times denied access to public venues, such as discotheques. A Muslim community of approximately 850,000 persons faced frequent discrimination. Members of immigrant groups also faced discrimination in housing and employment. According to Statistics Netherlands, in 2008 the minority unemployment rate (9 percent) remained roughly three times that of the ethnic Dutch workforce (3.2 percent), while the unemployment rate among minority youth was 17 percent compared to 6 percent for native Dutch youth. A February 2008 European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) report asserted that a number of government practices both stigmatized and discriminated against members of minority groups. As an example, the ECRI cited reports that Netherlands police singled out individuals from the Netherlands Antilles living in the Netherlands for searches without apparent reason. The Dutch government pursued an active campaign to increase public awareness of racism and discrimination. In June, following a pilot project in two police regions, the government initiated a national campaign to counter discrimination and to improve the reporting of hate crimes, including hate speech, by using a special Web site. Depending on circumstances, persons could file complaints of racism or discrimination with the civil and criminal courts, the CGB, the national ombudsman, the Commercial Code Council, the Council for Journalism, the European Court of Justice, or the ECHR. Within the police, a National Discrimination Expertise Center (LECD) dealt with discrimination. The LECD worked closely with the prosecutor's offices, local antidiscrimination units, and the MDI. These organizations also registered incidents and issued reports. Data from the LECD, the CGB, and the Monitor on Racism and Extremism of the Anne Frank Foundation provided insights into the extent of incidents of discrimination. These organizations voiced concern about the reluctance of victims to report incidents. In each region a Discrimination Consultation Body, which includes police, the prosecutor's office, and antidiscrimination units, discussed incidents of discrimination. In the spring the LECD analyzed 2,240 recorded incidents from 2008 and found that the most frequent form of discrimination was verbal. Defamation was involved in 16 percent of the incidents, threats in 19 percent, right-wing symbols in 18 percent, physical violence in 13 percent, and vandalism in 8 percent. Discrimination on ethnic or racial grounds occurred in 40 percent of the incidents. The MDI registered more than 1,000 instances of Internet discrimination in 2008 that it asserted were punishable, a 10 percent increase over 2007. Jews, Muslims, Moroccans, and Africans were the main target groups. Those responsible removed most (90 percent) of offending sites voluntarily when the MDI asked them to do so. The MDI reported seven cases to the prosecutor's office; cases brought before a court produced several convictions. Most defamation cases filed in criminal courts concerned racial defamation. Civil lawsuits often alleged discrimination against persons who were not ethnically Dutch in the supply of such services as cell phones and access to clubs. The CGB focused on discrimination in the labor market, including discrimination in the workplace, unequal pay, termination of labor contracts, and preferential treatment of ethnically Dutch employees. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--In the Netherlands, there are no government impediments to the organization of gay events. However, the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities were not well organized. There were no gay pride marches. During the year the Justice Ministry reported a rise in harassment of homosexuals. Most incidents consisted of verbal epithets and abuse. Police placed a high priority on combating antigay violence. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no specific reports of societal violence against persons with HIV/AIDS. However, the government sponsored a national campaign against societal stigmatization of persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form or join independent unions of their own choosing without prior government authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. Approximately 25 percent of the legally employed workforce was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The right to strike is based on the European Social Charter, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. Requirements for conducting a legal strike were not excessively lengthy or cumbersome. Regulations prohibit retaliation against legal strikers. Public sector workers generally have the right to strike, but a magistrate may forbid a strike that threatens the public welfare or safety. For example, magistrates have often prohibited police actions because of the essential services they perform. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to organize, and specific laws provide for the right to collective bargaining; workers exercised these rights in practice. According to the Christian Trade Union Federation, collective bargaining agreements covered approximately 85 percent of the workforce The law prohibits antiunion discrimination. There were no special laws or exemption from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that adults and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and adults for labor exploitation. According to the Dutch national rapporteur for trafficking in persons, the highest risk sectors for labor exploitation included domestic employment, temporary employment agencies, agriculture and horticulture, restaurants, hotels, and construction (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons). In 2008 the Labor Inspectorate conducted approximately 11,000 inspections at many of these high-risk workplaces. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. In 2008 the Dutch Coordination Center against Trafficking in Persons registered 103 trafficking victims under the age of 18. The minimum age for employment is 16 years. Sixteen-year-old schoolchildren may not work more than eight hours per week. The law prohibits persons under the age of 18 from working overtime, at night, or in activities dangerous to their physical or mental well-being. A tripartite labor commission composed of representatives of government, enterprises, and unions monitored hiring practices and conducted inspections. The commission enforced the laws effectively. Holiday work and after-school employment are subject to very strict rules set by law. The Ministry of Labor's inspection office, which is responsible for enforcement, found during the year that 70 percent of companies employing holiday workers and children under 18 complied with regulations. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--In the Netherlands, the minimum wage for adults is 1,398.60 euros ($2,000) per month, which provides an adequate standard of living for a worker and family. The Labor Ministry establishes the minimum wage. The minimum wage in the Netherlands Antilles was 7.30 Netherlands Antillean Guilders ($4.10) per hour and that of Aruba was similar. Dutch law establishes a 40-hour workweek. The average workweek was 30.6 hours (38.7 hours for full-time and 20 hours for part-time workers). Persons working more than five hours per day were entitled to a 30-minute rest period. Overtime is regulated. There are no exceptions for legal foreign workers. The Labor Inspectorate effectively enforced the labor laws. A tripartite labor commission actively monitored and effectively enforced working conditions, including comprehensive occupational safety and health standards set by law. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs also monitored standards. Workers could remove themselves from dangerous working conditions without jeopardizing their continued employment, and they exercised this right in practice. Workers in the significant underground economy enjoyed neither the minimum wage nor any of the other legal, administrative, or safety protections available to other workers. __________ NORWAY Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The population is approximately 4.82 million. The country is governed by a prime minister, a cabinet, and the 169-seat parliament (Storting) that is elected every four years and cannot be dissolved. Free and fair elections to the multiparty parliament were held in September. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. During the year, racial profiling, violence against women, and trafficking of men, women, and children were continuing problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions mostly met international standards; however, there were reports of juveniles held with adults and prison overcrowding. In September the police disclosed that, due to prison overcrowding, they had already detained approximately 1,500 arrestees during the year in temporary holding cells for longer than the 48 hours allowed by law. The police holding cells are austere and designed for short stays and a transient inmate population. There were reports that juveniles were imprisoned in cells with adults and often exposed to drug use. One nongovernmental organization (NGO) documented a case of a 16-year-old boy who was held in a prison cell with adult males. Prison officials told him not to disclose his age to the adult prisoners for his own protection. He was isolated 23 hours a day for seven days, did not receive his prescribed medication, and was not informed of his right to parental and attorney visitation. The prison system was considered transparent; prisoners were represented by an ombudsman who could visit at a prisoner's request or at the ombudsman's own initiative. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights groups, the media, and the International Committee of the Red Cross; however, no such visits took place during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police have primary responsibility for internal security; the police may call on the armed forces for assistance in crises. In such circumstances, the armed forces are under police authority. The Ministry of Justice and Police oversees the police force. The police force was generally effective, and corruption was not generally a problem. Adequate measures were in place to investigate police abuses. An independent police complaint commission investigated reports of corruption within the police force. NGOs reported that public security officials used discriminatory racial profiling techniques to stop and search members of ethnic minorities. Evidence of racial profiling was anecdotal, since police did not keep records of stop and search activities. NGOs also reported that customs officials routinely and disproportionally targeted nonwhite travelers for search; officials could not verify the reports, since no records are kept of the ethnicity of individuals stopped at the border. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires warrants for arrests except when the perpetrator is caught in the act of committing a crime, and police generally arrested a person based on a warrant authorized by a prosecutor. Police are required to file a justification to hold detained persons in custody within four hours of their arrest, and detainees must be informed of the charges against them within three days. An arrested suspect is required to be arraigned within 24 hours (not including Saturday and Sunday), at which time the arraigning judge determines whether the accused should be held in custody or released pending trial. Nonresident foreigners were not released pending trial. There is no bail system. Defendants accused of minor crimes were routinely released pending trial. Defendants accused of serious or violent crimes generally remained in custody until trial. Arrested persons were allowed access to a lawyer of their choosing prior to being interrogated or, if they could not afford one, to an attorney appointed by the government. Arrested persons were generally allowed access to family members. The law mandates that detainees be transferred from a temporary police holding cell to a regular prison cell within 48 hours. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. During 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments which found one violation of the right to a fair trial and one violation involving length of proceedings; both violations were of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public. Juries are used only in criminal cases heard by the court of appeals. Defendants have the right to be present, to have counsel, at public expense if necessary, to confront and question witnesses, to present evidence and witnesses, and to appeal. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. The law extends the above rights to all citizens. There are no military courts; military crimes are tried in a civilian court, with the addition of a military judge to assist the civilian judges in trying the case. The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters that can adjudicate cases involving human rights violations. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. In December 2008 the ECHR ruled that the prohibition on paid advertising on television by political parties barred the Pensioners Party from its only access to television and interfered with the right of free expression. The government changed the governing statutes of the public broadcaster NRK to give smaller parties greater access to free media. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 83 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The state church is the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway, which the government supported financially. The constitution requires that the king and at least half of the cabinet belong to this church. Other denominations operated freely. A religious community is required to register with the government if it desires government financial support, which is provided to all registered denominations on a proportional basis in accordance with their membership. The law permits private or religious schools and day care centers to ask persons seeking employment whether they will respect and teach the denomination's beliefs and principles. Employers may reject applicants on the basis of their responses. Classes about religion in general are mandatory for children in public schools from grades one through 10, and several major religions and philosophies are covered in an objective manner. Parents may seek an exemption for their children from ``activities'' connected with the class (such as field trips) but not from the class itself. The city of Oslo prohibits the wearing of burkas and niqabs in public schools; however, there were no reports that the prohibition was enforced during the year. In November 2008 and January 2009, the country's appellate and supreme courts denied appeals by Lawrence Keffer of his Oslo district court conviction for engaging in a demonstration. In May 2008, during public celebration of the country's constitution day, Keffer and Petar Keseljevic were arrested as they attempted to evangelize on the streets of Oslo. The police asked them to move, and, when they refused, they were arrested. Keseljevic claimed that his right to free speech had been violated, but the Oslo district court found that the two evangelists were effectively engaged in a demonstration and the police were therefore justified in asking them to move. Each was fined 10,500 kroner ($1,800), plus legal fees of 1,500 kroner ($260). Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish population is relatively small, with approximately 850 registered members and up to 1,200 total members. A number of anti-Semitic incidents occurred during the year, and there was extensive public criticism of Israel that some observers linked to societal anti-Semitism. During Israeli military operations against Hamas in the Gaza Strip in January, there were violent anti-Israeli disturbances on several occasions in Oslo, as hundreds of rioters emerged from protest marches that began peacefully. While 139 of the 194 persons arrested by police were of immigrant background, the vast majority were Norwegian citizens. A pro-Israeli march in Bergen was cancelled after police stated that they could not guarantee the participants' safety. The general atmosphere for Jews in the country worsened early in the year. On January 18, Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Stoere visited the Oslo synagogue to show solidarity with Jewish citizens, who, he stated, ``feel alienated'' and were ``experiencing growing anti-Semitism.'' A leading newspaper reported that it had difficulty finding Jews who were willing to be interviewed about anti-Semitism, as they felt they might be targeted for violence or harassment. During the Israeli military operations in Gaza, the chief rabbi of the Oslo Synagogue reportedly received large amounts of anti-Semitic mail daily. The location of the line between criticism of Israeli policy and anti-Semitism was frequently discussed in the media. During January both a former prime minister and a high-profile commentator on foreign policy were accused of making anti-Semitic comments. Their statements, which questioned the ability of the United States to be objective in its Middle East policy because of high-ranking Jews in the U.S. government, were criticized as blurring the line between being Jewish and support for Israeli government policy. In mid-January, a first secretary at the country's embassy in Saudi Arabia used a government system to e-mail a chain message with images likening Israeli soldiers to soldiers of Nazi Germany. Some politicians urged the government to fire the employee; the government did not release information on whether it took disciplinary action, citing privacy rules. On May 14, the cemetery of the Mosaic Religious Community in Oslo (the Jewish community) was vandalized. Several gravestones were defaced with Nazi symbols; on one, ``the war is not over'' was written. The government continued to support organizations working to combat discrimination; it supported the foundation The White Buses, which took students from the country to Auschwitz to educate them about the Holocaust. In March the country assumed the rotating chairmanship of the International Task Force for Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research, which it will hold for a year. On August 5, the government officially initiated a ``Hamsun Year'' observing the sesquicentenary of the birth of Knut Hamsun, the 1920 Nobel laureate in literature, who was a prominent Nazi sympathizer and collaborator during World War II. The government emphasized the celebration paid tribute to Hamsun's literary achievements; however, the observance led to a public debate about the darker side of his legacy. Two prominent international Jewish organizations strongly criticized the observance and called on the country to relinquish its chairmanship of the international task force for Holocaust education, remembrance, and research. On November 12, the board of the Norwegian Technical University in Trondheim unanimously rejected a proposed academic boycott of Israel. The minister of higher education spoke out against the boycott before the board's vote both in parliament and to the media, and then saluted the decision on the grounds that the proposed boycott was inconsistent with academic freedom. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The country is party to the Dublin II regulation, which allows for the return of refugees and asylum seekers to the first country they entered that is also party to the regulation. In February 2008 the country's authorities ceased return of asylum seekers to a certain Dublin II regulation country except when in receipt of a written guarantee from that country's authorities concerning how the case would be handled. In August the returns to that country resumed on a case-by- case basis, and the authorities no longer demanded a guarantee letter. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government granted refugee status or asylum and accepted refugees for resettlement. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees and provided it to 2,580 persons. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On September 14, the country held parliamentary elections that were considered free and fair. The elections resulted in the formation of a coalition government of the Labor, Socialist Left, and Center parties. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. Following the September elections, there were 67 women in the 169- seat parliament. There were eight women among the 19 Supreme Court justices, and women headed 10 of the 19 government ministries. There was one member of an ethnic minority in parliament. There were no minority ministers or Supreme Court justices. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were no confirmed reports of government corruption during the year. Public officials are subject to financial disclosure laws. The Ministry of Justice and Police and the Ministry of Finance are responsible for combating corruption. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government provided access in practice to both citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials generally were cooperative and responsive to their views. The country has parliamentary ombudsmen for public administration, for children, and for equality and antidiscrimination. All of the ombudsmen enjoyed the government's cooperation and operated without government interference. The ombudsmen hear complaints on actions by government officials, but their offices did not issue any reports specifically on human rights issues. Although the ombudsmen's recommendations are not legally binding, in practice government authorities generally complied with them. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced this prohibition in practice, although racial profiling, violence against women, and trafficking in persons were problems. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, and the government generally enforced the law. There were reports of 1,084 rapes and attempted rapes reported during 2008 and 1,126 rapes and attempted rapes during 2009. The penalty for rape is generally one to 10 years in prison, depending on the severity of the assault, the age of the victim, and the circumstances under which the crime occurred. Very few cases, however, have ever resulted in a maximum sentence. Ninety percent of rape cases reported to police during the year never reached the courts, usually due to reluctance on the part of the victim to press charges. Approximately 35 percent of rape trials during the year ended in acquittal. In 2007 a government task force examining the high rate of acquittals in rape cases identified gender bias as a factor that affected judicial assessments of the credibility of rape victims and suspected assailants. The Ministry of Defense separately identified a gap in the reporting and investigation of sexual assaults against female enlistees. In January 2008 a government-appointed public committee released a white paper on ways to prevent and combat rape. Its main conclusion was that the lack of proper police investigations, due to a structural failure to prioritize rape cases, led to the low percentage of cases prosecuted and offenders convicted. A prominent NGO criticized the government's failure to follow up the conclusions of the white paper with an action plan on rape by which the government could be held accountable for results. By the end of the year, many of the recommendations in the report had not been implemented, including the recommendation that the police set up an independent sexual violence unit. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was a problem. The law provides higher penalties for domestic violence than for simple assault--generally one to six years in prison--with an increased term in more severe cases. The government enforced the law in practice. In 2008, the latest period for which data was available, 1,457 cases of domestic violence were registered, an increase over 2007. The government generally and police agencies in particular had programs to prevent rape and domestic violence and to counsel victims. Each of the country's 27 police districts had a domestic violence coordinator to assist victims. Public and private organizations ran 50 government-funded shelters and managed five 24-hour crisis hotlines. The shelters provided support and counseling for victims and helped them gain access to social services, doctors, lawyers, and housing authorities. It is illegal for citizens to purchase, but not to sell, sexual services. The prohibition applies to citizens regardless of where in the world the purchase takes place. Organized prostitution and pimping are also prohibited. NGOs and the government estimated that approximately 3,000 persons sold sexual services in the country during the year. Girls were trafficked in the country for commercial sexual exploitation. An NGO that worked directly with prostitutes estimated that 60 percent of the persons engaged in prostitution during the year were foreign women. The law provides that ``employees shall not be subjected to harassment or other unseemly behavior,'' and the government effectively enforced this provision. Employers who violate this law are subject to fines or prison sentences of up to two years, depending on the seriousness of the offense. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth; women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women have the same legal status as men and enjoy identical rights under family and property laws and in the judicial system. The office of the equality and antidiscrimination ombudsman generally was effective in processing and investigating complaints of sexual discrimination. In 2008, the latest year for which data were available, the office received 597 complaints. In response to 539, it gave guidance to one of the parties without finding an illegal practice; the remaining 58 cases were pending at year's end. Ombudsman statements can conclude in a finding of illegality. The law provides that women and men engaged in the same activity shall receive equal wages for work of equal value. According to the office of the equality and antidiscrimination ombudsman, which monitors enforcement, women received an average of 10 to 15 percent less pay and benefits than men for equal work. The law mandates that 40 percent of the directors of publicly listed companies be women; virtually all public companies complied with the law. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis); children born in the country do not automatically become citizens. All birth clinics in the country reported childbirths to a central birth register. Names, birth certificates, and social security numbers, including those of the parents, were reported. In 2008 childcare services investigated 27,850 allegations of abuse and intervened in 6,512 cases that authorities considered to constitute child abuse or failure to care for a child. An independent children's ombudsman office within the Ministry of Children and Families is responsible for the protection of children under the law. The directorate for children, youth, and family affairs provides assistance and support services. With five regional offices and 26 professional teams, the directorate is the government's principal agency for the welfare and protection of children and families. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is illegal. During the year there were several criminal investigations for FGM involving families originally from countries where the practice is customary. None of the cases involved FGM performed in the country. In 2008 a government report on FGM estimated the total number of cases to be a few dozen and the practice to be declining. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons, but there were reports that women and girls were trafficked to and in the country for commercial sexual exploitation and that men and children were trafficked for labor. In 2008 the country was a destination for women, men and children trafficked from Nigeria (115), Romania (40), Eritrea (18), Lithuania (15), Ethiopia (12), China (11), Bulgaria (10), Kenya (10), Russia (10), and Sri Lanka (10). Another 40 countries in Africa, Europe, Latin America, and Asia were source countries for 10 or fewer victims each. Victims were sometimes trafficked to the country through Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Italy, and the Baltic and Balkan countries. Six cases of trafficking for labor were reported in the first 11 months of the year, four of which remained under investigation at the end of the year. In 2008 the government identified 256 possible trafficking victims, including both persons trafficked for prostitution and persons trafficked for labor. Of these victims, 94 were under the age of 18. Traffickers used a variety of methods to recruit, transport, harbor, and obtain victims. Methods ranged from falsely promising victims legitimate jobs in other countries, legally marrying them and coercing them into prostitution to help with family finances, and outright intimidation and abuse. Government officials believed that organized crime groups were responsible for most trafficking and identified a number of possible victims trafficked by organized criminals for the purpose of sexual exploitation. The maximum sentence for trafficking in persons is five years or up to 10 years for aggravated cases. Sentences are determined by several factors, including the victim's age, the use of violence or coercion, and any proceeds derived from exploitation. Traffickers can also be charged with violating laws against pimping, immigration, and slavery. Victims may sue their traffickers for compensation without impediment. Suspected victims were often reluctant to press charges, making it difficult for police to identify and assist victims and to prosecute traffickers. During 2008 there were 46 trafficking investigations, 41 of which involved trafficking for sexual exploitation, four for labor exploitation, and one for removal of organs. There were six prosecutions of accused traffickers and six convictions. During the year there were 43 trafficking investigations, 38 for sexual exploitation, four for labor exploitation, and one for removal of organs. The Ministry of Justice and Police, specifically the police coordinator for human trafficking was responsible for combating trafficking. The government assisted other European governments in combating trafficking and pursuing investigations and prosecutions of traffickers residing outside the country. Trafficking victims are given immunity from prosecution for violating immigration laws and may not be deported if they cooperate in the investigation of their trafficker. Decisions to deport victims of trafficking may be suspended for a 90-day reflection period in order to provide the victim time to receive assistance and counseling. The government assisted trafficking victims, providing safe housing in shelters through the ROSA project, a government-funded program specifically to help victims of sexual exploitation. Through ROSA and the welfare system, victims received a variety of assistance, including housing, legal aid, access to the police (if they wished to press charges against their traffickers), money for food, health care, Norwegian language classes, and other support. If victims chose to stay in the country legally, they received complete and full aid from the social welfare system. The government had programs to prevent and to identify trafficking and used a guide to identify possible victims of trafficking and to provide government employees who might encounter trafficking victims information on contacts for assistance. The government also conducted an information campaign on the Internet designed to make purchasers of sex aware of the relationship between trafficking and prostitution. Advertisements in airports alerted possible sex tourists to the potential legal consequences of their actions. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services. The law mandates access to public buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced this provision in practice. The office for disabled persons in the Ministry of Labor and social inclusion is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. The office coordinated national policy and managed the social benefits system for persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Immigrants and their children sometimes had more difficulty finding employment than equally qualified ethnic Norwegians. There were also stark differences in the overall unemployment rate. As of August, the unemployment rate among immigrants of African background was 14.2 percent and the unemployment rate among immigrants of Asian background was 9 percent, compared with just 2.5 percent among nonimmigrants, according to government statistics. In what officials described as an effort to control female genital mutilation (FGM), the national government initiated a pilot project under which it designated several local governments to focus on girls whose parents originated in African countries where more than 30 percent of women were victims of FGM. The project involved requesting parents of such children to submit their child to a ``voluntary'' physical checkup to see that she has not been subject to FGM. The minister for children and equality stated that, if the parents did not acquiesce, they may be referred to the department of child protective services. NGOs reported that parents who are of African ancestry felt stigmatized. Indigenous People.--To protect the rights of the indigenous Sami, the government provided Sami language instruction at schools in their areas, radio and television programs broadcast or subtitled in Sami, and subsidies for Sami-oriented newspapers and books. A deputy minister in the Ministry of Labor and Social Inclusion dealt specifically with Sami issues. In addition to participating freely in the national political process, the country's Sami elect their own parliament, the Samediggi. The law establishing the Sami parliament stipulates that this 39-seat consultative group meet regularly to deal with ``all matters, which in [its] opinion are of special importance to the Sami people.'' Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Several lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender organizations operated freely in the country. Gay pride marches were authorized and registered. On June 22, the main march during the year took place in Oslo. On August 9, an unknown assailant attacked two gay men who were holding hands while walking in a majority Muslim neighborhood of Oslo. The assailant stated that he did not condone the men's lifestyle and that they were in a Muslim neighborhood, and then kicked one of the men. The other man called the police while the attacker ran away. The attack was under police investigation at year's end. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no media reports of societal violence against persons with HIV/AIDS. However, an NGO reported that, in some cases, dentists and other medical personnel refused to treat persons with HIV/AIDS and that medical staff forced HIV/AIDS patients to change their own hospital bedding, refused them access to hospital cafeterias, and allowed them to eat using disposable utensils only. In some case, medical personnel entered HIV/AIDS patient hospital rooms only when wearing biohazard suits. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. Approximately 53 percent of the workforce was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without government interference, and workers exercised this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, except for military forces and senior civil servants, and workers exercised this right in practice. However, the government may, with the approval of parliament, compel arbitration in all industrial sectors under certain circumstances, as when a strike threatens the quality of health care or implicates public safety. The government did not invoke compulsory arbitration during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--All workers, including government employees and military personnel, have the right to organize and bargain collectively, and they exercised this right in practice. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and the government enforced these provisions in practice. However, there were reports that women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and that persons were trafficked for labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government effectively enforced these laws; however, children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Children 13 to 15 years of age may be employed up to 12 hours per week in light work that does not adversely affect their health, development, or schooling. Between the ages of 15 and 18, persons not in school may work up to 40 hours per week, while persons who remain in school may work only a number of hours that does not adversely affect their schooling, which in practice is substantially less than 40 hours. Minimum age rules were observed in practice and enforced by the Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority (NLIA). e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no legislated or specified minimum wage. Wages are set in collective bargaining agreements negotiated by labor unions, employers, and the government. The average daily wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. In March unions and employers agreed to raise wages by one krone ($0.17) per hour for those low-income workers earning less than 90 percent of the average industrial wage. The law limits the normal workweek to 37.5 hours and provides for 25 working days of paid leave per year (31 days for workers over age 60). The law mandates a 28-hour rest period on weekends and holidays. The law provides for premium pay of 40 percent of salary for overtime and prohibits compulsory overtime in excess of 10 hours per week. Although the law provides the same benefits for citizens and foreign or migrant workers, there were reports, especially in the construction industry, of foreign workers' being underpaid or overworked beyond what is legally permissible. The law provides for safe and physically acceptable working conditions for all employed persons. The NLIA, in consultation with nongovernment experts, set specific standards. Under the law, environment committees composed of representatives of management, workers, and health personnel must be established in enterprises with 50 or more workers and safety delegates must be elected in all enterprises. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their health, but no data was available on whether they exercised this right in practice. The directorate of labor inspections effectively monitored compliance with labor legislation and standards. __________ POLAND Poland is a republic with a multiparty democracy and a population of approximately 38.5 million. The bicameral National Assembly consists of an upper house, the Senate (Senat), and a lower house (Sejm). Executive power is shared among the prime minister, the Council of Ministers, the president, and the Sejm. The 2007 preterm National Assembly elections and the 2005 presidential election were both considered free and fair. The prime minister governs in a coalition with a smaller political party. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens. Prison conditions, however, remained poor and overcrowded; the judicial system was inefficient and resulted in lengthy pretrial detentions. There were occasional nonviolent incidents of anti- Semitism, police misconduct, and corruption in the government and society. There was discrimination against women in the labor market, sexual exploitation of children, trafficking in women and children, and societal discrimination and violence against ethnic minorities and gays and lesbians. Violations of workers' rights and antiunion discrimination were also problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. On April 22, the Supreme Court rejected the final appeal of 12 Communist-era police officers found guilty in 2007 of firing on striking coal miners in 1981. Nine persons were killed and 25 others wounded in the incident at the Wujek coal mine. Commander Romuald Cieslak was sentenced to 11 years in prison; 14 officers under his command received sentences of from two and one-half to three years. On October 29, the Warsaw Appeals Court overturned a July 2008 district court decision to dismiss the case against Communist-era general Czeslaw Kiszczak, who was accused of ordering militia to fire on striking Wujek miners in 1986. On December 22, the Lodz District Court found three police officers guilty for failure to fulfill their duties and creating unintentional danger in mistakenly using live ammunition instead of rubber bullets to quell a riot after a 2004 soccer game. Two persons were killed and 70 were injured. The convicted officers included a highway police officer who was on duty the night of the incident, his assistant who issued live ammunition, and a Lodz city police officer who coordinated the operation. The officers received suspended prison sentences ranging from 12 to 20 months. A trial begun in September 2008 continued against eight Communist- era officials who imposed martial law in 1981, including generals Wojciech Jaruzelski and Czeslaw Kiszczak. If convicted on charges of violating the constitution, abuse of power, and leading an organized criminal group, the defendants could be sentenced to up to 10 years in jail. In December 2008, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgment that found the country in violation of Article 2 (right to life and deprivation of life) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The ruling came in response to a suit filed on behalf of Zbigniew Dzieciak, who spent four years in pretrial detention from 1997-2001. Dzieciak suffered from a serious illness, which led to his death in 2001. The court concluded that the low quality of the medical care provided during his detention and delays in treatment had endangered his life. The court ordered the government to pay 20,000 euro ($28,800) in compensation to Dzieciak's widow. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and the government generally respected these provisions. There were problems, however, with police misconduct and abuse of prisoners. While the criminal code prohibits torture and cruel or degrading treatment, it lacks a clear, legal definition of torture, which is not reported as a separate crime. On January 15, the ECHR ruled in favor of the parents of Pawel Lewandowski, who accused police of using excessive force against their son. In 2000 Pawel Lewandowski filed a legal complaint with local prosecutors that police had beaten him, but the case was dismissed because of insufficient evidence. Lewandowski lost on appeal and committed suicide three days after the court's decision. The ECHR awarded Lewandowski's parents 10,000 euro ($14,400). On October 30, two police officers in Prabuty were suspended on charges of taking intoxicated persons to a forest between August 2007 and September 2008 where they were beaten and abandoned. One of the police officers was also charged with beating two teenagers at a police station. Following an internal investigation, the regional police commander and deputy commander were dismissed. In November 2008 the country's human rights ombudsman issued a formal statement of concern to the chief of the National Police about the excessive use of force by police, such as beatings that resulted in injuries, and unauthorized arrest in some cases. The ombudsman requested information on a plan to address the problem; however, at year's end police had not responded. The law on police misconduct outlines disciplinary actions, which include reprimands, demotion in rank, and dismissal. Although the number of officers disciplined by internal police proceedings has decreased in recent years, the number of misconduct investigations has increased due to procedures that require all misconduct complaints be reviewed by the police internal affairs office. For example, according to the most recent statistics available, in 2008, 6,361 cases of police misconduct were reviewed. Of that number, 620 officers were disciplined, including 27 who were dismissed. In 2007 authorities investigated 6,184 cases of misconduct; 761 officers were disciplined, including 77 who were dismissed. On November 27, the president signed into law a revision to the criminal code allowing for forced chemical castration of convicted pedophiles. Under the law, which will take effect June 2010, courts will decide whether the offender should undergo such treatment six months before an expected parole. In the case of the rape of a person under 15 years of age, chemical castration will be obligatory. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions remained poor and did not meet international standards. Overcrowding eased somewhat during the year, but inadequate medical treatment continued to be a problem. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers. During the year the Central Prison Authority reported 40 suicides committed in prison as compared with 39 prison suicides in 2008. At year's end, 83,625 persons were held in prisons and detention facilities, according to government statistics. Total capacity compared to the previous year increased by approximately 4,602 and was estimated at 87,714 persons, leaving prison populations at 95 percent of capacity. As of November 2,729 inmates were women, constituting approximately 3 percent of the prison population. Women prisoners were either held in dedicated detention facilities or in joint facilities where they were separated by gender. While juveniles were generally separated from adults, in exceptional cases the law allows juveniles and adults to be housed together in prisons and detention centers. Juveniles (17- to 21- year-olds) accused of serious crimes were usually sent to pretrial detention. Individuals charged with crimes were often held in prisons pending trial, but in separate areas. Conditions for pretrial detainees were generally similar to those for prisoners but, on occasion, were notably worse due to greater overcrowding and poorer facilities. Under the country's criminal code, the minimum cell size is three square meters (32 square feet); however, in practice this standard was often not met. According to the criminal code, prison directors may place prisoners for a limited time in cells smaller than 32 square feet per person. In practice, however, prisoners generally remained in small cells for the duration of their sentence. At year's end 2,185 detainees were in cells smaller than the legally mandated minimum, according to government statistics. In May 2008 the Constitutional Court ruled that a provision in the criminal code, which allows the Justice Ministry (MOJ) to keep prisoners in overcrowded cells for unlimited periods of time, is unconstitutional and amounts to cruel and degrading treatment. On December 6, a new provision took effect that provides mechanisms to prevent prison overcrowding, including deferring sentences if the total number of prisoners would exceed prison capacity. In an effort to meet this requirement, prison officials converted many common areas, such as activity rooms and libraries, into cells. During the year the human rights ombudsman received 7,158 complaints, compared with 5,718 in 2008, mainly regarding poor prison conditions, such as inadequate medical care, abuse by prison authorities, inadequate living conditions, and violations of mail and visiting rights. The ombudsman partly attributed the increase in cases to a greater awareness among prisoners of the option to file a complaint and obtain a nonbinding opinion. The government allowed independent monitoring of prison conditions and detention centers on a regular basis by the human rights ombudsman. During the year the ombudsman visited 106 prison and detention facilities. Between November 26 and December 8, a delegation from the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) conducted its fourth periodic visit to the country. The CPT visited prison facilities, border guard detention centers, and police departments. The findings were not available at year's end. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The police force is a national law enforcement body with regional and municipal units overseen by the minister of interior. The government continued to take steps to address corruption within the 100,000-member police force by instituting harsher penalties and eliminating collection of cash penalties by police officers. Instead, penalties are now paid at post offices or via electronic funds transfers. The National Police's Internal Affairs Office investigated instances of corruption and serious criminal misconduct. There were no reports of arrests, trials, or other developments in connection with a major corruption investigation of senior officials for malfeasance in public tenders. In 2007 a total of 17 persons, including five senior employees at National Police headquarters, were charged in the case with abuse of power, failure to fulfill duties, and perjury. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--By law authorities must obtain a court warrant based on evidence to make an arrest, and authorities generally complied with the law in practice. Pretrial detention was a serious problem that contributed to overcrowding and deterioration of detention facilities. The law allows a 48-hour detention period before authorities must file charges and an additional 24 hours for the court to decide whether to order pretrial detention. Detainees must be informed promptly of the charges. There was a functioning bail system, and most detainees were released on bail. Detainees have the right to counsel; the government provides free counsel to the indigent. Defendants and detainees have the right to consult an attorney at any time. Detainees may be held in pretrial detention for up to three months and may appeal the legality of their arrest. A court may extend pretrial detention every six to 12 months, but the total time in detention may not exceed two years. However, in practice detention frequently extended beyond two years. In certain complex cases, the court may petition the Supreme Court for an extension beyond two years. As of November 30, according to the Central Prison Authority, there were 9,874 pretrial detainees, approximately the same number as in November 2008. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 47 violations by the country of Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the right to liberty and security). The ECHR included violations involving lengthy pretrial detentions in this category. On February 20, the Katowice appeals court ordered Marek Dochnal's release after almost four years in pretrial detention. The court required Dochnal to pay three million zloty ($1.1 million) in bail to secure his release. Dochnal was first arrested in 2004 on charges of bribing public officials; he remained in pretrial detention for more than three years during the investigation. In January 2008 a Warsaw court independently released Dochnal following notification by the ECHR that it had accepted Dochnal's case. His trial began in July 2008; however, Dochnal was rearrested a month later by the Internal Security Agency because authorities suspected he was a flight risk. In a 2007 report, the UN Committee against Torture expressed concern about the length of pretrial detention. It noted that the country's law does not provide a time limit for pretrial detention at the start of court proceedings. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice; however, the judiciary remained inefficient and lacked public confidence. Military courts, which are supervised by the minister of justice and the prosecutor general, have jurisdiction over crimes committed by members of the military while on duty. Defendants enjoy the same rights as civilians. The Supreme Court handles appeals of lower court decisions and ensures that laws are applied uniformly. The 15-member Constitutional Court is nominated and approved by the lower house of parliament. It reviews the constitutionality of laws, adjudicates disputes between government entities, and monitors the constitutionality of actions by political parties. The court system remained cumbersome, poorly administered, and inadequately staffed. Most notably there were more criminal judges than prosecutors in many districts. Court decisions frequently were not implemented. Although there was some progress reported on the computerization of the court system, a continuing backlog of cases and the high cost of legal action deterred many citizens from using the justice system. In 2007 a system of ``24-hour courts'' was implemented to expedite trials for minor offenses and petty crimes. Under the system the accused must be tried within 72 hours of arrest. Police and prosecutors have 48 hours to collect evidence and file a case; courts must issue a decision within 24 hours. However, the system was considered costly and ineffective. Trial Procedures.--Defendants, who must be present during trial, enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are usually public; however, the courts reserve the right to close a trial in some circumstances, including divorce proceedings, cases involving state secrets, or cases with content that may offend public morality. The law provides for juries, usually composed of two or three individuals appointed by local officials. Cases are tried in regional and provincial courts by a panel composed of a judge and two lay assessors. Defendants are allowed to consult an attorney, may confront and question witnesses, have access to government-held evidence, and may present evidence and witnesses. Prosecutors can grant witnesses anonymity if they express fear of retribution from defendants. After a court issues a verdict, a defendant has seven days to request a written statement of the judgment; courts must respond within seven days. A defendant has the right to appeal a verdict within 14 days of the response. A two-level appeal process is available in most civil and criminal matters. Individuals continued to file complaints against the government with the ECHR regarding trial delays, the right to a fair trial, and the lack of due process. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 72 violations by the country of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights; nine involving the right to a fair trial and 63 involving length of proceedings. In one of the decisions, the ECHR awarded 7,000 euro ($10,080) in compensation for a divorce case that local courts took 19 years to resolve. In 2007 the Constitutional Court declared many provisions of the 1997 ``lustration'' (vetting) law unconstitutional, which limited its scope but still allowed researchers and journalists to review results of past vetting and investigations. The law is intended to expose officials and individuals now serving in positions of public trust who may have collaborated with Communist-era secret police. Under the law the National Institute of Public Remembrance could vet an estimated 700,000 persons. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The judiciary system is generally independent and impartial in civil cases, and there is access to courts to bring lawsuits seeking damages for or cessation of human rights violations. The constitution and law provide for the sovereignty of and public access to the judiciary. However, implementation of court orders, particularly payment of damages, remained slow, cumbersome, and ineffective. Court decisions are poorly enforced. Recent changes to civil procedures place speed and efficiency ahead of individual rights, and the limited number of attorneys makes it expensive to exercise the right to legal counsel. On November 30, the justice ministry created a Human Rights Department with the primary objective of creating an effective and comprehensive system to assist crime victims. The department will also respond to identified cases of human rights violations, including lengthy trials, excessive use of pretrial detention, and prison overcrowding. Property Restitution.--The law provides for restitution of communal property seized during the Communist and Nazi eras. However, there is no comprehensive law on returning or compensating for privately held real property confiscated during these periods. Despite the lack of specific legislation, some illegally nationalized private property has been restored. Between 2001 and the first eight months of the year, approximately 471 million zloty ($165 million) was paid in compensation for illegally nationalized private property. Compensation from the State Treasury Reprivatization Fund was distributed to 2,068 individuals and 43 businesses. Compensation payments were also made to persons who lost private property as a result of state persecution. Pursuant to a 2005 law concerning properties lost because of border changes after World War II, the government continued to pay compensation on 20 percent of the value of such property. As of November the state treasury paid cumulative compensation in 23,266 cases of approximately 1 billion zloty ($351 million). According to the government, the 2005 law could affect approximately 80,000 claimants for property that is now located in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine. The law also requires the state treasury to create registers of all claimants who have the right to compensation. The deadline for submitting applications for claims was December 2008. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions; however, the government did not always respect these prohibitions in practice. Controversy continued over the Internal Security Agency's installation of scanning and handwriting analysis equipment at mail- sorting facilities. The equipment, which was installed in Poznan, screens all incoming and outgoing mail and reports results to the security agency. On May 5, the General Inspector for the Protection of Personal Data released the results of an inquiry into the controversy, concluding that the Polish Postal Service's actions did not contravene its responsibility to safeguard personal information. In December 2008 the head of Internal Security Agency defended the program, stating it obtained information legally and only from selected persons of interest. The law allows electronic surveillance for crime prevention and investigations. However, there was neither independent judicial review of surveillance activities nor any control over the use of information obtained by monitoring private communications. A number of government agencies had access to wiretap information. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 17 violations by the country of the right to respect private and family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In one case the ECHR awarded 6,000 euro ($8,640) in compensation to a person who was placed under parole for almost 12 years, to include appearing at a police station once a week. The court ruled that the police supervision infringed on the individual's private and family life. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, in practice there were laws that restricted these freedoms. Since the collapse of the Communist government in 1989, the government and courts have either upheld or instituted laws that criminalize defamation by individuals and the media, and limit editorial independence. Individuals could not publicly criticize government officials without risk of reprisal; public criticism of government policies and private criticism of the government was not restricted. Defamation is a criminal offense punishable by up to two years' imprisonment and includes publicly insulting, defaming, or libeling members of parliament, government ministers, and other public officials. For publicly insulting the president, the maximum sentence is three years' imprisonment. Maximum penalties were rarely applied; persons found guilty of defamation were generally only fined. The law also prohibits hate speech, including dissemination of anti-Semitic literature. On November 27, the president signed a revision to the criminal code lowering the penalties for defamation. Under the revised law, which will take effect in June 2010, defamation will carry a maximum penalty of one-year imprisonment. On August 6, the Warsaw District Court ordered an investigation regarding whether the deputy speaker of the Sejm, Stefan Niesiolowski, should be charged for publicly insulting the president. In March Niesiolowski allegedly called the president a ``small man with a complex.'' On August 26, Krakow police detained a man for insulting the president by singing an offensive song in public. Although charges were not filed, police placed the man in ``dozor policyjny,'' a type of pretrial parole in which persons are required to report regularly to local police, provide notification of any address changes, and not travel outside of a certain area. Dozor policyjny is sometimes used instead of pretrial detention when a criminal investigation is ongoing. On September 15, the Lublin Regional Court overturned the prosecutor's decision not to pursue charges against Sejm deputy Janusz Palikot, who in his Internet blog referred to the president as a ``dwarf.'' The court ruling was in response to the president's July 16 appeal of the prosecutor's decision. The law also prohibits hate speech, including dissemination of anti-Semitic literature and the public promotion of fascist or other totalitarian systems. On November 27, the president signed into law a revision to the criminal code adding communist systems to the prohibited list. Independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views. Private television, satellite, and cable subscription services were available across most of the country. Electronic media operated on frequencies selected by the Ministry of Communications and auctioned by KRRiTV, the National Radio and Television Broadcasting Council, a five- member body appointed by the National Assembly and the president. The KRRiTV, which is responsible for protecting freedom of speech, has broad power to monitor and regulate programming, allocate broadcasting frequencies and licenses, apportion subscription revenues to public media, and impose financial penalties on broadcasters. While council members are required to suspend their membership in political parties or public associations, critics asserted that the council continued to be politicized. The president selects two members, the Sejm two members, and the Senate selects one member. The Catholic nationalist radio station Radio Maryja was designated a ``public broadcaster'' and is exempt from paying licensing fees of up to 1.4 million zloty ($491,000). The station, founded in 1991, featured conservative Catholic call-in shows that occasionally have included anti-Semitic and racist statements. Radio Maryja was operated by a prominent priest, Father Tadeusz Rydzyk, on behalf of the Polish province of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer. Rydzyk also operated a television channel and a cell phone network, among other foundations and projects on behalf of the Redemptorists. Content restrictions on the media include a law that prohibits the promotion of activities that are against government policy, morality, or the common good and requires that all broadcasts ``respect the religious feelings of the audiences and, in particular, respect the Christian system of values.'' The government enforced this provision in practice, levying fines on programs deemed offensive. The press code also places some limits on editorial independence, for example, by specifying that journalists must verify quotes and statements with the person who made them before publication. On August 26, the Warsaw Economic Court overturned KRRiTV's April 2008 decision to fine private television station TVN 471,000 zloty ($165,000) for broadcasting a talk show during which participants stuck a national flag into dog excrement. The court ruled that the talk show did not intend to promote the desecration of the national flag, but rather to speak out against public littering. On June 18, the Bielsko Biala District Court ordered Krzysztof Oremus, former editor in chief of local newspaper Super-Nowa, to apologize to Mayor Jacek Krywult for publishing his photo alongside a photo of the president of Belarus, thus suggesting a similarity in Krywult's manner of governing. The court also ordered Oremus to pay a 5,000 zloty ($1,750) fine to the Polish Red Cross. On June 30, the Zielona Gora district court upheld a lower court decision to fine former Gazeta Wyborcza journalist, Robert Rewinski, for his 2004 article accusing a local businessman of collusion with the state-owned Environment Protection Fund. The court ordered Rewinski to pay a 3,000 zloty ($1,050) fine and a donation of 1,000 zloty ($350) to the Polish Red Cross. On July 16, the ECHR ruled the country violated the right to freedom of expression (Article 10) of a former reporter at public television station TVP. In 1999 Helena Wojtas-Kaleta received an official reprimand for publicly criticizing TVP's decision to eliminate certain cultural programs from its broadcasting. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 49 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. Under the criminal code, offending religious sentiment through public speech is punishable by a fine or a prison term of up to three years. More than 94 percent of the population was Roman Catholic. Citizens have the right to sue the government for constitutional violations of religious freedom and legal protections cover discrimination or persecution of religious freedom. Religious education classes were taught in public schools. Parents could request instruction in any registered religion, including Protestantism, Orthodox Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Children may choose between religious instruction and ethics. Catholic Church representatives were included on a commission that determined whether books were acceptable for school use. On December 2, the Constitutional Court ruled that an education ministry directive, which stated that grades for religious education should be included in students' overall grade point averages, did not violate the constitution. The directive was challenged in 2007 as unconstitutional and discriminatory against students who do not take religious instruction. The government continued to work with local and international religious groups to address property claims and other sensitive issues stemming from persecution and confiscation during World War II and the Communist era. There are five commissions, one each for the Catholic Church, Jewish community, Lutheran Church, and Orthodox Church--plus one for all other denominations. They are supervised by the interior minister and oversee religious property claims. Of the approximately 10,000 claims filed for restitution of communal religious property, more than 5,200 had been resolved and more than 1,200 properties had been returned by year's end. However, concerns remained with the slow pace of Jewish communal property restitution. As of August 31, a total of 1,483 of the 3,063 claims filed by the Catholic Church were settled between the church and the party in possession of the property, which was primarily the national or local government. The deadline for filing claims ended in 1992. There were 5,504 property claims submitted by the Jewish community. As of August 31, the commission either partially or entirely concluded 1,722 cases. The deadline for filing claims under a 1997 law ended in 2002. The Lutheran Church filed claims for 1,200 properties. As of September 18, 905 cases were closed. The deadline for filing claims ended in 1996. As of August 31, the Orthodox Church filed 472 claims with its commission. Of these cases 354 were closed. The deadline for filing claims ended in 2006. The fifth property commission, for claims by all other denominations, received 168 claims. As of August 31, a total of 68 cases had been closed. The deadline for filing a claim ended in 2006. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of occasional, nonviolent anti-Semitic incidents and occasional desecrations of Jewish and Roman Catholic cemeteries. According to the Union of Jewish Communities, the Jewish community was estimated at 20,000 persons, including 4,000 registered members. The government publicly criticized anti-Semitic acts, prosecuted offenders, and supported tolerance education. The country has made considerable progress in relations with its Jewish communities. The government consistently supported efforts to promote interfaith dialogue and tolerance, as well as initiatives to combat anti-Semitism. Members of marginal populist and nationalist parties and organizations, however, continued to make some extremist, intolerant, and anti-Semitic statements. On February 27, the Media Ethics Council urged Radio Maryja to take all necessary steps to prevent the broadcast of anti-Semitic comments. On January 31, former Warsaw University professor Bogulsaw Wolniewicz said on air that he can no longer ``tolerate the brazen promotion of Jewish perspectives and culture in Poland.'' The council stated that using the right to freedom of speech to permit anti-Semitic comments, without any disclaimer by Radio Maryja, violated the law and basic ethical norms. On December 15, the Warsaw prosecutor's office indicted three Polish administrators of Red Watch for promoting a totalitarian regime, and inciting hatred and violence. The charges stem from a Web site maintained by the anti-Semitic and homophobic Blood and Honor group. The Web site published names and personal information of persons from minority groups, human rights NGOs, and local media, resulting in threats and harassment to at least 385 persons. In February 2008, Leszek Bubel, a self-proclaimed anti-Semite and leader of a far-right political party, posted a video on a popular Internet site in which he boasted about his anti-Semitism and urged Jews to leave the country. Several criminal and civil cases against Bubel for inciting hatred and disseminating anti-Semitic literature have been resolved in courts in Lublin, Wrzenia, and Warsaw. Another case begun in May 2008 in Bialystok was ongoing. Bubel has previously served six months in jail for inciting racial hostility and defaming Jews. On March 5, the Education Ministry in cooperation with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) introduced a curriculum for middle school students aimed at combating anti-Semitism. In particular the materials promoted tolerance by addressing problems of stereotypes and prejudice. On June 30, construction began in Warsaw of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews; the joint public-private initiative is scheduled to be completed in 2012. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The law on protecting aliens permits denial of refugee status based on safe country of origin or safe country of transit, providing the applicant is a citizen or a permanent resident of that country; however, the law includes provisions to consider the protection needs of individuals with exceptional cases. In practice the government provided protection against expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year the government granted refugee status or asylum to 133 persons. The government denied refugee status in 4,056 cases. Persons granted asylum or refugee status had the right to work, to receive social assistance and education, and to have access to a state integration program for 12 months. The program provides participants with contacts in the local community, assistance with accommodations, and help with job searches. Refugees receive monetary assistance for living expenses and language training and are registered in the national health-care system. However, according to Amnesty International, asylum seekers and recognized refugees continued to face difficulties finding jobs and obtaining health care due in part to poor integration program conditions. Persons with temporary status also had the right to work, received social assistance, and participated in the government's integration programs. There were occasional reports of problems in the country's 19 refugee detention centers, which were located in the Warsaw, Bialystok, and Lublin areas and had a capacity of 4,000 persons. Refugees experienced language and cultural barriers; they had limited access to higher education. There was discrimination against refugee children by their peers. The government provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees, and it provided temporary protection to 2,458 persons during the year, compared with 1,507 persons in 2008. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Both the October 2007 preterm parliamentary elections and the 2005 presidential election were considered free and fair. Multiple candidates from various political parties freely declared their candidacy to stand for election and had access to the media. OSCE election observers noted a lack of independent oversight of public broadcast media, which allowed for an imbalance in coverage of candidates. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that observers considered to be free and fair. Eleven of the 50 national members elected were women. There were 94 women in the 460-seat Sejm and eight women in the 100-seat Senat. There were five women in the 20-member Council of Ministers. An additional 24 women held ministerial-level positions. There was one minority member in the Sejm (representing the German minority in Silesia) and no minorities in the upper house. There were no minorities in the cabinet. The law exempts ethnic minority parties from the requirement to win 5 percent of the vote nationwide to qualify for seats in individual districts. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement these laws effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices. According to World Bank governance indicators for 2008, corruption was a problem in the country. There was a widespread public perception of corruption throughout the government. Citizens continued to believe that political parties and members of the legislative branch, the health care system, and the judiciary were the most corrupt. On March 11, the Dziennik newspaper alleged that Deputy Prime Minister and Economy Minister Waldemar Pawlak had engaged in a conflict of interest for failing to resign as head of the Volunteer Fire Brigade and for steering contracts to friends and family without a competitive bid process. Pawlak denied any wrongdoing; he noted the independent Supreme Chamber of Audits cleared the contracts in question during an audit. On March 17, Prime Minister Tusk expelled Senator Tomasz Misiak from the Civic Platform party in response to allegations that Misiak's private company profited from the passage of a new law dealing with the country's shipyards. Misiak chaired the committee that passed the legislation. After the legislation entered into force, Misiak's company won a 48 million zloty ($17 million) contract, without a tender, to provide job retraining for recently fired shipyard workers. On September 8, the Internal Security Agency arrested Sylwester Rypinski, the president of the state-owned Social Insurance Agency, and three other employees on corruption charges. If convicted Rypinski would face up to 10 years' imprisonment. On October 1, the national daily Rzeczpospolita published phone transcripts of conversations between high-level politicians and businessmen who were allegedly lobbying for a revision of a draft law on gambling. The publication led to a major government reshuffling in which six minister-level officials resigned, including sports minister, Miroslaw Drzewiecki. The chairman of the ruling party's parliamentary caucus, Zbigniew Chlebowski, also resigned. The Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) obtained the transcripts through wiretaps. On November 5, the Sejm established a special committee to investigate alleged corruption in connection with the so-called ``gamble-gate'' scandal. The CBA has broad powers to audit the financial holdings of public officials and to fight corruption in public procurement. It also is authorized to conduct searches and secret videotaping, wiretap telephone conversations, and make arrests. During the year the CBA continued to examine numerous high-profile and controversial investigations begun earlier. For example, on April 1, the Poznan District Court began the trial of billionaire Henryk Stoklosa on 21 charges in connection with a major finance ministry corruption case. Three ministry officials were arrested in 2006 as part of the CBA investigation. According to the prosecutor, the officials canceled fiscal liabilities and issued tax exemptions over a 10-year period in exchange for bribes from organized criminals and businessmen. Stoklosa was also charged with bribing a Poznan judge. He has been held in pretrial detention since 2007 and could face up to 10 years' imprisonment. On October 5, the Warsaw District Court began the trial of Beata Sawicka, a former member of parliament and the mayor of Hel, on corruption charges related to a real estate scandal. The CBA accused Sawicka of corruption for accepting a bribe to influence a public tender in Hel in the run up to the 2007 parliamentary elections. In her defense Sawicka said she was seduced and manipulated into accepting the bribe by a CBA officer. In a related development, in October 2008 a Warsaw court ordered the prosecution to investigate the CBA's involvement in the case. On August 18, the Warsaw Circuit Court sentenced one person to 30 months' imprisonment for attempting to bribe former agricultural minister and deputy prime minister Andrzej Lepper. A second person in the case was fined. The two were detained in 2007 by the CBA based on reports that they had connections with persons in the agriculture ministry who could issue favorable land-use decisions in exchange for a bribe of three million zloty ($1.1 million). Lepper was subsequently dismissed as minister. The law provides for public access to government information; in practice the government generally provided access to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Government refusals of requests for information must be based on exceptions provided in the law related to government secrets, personal privacy restrictions, and proprietary business data. Refusals may be appealed. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. During the year, UN Special Rapporteurs on Health Issues and Trafficking in Persons visited the country and reported their initial findings (see section 6). The country's human rights ombudsman presents an annual report to the Sejm on the state of human rights and civic freedom in the country. The ombudsman generally had adequate resources, although in 2008 the office requested more funding to deal with increased responsibilities. The ombudsman enjoyed the government's cooperation and was considered effective. During the first nine months of the year, the human rights ombudsman reported that 49,979 cases were filed with the office, an increase of 2,829 from the same period in 2008. The office of the ombudsman is independent; however, the ombudsman is selected by the parliament and, at times, was criticized by the media for being influenced by party politics. Women and minority groups criticized the incumbent for making controversial statements about feminists. Both chambers of parliament have committees on human rights and the rule of law. The committees serve a primarily legislative function and comprise representatives from multiple political parties. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal and punishable by up to 12 years in prison. According to National Police statistics, during the first six months of the year, there were 754 reported cases of rape, compared with 764 during the same period in 2008. However, NGOs estimated that the actual number of rapes was much higher because women often were unwilling to report rape due to social stigma. During the same period, police forwarded 568 rape cases to prosecutors and 67 to family court (for underage offenders) for indictment. Domestic violence against women continued to be a serious problem. The number of reported cases was attributed to heightened police awareness, particularly in urban areas, as a result of media campaigns and NGO efforts. Under the law a person convicted of domestic violence may be sentenced to a maximum of five years in prison; however, most convictions resulted in suspended sentences. The law provides for restraining orders on spouses to protect against abuse, but police do not have the authority to issue immediate restraining orders at the scene. During the first six months of the year, police identified 10,302 domestic violence offenses compared with 10,506 during the same period in 2008. Of the cases identified thus far, 9,427 were forwarded for prosecution. In 2008 police reported that officers conducted 86,455 interventions related to domestic violence. According to the justice ministry, in 2008 there were 15,127 domestic violence convictions. At year's end according to prison authorities, 4,383 individuals were serving prison sentences for domestic violence crimes. Women's organizations believed the number of women affected by domestic abuse was underreported, particularly in small towns and villages. The NGO Women's Rights Center reported that police were occasionally reluctant to intervene in domestic violence incidents if the perpetrator was a member of the police or if victims were unwilling to cooperate. NGO-operated centers for domestic violence victims provided counseling for offenders and training for personnel who worked with victims. The government also provided victims and families with legal and psychological assistance and operated 184 crisis centers and 16 shelters for pregnant women and mothers with small children. In addition, local governments operated 36 specialized centers funded by the central government for victims of domestic violence. The centers provided social, medical, psychological, and legal assistance to victims and ``corrective educational'' programs for abusers. In 2008, the last year for which statistics were available, the government allocated approximately 12.7 million zloty ($4.5 million) for the centers' operating costs. The government also spent 3.2 million zloty ($1.1 million) during the year on public awareness programs to counteract domestic violence, which were implemented by local NGOs and governments. In 2008 the total amount allocated to implement the National Program for Combating Domestic Violence was 20.5 million zloty ($7.2 million), which included funding for specialized centers; education and correction programs for offenders; and training for social workers, police officers, and specialists who are the first contact for victims of domestic violence. On April 16, the newly formed Council for Victims of Crime held its first meeting. The council was established as an advisory body on proposed policy changes and legislative initiatives to support victims. Prostitution is legal, but pimping, forced prostitution, and prostitution of minors are prohibited. According to police there were an estimated 3,300 prostitutes in the country; however, NGOs estimated that there were 18,000 to 20,000 women involved in all aspects of the sex industry. Women were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. The law prohibits sexual harassment. Under the criminal code, persons convicted of sexual harassment may be sentenced to up to three years in prison. The labor code defines sexual harassment as discriminatory behavior in the workplace that violates an employee's dignity, including physical, verbal, and nonverbal acts. The NGO Center for Women's Rights stated that sexual harassment was a serious and underreported problem. Many victims do not report abuse or withdraw harassment claims in the course of police investigations out of shame or fear of losing their job. However, social awareness of the problem continued to increase due in part to reporting by the media. During the first six months of the year, police reported 58 cases of sexual harassment, compared with 143 cases during 2008. During the year legal proceedings continued against two former members of parliament charged with extorting sex from female employees. On December 31, the Lodz Appeals Court extended until March 31, 2010, the pretrial detention of former Samoobrona party member Stanislaw Lyzwinski. He has been in detention since 2007. Lyzwinski was also charged with rape, repeatedly forcing four women to have sex, abetting a kidnapping, and extortion. If convicted of all charges, he could be sentenced to up to 18 years in prison. Andrzej Lepper, another Samoobrona member and former deputy prime minister and agricultural minister, was also charged with extorting sex from a female party worker and with forcing another woman to have sex. Lepper was free on bail. On January 13, an appeals court upheld the 28-month jail sentence for Jacek Popecki for inducing an employee to have an abortion. Popecki was a former assistant to Lyzwinski and Lepper. On December 28, the Olsztyn Prosecutor's Office suspended its investigation of former mayor Czeslaw Malkowski pending a psychological analysis. In March 2008 Malkowski was charged with sexual harassment of two female employees and the rape of a third pregnant employee. He was released from pretrial detention in September 2008. The government generally recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. However, some restrictions exist. For example, while there were no restrictions on the right to obtain contraceptives, social and economic factors limited their use, according to a local NGO, the Federation for Women and Family Planning. Prescription contraceptives are not included on the government list of subsidized medicines, which makes the cost prohibitive relative to average household income. The law does not permit voluntary sterilization. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health, although counseling on the use of contraceptives is not integrated in the primary healthcare system. The government provided free childbirth services, and there were sufficient doctors available to provide this service. Women also used nurses and midwives for prenatal and postnatal care unless the mother or child suffered more serious health complications. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization in 2005, there were approximately eight maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. On May 11, Anand Grover, the UN special rapporteur on health issues, presented preliminary findings following a six-day visit to the country to assess sexual and reproductive health rights. Among his findings he cited a serious impediment to women's access to certain reproductive health services, such as contraception and prenatal testing. Grover also called for providing unbiased sexual education and better funding for contraceptives. The constitution provides for equal rights for men and women in family law, property law, and in the judicial system; however, in practice there were few laws to implement this provision. Women held lower-level positions and frequently were paid less than men for equivalent work, were fired more readily, and were less likely to be promoted. On February 9, 32 NGOs in the country that promote women's rights sent a complaint to the European Commission noting a lack of government action to combat discrimination against women. On May 14, the European Commission referred the country to the EU Court of Justice for not codifying European Community rules prohibiting gender discrimination in access to and supply of goods and services. In April the independent research company wynagrodzenia.pl published a survey reporting a large discrepancy in the average starting salaries of men and women university graduates. Women's starting salaries were on average approximately 30 percent lower than men's salaries in technology and economic professions and up to 60 percent lower in artistic professions. On August 13, the private Center for Economic Information reported that the number of women working in senior positions in small to medium-sized businesses had doubled over the preceding three years. Women were on the boards of approximately 70,000 companies, representing 30 percent of all companies in the country. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy is responsible for combating gender discrimination, incorporating gender equality into governmental policy, and monitoring implementation of government programs to promote gender equality. The ministry continued to implement projects to combat gender discrimination in the workplace, including an EU program that involved local NGOs to fight discrimination based on gender, race, religion, disability, age, or sexual orientation. In March 2008 the prime minister appointed a senior government official for gender equality with the rank of minister. However, some women's rights groups complained that the position was neither sufficiently resourced nor sufficiently independent from government influence to fulfill its mandate. In its November 20 report, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressed concern that despite the existence of a minister-level position for equal treatment, discrimination continued against women and minorities, including ethnic minorities, persons with disabilities, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons. The report criticized a draft bill to implement certain EU directives in the area of equal treatment as not protecting against all forms of discrimination. Children.--Citizenship is acquired by birth when at least one parent is a citizen, regardless of where the birth took place (jus sanguinis). Citizenship is also granted to children born, or found, on the territory of the country from parents of unknown origin. The government has in place a system of universal birth registration, implemented immediately after birth. Incidents of child abuse were reported; however, convictions for abuse were rare. The law prohibits violence against children and provides for prison sentences ranging from three months to five years. A government ombudsman for children's rights issued periodic reports on problems affecting children, such as pedophilia on the Internet, improving access to public schools for children with disabilities, and providing better medical care for children with chronic diseases. The ombudsman's office also operated a 24-hour hotline for abused children. In 2008, the last year for which statistics were available, the ombudsman received 10,578 complaints, an increase of 2,597 in comparison with 2007. Of that number 26 percent referred to the right to be brought up in a family, 15 percent to protection against abuse and exploitation, 12.5 percent to the right to education, and 7 percent to the right to adequate social conditions. In February the Warsaw-based Helsinki Human Rights Foundation published a report which asserted that child prostitution was a problem although its extent was difficult to measure due to a lack of data. According to the government and the Nobody's Children Foundation, a leading NGO dealing with trafficking in children, child sex tourism was not significant in the country, although trafficking in children for sexual exploitation remained a problem. The law prohibits sexual intercourse with minors less than 15 years of age. The penalty for a conviction of statutory rape ranges from two to 12 years imprisonment. Child pornography is also prohibited by law. The production, possession, storage, or importation of child pornography results in a sentence of three months to 10 years imprisonment. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Justice (MOJ), 742 persons were convicted of sexual intercourse with persons under 15 years of age and 26 persons were convicted of with the involvement of a minor. During the year police conducted seven large, nationwide operations against child pornography and pedophiles, which led to the arrest of 379 persons and confiscation of computers and pornographic materials. In 2008 police conducted similar operations that led to the arrest of 330 persons. Charges were filed against 84 persons. However, no reports were available on the outcome of the charges filed. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were numerous reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, or within the country. The country was a source, transit, and destination country for victims of trafficking in persons, primarily women and girls for sexual exploitation. There were reports that the country was increasingly becoming a destination country for forced labor. Internal trafficking for sexual exploitation also occurred. Persons were trafficked to and through the country, primarily from Ukraine, Belarus, Romania, Bulgaria, and Moldova. Ukraine continued to be the largest source of persons trafficked through the country, with Belarus also serving as a substantial source. There were reports of small numbers of Filipinos, Bangladeshis, Djiboutians, Ugandans, Chinese, and Mongolians being trafficked to, within, and through the country. Citizens and foreigners were trafficked to other EU countries, particularly to Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and Sweden. NGOs noted a trend towards a higher percentage of victims being trafficked for labor in agriculture and other economic sectors. On May 29, following a five-day visit to the country, Joy Ezeilo, the UN special rapporteur on trafficking in persons stated that human trafficking had increased in the country since it joined the EU's Schengen zone in 2007. The special rapporteur noted that the government had made progress to combat human trafficking. However, she also said that the lack of a clear legal definition of trafficking and judicial inefficiencies continued to hamper the government's efforts. The special rapporteur criticized the fact that courts do not award trafficking victims compensation for the loss of earnings and personal suffering. Traffickers continued to target young, unemployed, and poorly paid women and men, particularly those with weak family ties and support networks. Traffickers attracted victims with false promises of lucrative jobs, arranged marriages, fraud, and coercion. In some cases traffickers threatened victims with violence or legal prosecution, counting on the victims' ignorance of their rights. Authorities believed that large, organized crime groups and individuals controlled the trafficking business, and victims were frequently trafficked by nationals of their own country, who collected a fee to allow passage to or through the country. According to arrest statistics, approximately 25 percent of traffickers were noncitizens. Authorities also believed that employment and talent agencies were sometimes used as fronts for trafficking operations. Penalties for trafficking in persons range from three to 15 years' imprisonment. While prostitution is not criminalized, pimping, recruiting, or luring persons into prostitution carry penalties of up to 10 years in prison. Individuals convicted of trafficking in children and luring women into prostitution abroad received the most severe sentences. Traffickers could also be prosecuted under laws criminalizing statutory rape and forced prostitution. While the criminal code prohibits trafficking, it lacks a clear legal definition of trafficking, which limits effective prosecutions. During the first six months of the year, police identified 32 cases of human trafficking and forwarded 31 cases to prosecutors for indictment. In 2008 according to final MOJ statistics, 53 traffickers were convicted for forced prostitution and trafficking, compared with 42 convictions in 2007. In January the Lublin prosecutor's office suspended the investigation into the 2007 case of a female trafficking victim, who was nearly deported despite her critical medical condition. The case became public following media reports that border guards had detained a Nigerian woman who was a suspected trafficking victim. Authorities subsequently granted the woman status as a trafficking victim and accepted her into the Interior Ministry's (MOI) witness protection program. In February 2008 an Italian court sentenced 16 Poles to serve sentences of from four to 10 years in prison for recruiting more than 300 Poles to work in agricultural camps in southern Italy under forced labor conditions. In a parallel case, a court in Krakow continued a trial begun in 2007 of 23 persons who were allegedly involved in trafficking persons to labor camps in Italy. The workers were forced to work up to 15 hours a day for one euro ($1.44) per hour, slept on the ground, and were watched by armed guards. The Ministries of Interior and Justice have primary responsibility for antitrafficking efforts; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs coordinated trafficking programs with foreign governments and international organizations. The National Police have 17 regional teams to combat trafficking in persons and child pornography. There continued to be unconfirmed reports that low-ranking local police took bribes to ignore trafficking activity. Trafficking victims often did not ask officials for help from fear that border guards and police would deport them. There were concerns that border guards unwittingly deported some unidentified trafficking victims. This action prevented the government from providing them with assistance or benefiting from their cooperation as potential witnesses. NGOs attributed this to a lack of knowledge and failure of police and border guards to adhere to national guidelines on how to identify and approach suspected trafficking victims. Victims were often prosecuted for carrying false travel documents, working illegally, and violating the terms of their visas. In some cases deported victims were met at the border or elsewhere in their country of origin by their traffickers, who provided them with new travel documents and returned them to the country. The MOI funded NGOs to conduct regional training on identification of trafficking victims and victim assistance in all provinces; several hundred law enforcement officials were trained in trafficking issues by the NGOs La Strada and the Nobody's Children Foundation and also by the ministry. During the year the government allocated approximately 150,000 zloty ($52,630) for victim assistance and 100,000 zloty ($35,090) to implement the National Antitrafficking Action Plan. The government also allocated an additional 700,000 zloty ($245,600) to establish and operate the National Intervention and Consultation Center for Victims of Trafficking. The center, which began operation in April, included a shelter, a 24-hour hotline, and crisis intervention programs. The center also advised government authorities working with trafficking victims, and conducted preventive activities. The government worked extensively with antitrafficking NGOs, such as La Strada. While the government provided space and funds for NGOs to operate shelters for trafficking victims, the number of shelters remained inadequate, and NGOs frequently resorted to temporary arrangements to provide medical, psychological, and legal assistance to victims. NGOs conducted trafficking training courses at police and border guard academies; provided counseling for victims and their families; developed training and prevention materials; and conducted public awareness campaigns on trafficking dangers. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care or the provision of other state services. The government effectively enforced these provisions; however, there were reports of some societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The law states that buildings should be accessible for persons with disabilities, and at least three laws require retrofitting of existing buildings to provide accessibility. Public buildings and transportation generally were accessible. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy is responsible for disability-related matters. During the year the government plenipotentiary for persons with disabilities organized training sessions for central and local government officials to encourage them to hire persons with disabilities. The state fund for rehabilitation of persons with disabilities continued a nationwide campaign encouraging companies to employ persons with disabilities. The fund granted money to NGOs to organize media campaigns on the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The constitution provides ethnic and national minorities the right to preserve their own language, customs, and culture. The law contains several provisions against hate crimes and incitement to violence based on ethnic origin; however, government enforcement efforts were sometimes ineffective. There were isolated incidents of racially motivated violence and verbal and physical abuse directed at Roma and persons of African, Asian, or Arab descent. The Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities also continued to experience petty harassment and discrimination. On September 25, a man attacked two Chechen women in the town of Lomza. The man beat the women and sprayed them with a chemical while shouting racial epithets. Earlier, Lech Kolakowski, a member of parliament from the Law and Justice party, had called for a Lomza refugee center, which housed Chechen and other refugees, to be closed. At year's end police had made no arrests in the case. On October 12, the Opole District Court banned the Brzeg branch of the National Radical Camp, a neo-Nazi organization, from operating determining that its ideology and behavior promoted racial hatred. This was the first neo-Nazi group banned in the country. The decision stemmed from the December 2008 suspended sentencing of three members of the National-Radical Camp for making Nazi gestures during the group's gatherings in 2006 and 2007. In May 2008 the National-Radical Camp and a neopagan organization, Zadruga, disturbed the celebration of the 87th anniversary of the Silesian uprising by making Nazi gestures, carrying flags with swastikas, and distributing anti-Semitic leaflets. On October 20, the Bialystok Appeals Court suspended the sentences of three skinheads convicted of drawing swastikas and racist slogans on apartment buildings and a Jewish cemetery in Bialystok in 2007. On January 30, a Bialystok lower court had sentenced the three to 12 to 20 months imprisonment. During the year there were periodic incidents of racist behavior. For example, in April the radical group Socio-National Option distributed leaflets on Wroclaw public transportation system conveying racist slogans. Passengers intervened and the leaflets were removed. On July 12, Father Tadeusz Rydzyk, who operates the Catholic nationalist radio station Radio Maryja, made a racial slur about an African missionary during a pilgrimage to Czestochowa. On August 20, following widespread criticism from government and Redemptorist officials, Rydzyk publicly apologized for the remark. On October 15, a court in Bialystok started the trial against four persons charged with physically and verbally assaulting a dark-skinned French citizen on April 30. On October 23, a court in Bialystok started another trial against three persons charged with physically and verbally assaulting a dark-skinned female student of Cuban origin on March 10 in a shopping mall. On November 11, several hundred members of the National-Radical Camp marched through Warsaw shouting neo-Nazi and anti-Semitic slogans, and using Nazi gestures. On November 16, police launched an investigation into the case. On January 21, the Sejm ethics committee reprimanded Artur Gorski, a member of parliament from the Law and Justice Party, for making racist remarks during a parliamentary hearing in November 2008. Gorski's remarks were widely criticized by government officials, NGOs, and the media. In December 2008 the ethics committee ordered Gorski to issue an official, on-the-record apology. However, he refused, saying that he had already apologized in a letter to the speaker of the Sejm. During the year there also were displays of racist behavior at sporting events. The Sports Ministry and the soccer union announced a number of projects underway to fight racism, including educational and awareness raising campaigns. In April 2008 the human rights ombudsman sent a letter to the president of the Polish Soccer Union expressing concern about racist and anti-Semitic incidents at soccer matches. He suggested assessing penalties and tolerance programs to educate soccer fans about cultural or racial differences. On July 21, a Gdansk court sentenced a soccer fan to six months' imprisonment and a fine for throwing bananas and shouting racial epithets at African soccer players in 2006. The fan's soccer team was also fined. On September 26, the Polish League of American Football suspended the Crew Wroclaw team president Marek Wyszkowski until the end of 2010 for making racist remarks to two football players of African descent. The league also imposed a 1,000 zloty ($350) fine and ordered Wyszkowski to make a public apology. On December 8, a Krakow court upheld a request by a deputy justice minister to the Krakow Prosecutor's Office to reopen the investigation into the case of racist and anti-Semitic fan behavior at a match in November 2008. During the match fans of the Cracovia team allegedly imitated monkey noises and shouted anti-Semitic slogans when African players came on the field. In June the prosecutor had suspended the investigation, deeming it a case of fan rivalry. Societal discrimination against Roma continued. There were reports that some local officials discriminated against Roma by not providing adequate social services. Romani leaders complained of widespread discrimination in employment, housing, banking, the justice system, the media, and education. In its November 20 report, the UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights expressed concern about continued widespread discrimination against Roma in the country in areas such as employment, education, land tenure, access to welfare benefits, housing, and health care. On September 9, an appeals court in Wroclaw upheld the conviction and sentencing of a streetcar driver for insulting and threatening a Romani man with violence on the Internet. The driver had used abusive language and said he would kill the man were he to visit Wroclaw. The government allocated approximately 10 million zloty ($3.5 million) annually to a special program for Roma that included educational and other projects to improve health and living conditions and reduce unemployment. The program also focused on civic education and provided grants for university and high school students. According to the Roma Association, more than 50 percent of Romani children did not attend public school out of fear that teachers would encourage assimilation and uproot them from their traditions. In 2008 according to the MOI, there were approximately 3,100 Roma under the age of 18 years living in the country. Of that number 2,700 (87 percent) were enrolled during the 2007-08 school year. The Roma Association stated that gaps in Romani children's education made it impossible for Roma to end their poverty. Approximately 90 percent of Roma were unemployed. A 2002 national census recorded approximately 12,700 Roma living in the country. According to the Ministry of Education, the number of segregated classes for Romani children has been substantially reduced. In August 2008 the news daily Dziennik reported that in six cities with a large Roma population, Romani children were taught in segregated classes, ostensibly because they did not speak fluent Polish. The education level in such classes was reportedly lower than in mainstream classes. Following the reports the education minister inspected all district offices with oversight of separate classes for Roma and ordered that Romani children be fully integrated with other children. On October 1, a separate class for Romani children was started in a Poznan preschool. The idea originated with a local Roma foundation to improve education for Romani children and to ease their transition to public schools. Opponents of the project asserted that any type of segregation of Romani children would be detrimental; however, proponents claimed that many Romani children did not feel comfortable attending integrated schools. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The constitution guarantees all persons the right to equal treatment and prohibits all forms of discrimination in the political, social, and economic spheres. There are no laws that criminalize sexual orientation or behavior. However, organizations representing LGBT persons reported that discrimination is common in schools, the workplace, hospitals, and clinics. For example, LGBT persons are sometimes prevented from donating blood due to the perception that HIV/AIDS is prevalent in the LGBT community. During the year there were some reports of skinhead violence and societal discrimination against LGBT persons. There are several LGBT organizations operating in the country, with a focus on preventing discrimination of LGBT persons and promoting tolerance. In May the NGO Campaign Against Homophobia reported that the level of hate speech against persons based on their sexual orientation was still high in the country. The NGO called for revisions to the antidiscrimination law to include sexual orientation among the categories of punishable offenses. On July 15, the human rights ombudsman intervened in a legal dispute on behalf of a local branch of LAMBDA, an NGO that combats discrimination based on sexual orientation. In June a district court in Bydgoszcz and city authorities had blocked the group's registration. LAMBDA filed a formal complaint against the ruling. In a letter to the court, the ombudsman stated that it had violated rules on registering organizations, and all citizens are equally entitled to participate in public life and to express their views freely. In November the LAMDA branch received its registration. On August 4, in an unprecedented decision, the Szczecin District Court imposed a 15,000 zloty ($5,260) fine on a woman who repeatedly harassed a neighbor over his sexual orientation. Her public comments prompted other neighbors to harass the plaintiff verbally and physically. The court also prohibited the woman from making further disparaging public comments about her neighbor's sexual orientation. On May 16, an estimated 500 persons took part in Krakow's fifth annual gay March for Tolerance to call for an end to prejudice against homosexuals. The event took place without major incident, due in part to the presence of 450 police officers. A small counterdemonstration was organized by the All Youth and National Rebirth of Poland activists. Some counterdemonstrators threw eggs, tomatoes, and chairs at march participants and shouted antigay and anti-Europe slogans; 15 persons were detained by police. The Krakow Archdiocese issued a statement criticizing the march as immoral, but distanced itself from violence against homosexuals. On June 13, Warsaw authorities allowed the annual Equality Parade to take place in the city center for a fourth consecutive year. Approximately 2,000 local and international gay rights advocates participated in the march without serious incident. Some 30 members of the All Poland's Youth and National Radical Camp staged a counterdemonstration, but there was no direct confrontation between the two groups due to police protection. Other Societal Discrimination.--There were few reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. According to the government's AIDS Center, there was one incident of discrimination reported during the first six months of the year. The case involved discrimination by neighbors against a person with HIV/AIDS. On November 23, the Constitutional Court ruled that a 1991 Interior Ministry regulation requiring immediate dismissal of an HIV positive police officer was unconstitutional. The court's ruling came in response to a March 2008 question submitted by an administrative court in Gdansk, which was reviewing a police officer's appeal against his dismissal in 2007 for being HIV positive. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides that all workers, including civilian employees of the armed forces, police, and frontier guard, have the right to establish and join independent trade unions without previous authorization or excessive requirements. Foreign and migrant workers also have the right to unionize. While many workers exercised this right, in practice many small and medium-sized firms discriminated against those who attempted to organize labor. Newly established small and medium-sized firms were generally nonunion, while privatized, formerly state-owned enterprises frequently continued union activity. Under the law, 10 persons are required to form a local union and 30 persons for a national union. Unions must be registered with the courts, and organizations are required to give employers quarterly updates on the total number of trade union members. A court decision refusing registration may be appealed. The law does not give trade unions the freedom to exercise their right to organize all workers. For example, workers on individual contracts cannot form or join a trade union. According to a December 2008 survey, 16 percent of the workforce was unionized, primarily in the education, science, healthcare, transportation, communication, mining and other industrial sectors. All workers have the right to strike except those in essential services, such as security forces, the Supreme Chamber of Audit, police, border guards, and fire brigades. These workers had the right to protest and seek resolution of their grievances through mediation and the court system. Cumbersome procedures made it difficult to meet all of the legal technical requirements for strikes in many cases. Labor courts acted slowly in deciding the legality of strikes, while sanctions against unions for calling illegal strikes and against employers for provoking them were minimal. Unions alleged that laws prohibiting retribution against strikers were not enforced consistently and that the small fines imposed as punishment were ineffective deterrents to employers. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference; however, in practice the government failed to protect this right at small and medium-sized companies. The law provides for and protects enterprise- level collective bargaining over wages and working conditions. A tripartite commission composed of unions, employers, and government representatives was the main forum that determined minimum national wage and benefit increases in areas such as the social services sector. Key public sector employers could not negotiate with labor without the extensive involvement of the ministries to which they were subordinate. The law provides for parties to take group disputes to formal mediation, then to the Board of Social Arbitration in either the district court or Supreme Court depending on the number of employers involved, and, as a last resort, to strike. By law employers are obligated to notify a district inspection office in the region about a group dispute in the workplace. During 2008 the State Inspection Office registered 5,433 disputes, compared with 2,869 disputes in 2007. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, labor leaders reported that employers frequently discriminated against workers who attempted to organize or join unions, particularly in the private sector. On December 17, a labor court in Torun ruled in favor of Officina Labor in a wrongful termination dispute. A local trade union claimed that Officina Labor illegally fired representatives of the newly formed union's board. The company argued that they received notification of the union's formation after the firings had taken place. The court ruled that the company was not required to rehire the employees, but suggested the employees could claim compensation for discrimination. A related case addressing the termination of the trade union chairman was pending. In April a newly formed local trade union accused the firm DAD Poland in Poznan of harassment and wrongful termination. A few days after employees joined the union, the company fired four members. Other unionists claimed that DAD Poland's director threatened members with dismissal. Discrimination typically took the forms of intimidation, termination of work contracts without notice, and closing the workplace. The law did not prevent employer harassment of union members for trade union activity; there were unconfirmed reports that some employers sanctioned employees who tried to organize unions. Managers also asked workers in the presence of a notary public to declare whether they were union members. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. On April 22, a labor court in Ciechanow issued its first ruling in the case of union employees that claimed they were harassed and wrongfully terminated from Dong Yang Electronics. The court ordered the company to rehire one employee and pay compensation for court costs and one month's salary. Workers claimed company officials intimidated them during a 2008 strike ballot and then refused to acknowledge the validity of a second, secret ballot, in which employees unanimously approved the strike. Dong Yang subsequently gave a raise to employees who did not strike and dismissed 200 other employees, including three unionists, replacing them with fixed-contract workers. There were an additional 180 cases pending before the court. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women and children were trafficked to the country for commercial sexual exploitation and that men and boys were increasingly trafficked for labor in the agricultural sector. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace, including forced or compulsory labor, and the government generally enforced the law in practice; however, there were reports that children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. The law prohibits the employment of children under age 16, with the exception of cultural, artistic, sporting, and advertising fields, but only with permission of the parents or guardians and the local labor inspector. Persons between the ages of 16 and 18 may be employed only if they have completed middle school, the proposed employment constitutes vocational training, and the work is not harmful to their health. The State Labor Inspectorate reported that increasing numbers of minors worked, and many employers underpaid them or paid them late. During the first six months of the year, the inspectorate conducted 514 investigations involving 2,581 underage employees (16 to 18 years of age), compared with 259 inspections involving 1,796 underage employees during the same period in 2008. Fines totaling 182,650 zloty ($64,090) were levied in 159 cases. Of the 2,581 underage employees, the majority worked in the processing industry, in commerce and repairs, and other service industries such as hotels, restaurants, construction, and transportation. According to a 2008 annual report by the labor inspectorate, the majority of underage employees worked during summer school holidays. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national monthly minimum wage of 1,276 zloty (approximately $448) that took effect in January did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Wages are set by an annual tripartite process involving representatives from the government, employers, and employees. If the committee fails to agree on a figure by the September 15 deadline, the Council of Ministers sets the minimum wage. The large size of the informal economy and the low number of government labor inspectors made enforcement of the minimum wage difficult. A large percentage of construction workers and seasonal agricultural laborers from Ukraine and Belarus earned less than the minimum wage. The law provides for a standard workweek of 40 hours, with an upper limit of 48 hours per week, including overtime. The law requires premium pay for overtime hours, but there were reports that this regulation was often ignored. The law provided for workers to receive at least 11 hours of uninterrupted rest per day and 35 hours of uninterrupted rest per week. The law defines strict and extensive minimum conditions to protect worker health and safety. It empowers the State Labor Inspectorate to supervise and monitor implementation of worker health and safety laws and to close workplaces with unsafe conditions. However, the inspectorate was unable to monitor workplace safety sufficiently. In 2008 the government reported more than 100,000 workplace accidents, an increase of 5,000 over 2007. The inspectorate investigated 2,703 accidents in which there were 3,298 casualties, including 615 workers killed and 1,131 persons seriously injured. Employers routinely exceeded standards for exposure to chemicals, dust, and noise. According to the inspectorate, lack of professional experience, necessary safety precautions, and organization were the leading causes of workplace accidents. The majority of accidents occur in mining, trade, and services. The law permits workers to remove themselves from dangerous working conditions without losing their jobs; however, they were unable to do so in practice without jeopardizing their employment. __________ PORTUGAL Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira islands, has a population of approximately 10.7 million and is a constitutional democracy with a president, a prime minister, and a parliament elected in multiparty elections. National parliamentary elections in September were free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were human rights problems in several areas. Police and prison guards occasionally beat or otherwise abused detainees and prisoners, incarcerated minors were not held separately from adults, prison conditions were poor, and persons detained by police did not have an effective right to an attorney. Other problems included violence against women and children, discrimination against women, and trafficking in persons for sexual exploitation and forced labor. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, according to media reports, security forces shot and killed at least two persons during the year. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were credible reports of excessive use of force by police and of mistreatment and other forms of abuse of detainees by prison guards. On March 19, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report documenting findings of the CPT delegation that visited the country in January 2008. According to the report, the delegation received numerous allegations of mistreatment of detainees by law enforcement officials, consisting of slaps, punches, and blows with objects such as batons and telephone books; verbal intimidation; and a specific threat made with a firearm. The CPT reported finding a large number of nonstandard objects, such as baseball bats, a plastic pistol, telescopic batons, and cudgels, in rooms used for interrogations. The report noted that there was no legitimate reason for prison authorities to keep such objects in interrogation areas. The CPT found that authorities had not maintained the positive trend noted by the CPT after its visits in 1999 and 2003, when the delegation received declining numbers of mistreatment allegations. There were credible reports, including in the media, of excessive use of force by members of the security forces. During the year the Inspectorate General of Internal Administration (IGAI) investigated reports of mistreatment and abuse by police and prison guards. Complaints included physical abuse, threatening use of firearms, excessive use of force, illegal detention, and abuse of power. The majority of complaints were against the Public Security Police (PSP) and the Republican National Guard (GNR)--411 and 482 complaints, respectively, in 2008, the most recent year for which statistics were available. The IGAI investigated each complaint, and punishment for officers found to have committed abuses ranged from temporary suspension to prison sentences. During 2008 there were 1,018 investigations involving all security forces. Punishment included letters of reprimand, temporary suspension from duty, prison sentences, mandatory retirement with wage cuts, and discharge from the security forces. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions remained poor, and there were reports that guards mistreated prisoners. Other problems included overcrowding, inadequate facilities, poor health conditions, and violence among inmates. In its March 19 report, the CPT noted that it received a number of allegations of physical mistreatment of prisoners by custodial staff at the Monsanto High Security and Coimbra Central Prisons and somewhat fewer allegations of mistreatment at the Oporto Central Prison. The allegations involved punches, kicks, and blows with batons administered to prisoners after they had been brought under control. In some cases, injuries inflicted reportedly required medical treatment. In one case, a prisoner at the Monsanto High Security Prison alleged that he was assaulted in 2007 by four prison officers, who repeatedly hit his head against a wall until he was semiconscious. The CPT reported that notes by the prison doctor recorded injuries that were consistent with the prisoner's allegations. There were high rates of HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C in the country's prisons. According to the Directorate-General of Prison Services, on September 30, there were 10,916 prisoners and detainees in the country's prisons (94.4 percent men and 5.6 percent women), 90 of whom were between 16 and 18 years old (88 men and two women). The maximum number of prisoners that facilities could accommodate was 11,921. The prison system was operating at 91.6 percent of capacity. There was a youth prison in Leiria, but elsewhere juveniles were held at times with adults. In its March 19 report, the CPT stated that a minor had been held for eight months with adults in a dormitory at the Funchal Regional Prison on Madeira. Pretrial detainees were held with convicted criminals. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers, and prisons were visited during the year by the CPT, the Human Rights Committee of the Portuguese Bar Association, and news media. Most of the guidelines and legislative proposals that the government adopted in 2004 to reform the prison system were not applied in practice. However, some improvements were made during the year, including a decrease in prison overcrowding and continued personnel training. During the year, as part of a five-year prison reform plan adopted in August 2008, the government approved construction of five new prisons throughout the country and started construction of a new prison in the Azores. The goal of the reform is to increase security, improve detainee conditions, rationalize financial and human resources, and improve working conditions of prison staff. On September 24, the government announced that all prisons now have in-cell toilet facilities. On October 12, the new law for the enforcement of sentences went into effect. The law increases prisoners' rights, establishes an ``open regime'' where prisoners may earn the right to work outside of the prison and see their families on a regular basis, and reinforces the role of the Enforcement of Sentences Court (the court that oversees the enforcement of penal sanctions and is responsible for rehabilitation of prisoners). d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--There were approximately 50,000 law enforcement officials, including police and prison guards. The Ministry of Internal Administration and the Ministry of Justice are primarily responsible for internal security. The Ministry of Internal Administration oversees the GNR, the Foreigners and Borders Service (SEF), and PSP. The SEF has jurisdiction over immigration and border problems. The PSP has jurisdiction in cities, and the GNR has jurisdiction outside cities. The Judiciary Police are responsible for criminal investigations and report to the Ministry of Justice. An independent ombudsman chosen by parliament and the IGAI investigate complaints of abuse or mistreatment by police. However, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) criticized the slow pace of investigations and the lack of an independent oversight agency to monitor the IGAI and the Ministry of Internal Administration. Police corruption was an isolated problem. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The constitution and law provide detailed guidelines covering all aspects of arrest and custody, and authorities generally followed the guidelines. Persons can be arrested only based on a judicial warrant, except that law enforcement officials and citizens may make warrantless arrests when there is probable cause that a crime has just been or is being committed or that the person to be arrested is an escaped convict or a suspect who escaped from police custody. The investigating, or examining, judge is a central figure in the country's legal system. Investigating judges direct inquiries into severe crimes or complex cases. As members of the judiciary, they are independent and outside the domain of the executive branch. They are separate from the prosecutors of the Public Prosecutor's Office, who are supervised by the Ministry of Justice. Under the law, an investigating judge determines whether an arrested person should be detained, released on bail, or released outright. A suspect may not be held for more than 48 hours without appearing before an investigating judge. Investigative detention for most crimes is for a maximum of four months; if a formal charge is not filed within that period, the detainee must be released. In cases of serious crimes, such as murder, armed robbery, terrorism, violent or organized crime, and of crimes involving more than one suspect, the investigating judge may decide to hold a suspect in detention while the investigation is underway for up to 18 months and up to three years in extraordinary circumstances. A suspect in investigative detention must be brought to trial within 14 months of being formally charged. If a suspect is not in detention, there is no specified deadline for going to trial. Detainees have the legal right to access to lawyers from time of arrest, but police did not always inform detainees of their rights. The government assumes legal costs for indigent detainees. Bail exists, but detainees are not released on their own recognizance. Depending on the severity of the crime, a detainee's release may be subject to various legal conditions. In its March 19 report, the CPT stated that few detained persons have an effective right of access to a lawyer during police custody. While police registers seen by the CPT delegation indicated that detainees were informed of their right to an attorney, a considerable number of detained persons complained that they had not been informed of their rights. In some police stations, the delegation found a ``striking discrepancy'' between the number of detainees who were recorded as having been informed of their rights and the number who actually exercised their rights. At the Andre Resende PSP station in Benfica (Lisbon), the delegation found that, of 438 persons detained in 2007, eight contacted a lawyer and 50 percent contacted a family member or third party. Lengthy pretrial detention remained a problem. As of September, 2,126 individuals (19 percent of the prison population) were in preventive detention, an increase from the previous year. The average detention time was eight months; approximately 20 percent of preventive detainees spent more than one year in incarceration. Lengthy pretrial detention was usually due to lengthy investigations and legal procedures, judicial inefficiency, or staff shortages. If a detainee is found guilty, pretrial detention counts against a prison sentence. If found innocent, a detainee has the right to request compensation for detention. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Critics, including the media, business corporations, and legal observers, estimated the backlog of cases awaiting trial to be at least a year. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Jury trials are rare in criminal cases. When the crime in question is punishable by a prison sentence of more than eight years, either the public prosecutor or the defendant may request a jury trial. Juries consist of three judges and four public members. Civil cases do not have jury trials. All defendants are presumed innocent and have the right to consult an attorney upon arrest, at government expense if necessary. They have the right of appeal. They can confront and question witnesses against them, present evidence on their own behalf, and have access to government-held evidence. Trials are public. These rights were generally respected in practice. In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) found four violations by the country of the right to a fair trial and one violation concerning length of proceedings, as provided under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. All persons in the country have access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. There are administrative as well as judicial remedies for alleged wrongs. In 2008 the ECHR found one violation by the country of the right to an effective remedy, as provided under Article 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. According to the European Federation of Journalists, the Journalist Statute requires journalists to hand over confidential information and disclose sources in criminal cases. Thus far, however, the statute has not been invoked and tested. In 2008 the ECHR found two violations by the country of freedom of expression, as provided under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 42 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law provides a legislative framework for religious groups either established in the country for at least 30 years or recognized internationally for at least 60 years. Religious groups that meet at least one of these tests receive benefits, including full tax-exempt status, legal recognition to perform marriages and other rites, permission for chaplain visits to prisons and hospitals, and recognition of their traditional holidays. Under an agreement with the Roman Catholic Church, the government recognizes the legal status of the Portuguese Episcopal Conference and allows citizens to donate 0.5 percent of their annual income taxes to the Roman Catholic Church. On September 23, a new law went into effect allowing all religions to provide chaplains for the military, prisons, and hospitals. Previously these state-funded positions were open to Catholics only. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish community in the country was estimated at 3,000 persons. There were no reports of anti- Semitic acts during the year, in part because the government claimed not to collect such statistics. Youths arrested in 2007 after allegedly vandalizing tombstones in Lisbon's Jewish cemetery were awaiting trial at year's end. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status pf Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government granted refugee status or asylum. In addition to refugees and applicants for political asylum, the government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. The country granted humanitarian protection to 73 persons in 2008 and to 36 persons in the first half of 2009. In 2008 the country granted asylum to 14 persons and, during the first half of 2009, to three persons. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On September 27, the country held national parliamentary elections that were considered free and fair. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. On June 7, the country also held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. There were 56 women in the 230-member parliament and five women in the 17-seat cabinet. There was one member of a minority group in the parliament; there were none in the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were no reports of corruption in the executive or legislative branches of the central government during the year. However, there were media reports of corruption involving local government officials. The highest profile corruption cases involved three city mayors, Fatima Felgueiras, Valentim Loureiro, and Isaltino Morais. In November 2008 Felgueiras (Socialist Party) received a 39-month suspended prison sentence and lost her mandate as mayor of Felgueiras (name of mayor and city are, coincidentally, the same). She ran again for mayor in the October 11 municipal elections and lost. Loureiro, the Social Democratic Party (PSD) mayor of Gondomar and chairman of the board of the country's professional soccer league, was accused of corruption and influencing soccer referees. On July 18, he was sentenced to a suspended prison term of three years and two months. His appeal was pending at year's end. He was reelected mayor of Gondomar on October 11. On August 3, Morais (PSD), mayor of Oeiras, was sentenced to seven years in prison for tax evasion, abuse of power, corruption, and money laundering. His appeal was pending at year's end. On October 11, he was reelected mayor of Oeiras. Public officials were subject to financial disclosure laws. The Central Directorate for Combating Corruption, Fraud, and Economic and Financial Crime is the government agency responsible for combating corruption. The constitution and law provide for public access to government information, and the government provided access in practice for citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. The country has an independent human rights ombudsman who is responsible for defending the human rights, freedom, and legal rights of all citizens. The ombudsman's office operated independently and with the cooperation of the government. The ombudsman had adequate resources and published mandatory annual reports as well as special reports on such problems as women's rights, prisons, health, and the rights of children and senior citizens. The parliament's First Committee for Constitutional Issues, Rights, and Liberties and Privileges exercises oversight over human rights problems. It drafts and submits bills and petitions for parliamentary approval. During the year new laws went into effect in areas including reinforcement of protection to crime victims, measures to combat discrimination against homosexual and bisexual blood donors, and amendments to the penal code regarding corruption. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, and social status, and the government effectively enforced these prohibitions. Women.--The law makes rape, including spousal rape, illegal, and the government generally enforced these laws when the victim chose to press charges and the cases were not settled out of court through mediation by both parties' lawyers. During 2008, 193 cases of rape were reported to the Association for Victim Support (APAV), a nonprofit organization that provides confidential and free services nationwide to victims of any type of crime; 132 of the cases were linked to domestic violence. In 2007, 212 such cases were reported (160 linked to domestic violence). Violence against women, including domestic violence, continued to be a problem. Penalties for violence against women range up to 10 years' imprisonment. The government-sponsored Mission against Domestic Violence conducted an awareness campaign against domestic violence, trained health professionals, proposed legislation to improve legal assistance to victims, increased the number of safe houses for victims of domestic violence, and signed protocols with local authorities to assist victims. The government encouraged abused women to file complaints with the appropriate authorities and offered the victim protection against the abuser. Legislation also allows third parties to file domestic violence reports. During 2008 APAV received 16,832 cases of violence against women, 90 percent of which involved domestic violence. For the first six months of the year, APAV reported 8,496 domestic violence cases. According to NGOs and media reports, there were 25 deaths in the first eleven months of the year, compared with 43 deaths in the first eleven months of 2008. The law provides for criminal penalties in cases of violence by a spouse, and the judicial system prosecuted persons accused of abusing women; however, traditional societal attitudes effectively discouraged many abused women from using the judicial system. According to the Ministry of Justice, 1,157 individuals were convicted of domestic violence crimes in 2008, in a total of 2,430 domestic violence court cases. The government's Commission for Equality and Women's Rights operated 14 safe houses for victims of domestic violence and maintained an around-the-clock telephone service. Safe house services included food, shelter, and health and legal assistance. Prostitution was legal and common; there were reports of violence against prostitutes. Pimping and running brothels are felonies punishable by prison sentences of up to five years or up to eight years if the crime is aggravated by violence or a number of other offenses stipulated in the penal code. Sexual harassment is a crime if perpetrated by a superior in the workplace. The penalty is two to three years in prison. Penalties for sexual harassment in the workplace range up to eight years in prison. The Commission on Equality in the Workplace and in Employment, composed of representatives of the government, employers' organizations, and labor unions, is empowered to examine, but not to adjudicate, complaints of sexual harassment. During the year reporting of sexual harassment rose. During 2007 more than 300 cases of sexual harassment were reported to the Authority for Labor Conditions (ACT) of the Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity; three of these resulted in the dismissal of the perpetrator. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, or violence. There was easy access to contraception, skilled attendance during childbirth, and women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. According to international organization estimates, there were 11 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country in 2005, the most recent year for which this data was available. The law gives women full legal equality with men; however, in practice women experienced economic and other forms of discrimination. According to National Statistics Institute data for the second quarter of the year, women made up 47 percent of the working population and were increasingly represented in business, science, academia, and the professions, but their average salaries were about 23 percent lower than men's. The new government resulting from the September parliamentary elections created the new cabinet-level position of State Secretary for Equality to address, among others, problems such as economic discrimination and the integration of women into the mainstream of society. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth within the country's territory (jus soli) and from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Child abuse was a problem. APAV reported 622 crimes against children under the age of 18 during 2008. Approximately 88 percent of the cases involved domestic violence. The high-profile trial that began in 2004 of persons accused of involvement in a pedophilia operation at the Casa Pia children's home in Lisbon was still pending final deliberations and a ruling at year's end. There were reports that Romani parents used minor children for street begging. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16. The penalty for sex with minors between the ages of 14 and 16 is up to two years' imprisonment or, if committed by a legal guardian of the minor, up to eight years' imprisonment. The penalty for sex with minors under 14 years of age is up to 10 years in prison. The law prohibits child pornography, and the penalty is up to three years' imprisonment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, and within the country. The country is a destination, transit, and source country for women, men, and children trafficked from Brazil and, to a lesser extent, from Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Romania, and Africa for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. The country is primarily a destination and transit country for women, men, and children trafficked from Brazil. The majority of victims from Brazil were trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation. These were typically women with a low educational level, between the ages of 18 and 24; the majority were legal immigrants, with their documents in order and valid visas. Traffickers of these women often used the country as a transit point to other EU destinations. Men from East European countries were reportedly trafficked for labor exploitation. According to a 2008 International Labor Organization (ILO) report, Portuguese men were trafficked to Western Europe for forced labor. Many of the trafficked minors were children of Romani parents who were used for street begging. Since 2008 authorities received 231 trafficking cases; 41 were confirmed, and the remaining cases were under investigation. Moldovan, Russian, and Ukrainian organized-crime groups reportedly conducted most of the trafficking of East Europeans. Traffickers frequently demanded additional payments and a share of earnings following their victims' arrival in the country, usually under threat of physical harm. Other methods of controlling victims included stealing the victims' identification documents and threatening to harm family members who remained in the country of origin. The law explicitly criminalizes labor and sex trafficking. The penalty for trafficking is up to 12 years in prison. The government continued to cooperate with other European law enforcement agencies in trafficking investigations. The government provided subsidies for victims to obtain shelter, employment, education, access to medical services, and assistance in family reunification. The government also provided legal residency to many trafficking victims, although most victims were repatriated voluntarily. Some NGOs assisted the government in tracking and providing legal, economic, and social assistance to trafficking victims. Victims who initially were detained were later transferred to NGOs for protection and assistance. Trafficking victims had access to government-operated national immigrant support centers in Lisbon and Oporto and to 78 local centers throughout the country, where they could obtain multilingual information and assistance. The government sponsored antitrafficking information campaigns and public service announcements throughout the year. It broadcast various programs on state-run channels to educate and inform the general public, including potential trafficking victims and consumers. A statistics-gathering unit within the Ministry of Internal Administration assisted the government's antitrafficking efforts by monitoring trafficking. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government effectively enforced the law. The law also mandates access to public buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government enforced these provisions in practice; however, no such legislation covers private businesses or other facilities. The Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity oversees the National Bureau for the Rehabilitation and Integration of Persons with Disabilities, which is responsible for the protection, professional training, rehabilitation, and social integration of persons with disabilities as well as for the enforcement of related legislation. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no reports of official or societal discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, access to citizenship, or access to education or health care. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law recognizes workers' right to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and the workers exercised this right in practice; however, members of the armed forced and some police forces are exempt from this provision. Approximately 35 percent of the workforce was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right in practice. If a long strike occurs in an essential sector such as justice, health, energy, or transportation, the government may order strikers back to work for a specified period. The government has rarely invoked this power. Police and members of the armed forces have unions and recourse within the legal system, but they may not strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The constitution and the law recognize and protect the right to bargain collectively and these laws were effectively enforced. Collective bargaining was freely practiced. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. There are two foreign trade zones in the island autonomous regions of Madeira and the Azores. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in these zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced and compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women, men, and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women, many from Brazil, were subjected to conditions of forced prostitution. Although many of them originally consented to working as prostitutes and entered the country legally, upon arrival they were harbored in rooms or apartments and their passports and travel documents were stolen. Men from Eastern Europe (typically from Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, and Romania) and African lusophone countries were, through fraud, coercion, and debt bondage, subjected to conditions of forced labor in the farming and construction industries. Police and NGOs have also reported that family networks brought approximately 50 to 100 Romani children to the country and forced them to work as street beggars. The law provides for punishment of five to 15 years in prison for enslavement and one to eight years for prostitution by force, fraud, or coercion. Trafficking for purposes of labor exploitation is punishable by a sentence of three to 12 years. Employers who confiscate passports or travel documents are subject to up to 15 years imprisonment, while those who switch contracts without a worker's consent or withhold salaries in order to keep a person in a state of servitude are liable for up to 12 years in prison. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The minimum working age is 16 years. The ACT registered four cases of child labor during the first six months of the year and six cases in 2008. In recent years there has been a greater social consciousness of child labor problems, increased awareness through government campaigns, and a reinforcement of investigations. However, there were reports that Romani parents used minor children for street begging. In 2008 the Committee of Experts of the ILO also noted that children who worked on streets were particularly vulnerable to other worst forms of child labor and that, although rare, cases of child pornography occurred. The government's principal entity to investigate and respond to reports of illegal child labor is the ACT. The ACT sponsored and financed the Integrated Program for Education and Professional Training, whose goal was to return minors who were victims or at risk of child labor to school. During the year the program worked with 2,500 students, mainly boys (70.3 percent) aged 16-17 (51.2 percent) and 13- 15 (45.8 percent). The Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity is responsible for enforcing child labor laws and generally did so effectively. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--A national collective bargaining agreement between the government, employers' associations, and labor unions sets the monthly minimum wage. This minimum, which covers full- time workers, rural workers, and domestic employees who are 18 and older, was 450 euros ($644) and did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. However, widespread rent controls and subsidies on basic food and utility raised the standard of living. Most workers received higher wages; the Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity calculated the average monthly salary of workers, excluding public servants, to be 1,063 euros (approximately $1,520). The legal workday may not exceed 10 hours, and the maximum workweek is 40 hours. There is a maximum of two hours of paid overtime per day and 200 hours of overtime per year, with a minimum of 12 hours between workdays. Premium pay for overtime worked on a rest day or public holiday is 100 percent; overtime performed on a normal working day is paid at a premium of 50 percent for the first hour and 75 percent for subsequent hours or partial hours. The Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity effectively monitored compliance through its regional inspectors. Excessive compulsory overtime is not a problem. Employers are legally responsible for accidents at work and are required by law to carry accident insurance. The ACT develops safety standards in line with EU standards and is responsible for their enforcement. The ACT's inspectors sufficiently and regularly monitored these standards, both proactively according to regulations/advanced scheduling and reactively in response to complaints. Inspection findings were generally effectively enforced. Problems found were resolved, prosecuted, or fined. According to ACT, there were 53 deaths from work-related accidents in the first seven months of the year. Workers injured on the job rarely initiated lawsuits, as insurance policies covering medical and compensation costs covered the majority of workers. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ ROMANIA Romania is a constitutional democracy with a multiparty, parliamentary system and a population of approximately 21.4 million. The bicameral parliament (Parlament) consists of the Senate (Senat) and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputatilor); both are elected by popular vote. The June European parliamentary (EP) elections and November-December presidential elections were judged generally free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that police and gendarmes mistreated and harassed detainees and Roma. Prison conditions remained poor. The judiciary lacked impartiality and was sometimes subject to political influence. A restrictive religion law continued to limit freedom of religion. Property restitution remained extremely slow, and the government failed to take effective action to return Greek Catholic churches confiscated by the former communist government in 1948. Government corruption remained a widespread problem. There were continued reports of violence and discrimination against women as well as child abuse. Persons were trafficked for labor, sexual exploitation, and forced begging. Neglect of and inadequate assistance for persons with disabilities was also reported. Extensive discrimination and occasional violence against Roma continued to be a problem. Gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender persons continued to suffer societal discrimination. Discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, particularly children, remained a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, there were reports that police officers shot and killed two men. On August 2, a police officer shot a 28-year-old man, Ciprian Musat, in the village of Oancea, Galati County, reportedly because the latter was listening to loud music. According to witnesses, after the officer warned him that he was disturbing public order, the victim answered with offensive language. The officer went home, returned 10 minutes later, and shot the man, who died a day later. The police officer was arrested. On September 26, a police officer of the Bucharest police shot a 31-year-old man, Sorin Parvu, in Braila, having mistaken him for an individual who had committed a murder. Parvu died following day. The police officer was under investigation. There were no developments in the May 2008 case of Vasile Manole, who was shot and killed by a transportation police agent while he was allegedly stealing railroad copper parts in Cernavoda. The Association for the Defense of Human Rights in Romania- Helsinki Committee (APADOR-CH) asserted in previous years that police made excessive use of firearms in cases of minor crimes. The Romani Center for Social Intervention and Surveys (Romani CRISS) criticized the disproportionate use of force in Roma neighborhoods, including the use of firearms. There were no reports during the year of deaths or injuries in Roma neighborhoods from police use of firearms. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were numerous nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and media reports of police mistreatment and abuse of detainees and Roma, primarily through excessive force and beatings by police. There were also reports of mistreatment of abandoned children with physical disabilities in state institutions and of prolonged incarceration for misbehavior within state orphanages. Pretrial detainees complained to human rights NGOs of police beatings during pretrial investigations. Romani CRISS and other NGOs continued to claim that police used excessive force against Roma and subjected them to maltreatment and harassment. Romani CRISS also criticized the police raids in Roma communities, which involved large numbers of policemen, often accompanied by special intervention police. In some instances of police violence against Roma, police claimed they used force in self-defense, responding to alleged hostility by Romani communities during police raids in search of criminal offenders. APADOR-CH reported that an individual, Emil Baboi, alleged that during the night of January 5, he was taken to Bucharest precinct 9, where the police officers on duty handcuffed and beat him for several hours and then released him in the morning. Some days later, one of the police officers declared that Baboi had been beaten by somebody else before being brought to the police headquarters. Baboi filed a complaint in the court of Bucharest Sector 2. Romani CRISS reported that, on July 26, police raided a Roma neighborhood in Piatra Neamt, injuring six Roma. In addition, 20 Romani persons, most of them children, women, and elderly, were affected by the tear gas used by the police during the raid. Romani CRISS contacted a lawyer to represent the victims in court. NGOs, including Amnesty International, stated that laws on police use of firearms had not been brought into line with international standards. There were no developments in the following 2008 cases of alleged police beatings: an individual in Campulung Muscel in April; a group of Roma in Satu Mare in May and July; and an individual in Bucharest in August. There also were no developments reported pertaining to violence during police raids on Romani communities in Liesti, Galati County, and in Ciurea, Iasi County, in 2007. There were no developments in the 2007 case of three police officers who allegedly assaulted a university lecturer, Serban Marinescu. There was no further development in the 2007 case of a police officer from Bucharest police precinct 22 who allegedly beat two persons. ACCEPT, an NGO fostering rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons, complained that police singled out LGBT community members for violence and harassment (see section 6). In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found seven violations by the country of the prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment under the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions remained harsh and generally did not meet international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers and such visits occurred during the year. During the year authorities improved conditions in some prisons. At the end of December, according to the Ministry of Justice, National Administration of Penitentiaries, there were 26,750 persons, including 470 minors, in prison or juvenile detention facilities in a system with a stated capacity of 33,951. Although overcrowding did not represent a serious problem overall, there were prisons where the standard of 43 square feet per prisoner, recommended by the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT), was not observed. APADOR-CH called for the adoption of legislation to make this recommendation mandatory. During the year APADOR-CH visited several prisons, including some it had visited in previous years, and noted that, despite some improvements, in many cases conditions continued to be poor. Sanitation and hygiene in prisons did not meet international standards. Medical facilities were not sufficient to care for all prisoners and detainees, and access to health care was limited by a lack of doctors. Heating and hot water were not available in several facilities, mattresses were old and rotten, and lighting was poor. In many penitentiaries prisoners complained about the insufficient availability of medications and medical treatment. APADOR-CH reported that prison meals did not provide the minimum necessary calories, water at some prisons was unsuitable for drinking and in many facilities the kitchens were infested with mold. APADOR-CH also stated that daily activities, work opportunities, and educational programs continued to be insufficient. The government continued efforts, including partnerships with NGOs, to alleviate harsh conditions, improve the condition of detention rooms, provide more daily activities, training courses, and educational programs available to prisoners, and deter the spread of HIV and tuberculosis. However, programs to prevent the spread of HIV, sexually-transmitted and infectious diseases were scarce. In September the representative for Romania of the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that the tuberculosis control program was successfully implemented in penitentiaries, and the percentage of prisoners suffering from tuberculosis decreased to 2 percent. Most of the prisons visited by APADOR-CH had improved the conditions of confidentiality of discussions between prisoners and their lawyers. Media and human rights organizations reported that the abuse of prisoners by authorities and other prisoners continued to be a problem. According to media and NGO reports, prisoners frequently assaulted and abused their fellow inmates, and prison authorities tried to cover up such incidents. During the year media reported such cases in the penitentiaries in Codlea, where fights among prisoners took place and a prisoner was killed by his cellmate in May, and Poarta Alba, where a prisoner was killed by another prisoner in April. There were media reports that two prison guards stole meat from the prisoners' rations in Jilava prison. There were no developments reported regarding a June 2008 visit by APADOR-CH and the Center for Legal Resources (CRJ) representatives and a 2007 visit by the justice minister to the Aiud penitentiary, which revealed low food quality, poor hygiene in detention areas, inadequate medical assistance, and inmates who were not aware of the educational programs available to them in prison. There were no developments in the 2007 death of a prisoner in the Rahova prison hospital in which APADOR-CH asserted that medical negligence may have played a role. APADOR-CH continued to call for the establishment of a joint medical commission of the Ministries of Justice and Health to investigate the causes of deaths in prisons. According to APADOR-CH, the practice of labeling certain prisoners as ``dangerous'' remained a problem in the absence of clear standards for such classification. Prisoners labeled dangerous were subjected to a variety of restrictions beyond those experienced by the general prison population and had no right to appeal that determination. NGOs also criticized the practice of subjecting prisoners to multiple punishments for a single act of misbehavior. APADOR-CH continued to criticize the conditions in police detention facilities, noting poor sanitation conditions, surveillance equipment in detention rooms, lack of natural light, and the absence of activities for those detained. Many police detention facilities and some prisons did not provide for the confidentiality of discussions between prisoners or detainees and their lawyers in person or via telephone. The government permitted prison visits by human rights observers, foreign government officials, and media representatives, and such visits took place during the year. Regulations for religious assistance in prisons allow unrestricted access of all religious groups to prisoners. Orthodox priests no longer attended meetings between representatives of other faiths and prisoners. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally respected these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of the Interior and Administration is responsible for the national police, the gendarmerie, and the border police; the Office for Immigration; the General Directorate of Information and Internal Protection, which oversees the collection of intelligence on organized crime and corruption; and the General Anticorruption Directorate. The national police agency is the Inspectorate General of Police, which is divided into specialized directorates and has 42 regional directorates for counties and the city of Bucharest. The internal intelligence service also collects information on major organized crime, major economic crimes, and corruption. As of March the Special Protection and Intervention Group is subordinated to the Gendarmerie. While police generally followed the law and internal procedures, police corruption remained a significant reason for citizens' lack of respect for the police and led to a corresponding disregard for police authority. Low salaries and the absence of incentives and bonuses led to personnel shortages and contributed to the susceptibility of individual law enforcement officials to bribes. Instances of high-level corruption were referred to the National Anticorruption Directorate, which continued to publicize its anticorruption telephone hot line to generate prosecutorial leads for corruption within the police. Police impunity remained a problem. Complaints of police misconduct were handled by the internal disciplinary councils of the units where the reported officers worked. During the first 11 months of year, there were 131 complaints against the police for human rights violations, of which 80 were submitted to the prosecutor's office and 51 to the police. Of the latter, 29 cases were submitted to the prosecutor's office for further investigation, 14 were closed for lack of evidence, and eight cases were under investigation for misconduct. During the same period, 167 police officers were under investigation for human rights violations: 83 for abuse in the line of duty; 69 for abusive behavior; 13 for illegal arrest and abusive investigation, two for causing fatal injuries. During the same period, there were 13 complaints of human rights violations against the gendarmerie: nine were under criminal investigation, two cases were closed and the gendarmes were cleared of criminal charges, and in two cases the gendarmes were cleared of criminal charges but received administrative fines. Police reform continued during the year. The police increased hiring of women and minorities. According to police statistics, 10.5 percent of the 59,195 total police force were female police officers and 1.1 percent represented members of ethnic minorities as of January. Police also used Romani mediators to facilitate communication between Roma and the authorities and assist in crisis situations. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law provides that only judges may issue detention and search warrants, and the government generally respected this provision in practice. The law requires authorities to inform detainees at the time of arrest of the charges against them and their legal rights. Police must notify detainees of their rights in a language they understand before obtaining a statement. Detainees must be brought before a court within 24 hours of arrest. The law provides for pretrial release at the discretion of the court. A bail system also exists; however, it was seldom used in practice. Detainees have a right to counsel and generally had prompt access to counsel and to their families. Indigent detainees were provided legal counsel at public expense. The law allows police to take any person who endangers the public, other persons, or the social order to a police station. There were allegations that police often used this provision to detain persons for up to 24 hours. APADOR-CH repeatedly criticized this provision, stating that it leaves room for abuse. Human rights NGOs complained that the authorities were frequently able to listen to discussions between detainees and their attorneys in police detention facilities A judge may order pretrial detention for periods of up to 30 days, depending upon the status of the case. The court may extend these time periods; however, pretrial detention may not exceed 180 days. Courts and prosecutors may be held liable for unjustifiable, illegal, or abusive measures. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 17 violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Amnesty.--During the year President Basescu issued pardons to six mothers (each with four to nine children) and to four persons for medical or age-related reasons. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. However, the judiciary lacked the public's trust that judges were accountable and did not serve political or financial interests. There was a widespread public perception that the judiciary was corrupt, slow, and often unfair. The law establishes a four-tier legal system composed of lower courts (judecatorie), intermediate courts (tribunals), appellate courts, and the High Court of Cassation and Justice. There is a separate Constitutional Court composed of nine members who are limited to a single nine-year term. The president, the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies appoint three members each. The Constitutional Court validates electoral results and makes decisions regarding the constitutionality of laws, treaties, ordinances, and internal rules of the parliament. A prosecutor's office is associated with each court. The court having original jurisdiction over a case is determined by the nature of the offense and by the position a defendant may hold in public service. According to a European Commission report released in July, judicial reforms ``have not yet taken firmly root and shortcomings persist.'' The commission also criticized the fact that ``the jurisprudence of the Romanian judiciary is contradictory, generating undue delays.'' NGOs and public officials frequently criticized the judicial system during the year. One cause was the failure of the judiciary's oversight body, the Superior Council of Magistrates (CSM), to create procedures for addressing potential conflicts of interest among its members. The CSM's practice of delegating magistrates to nonjudicial positions within the judiciary and appointing them to various government agencies also contributed to depleting the already understaffed courts and prosecutors' offices. The European Commission report mentioned the adoption of a new human resource strategy for the judiciary and that ``some steps have been taken as regards the staffing situation in courts and prosecutors' offices at local level,'' stressing, however, that ``further improvements'' were necessary. The general prosecutor criticized the High Court of Cassation and Justice for frequently returning case files to prosecutors for additional investigation rather than ruling on the case as presented. Such requests contributed to frequent delays in court procedures, increasing the chances of political interference. Observers also expressed concern over a lack of judicial impartiality, since some members of parliament continued to practice as defense attorneys, both personally and through their law firm associates. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 77 violations by the country of the right to a fair trial, 25 violations by the country involving length of proceedings, and two violations of the right to an effective remedy as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--Trials are open to the public. The law does not provide for trial by jury. The law provides for the right to counsel and a presumption of innocence until a final judgment by a court. The law requires that the government provide an attorney to juveniles in criminal cases; in practice, local bar associations provided attorneys to indigents and were compensated by the Ministry of Justice. Defendants have the right to be present at trial, to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, to confront or question witnesses against them, to have a court-appointed interpreter, and to present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Both prosecutors and defendants have a right of appeal. The law provides for the investigation by civilian prosecutors of crimes by the national police and prison employees. Military prosecutors continued to try cases that involved ``state security'' involving military personnel. Other cases involving ``state security'' but not military personnel were tried by civilian prosecutors; military courts do not try civilians according to the law. Crimes by the gendarmerie continued to fall under military jurisdiction. In previous years, local and international human rights groups criticized the handling of cases by military courts, claiming that military prosecutors' investigations were unnecessarily lengthy, biased, and often inconclusive. Some lawyers claimed that these investigations only served to discredit the reputations of their clients rather than hold them accountable for any actual wrongdoing. The law extends the rights to a fair trial to all citizens. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Civil courts functioned in every jurisdiction. Civil courts do not use a jury and function in a similar fashion as the criminal courts. Crime victims can assert civil remedies in either civil courts or criminal courts if they choose, which could result in a combined civil/criminal trial to resolve all issues arising from the criminal case. The Ministry of Justice administers civil courts and the CSM oversees the magistrates. Civil courts operated with the same degree of judicial independence as criminal courts. Litigants sometimes encountered difficulties enforcing civil verdicts because the procedures for enforcement of judgment orders were impractical and caused delays. Administrative and judicial remedies were available for violations of civil rights by government agencies. Property Restitution.--The law allows for property restitution and establishes fines for officials who hinder the process. The law provides for a Property Fund of approximately 14 billion lei ($4.8 billion) to compensate owners of properties that cannot be returned in kind. Because of this delay, the Fund was not yet listed on the stock exchange, meaning shares were not traded on the stock exchange, but on the gray market at artificially low prices. A government ordinance provides for cash payments in lieu of restitution of up to about 500,000 lei ($173,000), paid over a two-year period. Claims in excess of this amount are to be paid with shares in the property fund. The restitution process continued to be very slow during the year, and the large majority of restitution cases remained unresolved. Former owners' organizations continued to assert that inertia hindered property restitution at the local level. In some cases local government officials continued to delay or refuse to provide necessary documents to former owners filing claims. They also refused to return properties in which county or municipal governments had an interest. In February a law came into effect that amended the nationalized houses law so as to bar the restitution of houses that were bought by tenants in good faith. The ECHR ruled in favor of the former owners in a large number of restitution cases, which represented the majority of applications to the ECHR from the country. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found 129 violations by the country involving the protection of property under the European Convention on Human Rights. In April the Council of Europe released a report which noted that the country does not observe the three-month deadline for paying compensation ordered by the ECHR. According to the report, in 2008 only 5 percent of ECHR-ordered compensation was paid within the three-month time period provided in the court's final judgments. Of the 201,750 claims filed between 2001 and 2003 for restitution of buildings, by the end of the year 117,442 were resolved: 43,047 were rejected; 7,898 claims qualified for combined measures (i.e., restitution in kind plus compensation in stock from the property fund or in other assets or services); 49,637 claims qualified for restitution in equivalent; and 16,860 claims were resolved by return of the properties in kind. There were numerous disputes over many churches that the Orthodox Church did not return to the Greek Catholic Church despite court orders to do so. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Nevertheless, there was a widespread perception that illegal surveillance still existed. The law permits the use of electronic interception both in criminal cases and for national security purposes. A judge has to issue a warrant upon request from the prosecutor investigating the case. In exceptional circumstances, when delays in getting the warrant would seriously affect the criminal investigation, prosecutors may begin interception without a judicial warrant. Following this, however, a request for authorization must be submitted within 48 hours. Some human rights NGOs have noted that, under the national security law, a prosecutor may authorize the issuance of a warrant for an initial period of six months, which can be extended indefinitely in three-month increments without judicial approval. There were media reports of electronic interception used outside of these legal parameters. The lawsuit filed by businessman Dinu Patriciu against the Romanian Intelligence Service (SRI) for illegally tapping his telephones continued. In 2007 the Bucharest Tribunal ordered the SRI to pay Patriciu 50,000 lei ($17,300) in compensation, and the ruling was upheld on appeal. The SRI appealed the ruling to the High Court of Cassation and Justice and a decision was pending at the year's end. According to Romani CRISS and media reports, evictions of members of the Romani community continued to occur in Bucharest, Cluj, and other localities during the year. On June 25, 13 Romani families were evicted by gendarmes from a building in Cluj that was restituted to the rightful owner. On August 26, the mayor's office of Bucharest Sector 2 evicted 42 Romani who were illegally living in a building in the sector. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found seven violations by the country of the right to respect for family and private life as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Journalists and private citizens could criticize government authorities, including those at senior levels. There were isolated cases of authorities intimidating or censoring the press or attacking journalists. Laws restricting freedom of speech continued to cause concern among the media and NGOs. Insulting state insignia (the coat of arms, national flag, or national anthem) is also an offense punishable by imprisonment; however, there were no reports of prosecutions or convictions under these provisions during the year. The religion law includes a provision that forbids acts of ``religious defamation'' and ``public offense to religious symbol.''; there were no reports of prosecutions or convictions under this law's provisions during the year. The law prohibits denial of the Holocaust in public; however, there were no prosecutions under this statute during the year. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found two violations by the country of freedom of expression as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. The independent media was active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. However, politicians and others with close ties to various politicians and political groups either owned or indirectly controlled numerous media outlets outside of the capital, and the news and editorial tone of these outlets frequently reflected the views of the owners. The tendency towards the concentration of national news outlets in the hands of a few wealthy individuals continued. During the year there were a number of instances when public officials and politicians insulted or harassed journalists. Starting April 6, the press distribution company owned by the mayor of Constanta, Radu Mazare, and the local president of the County Council, Nicusor Constantinescu, blocked the distribution of Ziua de Constanta newspaper, which had criticized local authorities. On June 6, Madalina Radulescu, news director of the state-owned public television channel, TVR 1, threatened producer Doina Georgescu and editor Adriana Gulea with salary cuts and dismissal for refusing to sign off on a news bulletin featuring an election-related interview with a vice president of the Social Democratic Party (PSD). The interview was aired right before the European Parliament elections, in violation of regulations against campaigning the day before elections. TVR's ethics committee found that Radulescu made an incorrect editorial decision and had improperly pressured the two journalists. TVR 1's president--a former PSD secretary general--did not pursue disciplinary action against Radulescu. On July 28, Tourism Minister Elena Udrea used a threatening tone when she told the editor in chief of the sports daily Gazeta Sporturilor that she would ``personally take care of him.'' The editor had disclosed controversial expenses made by the former youth and sports minister who was a member of the same political party as Udrea. In February the ECHR ruled that the country should pay Petre Mihai Bacanu, the honorary director of the newspaper Romania Libera, 8,000 euros ($11,000) because his rights to freedom of speech and to a fair trial were violated. Domestic courts had ordered in 2003 that Bacanu and Romania Libera pay compensation to a former prime minister following Romania Libera's publication of several articles critical of a contract he negotiated with a controversial businessman to set up the Romanian Investment Bank. Internet Freedom.--There were no reported government restrictions on access to the Internet or substantiated reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. The Internet was widely available in the country, and costs decreased due to competition. Internet cafes were widely available nationwide. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 29 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events; however there were reports that a few local officials interfered with these activities. In August the mayor of Onesti, Emil Lemnaru, stopped a conference launching a book called Biometric Dictatorship, which claimed that the data storage on chips was dangerous for humankind. Human rights NGOs protested, stating that the move violated freedom of expression. In August a local counselor in Oradea canceled a concert by the rock band God Dethroned, citing citizens' complaints that it would be a Satanic concert. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law provides that unarmed citizens can assemble peacefully but states that meetings must not interfere with other economic or social activities and may not be held near locations such as hospitals, airports, or military installations. Organizers of public assemblies must request permits three days in advance, in writing, from the mayor's office of the locality where the gathering would occur. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The law prohibits fascist, communist, racist, or xenophobic ideologies, organizations, and symbols (such as statues of war criminals on public land). Political parties are required to have at least 25,000 members to have legal status, a number some NGOs criticized as excessively high. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, there were some restrictions, and several minority religious groups continued to claim credibly that government officials and Orthodox clergy impeded their proselytizing and interfered with other religious activities. Under the religion law, the government implemented a discriminatory three-tiered system of recognition: ``grupari religioase'' (religious groups that are not legal entities), religious associations, and religions. Gruparile religioase are groups of individuals who share the same faith but do not receive any support from the state or tax exemptions. Religious associations are legal entities that do not receive government funding, have to be registered as such in a religious association registry, and are exempted from taxes only for places of worship. Religious associations must have 300 members from the country and are required to submit members' personal data to register, in contrast to nonreligious associations that can register with only three members. To receive religion status, a religious association must demonstrate 12 years of continuous religious activity and meet a membership threshold of 0.1 percent of the total population (approximately 22,000 members). The law does not prohibit or punish assembly for peaceful religious activities and, unlike in previous years, minority religious groups did not complain that local authorities or Orthodox priests prevented religious activities from taking place. Some minority religious groups continued to allege that local authorities in some cases delayed or opposed granting construction permits for unjustified reasons. A Greek Catholic community in Pesteana, established in 2005, continued to claim that it faced discrimination and harassment. Tensions also continued over a lawsuit between the Orthodox and the Greek Catholic Churches regarding the latter's access to the local cemetery. At the end of February, the Appellate Court in Pitesti ruled that the Greek Catholic priest could celebrate religious services in the cemetery only for those who die as Greek Catholic believers and not for any of their relatives who died as members of the Orthodox faith. The Greek Catholic community expressed dissatisfaction with the ruling. In contrast with previous years, minority religious groups did not report difficulties in obtaining approval to use public halls for religious activities. Minority religious groups reported a reduced number of instances of Orthodox clergy harassing members of other faiths. Several minority religious groups made credible complaints that local police and administrative authorities in some instances appeared to tacitly support societal campaigns against proselytizing. Members of various minority religions continued to report that their charitable programs in children's homes and shelters were perceived as proselytizing directed at adherents of the Orthodox Church. A Roman Catholic Csango community, an ethnic group that speaks a Hungarian dialect, continued to complain that its members were unable to hold regular religious services in their mother tongue because of the opposition of the Roman Catholic Bishopric of Iasi. On October 17, however, there was progress in addressing these complaints when a mass in the village of Vladnic, Bacau County, was held in three languages (Romanian, Hungarian, and Latin). Although the religion law entitles religious denominations to bury their believers in other denominations' cemeteries if they lack their own cemetery or a communal (public) cemetery, in numerous communities Orthodox priests reportedly continued to deny permission to the Greek Catholic Church, the Baptist Church, and the Adventist Church to bury their members in either confessional or even some communal cemeteries. Several religious groups reported that the access of religious groups to detention facilities continued to improve. Regulations for religious activity in prisons provide for unrestricted access of recognized religions and religious associations to any place of detention, even if their assistance is not specifically requested. There were no reports by religious groups of problems with access to detention facilities during the reporting period. Only the 18 recognized religious groups have the right to teach religion in public schools. To opt out of religion classes, students must submit a request in writing. Some minority recognized religions continued to complain that public schools sometimes refused to offer classes in their religious beliefs and that there were cases of children who were pressured to attend Orthodox religion classes. A 2006 National Council for Combating Discrimination (CNCD) decision to ask the Ministry of Education to remove religious symbols from school classrooms except where religious classes were taught was not enforced because of several ongoing lawsuits. The Ministry of Education, the Orthodox Church, and several NGOs challenged the CNCD decision. On June 11, the High Court of Cassation ruled in favor of their challenge. The restitution law permits religious denominations to reclaim previously nationalized properties that housed schools, hospitals, or cultural institutions; however, implementation of the law was slow during the year. Of the 14,716 claims for restitution of religious property since its establishment in 2003, the National Authority for Property Restitution (ANRP) returned 1,417 properties by the end of the year; another 407 cases were approved to receive compensation; 403 claims were rejected. Property restitution was particularly important for the Greek Catholic Church, whose properties, including churches, were confiscated during the Communist regime. Greek Catholic churches were given to the Orthodox Church after their forced merger in 1948, and many other Greek Catholic Church properties were taken over by the government. Since 2003 the government returned 128 out of 6,723 total properties claimed by the Greek Catholic Church. The Orthodox Church continued to resist the return of churches it acquired from the Greek Catholic Church. While the law permits the Greek Catholic Church to take court action whenever its dialogue with the Orthodox Church over church restitution fails, lawsuits were lengthy because of delayed hearings and repeated appeals. However, as in recent years, the number of rulings during the year in favor of the Greek Catholic Church reportedly increased. By year's end the Orthodox Church had returned fewer than 200 of approximately 2,600 churches and monasteries claimed by the Greek Catholic Church. The Orthodox metropolitan of Banat and bishops of Caransebes and Oradea continued to maintain positive relations with the Greek Catholic Church on restitution issues; however, most other Orthodox Church representatives refused to return properties, even when ordered to do so by a court, generating tension in many localities. Because of the failure to get back its churches, the Greek Catholic Church continued in some localities to hold religious services in the open, for example, in Sisesti, Maramures County, where a lawsuit over the former Greek Catholic church has been underway for 16 years. In April in Sapanta, Maramures County, the Orthodox Church demolished the steeple of a formerly Greek Catholic church now in Orthodox hands. The Orthodox Church announced it was rebuilding the steeple as part of a renovation project partially funded by the Ministry of Culture. A lower court injunction to suspend the demolition and construction works was issued in April and then rejected by the Maramures County tribunal in July. On October 3, an Orthodox priest set fire to an historic formerly Greek Catholic wooden church built in 1777, in Soconzel, Satu Mare County, allegedly by accidentally throwing a cigarette butt in the dry grass in the church yard. In Zalau, Salaj County, the Orthodox Bishopric of Salaj refused to hold alternate services with the Greek Catholic Church in the chapel of a hospital. Eventually, the hospital manager offered a separate room to the Greek Catholic Church. The Orthodox Church continued to demolish Greek Catholic churches under various pretexts and also used other methods to shield churches from restitution. In May 2008 in Ungheni, Mures County, the Orthodox Church began to demolish an 18th-century Greek Catholic church after constructing a new Orthodox structure around the old church. A court injunction obtained by the Greek Catholic Church stopped the demolition, but construction work around the old church continued. Similar demolition cases occurred in Badon, Salaj County, in 2007. In September the Orthodox Church resumed pressure for the adoption of legislation that would resolve patrimonial disputes between the Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches in line with the ``confessional reality in the country,'' i.e., by distributing the former Greek Catholic properties based on the percentage of Orthodox versus Greek believers in the particular locality in question. The Greek Catholic Church complained in a communique, released on October 5, about the Orthodox Church's hostile attitude over the past 20 years, arguing that the so-called ``confessional reality in the country,'' is the result of over 40 years of communist persecutions and of 20 years of attempts to eliminate the Greek Catholic Church from the religious life. It also accused the Orthodox Church of harassment and misinforming public opinion. The Greek Catholic Church complained that in Cluj County the authorities delayed the restitution of its land in the localities of Feleacu and Morlaca. Other places where local authorities did not restore former Greek Catholic land include Chiheru de Jos, Maramures County, Rozavlea, Maramures County, Sapanta, Maramures County, Ungheni, Maramures County, Valcau de Sus and Valcau de Jos, Salaj County, Rozavlea, Maramures County, Haieu, Bihor County, Moisei, Maramures County, Tasnad, Satu-Mare County, Nadar, Bihor County, Salistea de Sus, Maramures County and Borsa , Maramures county. According to members of the Greek Catholic Church, in Budesti, Maramures County, local authorities refused to return farm and forest land to the Greek Catholic Church and proposed instead to give the church land that had belonged to Jewish victims of the Holocaust. The Greek Catholic Church rejected the proposal. The historical Hungarian churches, including the Hungarian Roman Catholic and the Hungarian Protestant Reformed, Evangelical, and Unitarian churches, received a small number of their confiscated properties from the government. By the end of the year, Hungarian churches had received 870 of the approximately 2,700 properties they claimed under the law on return of religious property. During the year the Hungarian Churches received 64 properties. In December responsibility for oversight of the Religious Affairs Department was shifted from the Ministry of Culture to the prime minister. Media alleged that the move was the result of the Orthodox Patriarch's direct intervention, following the appointment of an ethnic Hungarian with a different religious affiliation at the helm of the culture ministry. The Orthodox Church denied these assertions. According to Roman Catholic authorities and media reports, the issue of the 19-story building to be constructed within the protection zone around the Roman Catholic Saint Joseph Cathedral in Bucharest, a designated historical monument, remained unresolved. The church asserted that construction of the building could damage the cathedral's foundation. In 2007 a court in Dolj County suspended this construction. On June 25, a court of appeal in Ploiesti overturned the ruling, thereby allowing the construction to continue. The decision of the appeals court generated widespread protests by the Roman Catholic Church, which urged authorities to find a solution. In July, the church filed a request at the High Court of Cassation and Justice (ICCJ) to review the case, and the ICCJ sent it to the Ploiesti Court of Appeal. In October the Mayor-General of Bucharest urged the developer to stop construction work and filed a complaint with the Bucharest court, challenging the legality of the concession contracts for the land on which the 19-story building was erected. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--According to the 2002 census, the Jewish population numbered 5,785. Acts of anti-Semitism, including vandalism against Jewish sites, continued during the year. In most cases the Federation of Jewish Communities notified authorities, but perpetrators were often not identified. The NGO Center for Monitoring Anti-Semitism in Romania (MCA Romania) noted that authorities tended to play down anti-Semitic vandalism, usually attributing the acts to children, drunks, or persons with mental disorders. MCA Romania noted that Jewish establishments appeared to be targets of choice for vandals and asserted that investigations of such acts were not thorough. MCA Romania also criticized the lack of prosecutions as failing to deter future acts. Between April 12 and 14, 20 tombstones were destroyed in a Jewish cemetery in Botosani. Police named as suspects four students between the ages of 14 and 16, who reportedly acted under the influence of alcohol. The students were still under investigation for desecration of graves at the end of the year. Unidentified perpetrators painted swastikas and anti-Semitic graffiti on the walls of a building in Bucharest in May and on the fence of a Jewish cemetery in Bucharest in June. On July 18, at a fashion show at the beach resort of Mamaia, the mayor of Constanta, Radu Mazare, marched on a public stage dressed as a Nazi officer, accompanied by his 15-year-old son dressed as a Nazi soldier. The Federation of Jewish Communities in Romania, the Simon Wiesenthal Center, MCA Romania, the National Antidiscrimination Council (CNCD), and others protested the action. On July 20, MCA Romania filed a complaint with the Prosecutor General's Office against Mazare, since the public display of Nazi symbols is illegal. On July 22, Mazare apologized for his gesture. The Prosecutor General's Office answered a September 24 inquiry by the MCA by saying that the case was in the Prosecutor's Office in Constanta and investigation was in a preliminary stage. On December 3, the MCA requested again an update on the development of the investigation. As of year's end, Mazare was not charged. There were no reported developments in the October 2008 desecration of 131 gravestones at a Jewish cemetery in Bucharest, in which the police named as suspects four students between the ages of 13 and 15. In December MCA warned that anti-Semitic, racist, xenophobic, and nationalistic views continued to be distributed via the Internet. During the year the extremist press continued to publish anti- Semitic articles. The New Right movement continued to foster the ideas of the Iron Guard (an extreme nationalist, anti-Semitic, pro-Nazi group that existed in the country in the interwar period) in the media and on the Internet. The New Right also republished inflammatory books from the interwar period. Authorities occasionally investigated and prosecuted offenders, but all court cases resulted in acquittals. During the year publications of the extreme nationalist Greater Romania Party (PRM), headed by Corneliu Vadim Tudor, continued to carry statements and articles containing strong anti-Semitic attacks. The law prohibits denial of the Holocaust in public; however there were no prosecutions under this statute during the year. During the year anti-Semitic views and attitudes were expressed on the talk shows of private television stations, which failed to respond to complaints filed by Jewish organizations regarding such views. Extremists continued to publicly deny that the Holocaust occurred in the country or that the country's leader during World War II, Marshal Ion Antonescu, participated in Holocaust atrocities in territory administered by the country. On January 17, the country's Consulate General in New York City sponsored a seminar at which a well-known Holocaust denier distributed articles he had written denying the Holocaust and containing anti- Semitic statements. The Elie Wiesel Institute for the Study of the Holocaust in Romania complained to the city council of Bucharest about anti-Semitic events taking place in Bucharest in institutions that fall under the purview of the council. For example, in January the Bucharest History Museum hosted two book launches and a conference at which anti-Semitic and Holocaust denying views were aired. In March a cultural center hosted the launching of a book presenting the views of the Legionnaires, an anti-Semitic group that carried out pogroms against Romanian Jews in the interwar period. The Bucharest city government responded to complaints by stating that the museum merely rented the premises to the sponsors of the events. The government continued to make progress in its effort to expand education on the history of the Holocaust in the country and included the Holocaust in history courses covering World War II in the seventh through 12th grades. On various occasions throughout the year, high-level officials continued to make public statements against extremism, anti-Semitism, and xenophobia and criticized Holocaust denial. In January government officials and members of parliament attended and addressed the commemoration of the 1941 pogrom in Bucharest. On October 8, the country commemorated National Holocaust Day with events in several cities, including the president's dedication of a Holocaust memorial in Bucharest. The law to combat anti-Semitism and prohibit fascist, racist, and xenophobic organizations includes persecution of Roma as well as Jews in its definition of the Holocaust. Approximately 14,000 Roma were killed in the country during that period. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons in need of international protection. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The law on asylum, based on EU legislation, prohibits the expulsion, extradition, or forced return of any asylum seeker at the country's border or from within the country's territory but extends the application of the exclusion clauses to aliens and stateless persons who planned, facilitated, or participated in terrorist activities as defined by international instruments to which the country is a party. The law provides for the concept of safe countries of origin, and aliens coming from such countries have their asylum applications processed in an accelerated procedure. Safe countries of origin are considered EU member states as well as other countries that fulfill certain conditions. In 2008 the government opened an Emergency Transit Center in the city of Timisoara. This is the second facility of its type in the world for the interim receipt of refugees pending processing and final transit to a receiving country. According to the UNHCR, conditions are acceptable. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; however, the UNHCR considered the time limits provided by the law for submitting appeal applications and court procedures to be too short. In 2008 the UNHCR started a program ``Quality Initiative,'' which continued during the year and aimed at improving the quality of decision-making during the asylum procedure. A report, released by the UNHCR in July, revealed that asylum seekers were faced with difficulties in the access to specialized health care, partially because of the lack of interpreters, that social assistance in reception centers, including spare time activities, was insufficient, and that asylum seekers felt they did not receive enough information and legal assistance. Under the law, refugees and those granted subsidiary protection enjoy equal access to employment, basic services, education, police and courts with citizens. According to an amendment to the citizenship law, those receiving subsidiary protection have to wait for a longer period of time than refugees to acquire citizenship, a provision viewed as discriminatory by the former. The government also has a voluntary repatriation program for refugees and rejected asylum seekers. According to the Immigration Office, there were 835 applications for asylum and an additional 160 repeat asylum applications during the year. There were no cases of temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. However, the government granted a form of protection (refugee status or subsidiary protection) to 94 persons, and ``tolerated person'' status to 161 persons. (A tolerated person is an alien who no longer has the right to stay in the country, but cannot leave it for objective reasons; tolerated persons have no social- economic rights.) According to the UNHCR, the country hosted 1,596 refugees and 303 asylum seekers at the end of 2008. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived at birth by those who have at least one Romanian parent. The law provides for birth registration as a basic right; however, some children were not registered at birth and were rendered de facto stateless by their lack of and inability to obtain identity documents. According to the country's Immigration Office, there were 306 stateless persons of foreign and national origin at the year's end. According to UNHCR statistics, there were 253 persons recognized as stateless in the country at the end of 2008. However, the country has a substantial Romani population, and according to a survey released by the government in August 2008, 1.5 percent of respondents identifying themselves as Roma lacked birth certificates, while other surveys indicated between 1.9 and 6 percent of Roma--lacked identity cards. While some of these stateless persons were born in the country, limited information was available on the nature of this problem. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--On November 22 and December 6, the country held national elections for president. Despite some irregularities, including numerous allegations of vote buying and of multiple voting, the elections were generally judged free and fair. In the second round on December 6, incumbent Traian Basescu defeated challenger Mircea Geoana by 50.33 percent to 49.66 percent of votes cast. On June 7, the country held elections for the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Again, there were numerous allegations of irregularities such as vote buying, and analysts lamented that only 27.67 percent of eligible voters cast ballots. Elections to the Romanian parliament, last held in November 2008, are based on a uninominal voting system. Media, NGOs, and government officials criticized the voting system, which assigns parliamentary seats to party members based on a complex formula, for being too difficult for most voters to understand and for awarding seats to party members who finished second or third in their district. The law requires political parties to register with the Bucharest Tribunal and to submit their statutes, program, and a roster of at least 25,000 signatures. These 25,000 ``founding members'' must be from at least 18 counties, including Bucharest, with a minimum of 700 persons from each county. The party statutes and program must not include ideas that incite war, discrimination, hatred of a national, racist, or religious nature, or territorial separatism. Organizations of ethnic minorities can also field candidates in elections if they meet requirements similar to those for political parties. The law defines ``national minorities'' as only those ethnic groups represented in the Council of National Minorities. The law requires that the organizations that are not represented in the parliament meet requirements that are more stringent than those of minority groups already represented in parliament. Such organizations must provide the Central Electoral Bureau a list of members equal to at least 15 percent of the total number of persons belonging to that ethnic group according to the most recent census. If 15 percent represents more than 20,000 persons, then at least 20,000 names from at least 15 counties plus the city of Bucharest, with no fewer than 300 persons from each county, must be submitted. While the law does not restrict women's participation in government or politics, societal attitudes presented a significant barrier. There were 38 women in the 334-seat Chamber of Deputies and eight women in the 137-seat Senate. At year's end there was only one woman in the 17- member cabinet and no women among the prefects (governors) of the 42 counties. According to the constitution, each recognized ethnic minority is entitled to have one representative in the Chamber of Deputies if the minority's organization cannot obtain the 5 percent of the votes needed to elect deputies outright, but only if the organization in question gets 10 percent of the average number of votes nationwide necessary for a deputy to be elected. Organizations representing 18 minority groups received deputies under this provision. There were 49 members of minorities in the 471 seat parliament, nine in the upper house and 40 in the lower house. At the end of the year, there were four members of minorities (all ethnic Hungarians) in the 17-member cabinet. Ethnicity data was not available for members of the Supreme Court. Ethnic Hungarians, represented by the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR) party, were the only ethnic minority to gain parliamentary representation by passing the 5 percent threshold. Only one Romani organization, the Roma Party-Pro Europe, was represented in parliament. Low Romani voter turnout due to lack of awareness, means, or identity cards further exacerbated the situation. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Authorities' ineffective response to corruption remained a focus of intense public criticism, political debate, and media scrutiny throughout the year. Transparency International noted in its 2009 Corruption Perceptions Index that EU membership had reduced pressure on the government to deal with corruption. NGOs and the media continued to note that no major case of high-level corruption had yet resulted in judgments involving prison sentences. While there were some convictions of lower-level officials for corruption, there were five preliminary rulings and one final ruling, an acquittal, in cases of high-level corruption. The European Commission, in its latest progress report on justice sector reform in July, stated that ``the handling of high-level corruption trials by the courts, and in particular the celerity [swiftness] of court proceedings remain problematic.'' In addition the report stated ``the Romanian parliament's procedure of requesting to initiate investigations of former ministers appears to be neither uniform nor swift.'' The National Anticorruption Directorate (DNA) was responsible for investigating and prosecuting high-level corruption, including cases involving members of parliament and government officials. Both the head of the DNA and general prosecutor (attorney general) were considered effective. The DNA head was appointed to a second term in February. The general prosecutor was appointed to a second term in October. The DNA continued its coordination with antifraud units set up within various ministries. The Interior Ministry's Anticorruption General Directorate, which investigates alleged corruption within the ministry, maintained an anticorruption telephone hot line to receive tips regarding corrupt officers from the general public. The Antifraud Department attached to the prime minister's office continued to investigate cases involving the misuse of EU funds. The Ministry of Defense also maintained its own antifraud section. According to the European Commission, the system for allowing individuals to report suspected cases of corruption was neither accessible nor comprehensive, and implementation of rules to protect the confidentiality of whistle blowers was deficient. There was little progress made in 30 cases filed by the DNA involving former government ministers, deputy ministers, and members of Parliament, some due to the decision of the former parliament to block the investigation and to the dismissal of cases by the High Court of Cassation and Justice, and to the difficult judicial process. Of these, one case was initiated in 2005, nine in 2006, six in 2007, nine in 2008, and five in 2009. In 2007 the Constitutional Court declared that an ordinance permitting the DNA to initiate criminal investigations against former ministers without presidential or parliamentary authorization was unconstitutional. Such authorization was previously required only prior to investigations against current government members. In March 2008 the Constitutional Court resolved the dispute between the General Prosecutor's Office and parliament over the specific authorizations that were required for criminal investigations against former and current ministers. The court ruled that parliament must approve investigations against ministers who are sitting members of parliament, while the president would have to approve investigations of ministers who are not serving in parliament. In October 2008 the Constitutional Court lowered the number of votes needed from members of parliament to authorize criminal investigations against cabinet ministers. The law empowers the National Integrity Agency (ANI) to audit officials' declarations of assets, incompatibilities, and conflicts of interest. The law stipulates that the ANI can identify ``unjustified'' wealth, meaning that proof of illegal activity is required before an investigation may be initiated. The government amended the ANI law by emergency ordinance the same month it was created, lowering the standard of investigation to proof of unjustified wealth, defined as a change in assets that cannot be justified based on an official's legitimate sources of income. The ANI is authorized to examine annual asset declarations, but not bank accounts or other assets of individuals without their permission. Anonymous tips of an official's ``unjustified'' accumulation of assets cannot be used as grounds to initiate investigations, absent a decision by the head of the agency to initiate an ex-officio investigation. Some observers criticized vesting such discretionary authority in a single individual. There were reports that journalists and politicians attempted to influence the ANI president in relation to the conduct of investigations. The law provides for public access to government information related to official decision making; however, human rights NGOs and the media reported that the law was poorly and unevenly applied. Procedures for releasing information were arduous and varied greatly by public institution. On numerous occasions, NGOs and journalists took cases to court to obtain information. Although the government ordered the intelligence services to release the files of the Communist-era Securitate intelligence service, the powers of the National College for the Study of Securitate Archives (CNSAS) remained limited because of amendments attached to the CNSAS law in November 2008, which no longer entitled this body to issue verdicts that identify individuals as Securitate collaborators. There were reports that local authorities occasionally impeded journalists, NGOs, and the general public from accessing public information that could have proved detrimental to select political interests. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. However, there were some problems. After two NGOs, CRJ and Terra Millennium III Foundation, won a joint lawsuit against the Bucharest City government in April 2008 over the legality of a city construction project, the Bucharest mayor's office requested a court in July 2008 to dissolve the NGOs. In October the court ruled in favor of the NGOs. A 2008 law forbids NGOs to have names that could falsely associate them with authorities or public institutions of national or local interest. Some NGOs, such as the Romanian Academic Society (SAR), claimed that the law was aimed at harassing NGOs unpopular with government officials. The government cooperated during the year with international governmental organizations and permitted visits by UN representatives and other organizations. During the year there were visits by the UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights of Migrants (his findings will be included in a report to be released in 2010) and the EU Commission representatives to assess the situation of the judiciary. The latter released two reports (see section 1.e) The ombudsman's office to protect citizens' constitutional rights had limited power and no authority in cases requiring judicial action. The office handled 6,439 complaints during the first nine months of the year. The CNCD is an independent governmental agency that is under parliamentary control. By the year's end, the CNCD received 528 public complaints of discrimination and in 14 other cases the CNCD started an investigation ex officio. The CNCD resolved 340 of these complaints by the year's end. Of these cases, 95 involved alleged discrimination on the basis of nationality and ethnicity and eight involved discrimination on religious grounds. The CNCD received 62 complaints regarding discrimination against Roma and started investigation ex officio in four other cases. The antidiscrimination law provides fines for discriminatory attitudes ranging from 400 to 4,000 lei ($156-$1,560) for discrimination against individuals and approximately 600 to 8,000 lei ($140-$1,400) for discrimination against groups of persons or communities. The Ombudsman's Office and CNCD generally operated with the government's cooperation and without government or party interference. However, the CNCD's activity in the last four months of the year was blocked when the Parliament, because of political turmoil, failed to appoint members to CNCD's board. In addition neither agency received adequate resources. In general, the agencies enjoyed public trust. CNCD was generally regarded as effective, while most observers regarded the ombudsman's office as much less effective. Both CNCD and the Ombudsman's Office issue yearly activity reports. Both chambers of parliament have a human rights committee; since these committees were comprised of political party representatives, their recommendations often reflected parties' views. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law forbids discrimination based on race, gender, disability, ethnicity, language, or social status, among other categories. However, the government did not enforce these prohibitions effectively in some circumstances, and women, Roma, and other minorities were often subject to discrimination and violence. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal. The prosecution of rape cases was difficult because it required a medical certificate and a witness, and a rapist could avoid punishment if the victim withdrew the complaint. The successful prosecution of spousal rape cases was more difficult because the law requires the victim to personally file a criminal complaint against the abusive spouse and does not permit other parties, such as relatives or support organizations, to file a complaint on the victim's behalf. The law provides for three to 10 years' imprisonment for rape; the sentence increases to five to 18 years if there are aggravated circumstances. According to police statistics, 766 rapes were reported during the first nine months of the year. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, continued to be a serious problem, and the government did not effectively address it. The law prohibits domestic violence and allows police intervention in such cases; however, the law on domestic violence was difficult to apply because it contradicts the criminal procedures code and does not include provisions for the issuance of restraining orders. NGOs reported that domestic violence was common. According to the National Agency for Family Protection (ANPF), during the first nine months of the year, there were 9,868 reported domestic violence cases: 5,358 cases involved women; 2,191 involved men; the gender was not specified for the rest of the cases. During the same period, there were 77 cases of death as a result of domestic violence. According to a nationwide survey, conducted by the Center for Urban and Rural Sociology (CURS) in 2008, 21.5 percent of women reported being subjected to domestic violence at least once in their life, and 11.1 percent reported domestic violence during the year prior to the survey. While the criminal code imposes aggravated sanctions for violent offenses committed against family members, the courts prosecuted very few cases of domestic abuse. Many cases were resolved before or during trial when victims dropped their charges or reconciled with the accused abuser. In cases with strong evidence of physical abuse, the court can prohibit the abusive spouse from returning home. The law also permits police to fine the abusive spouse for disturbing public order. A total of 50 government- and privately-run shelters for victims of abuse provided free accommodation and food for periods of between seven days and three months, and 27 centers provided legal and psychological counseling. There were also two rehabilitation centers, two centers to inform and sensitize the population, and six counseling centers for perpetrators. However, the centers were insufficient and unevenly distributed, and some parts of the country lacked any kind of assistance. The ANPF worked in partnership with the Orthodox Diaconia Association to develop a project to counter violence against children, youth and women, as well as to protect victims, and vulnerable groups. The ANPF also concluded a protocol of cooperation with the Adventist ADRA Association to develop joint activities to prevent and stop domestic violence. Prostitution is illegal but was prevalent. Police generally limited their intervention to fining prostitutes for loitering or disturbing the peace. According to local media, there were anecdotal reports that sex tourism existed in Bucharest and other major cities. The law does not provide punishment for clients of prostitutes unless the prostitute was a minor and the client admitted knowing that fact before the act. The law prohibits any act of gender discrimination, including sexual harassment; however, public awareness of the problem continued to be low. No effective programs existed to educate the public about sexual harassment. The law guarantees the right to information, education, and services for reproductive health without any discrimination, as well as the right to access modern family planning methods. Under the law, HIV- infected persons have the right to confidentiality and to access adequate treatment. A 2007 National Health Program includes subprograms regarding increased access to reproductive health services. The same report noted that Roma women had a difficult time accessing reproductive health services. The Ministry of Health provides free-of- charge contraceptives to rural people, students, unemployed, and women who had an abortion in a public hospital. NGOs noted the absence of a national strategy regarding reproductive rights and the lack of sexual education in schools, and also noted the country witnessed a high number of teen pregnancies. The law grants women and men equal rights, including under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. In practice, the government did not enforce these provisions, and authorities did not pay significant attention or devote resources to women's issues. Women had a higher rate of unemployment than men and occupied few influential positions in the private sector. According to a 2007 Partnership for Equality Center survey, differences between the salaries of women and men continued to exist in most sectors of the economy. The survey indicated the most significant difference in industry, where the salary of men is over 60 percent higher than that of women. Generally, women had lower levels of education and worked in lower-paid jobs. NGO observers noted Romani women faced both gender and ethnic discrimination. Romani women often lacked the training, marketable skills, or relevant work experience to participate in the formal economy. According to a 2006 Open Society Institute (OSI) report, only 26 percent of Romani women interviewed were part of the workforce. The average monthly income of Romani women surveyed was 106 lei ($37).) The Roma Center for Health Policies SASTIPEN reported three cases of Roma women who were denied access to medical services by the same gynecologist at the hospital in Targu Neamt, Neamt County in May, July, and September. The cases were under investigation. Following the submission of complaints by SASTIPEN in September, an investigative commission and the Ethics Council of the Targu Neamt hospital, as well as the Doctors' Council of Neamt County investigated these cases. The investigative commission and the Ethics Council concluded in October that the doctor in question could not be accused of discriminatory acts and that the accusations against him were ungrounded and not backed by evidence. According to SASTIPEN, the two bodies considered only one of the cases and took the statement of the Romani woman while she was hospitalized to give birth, in the presence of three nurses subordinated to the doctor in question. The Romani woman declared in her statement that she was professionally treated by the doctor. Based on this statement, the Doctors' Council decided in October not to investigate the case. SASTIPEN challenged this decision and also filed complaints with the CNCD. In November SASTIPEN launched, jointly with the Bucharest-based Institute for Public Health, a one-year project to assess the access of Roma to public health care. The National Agency for Family Protection (ANPF) is responsible for advancing women's concerns and family policies. During the year the ANPF spent 5.963 million leu ($1.95 million ) for programs to prevent and counter domestic violence for victims and perpetrators. The law provides female employees reentering the workforce after maternity leave the right to return to the previous or similar position. Government grants helped support mothers, with 24 months of paid leave at 85 percent of the average wage and a monthly allowance for children. A report released in September by the Society of Contraception and Sexual Education (SECS) indicated, however, that on the labor market, pregnant women may suffer unacknowledged discrimination. Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth from at least one Romanian parent present in the country or abroad. Birth registration was not universal, and some children were denied public services as a result. The most common reason that some children were not registered at birth was that parents did not declare the child's birth to authorities. This was sometimes because parents lacked identity documents or residence papers or because the birth took place abroad in countries where parents were illegally present. Most such children have access to schools, and authorities assisted in obtaining birth documents for unregistered children. However, the education of such children depended on the decision of school authorities. Undocumented children also faced difficulties in getting access to health care. Conditions within the schools were often not conducive to learning. Observers noted no differences in the treatment or attendance of boys and girls at the primary, secondary, or post-secondary levels of education. Boys and girls enjoyed equal access to medical care. Child abuse and neglect continued to be serious problems, and public awareness of them remained poor. The media reported several severe cases of abuse or neglect in family homes, foster care, and child welfare institutions. According to the National Authority for the Protection of Children's Rights (ANPDC), during the first nine months of the year, child welfare services identified 9,195 cases of child abuse, neglect, and exploitation, resulting in providing rehabilitation services to 5,200 cases, medical services to 371 cases, educational services to 248 cases, and legal assistance to 3,831 cases. Of the 2,395 children who were abused during this period, 293 were separated from the abusive families. However, community-based social services remained unevenly distributed, raising serious concern that children and families lacked access to basic social services. There were also reports of mistreatment and neglect of physically disabled abandoned children in state institutions and of prolonged incarceration for misbehavior within state orphanages. On June 8, due to the negligence of the employees of a state institution for children in Jucu, Cluj County, in supervising a 12- year-old physically disabled girl, the latter took out the eyes of an 18-year-old paralyzed girl. In December the government merged the National Authority for the Protection of Children's Rights (ANPDC) with the National Agency for Family Protection (ANPF). The resulting body, the National Authority for the Protection of Family and Children's Rights (ANPFDC), covers both areas. Trafficking in girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation was a problem, representing 11 percent of females trafficked in the first half of the year. There also were isolated cases of children who prostituted themselves for survival without third-party involvement. The Criminal Code stipulates three to 10-year jail sentences for sexual acts with minors under the age of 15. The age for consensual sex is 15 years. The display, selling, dissemination, renting, distribution and production of child pornography is punishable by five to 10 years in jail and, if coercion is used, by 15 to 20 years in jail. While the law protects children from abuse and neglect, the government has not established a mechanism to identify and treat abused and neglected children and their families. The abandonment of children in maternity hospitals remained a problem, with 1,077 left in hospitals by their parents in the first nine months of the year, according to official statistics. According to the ANPCD, about 1,700 children were abandoned each year. NGOs claimed the official statistics did not accurately account for many abandoned children and that many children living in state institutions were never officially recognized as abandoned. In May the country adopted the common European telephone number 116-000 for reporting missing children, implementing a 2007 European Commission decision. The legal age of marriage is 18, but girls as young as 15 may marry in certain circumstances. Illegal child marriage was common within certain social groups, particularly the Roma. There was no estimate regarding the extent of the practice, and information about individual cases surfaced only from time to time in the media. According to ANPDC, at the end of September there were 916 homeless children nationwide. NGOs working with homeless children believed there were two or three times that number. NGOs noted that the number decreased only because the children have grown up, but that the individuals remained on the streets. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking; however, trafficking in persons continued to be a serious problem. The law defines trafficking as the use of coercion, including fraud or misrepresentation, to recruit, transport, harbor, or receive persons for exploitation, including slavery, forced labor, prostitution, being a subject in pornography, organ theft, or other conditions that violate human rights. For minors under the age of 18, it is not necessary to prove coercion. The country was a point of both origin and transit for trafficking in persons. While the majority of trafficking cases involved international trafficking between the country and Western Europe, particularly Italy and Spain, cases of domestic trafficking were also reported. Victims were trafficked for labor, sexual exploitation, and forced begging. In the first six months of the year, the government identified 343 victims of trafficking, a smaller number than in the same period of 2008 (1,211), of whom 164 were female, 179 were male. There were 63 minors who were victims of trafficking. For all of 2008 the government reported 1,211 victims of trafficking. Women between the ages of 16 and 25 were most at risk of becoming victims of trafficking for sexual purposes. Children were more likely to become victims of trafficking if they came from orphanages or single-parent homes or lived in a dysfunctional family environment (e.g., families with financial difficulties, abuse, or alcoholism). During the first half of the year there was an increase of 2 percent in the number of persons trafficked for sexual exploitation and a similar decrease in those trafficked for labor, though overall the number of male victims was higher than that of female victims. Fifty-one percent of the victims, most of them male, came from rural areas and were trafficked mainly for forced labor or begging. Government officials reported that small groups of citizens were the most common operators of trafficking rings; several domestic prostitution rings were also known to be active in trafficking victims into, through, and from the country. In recent years the number of women and minors involved in trafficking as recruiters has increased; however, the overall number of trafficking victims has decreased, a trend that continued during the year according to the National Agency against Trafficking in Human Beings (ANITP). Following the country's entry into the EU in 2007, the vast majority of trafficking victims left the country through legal means, eliminating the need for traffickers to rely on bribing officials to get trafficked persons out of the country. Traffickers used employment agencies and travel companies as fronts for their activities. It was not difficult for traffickers to obtain legal work papers for the victims they intended to traffic. Most women trafficked for sexual exploitation were recruited either by persons they knew or by responding to newspaper advertisements. The sentencing guideline for convicted traffickers is three to 12 years in prison. The law increases this sentence to five to 15 years for trafficking in minors, for multiple victims, if a victim suffers serious bodily harm or health problems, or if the trafficking is done by a public servant during his or her official duties. A sentence of 15 to 25 years is mandated for trafficking that leads to the death or suicide of the victim. These penalties are increased by two to three years if the trafficker belongs to an organized crime group and by five years if coercion is applied against minors. ANITP, which has 15 regional centers, was reorganized under the jurisdiction of the National Police, a move heavily criticized by NGOs out of concern the agency would lose its independence. The agency is responsible for collecting all information related to trafficking in persons and coordinating government efforts to combat trafficking and treat trafficking victims. Regional centers coordinated victim/witness cooperation with law enforcement and helped victims access social services. Foreign donors supported training programs on victim/witness coordination offered during the year. Such programs helped victims better negotiate the cumbersome judicial system and led to more frequent convictions of traffickers. However, victims continued to face discrimination from the society at large, especially in small villages, due to cultural biases against women who are victims of trafficking. During the year the ANITP further developed its national trafficking database to expedite identification of victims and improve victim assistance by implementing new statistics-gathering procedures. The law requires the government to protect trafficking victims, but implementation of the law remained weak and uneven. Reports of law enforcement officials losing contact with identified victims were common. Some identified victims reportedly chose not to press charges to avoid cumbersome judicial procedures. Although the government trained border police to encourage victims to identify themselves, few victims were willing to do so. A technical secretariat, established by ANDPC and charged with implementing a national action plan to fight child trafficking and exploitation, carried out activities related to repatriation, protection, and social reintegration of unaccompanied children in difficulty in other countries, regardless of whether such children were victims or offenders. During the year, the country's diplomatic missions reported that 367 unaccompanied children were identified in 20 European countries and the United States, a slight decrease over 2008, when 385 such children were identified. Most of these children were found in Italy and Spain. According to the ANPDC, by the end of the year, 115 of these children had been repatriated. Most of the other children were receiving child welfare services in the countries where they were found. During the year the government worked with domestic and international NGOs to build public awareness of trafficking risks and to improve the services offered to victims, developing three national awareness campaigns. Officials made public statements during the year about the trafficking problem. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against all persons in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other services. However, the government did not fully implement the law, and discrimination against persons with disabilities remained a problem. The law mandates accessibility for persons with disabilities to buildings and public transportation. In practice, the country had few facilities specifically designed for persons with disabilities; however, their number increased during the year. According to reports by human rights NGOs, the placement, living conditions, and treatment of patients in many psychiatric wards and hospitals did not meet international human rights standards and were below professional norms. During the year the Center for Legal Resources (CRJ) visited twice (March-April and August-September) 16 state institutions for mentally disabled (psychiatric wards and hospitals) in order to assess the situation of the observance of human rights. As compared to the previous years, the visits revealed a more open and cooperative attitude of the Ministry of Public Health, the public health departments, and the management of the state institutions for mentally disabled, allowing the CRJ's visits and implementing to a varying extent its recommendations. However, the management of some such institutions allowed the visits only with difficulty and failed to implement any of the CRJ's recommendations. The CRJ's findings in most such institutions included: overcrowding; insufficient qualification of institution staff; staff unawareness of the legal provisions regarding such institutions; shortage of staff, shortage of medication; insufficient food; violation of patient privacy; lack of activities; patient neglect; failure to observe patients' human dignity; failure to implement the procedures to resolve the patient complaints; failure to implement the regulations regarding involuntary institutionalizing and informed consent; patient unawareness of rights; ignoring the legal regulations regarding the use of detention and isolation for institutionalized people (e.g., patients were tied to their beds for long periods of time); excessive sedation of patients; poor hygiene conditions, lack of recreational programs. In September media reported that a patient of the psychiatric ward in Poiana Mare died, allegedly following the ingestion of a disinfectant. The hospital is known for its particularly poor conditions and the death of over 150 patients between 2002 and 2004. Despite repeated criticism and the government's intention to close the ward, the situation in this institution remained more or less the same, according to the CRJ. In December the CRJ filed a complaint with the ECHR regarding the death of five patients in 2004. In December the BBC broadcast a documentary secretly filmed in several state institutions for the disabled, including a Recovery and Rehabilitation Center in Carpinis, a Social Medical Unit in Ganesti, and an institution in the village of Bolintin, which revealed extremely low living conditions (dirty rooms and beds, severe cold, insufficient food rations and poor food quality), overcrowding, bed-bound sedated patients, shortage of medical staff, social assistants, care-takers, and medical treatment. In response, the government stated that the conditions found by the BBC team were not representative of the care system for people with disabilities and that two of the institutions visited by the BBC would be closed in the next three years. In a 2007 report, the CRJ documented violations of basic human rights in institutions for children and youth with mental disabilities, including the lack of adequate services, limitations of individual freedom, and placement of children under two years of age without mental disabilities in such institutions. While the government adopted an action plan regarding persons with mental disabilities in 2005, NGOs asserted that it failed to improve conditions in psychiatric institutions and had not implemented most aspects of the plan. The provision of community based mental health care services remained inadequate. The CRJ criticized the government for its treatment of children with mental and physical disabilities. Children reportedly were being detained in adult facilities. Some children were kept in permanent restraints, and abuse and neglect were commonplace throughout the country's mental institutions and health-care facilities. Some minors were sent to psychiatric hospitals without the consent of their legal guardians. According to human rights NGOs, there was no system to ensure that the rights of children with mental disabilities were observed in government-run care institutions. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Discrimination against Roma continued to be a major concern. Romani groups complained that police brutality, including beatings and harassment, was routine and that societal discrimination was pervasive. On March 2, the daily Jurnalul National initiated a campaign to collect signatures for a legislative proposal to use the pejorative word ``gypsy'' instead of ``Roma'' in order to avoid confusing this ethnic group with Romanians. The campaign died out after collecting an insufficient number of signatures to qualify as a legislative proposal. On April 15, the fans of Dinamo soccer team shouted anti-Roma slogans and displayed anti-Roma banners during a game between Dinamo and Rapid teams. Romani CRISS filed a criminal complaint with the prosecutor's office. On May 31, in Sanmartin, Harghita County, approximately 400 ethnic- Hungarian residents destroyed houses and cars in the local Roma community. The incident started after Roma beat two Hungarians who found Roma-owned horses grazing on their land. The Roma took refuge in the woods and, three days later, local residents set a Roma house on fire. According to media reports and NGOs, groups of residents continued to threaten Roma for several weeks after the initial incident. During this period, many Roma expressed fear about returning to the village and slept in the woods. Authorities tried to mediate the conflict and drafted a set of rules for future interethnic relations in the locality, but the rules were criticized by human rights and Roma NGOs for including obligations only for the Roma. Authorities also provided no help to the Roma who lived with their children in the woods for several weeks. At the year's end, according to Romani CRISS, the situation of the Roma in Sanmartin remained dismal; most had to sell their horses (their only source of income) as part of the agreement to be allowed to return to their homes. Furthermore, most of the community's Romani children did not attend kindergarten or school. On July 9, ethnic-Hungarian residents set fire to several stables belonging to the Roma community in Sancraieni, Harghita County, after the police freed a Romani man who had stabbed an ethnic Hungarian. Local authorities also drafted a protocol, to be signed by them and the Roma, which actually represented a set of 11 conditions for the Roma. Romani CRISS protested the manner in which this protocol was imposed on the Roma community. In July Iulian Urban, the vice president of the Senate's Legal Committee, drafted a similar protocol, including seven conditions for the Roma in Balotesti, Ilfov County, who allegedly had committed many crimes. A series of NGOs issued a letter of protest against the protocol. The CNCD is also investigating a complaint against Urban for posting anti-Roma messages on his blog. NGOs reported that Roma were denied access to, or refused service in, many public places. On May 23, Romani CRISS organized a test in Craiova, Dolj County, regarding the access of Roma to public places. A group of young Roma was denied access to five of the six bars/clubs they tried to enter. There were no developments in the investigation of the violent conflict between ethnic Hungarians and Roma in Apata village, Brasov County in 2007, where a group of ethnic Hungarians attacked a Romani neighborhood after having encountered Roma stealing crops from a farm. In May the government submitted a declaration to the ECHR admitting a series of violations of the European Convention on Human Rights and pledging to grant compensation amounting to approximately 565,000 euros ($393,800)to 24 Roma affected by mob violence in 1991 at Bolintin Deal. At this locale, a mob burned Roma houses and drove Roma out of the village after a Romani man stabbed and killed a villager. Media and NGOs criticized the government's implementation of a community development program in Hadareni. The government was to rebuild the houses of Roma destroyed in 1993 when, following a killing committed by a Romani man, a mob killed four Roma and burned 14 homes. NGOs criticized the program's lack of financial transparency and poor management. The Romani population was estimated at between 1.8 and 2.5 million, although the most recent official census in 2002 reported 535,000 Roma, or 3 percent of the country's population. An August 2008 government survey estimated that the Romani population represented 5.7 percent of the total population, or approximately 1.2 million persons. According to NGOs, prior government figures were low because many Roma either did not reveal their ethnicity or lacked any form of identification. Roma faced persistent poverty and had poor access to government services, few employment opportunities, high rates of school attrition, inadequate health care, and pervasive discrimination. According to the 2007 Roma Inclusion Barometer, 23 percent of Roma were illiterate and 95 percent did not complete high school. NGOs and the media reported that discrimination by teachers and other students against Romani students served as an additional disincentive for Romani children to complete their studies. As in prior years, there were reports of Romani children being placed in the back of classrooms, of teachers ignoring Romani students, and of unimpeded bullying of Romani students by other schoolchildren. In some communities, authorities placed Romani students in separate classrooms from other students or in separate schools. During the year Romani CRISS continued to monitor the implementation of a 2007 Ministry of Education order forbidding segregation of Romani students and identified school segregation cases in Albeni, Corabia, Cugir, and Polovraci. The NGO also filed complaints with the CNCD in a case in Magheru, identified in the previous year, where a kindergarten teacher refused to enroll the twins of a Romani woman for several years. In December Romani CRISS launched the project ``We don't want monocultural education anymore,'' which will include 90 schools where students, parents, and the teaching staff will participate in inter-cultural activities. The NGO Ovidiu Rom worked to assist and encourage Romani children with the school enrollment process. The NGO also continued its national public awareness campaign ``scoala te face mare'' .''school makes you grea.'') to promote the importance of school enrollment to families and children. With regard to access to health care, Romani CRISS filed a complaint against a family doctor in the village of Vartop. The doctor allegedly refused repeatedly to treat Roma patients, or treated them superficially. Romani CRISS mentioned that in the maternity wards in Cluj and Galati there were instances when the hospital employees wrote ``gypsy'' in the children's birth certificate under the rubric ``nationality of the mother,'' even though these individuals were Romanian citizens. Romani CRISS filed complaints with the CNCD. According to a 2007 Open Society Institute (OSI) report, ethnic Roma were five times as likely as members of the majority population to live below the poverty line. The OSI also estimated that approximately 60 percent of Roma lived segregated from the majority population in communities with substandard housing and without basic governmental services, such as schools, adequate health care, running water, electricity, and waste disposal. Romani communities were largely excluded from the administrative and legal system. According to OSI research conducted in 2007, 4.9 percent of Roma lacked a birth certificate. Among non-Roma citizens, fewer than 1 percent lacked a birth certificate. Similarly, surveys in 2007 and 2008 indicated that between 1.9 and 6 percent of Roma lacked identity cards, compared to 1.5 percent of non-Roma. The lack of identity documents excluded Roma from participating in elections, receiving social benefits, accessing health insurance, securing property documents, and participating in the labor market. Roma were also disproportionately unemployed or underemployed. Stereotypes and use of discriminatory language against Roma were widespread; journalists and even high ranking officials frequently made discriminatory statements. On November 8, National Liberal Party (PNL) first vice president Ludovic Orban publicly referred to Roma using the pejorative stereotype ``gypsies,'' implying inferior people. The PNL president disassociated himself from Orban's statement. Several Romani and Human Rights NGOs filed a complaint with the CNCD. The government program to identify Roma without birth certificates or identification documents and help them obtain such documents ended because of lack of funding. Romani CRISS continued to offer limited support to such cases. Some NGOs criticized the government for inadequate and ineffective government assistance to the Roma. The government considered ethnic Hungarians to be the largest ethnic minority, constituting 1.4 million persons according to the 2002 census. In the Moldavia region, where the Roman Catholic Hungarian- speaking Csango minority resided, the community continued to operate government-funded Hungarian language school groups; 962 students in 14 localities received Hungarian-language classes during the 2009-10 academic year. Representatives of this ethnic group complained that the School Inspectorate of Bacau County rejected requests for Hungarian language classes in two other localities. In January the Association of Magyar Csangos from Moldavia withdrew the discrimination complaint it filed in May 2008 against the local priests in the village of Cleja, stating that the issue had been amicably settled. The Ukrainian minority, which resides in the northern part of the country and represents 0.3 percent of the population, complained about the danger of being assimilated because of the insufficient number of school classes in the Ukrainian language. They attributed the lack of language instruction to the shortage of funding and of specialized teaching staff. Some school directors opposed the establishment of such school departments. A 2007 study by the Institute of Public Policies and Romani CRISS identified the potential danger of online discrimination and hate speech, directed mainly against Roma and homosexuals, in discussion forums of four national dailies. On-line discrimination and hate speech continued to exist in discussion forums during the year. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation; however, NGOs reported that police abuse and societal discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons was common and that open hostility prevented the reporting of some harassment and discrimination. Members of the gay and lesbian community continued to voice concerns about discrimination in public education and the health care system. The government in its May 2008 statement before the Universal Periodic Review at the UN Human Rights Council stated that LGBT persons faced prejudice and discrimination. ACCEPT, an NGO supporting gay and lesbian rights, reported that the number of complaints by members of their community about harassment of gay men by authorities increased during the year. Several members reported that police and gendarmerie raids took place in public places known as meeting areas for gay men, and that police behavior was abusive. These raids mostly occurred in public parks, with police or gendarmes asking all men to show their identification, questioning them about the reason for their presence, making offensive comments regarding homosexuality, and threatening to arrest them. In most cases, the police officers or gendarmes fined those they encountered at these locations for allegedly committing obscene acts. On February 26, unidentified people beat and cut the hair of a transgender person in Bucharest. On March 17, taxi drivers reportedly verbally abused the same person. There were two officially-registered LGBT organizations, ACCEPT and LGBTeam. Other LGBT groups lacked legal status; these groups generally kept a low public profile. There were no reports of impediments to LGBT groups' activities. On May 23, approximately 300 persons participated in the annual ``march of diversity'' gay pride parade in Bucharest. Local authorities mobilized hundreds of police to protect the participants, and the parade ended without violent incidents. There were some claims that individuals who wanted to participate in or watch the parade were discouraged from doing so because of the police barricades. Meanwhile, the ``New Right,'' a neofascist group opposed to homosexuality and claiming Christian orientation, sponsored a ``march for normalcy'' antigay rally on the same day as the march for diversity, but at a different time and location, and chanted virulent antigay slogans. On the previous day, a number of NGOs organized a ``march for the family,'' ostensibly to oppose the gay pride march. There were no developments in the investigation of the violent incidents that took place at gay parades in previous years. A number of young men in police detention reported that police failed to protect them effectively from violence and harassment from other inmates who perceived then as being homosexual. In 2007 a Bucharest court ruled in favor of a person who accused a company of discrimination in access to services on grounds of sexual orientation. The person withdrew a prior complaint he filed with the CNCD. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS impeded access to routine medical and dental care, and authorities rarely enforced laws prohibiting this form of discrimination. Breaches of confidentiality involving individuals' HIV status were common and rarely punished. Observers noted widespread discrimination faced by children with HIV/AIDS and authorities' failure to protect them from discrimination, abuse, and neglect. Doctors reportedly often refused to treat children and youths with HIV/AIDS. Medical personnel, school officials, and government employees did not maintain confidentiality of information about the children, which caused the children and families to be denied services such as schooling. In some situations children and their parents were threatened by parents of other children to keep them out of school. There were also reports that children without any mental disability were placed in centers for children with mental disabilities because they were HIV-positive. Over half of HIV-infected adolescents were sexually active; they frequently experienced reduced access to facilities for reproductive health care and the prevention of HIV and sexually transmitted infections. The government provides universal access to antiretroviral therapy; however, stigma and discrimination against persons with HIV/ AIDS frequently impeded their access to education, medical care, government services, and employment. Fewer than 60 percent of HIV- positive children and adolescents attended some form of schooling. APADOR-CH criticized the National Administration of Penitentiaries for transferring all prisoners with HIV/AIDS, including those who are HIV-positive and did not require specific treatment, to the penitentiary hospital of Jilava and labeled this measure discriminatory and against EU standards. In September an NGO filed a complaint with the Doctors' Council in Iasi against a doctor who refused to issue a document required to assign a place in a student hostel to an HIV-positive student, arguing the risk of contamination. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--All workers, except certain public employees, have the constitutional right to associate freely and to form and join independent labor unions without prior authorization, and they freely exercised this right. However, employees of the Ministry of National Defense, most employees of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, most employees of the Ministry of Justice, prison personnel, and intelligence personnel were not allowed to unionize. The majority of workers belonged to one of the five main national trade union confederations. Approximately 40 to 50 percent of the workforce was unionized; however, that number continued to decline. The right to form unions was generally respected in practice, and many employers created enterprise-friendly unions. Union officials stated that union registration requirements stipulated by law were complicated but generally reasonable. However, unions objected to the requirement that they submit lists of prospective union members with their registration application. Since employers also had access to this list, union officials feared that this could lead to reprisals against individual employees, hindering the formation of new unions. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports of government interference in labor negotiations, trade union activities, collective bargaining, or strikes. While the law permits strikes by all workers except judges, prosecutors, some justice ministry staff, and employees of the intelligence service and the Ministries of National Defense and Internal Affairs, lengthy and cumbersome requirements made it difficult to hold strikes legally. Unions may strike only if all arbitration efforts have failed and if employers have been given 48 hours' notice. Unions complained that they must submit their grievances to government- sponsored arbitration before initiating a strike and that the courts had a propensity to declare strikes illegal. Companies may claim damages from strike organizers if a court deems a strike illegal. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides workers the right to bargain collectively, but government control of many industrial enterprises and the absence of independent management representatives at these entities hindered collective bargaining. Only enterprises employing more than 21 persons can negotiate collective agreements. Approximately 80 percent of the workforce was covered by collective labor contracts at the branch and unit levels. The main employers' associations, trade unions, and the government concluded a national collective labor contract for 2007- 2010. However, contracts resulting from collective bargaining were not consistently enforced. National collective labor contracts are negotiated every four years. The wages of public employees were guided by a minimum wage stipulated by law and a pay scale specific to each ministry that was based on that ministry's annual budget. The law has specific provisions against antiunion discrimination, which were generally respected. However, the International Trade Union Council (ITUC) reported that some companies, including foreign companies, employed tactics such as spreading antiunion propaganda, intimidating trade union members, and making employment conditional on a workers' agreement not to join a union. There are no exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's six free-trade zones and 31 disadvantaged zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Persons, primarily women and children from Romania, Moldova, Colombia, and France, were trafficked within and to the country for forced prostitution, begging, and petty theft. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, the government did not consistently enforce them in practice. Child labor and child trafficking remained problems. The minimum age for employment is 16 years, but children may work with the consent of parents or guardians at age 15. Minors are prohibited from working in hazardous conditions. On July 29, a law on the prohibition of hazardous child labor was approved. The law provides a basis for the elimination of hazardous work for children and includes a list of dangerous work and sanctions for offenders. Parents whose children carry out hazardous activities are required to attend parental education programs or counseling and can be fined between 100 and 1,000 lei ($34 to $340) for failure to do so. Persons who employ children for hazardous tasks can be fined between 500 and 1,500 lei ($172 to $517). Minors over the age of 15 who are enrolled in school are also prohibited from performing activities included on a list approved in 2007 pursuant to an EU directive. Children under the age of 16 who work have the right to continue their education, and the law obliges employers to assist in this regard. Children aged 15 to 18 may work no more than six hours per day and no more than 30 hours per week, provided that their school attendance is not affected. In practice, however, reports indicated that many children did not attend school while working. Minors cannot work overtime or during the night, and they have the right to an additional three days of annual leave. Child labor, including begging, selling trinkets on the street, and washing windshields, remained widespread in Romani communities, especially in urban areas. Children engaged in such activities were as young as five. The National Authority for the Protection of Children's Rights (ANPCD), under the Ministry of Labor, Family, and Equal Opportunities, has the lead role in monitoring and coordinating all programs for the prevention and elimination of the worst forms of child labor. There were 925 confirmed cases of child labor reported in 2008, 544 of these were in urban areas and 381 in rural areas; 417 were girls and 508 were boys; 65.3% of the victims were under 14 years of age and 34.7 % between 15 and 18. The confirmed cases involved bonded labor (42 cases) begging (559), victims of domestic trafficking (28), victims of external trafficking (43), work without a labor contract (68), forced labor (32), prostitution (42), pornography (3) and other illicit activities (67). At the end of the first quarter of 2009, there were 415 confirmed cases of child labor, 257 in urban areas and 158 in rural areas. The cases involved 174 girls and 241 boys; 312 were under 14 and 103 were between the ages of 15 and 18. The ANPCD can impose fines and close factories for child labor exploitation. Enforcement tended to be lax except in extreme cases, despite what appeared to be clear cases of child labor, and there were no reports of anyone being charged or convicted during the year under the child labor laws. Employers who violated child labor laws were generally fined; in practice, judges did not consider violations of the child labor law to be crimes. The law requires schools to immediately notify social services of children missing classes to work. Social services are authorized to work with schools to reintegrate such children into the educational system. The government conducted information campaigns to raise awareness among children, potential employers, and the general public. The government also made considerable progress in establishing mechanisms to gather information and monitor child labor trends. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--Beginning in January, the gross minimum wage was 600 lei ($207) for a full-time schedule of 170 hours per month, or approximately 3.75 lei ($1.29) per hour. The minimum wage for skilled workers was 20 percent higher. The minimum wage is negotiated by unions, the Government of Romania (Ministry of Labor, Family, and Equal Opportunities), and employers' associations every year. The minimum monthly wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Criteria for calculating the minimum wage are based on the average salary rather than in relation to the minimum basket of consumption. Minimum wage rates were generally observed and enforced by the Ministry of Labor, Family, and Equal Opportunities. In practice, many employers paid supplemental salaries under the table to reduce both the employee's and employer's tax burdens. However, this practice negatively affected employees' future pensions and their ability to obtain commercial credit. The law provides for a standard workweek of 40 hours or five days. Overtime is to be paid for weekend or holiday work, or work in excess of 40 hours, which may not exceed 48 hours per week averaged over one month. The law requires a 24-hour rest period in the workweek, although most workers received two days off per week. The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Equal Opportunities effectively enforced these standards. Union leaders complained that overtime violations were the main problem facing their members, as employees were often required to work more than the legal maximum number of hours and overtime compensation required by law was not always paid. This was especially prevalent in the textile, banking and finance, and construction sectors. Union officials alleged that a majority of on the job accidents occurred during such compulsory, uncompensated overtime. The law provides penalties for work performed without a labor contract in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy. Employers who use illegal labor may be jailed or fined up to 100,000 lei ($34,500). The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Equal Opportunities is responsible for establishing and enforcing safety standards for most industries but lacked trained personnel to do so effectively. Employers often ignored the ministry's recommendations, which were usually only applied after an accident occurred. Workers had the right to refuse dangerous work but seldom invoked it in practice. __________ RUSSIA The Russian Federation has a centralized political system, with power concentrated in the presidency and the office of prime minister, a weak multiparty political system, and a bicameral legislature (Federal Assembly). The Federal Assembly, which is dominated by the ruling United Russia party, consists of a lower house (State Duma) and an upper house (Federation Council). The country has an estimated population of 142 million. International observers reported that the March 2008 election for president was neither fair nor free, and failed to meet many international standards for democratic elections. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of federal security forces, except in some areas of the North Caucasus, where there were serious problems with civilian control of security forces. There were numerous reports of governmental and societal human rights problems and abuses during the year. Direct and indirect government interference in local and regional elections restricted the ability of citizens to change their government through free and fair elections. During the year there were a number of high profile killings of human rights activists by unknown persons, apparently for reasons related to their professional activities. There were numerous, credible reports that law enforcement personnel engaged in physical abuse of subjects. Prison conditions were harsh and could be life threatening. Corruption in law enforcement remained a serious problem, and many observers, including some judges and law enforcement personnel, asserted that the executive branch influenced judicial decisions in some high-profile cases. Security services and local authorities often conducted searches without court warrants. Government actions weakened freedom of expression and media independence, particularly of the major television networks. Eight journalists, many of whom reported critically on the government, were killed during the year; with one exception the government failed to identify, arrest, or prosecute any suspects. Beating and intimidation of journalists remained a problem. The government directed the editorial policies of government-owned media outlets, pressured major independent outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassed and intimidated journalists into practicing self-censorship. The government limited freedom of assembly, and police sometimes used violence to prevent groups from engaging in peaceful protest. In some regions the government limited freedom of association and restricted religious groups. There were instances of societal discrimination, harassment, and violence against religious minorities. Manifestations of anti-Semitism continued during the year, but the number of anti-Semitic attacks decreased. Corruption was widespread throughout the executive, legislative, and judicial branches at all levels, and officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The government restricted the activities of some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), making it difficult for them to continue operations. Violence against women and children, including domestic violence, remained a significant problem. Trafficking in persons also continued to be a significant problem. There was some governmental and widespread societal discrimination against ethnic minorities and dark-skinned immigrants or guest workers. During the year xenophobic, racial, and ethnic attacks and hate crimes, particularly by skinheads, nationalists, and right-wing extremists, continued to be a significant problem. Instances of forced labor were reported. The North Caucasus region of Russia remained an area of particular concern. The government's poor human rights record in the North Caucasus worsened, as the government fought insurgents, Islamist militants, and criminal forces. Local government and insurgent forces reportedly engaged in killing, torture, abuse, violence, politically motivated abductions, and other brutal or humiliating treatment, often with impunity. In Chechnya, Ingushetiya, and Dagestan, the number of extrajudicial killings and disappearances increased markedly, as did the number of attacks on law enforcement personnel. Authorities in the North Caucasus appeared to act outside of federal government control. Although the Chechen government announced a formal end to counterterrorist operations, there was an increase in violence during the summer, which continued through the remainder of the year. Federal and local security forces in Chechnya, as well as the private militia of Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov, allegedly targeted families of suspected insurgents for reprisal and committed other abuses. There were also reports of rebel involvement in bombing civilian targets and politically motivated disappearances in the region. Some rebels were allegedly involved in kidnapping for ransom. According to the Internet- based news agency Caucasian Knot, 342 members of law enforcement agencies lost their lives and 680 were injured during the year in actions involving insurgents. Thousands of internally displaced persons lived in temporary centers in the region that failed to meet international standards. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were reports that the government or its agents committed politically motivated killings and other arbitrary killings. In most cases the government did not punish the perpetrators. During 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found a total of 37 violations by the country with respect to the prohibition on deprivation of life and 41 violations involving lack of effective investigation as provided under article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights. On April 27, police major Denis Yevsyukov, the head of the Tsaritsino police precinct in southern Moscow, who was off-duty, but in uniform, shot nine persons while drunk, killing two. A Moscow court on May 5 charged Yevsyukov with murder, attempted murder, and possession of an illegal firearm; these charges could carry a life sentence. The incident led President Medvedev to fire the Moscow police chief and four other high-level police officials. In the aftermath of the incident, human rights activists stated their belief that some police officers considered themselves to be above the law. The government began implementing reforms of the police, including additional firings and guidelines for police behavior. During the year, a number of prominent human rights activists and journalists were killed by unknown persons, apparently for reasons related to their professional activities (see section 2.a.). Many of the killings were related to the conflict in the North Caucasus (see section 1.g.). On January 5, Shafiq Amrakhov, the editor of the online news site Ria 51, died in a Murmansk hospital six days after he was shot in his apartment. On January 19, an unknown assailant shot and killed human rights lawyer Stanislav Markelov and journalist Anastasia Baburova in central Moscow in broad daylight. The attack occurred shortly after Markelov gave a press conference criticizing the early parole of Colonel Yuriy Budanov, who in 2000 raped and strangled an 18-year-old Chechen girl (see section 1.g.). In November authorities arrested two alleged neo- Nazis, Nikita Tikhonov and Yevgenia Khasis, and charged them with murder in the case, making this the only significant case of police action following the murder of a human rights activist. Also on January 19, a 20-year-old activist, Anton Stradymov, was found beaten to death near the Bykhino Metro station in Moscow. Stradymov was a member of the National Bolshevik group. He had also participated in a number of ``dissenters' marches,'' a form of political opposition protest begun in 2006. At year's end there were no reports that the authorities were investigating the killing. On March 30, Sergey Protazanov, a journalist for the newspaper Grazhdanskoye Soglasie, died after he was attacked by unknown assailants in the Moscow suburb of Khimki on March 28. Neighbors found his body covered in blood and bruises. Protazanov's colleagues said he had been working on a story about (?)legal violations during the last election for the head of the local administration. Local authorities, however, asserted that Protazanov died of alcohol poisoning and denied that the bruises found on his body were related to his death. There was no investigation to determine the cause of death. In late June Vyacheslav Yaroshenko, editor in chief of the Rostov- on-Don newspaper Korruptsiya I Prestupnost (Corruption and Crime) died after a severe beating by unknown assailants on April 29. The journalist's colleagues believed he was killed in revenge for his investigative reporting on corruption among local authorities. On July 15, several men abducted and killed the prominent journalist and human rights activist Natalia Estemirova, who worked in Chechnya for the NGO Memorial. Estemirova had spent more than 10 years documenting cases of killings, torture, and disappearances, which she linked to Chechen authorities. She had received a number of threats, including a direct threat from Chechen president Kadyrov. A month after the killing, Kadyrov made disparaging comments about Estemirova in a radio interview. President Medvedev stated that it was ``obvious'' that the killing was connected with Estemirova's work and ordered an immediate investigation to find the perpetrators. In October, following delays in the preliminary investigation, an anonymous law enforcement representative issued a statement that there were no leads in the case. No arrests in the case had been made by year's end. On August 11, unknown assailants shot and killed Abdulmalik Akhmedilov, a journalist for the Dagestani newspaper Khakikat (The Truth), in Makhachkala. Akhmedilov had criticized federal forces and local law enforcement officers for suppressing religious and political dissent, and he was also known for his investigative reporting into recent assassinations of Dagestan officials. No arrests were made in the case by year's end. On October 25, unknown gunmen in Kabardino-Balkaria shot and killed Maksharip Aushev, a prominent Ingush human rights activist, as he was driving in his car. Aushev had earlier owned the Web site Ingushetiya.org (previously Ingushetiya.ru), one of whose former owners, Magomed Yevloyev, was also killed while in police custody in Ingushetiya in August 2008. Aushev had announced an end to his opposition activities when Yunus-Bek Yevkurov became Ingushetiya's president and had joined a human rights council established by Russian Federation Ombudsman Vladimir Lukin. On December 17, a car bomb injured Aushev's pregnant widow and killed Aushev's mother-in-law and two brothers-in-law. Yevkurov promised a vigorous investigation in both cases, but no arrests had been made by year's end. In December other members of Aushev's extended family in St. Petersburg went missing. On November 16, Olga Kotovskaya of Kaskad TV in Kaliningrad fell to her death from the 14th floor of a building. Kotovskaya had just won a court case to regain control of her television station, which had a reputation for objective news reporting and live broadcasts of studio guests who were sometimes critical of regional leaders. Officials initially claimed her death was suicide but a week later opened a criminal investigation for murder. Press freedom activists, as well as a deputy in Kaliningrad's regional parliament, stated their belief that Kotovskaya was murdered because of her work. The investigation had not yielded any leads by year's end. In November former Hermitage Capital lawyer Sergei Magnitsky died in a Moscow prison in a case of what some observers considered to be deliberate medical neglect (see section 1.c.). On November 16, a well-known Russian antifascist activist, Ivan Khutorskoi, was shot and killed by unknown persons in Moscow. On December 10, Russian investigators announced that Gennadiy Prudetskiy, the director of the charity Social Defense for Victims of Repression, had been shot and killed in his car in the Siberian city of Kemerovo. Investigators stated that they believed the killing could be related to the victim's work at the local charity. No arrests had been made by year's end. On June 30, a court convicted one police officer of murder and two others of ``abuse of office'' for the November 2008 killing of Armen Gasparyan, whom the officers beat, then burned to death. The officers had been trying to force Gasparyan to confess to a theft. There was no indication that authorities were investigating the October 2008 abduction and killing in Dagestan of Muslim religious scholars Saihadji Saihadjiev, Nustap Abdurakhmanov, and Akhmed Hadjimagomedov. Saihadjiev's family obtained his body, which showed signs of severe torture. The Ministry of Defense reported 14 deaths as a direct result of hazing during the year. As in past years, human rights observers noted that few of the persons accused in such incidents were prosecuted or otherwise held accountable. However, in September the NGO Committee of Soldiers' Mothers reported that the Office of the Military Prosecutor had improved its prosecution record during the year. Both government and rebel forces committed extrajudicial killings in the conflicts in the North Caucasus region (see section 1.g.). There were no indications that authorities were investigating reports from Human Rights Watch (HRW) and other sources that hundreds of civilians were killed in the areas under the control of Russian forces in Georgia during the August 2008 conflict in South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe stated in its September report that it ``cannot accept the apparent reluctance of both Georgia and Russia to investigate in a credible manner serious allegations of violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed in the course of the war, as well as in its aftermath, by their own forces, or militia and civilians under their de facto control and jurisdiction.'' b. Disappearance.--There were numerous reports of politically motivated disappearances during the year in connection with the conflicts in the Northern Caucasus (see section 1.g.). There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances that were not related to the North Caucasus conflicts. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits such practices; however, there were numerous, credible reports that law enforcement personnel engaged in torture, abuse, and violence to coerce confessions from suspects, and there were allegations that authorities did not consistently hold officials accountable for such actions. Reports of such treatment were particularly numerous in connection with the conflict in the North Caucasus (see section 1.g.). There were also a number of reports of physical abuse of political and human rights activists by unidentified assailants. During 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found seven violations by the country of the prohibition on torture, 63 violations by the country of the prohibition on inhuman or degrading treatment, and 11 violations by the country involving lack of effective investigation as provided under article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Although prohibited in the constitution, torture is not defined in the law. As a result, prosecutors could charge police suspected of torture only with exceeding their authority or simple assault. Although numerous, credible sources reported that the police remained one of the country's least trusted institutions, the NGO National Anticorruption Committee reported in June that the government had made some positive steps towards curbing corruption and abuse by law enforcement officers. These measures included equipping patrol cars with video cameras to better monitor law enforcement actions and requiring police officers to have their names sewn onto their uniforms. Physical abuse of suspects by police officers usually occurred within the first few hours or days after arrest. Some of the methods reportedly used included beatings with fists, batons, or other objects; oxygen deprivation using gas masks or bags (at times filled with Mace); electric shock; and suspension by body parts, for example, by the wrists. A 2008 report by Amnesty International documented numerous cases of alleged torture. A February report by the human rights ombudsman noted that one third of the complaints submitted to his office involved human rights violations by law enforcement authorities. On April 30, the relatively independent television channel REN-TV reported that police held Nizhniy Novgorod resident Aleksey Yakimov and tortured him for several hours. According to Yakimov, police tried to drown him after he threatened to sue them for unjustified detention. Yakimov subsequently spent a week in a hospital recuperating from his injuries. There was no indication that authorities took action against the officers involved in the incident. There was no indication that authorities were investigating the April 2008 police beatings of several young men near the Sokolniki metro station in Moscow. Reports by refugees, NGOs, and the press suggested a pattern of police beatings, arrests, and extortion of persons with dark skin or who appeared to be of Caucasus, Central Asian, African, or Romani ethnicity. In April prisoners' rights groups held a press conference attended by government representatives, at which they detailed six serious incidents of beating and other abuse of prisoners between May 2008 and April 2009 in the oblasts of Tver, Vladimir, Chelyabinsk, and Kaluga, the Republic of Mordovia, and the autonomous okrug of Khantiy-Mansisk. At the conference organizers showed a secretly filmed clip of severe abuse at one of the prisons, which they had passed to news organizations. Only one television outlet, REN-TV, broadcast the clip, but many viewers reportedly watched it on YouTube. During the year there were a number of cases of unknown assailants attacking human rights activists and critics of government policies and institutions. On April 1, human rights activist and former parliamentarian Lev Ponomarev was attacked outside his home. He attributed the attack to his human rights activities, in particular to his criticism of the prison system. He had received numerous threats in the past. However, authorities attributed the attack to street ``hooliganism.'' On April 12, Stanoslav Yakovlev, a member of the Solidarity opposition party, was attacked and beaten while attending a rally opposing military conscription. Solidarity sources suggested that the attack was orchestrated by nationalist groups. On July 25, unknown assailants shot and seriously injured Albert Pchelintsev, a local anticorruption activist and freelance journalist from the Khimki region of suburban Moscow. Pchelintsev had written articles that accused the Khimki administration of corruption. Colleagues said he had received numerous threats in connection with his publications. The issue of corruption among local officials was also connected to the serious 2008 beating of fellow journalist Mikhail Bekhetov. As of year's end, authorities had not identified or arrested suspects in either attack. On November 17, 37-year-old lawyer Sergei Magnitsky died in the infirmary of Moscow's Butyrsky Prison. Magnitsky had worked as a lawyer for Hermitage Capital, an investment fund that accused Interior Ministry officials Artyom Kuznetsov and Pavel Karpov of stealing 5.4 billion rubles ($179 million) in a tax fraud scheme. After Magnitsky gave testimony in court in 2008 against Kuznetsov and Karpov, officials charged and arrested him on tax evasion charges that many observers believed were fabricated. After a year in pretrial detention, Magnitsky developed an infection in his pancreas but was refused medical treatment and died. The official report of his cause of death was heart failure, which was widely considered to be a false diagnosis intended to hide the decision to deny him medical treatment. A number of human rights activists believed Magnitsky's death to have been either deliberate or the result of an attempt to pressure him to change his testimony against Kuznetsov and Karpov. In the aftermath of Magnitsky's death, there were a number of official investigations into treatment of prisoners, and more than 20 officials in the prison system were fired. In December, the Justice Ministry announced a formal criminal investigation into Magnitsky's death, but no one had been criminally charged by year's end. In May 2008, following a public outcry and the intervention of the human rights ombudsman, prison authorities moved former Yukos Oil Company vice president Vasiliy Aleksanyan to a hospital. Aleksanyan, who was charged with assisting Yukos in tax evasion in 2006 but never tried, was HIV positive and had been diagnosed with lymphatic cancer and tuberculosis. Following protests by human rights activists, the ECHR in December 2008 ruled that the country had violated Aleksanyan's rights and that he must be freed on bail. Aleksanyan was accordingly freed and bail was set at 50 million rubles ($1.7 million). Some commentators found the bail to be excessive, while others criticized the long wait for his release, noting that upon release he was too weak to move. In August, a Moscow court ruled that he was sufficiently healthy to stand trial. The Russian Research Center for Human Rights reported a few instances in which psychiatric diagnoses were used against individuals who expressed dissatisfaction with authorities. Officials and the courts interpreted the law as restricting the provision of expert testimony in court cases to the government's own consultants. However, a council of experts within the Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman in some cases assisted persons whom it considered to have been treated improperly by the courts. In July the Constitutional Court ruled that confinement in a psychiatric clinic was tantamount to detention and that such confinement may not continue for more than 48 hours in the absence of court authorization. On March 6, Vadim Charushev, an antifascist activist and founder of a popular Internet group that addressed issues such as the country's role in the Ukrainian famine and the 2008 conflict in Georgia, was allegedly placed in a St. Petersburg psychiatric hospital involuntarily. The hospital reportedly warned him that he would not be released unless he signed a form stating that he had voluntarily checked himself in. Charushev was released on March 30 after apparently agreeing to do so. The Russian Independent Psychiatric Commission ruled that there had been no violations in Charushev's case. Human Rights Ombudsman Vladimir Lukin concurred with the ruling, although he stated that concerns about possible abuse were justified, considering the country's history in this area of medicine. On May 25, following a court examination that revealed no psychological problems, authorities released Sergey Cherepovsky, a defense lawyer who had been sentenced to a psychiatric ward in September 2008 by the Oktyabrsky District Court in Penza. Cherepovsky was arrested in July 2008 and accused of using violence against an official who tried to stop him from filming in a court building the alleged harassment of his client, Valery Bychkov, a Penza city council member and local official of Gary Kasparov's United Civic Front. In December police arrested the deputy head of the Khabarovskiy Krai Prosecutor's Office, Viktor Basov, for allegedly raping three juvenile girls. Although the girls suffered numerous bruises, Basov claimed that the acts were consensual. An investigator opened a criminal case against Basov, but the Khabarovsk Krai chief prosecutor refused to proceed. The investigators appealed this decision; there were no further developments reported at year's end. Also in December, police arrested a traffic officer for allegedly sexually assaulting 20 persons in southern Moscow. Various abuses against military servicemen continued, including ``dedovshchina,'' the violent hazing of junior recruits in the military and security services. Although military authorities hoped that the transition towards a more professional military and the reduction of conscripts' term of service to one year might have an impact on this problem, soldiers serving on contracts reportedly replaced senior soldiers as the main source of hazing. Such mistreatment often included beatings or threats of increased hazing to extort money or material goods. During the year regional committees of the NGO Committee for Soliders' Mothers (CSM) reported receiving 9,523 complaints of hazing mistreatment of servicemen from 20 regions of the country, approximately the same number as in 2008. The complaints mostly concerned beatings, but also included sexual abuse, torture, and enslavement. Soldiers often did not report hazing to unit officers or military prosecutors due to fear of reprisals, since in some cases officers allegedly tolerated or even encouraged hazing as a means of controlling their units. During the year, one in four hazing offenses was committed by an officer who tried to conceal the offense. Such cases were usually investigated only following pressure from family members, NGOs, or the media. In May Ombudsman Lukin presented a report to the State Duma detailing widespread hazing in the military. According to CSM, in rare instances during the year conscripts were forced into slave labor. On June 4, Moskovsky Komsomolets reported that a soldier had returned home after allegedly being sold into slavery by his commanders five years earlier. The 23-year-old soldier was reportedly white-haired and lame when he returned. Authorities denied the accusations and insisted that the soldier deserted his post in 2005. In October a military spokesman claimed that hazing cases decreased by 12 percent during year; however, hazing cases continued to be reported. On October 3, at a military base in the Kamenka village near St. Petersburg, three inebriated sergeants severely beat 16 conscripts and contract servicemen. Two soldiers left the base and reported the beatings. In December the commander of the Leningrad Military District ordered an investigation into practices at the base, and as a result eight officers were dismissed from the armed forces. On October 11, 19-year-old private Denis Kostenko of Volgograd died by hanging in his unit in Khabarovskiy Krai after four months of service. In connection with the case, two second-year sergeants were suspected of humiliating treatment of recruits; an investigation was underway at year's end. Also in October, four enlisted men from Chelyabinsk left their unit in the Amur Oblast and returned home after being violently hazed by senior soldiers. Medical examinations revealed numerous traumas, and their parents filed a criminal complaint. The human rights ombudsman, as well as the CSM, also stated that there was a growing problem with young civilian men being forced to sign contracts to serve in the military forces. The St. Petersburg branch of CSM noted an increase in reports of illegal impressments in August 2008, reportedly in connection to the conflict with Georgia. On June 3, Interfax reported that the practice was continuing, with Moscow police allegedly raiding several residences in and around Moscow State University and forcibly taking young male students to the draft office and coercing them to sign up for military service. There were approximately 15 complaints of such practices by the security services during the year. The CSM estimated that 30 percent of conscripts were forced into service in violation of their rights. There was evidence that military authorities made an effort to deal with the abuse problem. According to CSM research released in September, the military prosecutor accepted for adjudication approximately 80 percent of complaints from conscripts from January to September. In Volgograd and Nizhniy Novgorod, local branches of the CSM helped persuade military prosecutors to pursue cases in the courts. However, many of those convicted continued serving in the army under a ``conditional'' sentence. The chief military prosecutor announced in November that 800 officers had faced criminal charges in connection with hazing during the period from January to November. As in the past, hazing problems were reported to be particularly common in units that had previously served in areas of military conflict. Military authorities continued active implementation of First Deputy Prime Minister Sergey Ivanov's initiative to assign parent committees to military units and to form commissions that administer the military draft. By the end of 2007, parent committees were assigned to 142 military units and 12 military commissariats. During the year both government and rebel forces engaged in the conflict in the North Caucasus region reportedly tortured and otherwise mistreated civilians as well as participants in the conflict (see section 1.g.). There were no indications that authorities were investigating reports from HRW and other sources that numerous civilians were physically mistreated in the areas under the control of Russian forces in Georgia during the August 2008 conflict in South Ossetia and Abkhazia. A report publicly released on September 30 issued by the EU-funded Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia, widely known as the Tagliavini report, concluded that all parties to the conflict-Georgian, Russian, Abkhaz, and South Ossetian forces.''committed violations of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law,'' including indiscriminate attacks by Georgian and Russian forces, widespread looting and destruction of ethnic Georgian villages, mistreatment, rape, assault, hostage taking, and arbitrary arrests by South Ossetians, and the failure of Russian forces to prevent or stop such violations in areas under their effective control. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions remained extremely harsh and could be life threatening. The Ministry of Justice's Federal Service for the Execution of Sentences (FSIN) administered most of the penitentiary system from Moscow. According an official FSIN prison survey conducted in January, 887,500 persons were in custody, including 8,500 juveniles and 55,300 women. Of these, 734,300 were held in labor colonies and 144,700 in pretrial detention centers. Detainees were held in five basic forms of custody: temporary police detention centers; pretrial detention facilities (SIZOs); correctional labor colonies (ITKs); prisons, designated for those who violate ITK rules; and educational labor colonies (VTKs) for juveniles. Abuse of prisoners by other prisoners continued to be a problem. Violence among inmates, including beating and rape, was common. There were elaborate inmate-enforced caste systems in which certain groups, including informers, homosexuals, rapists, prison rape victims, and child molesters were considered ``untouchable'' (the lowest caste) and treated harshly. Prison authorities provided little or no protection. In June opendemocracy.net reported on the existence of 12 special colonies in the Kirov Oblast, which it referred to as ``torture colonies,'' where prisoners were sent for ``bad behavior'' such as arguing with prison staff or demanding protection of their rights. Conditions in SIZO pretrial facilities varied considerably, but many remained extremely harsh and posed a serious threat to health and life. Health, nutrition, and sanitation standards remained low. Poor ventilation was thought to contribute to cardiac problems and lowered resistance to disease. Overcrowding was common, and the Federal Prison Service reported that approximately 158,000 suspects were being held in pretrial detention facilities designed to house 130,000. Most convicted prisoners were imprisoned in ITKs. These facilities provided greater freedom of movement than SIZOs; however, at times guards humiliated, beat, and starved prisoners. The country's prisons, distinct from ITKs, are penitentiary institutions for those who repeatedly violate the rules in ITKs. Federal standards call for a minimum of four square meters (approximately 43 square feet) per inmate. Widespread overcrowding remained a problem; however, the NGO Penal Reform International reported some progress in meeting this standard. President Medvedev moved to reduce the prison system's chronic overcrowding problem by issuing more pardons than his predecessor, and in August the government implemented a broader use of punishment short of prison for persons convicted of lesser crimes. In recent years official statistics have generally recorded several thousand prisoner deaths per year in SIZOs. Penal Reform International reported that from 2007 to 2008, the mortality rate increased by 3.7 percent. Most preventable deaths resulted from poor sanitary conditions or inadequate medical care, but there were press reports of prisoners who were mistreated, injured, or killed by other prisoners or, in some instances, prison staff. The number of inmates infected with tuberculosis and HIV increased. According to FSIN data, as of January 795,000 inmates, or nearly 90 percent of persons incarcerated in the federal prison system, had some type of illness. Approximately 400,000 inmates had mental disorders, 40,000 had active tuberculosis, 42,000 had HIV, 46,000 were drug addicts, and 26,000 were chronic alcoholics. Tuberculosis infection rates were far higher in detention facilities than in the population at large. In May 2008 guards in a Chelyabinsk prison killed four inmates while using excessive force to end a riot. In January eight prison employees of the IK-1 (penal colony number 1) in Kopeysk, Chelyabinsk Oblast, were subsequently charged with brutality for beating inmates to death. In October investigators in Chelyabinsk charged the head of the Oblast's FSIN, Vladimir Zhidkov, with deliberately covering up the killings. Zhidkov faced either a fine of 200,000 rubles ($6,613) or a prison term of two years. The case continued at year's end. As of June 1, 62 VTKs held 8,500 juvenile prisoners. Conditions in the VTKs were significantly better than in the ITKs, but some juveniles in the VTKs and juvenile SIZO cells reportedly suffered from beatings and rape. While juveniles were generally held separately from adults, there were two prisons in Moscow and one in St. Petersburg where children and adults were not separated. In 2008 tDuring the year he ECHR found that the country violated the European Convention on Human Rights in five cases involving the improper housing and transporting of prisoners. Human rights observers were able to visit most of the country's penal institutions; however, according to the NGO For Human Rights, of 765 prisons, officials did not allow human rights observers or defense attorneys to enter the 41 institutions with the worst records of such abuses as torture or collective punishment. Since 2004 authorities have refused to grant the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) access under its standard criteria to persons detained as part of the conflict in Chechnya, and the ICRC has suspended its detention visits to these institutions. However, human rights groups visited extralegal detention centers in Chechnya and other locations in the North Caucasus, where they documented continuing abuses. Persons convicted for minor offenses may often spend six months in prison before having a chance at parole. On June 30, President Medvedev signed a law allowing courts to reduce the sentence of a defendant who agrees to cooperate with authorities to no more than one half of the maximum sentence for the crime to which he confesses, with the exception of crimes punishable by life imprisonment or death. In cases of life imprisonment, the sentence is capped at no more than 13.5 years. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, in practice they remained problems. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Federal Security Service, and the Office of the Prosecutor General are responsible for law enforcement at all levels of government. The Federal Security Service's core responsibilities are security, counterintelligence, and counterterrorism, but it also has broader law enforcement functions, including fighting crime and corruption. The Federal Security Service operated with little oversight by the prosecutor general or the courts. The national police force, under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, is organized at the federal, regional, and local levels. Although there are laws and regulations against corruption, corruption was widespread, and there were few crackdowns on illegal police activity. During the first nine months of the year, according to the investigative branch of the Office of the Chief Prosecutor, the number of cases opened against law enforcement officials for abuse of their positions increased over the same period in 2008. In November Novorossiysk Ministry of Internal Affairs Major Aleksey Dymovskiy made a video request to Prime Minister Putin to address widespread corruption among law enforcement officers. Authorities did not investigate Dymovskiy's allegations, and he was later was charged with abuse of office and fraud. During the year there were many cases of individuals detained in the Georgian separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia on charges related to their ``illegal'' crossing of the administrative boundary line with undisputed Georgian territory. Russian Border Guards, who began administering the boundary lines in May, carried out many of those detentions by enforcing boundary-crossing rules imposed by de facto authorities, but then generally handed custody of the individuals over to the de facto authorities. In most cases the individuals were released within a few hours or days. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--By law an individual may be taken into custody for up to 48 hours without court approval if arrested at the scene of a crime, provided there is evidence of the crime or a witness. Otherwise a court-approved arrest warrant is required. After their arrest detainees are typically taken to the nearest police station, where they are informed of their rights. Police are required to write an official protocol stating the grounds for the detention, which is to be signed by the detainee and the police officer within three hours of detention. Police must interrogate the detainee within the first 24 hours of detention. Prior to interrogation the detainee has the right to meet with an attorney for two hours. No later than 12 hours after detention, police must notify the prosecutor. They must also notify the detainee's relatives unless a prosecutor issues a warrant to keep the detention secret. Police are required to release a detainee after 48 hours, subject to bail conditions, unless a court decides to prolong custody in response to a motion filed by police no later than eight hours before the expiration of the 48-hour detention period. The defendant and attorney must be present at the court hearing. By law police must complete their investigation and transfer the case file to a prosecutor for arraignment within two months of a suspect's arrest, although a court may extend a criminal investigation for up to six months in cases classified as complex. With the personal approval of the prosecutor general, a judge may extend that period up to 18 months. Legal limitations on detention were generally respected outside of the Northern Caucasus; however, there were exceptions. There were reports of occasional violations of the 48-hour limit for holding an arrestee. At times authorities failed to write the official protocol of detention within the required three hours after the actual detention and held suspects longer than the legal detention limits. In addition, there were reports that police, in obtaining defense counsel for detainees, obtained defense counsel friendly to the prosecution. These ``pocket'' defense attorneys agreed to the interrogation of their clients in their presence while making no effort to defend their clients' legal rights. The general ignorance of legal rights on the part of both defendants and their legal counsel contributed to the persistence of these violations. In many cases, especially in more remote regions, defense counsel was not available for indigent defendants. Judges occasionally suppressed confessions of suspects if they were taken without a lawyer present. They also at times freed suspects who were held in excess of detention limits, although they usually granted prosecutors' motions to extend the detention period for good cause. The Supreme Court overturned a number of cases in which lower court judges permitted prolonged detention on what the Supreme Court deemed inadequate grounds. Authorities selectively detained and prosecuted members of the political opposition. In August Yabloko youth leader Ilya Yashin was arrested and held briefly during a protest against obstacles Yabloko faced in gathering signatures for the October Moscow City Duma elections. In August the ECHR ruled that a court had violated the rights of Sergey Medvedev, a member of the prohibited National Bolshevik party, who had been kept in pretrial detention for two years before a sentence of disorderly conduct was passed. In April Interior Minister Rashid Nurgaliyev signed a decree allowing human rights groups to monitor conditions of arrest and detention for pretrial detainees. However, the decree lacked firm instructions on a mechanism to implement the plan, leaving authorities with discretion as to whether to cooperate. The decree also required that officials be present during any discussions of conditions with prisoners. The liberal newspaper Noviye Izvestiye reported in October that the law had achieved mixed results, with some prison officials highly cooperative and others obstructionist, although in the latter case human rights advocates attributed much the problem to lack of education among prison officials about the new law. Amnesty.--On March 12, Ingush president Yunus-Bek Yevkurov announced an amnesty for participants in ``illegal militant groups'' on the condition that they gave themselves up voluntarily and had not participated in serious crimes. Yevkurov stated that he had received approval from the federal government for this decision and added that he was ready for dialogue with insurgents. Several days prior to the announcement, he had announced a ``financial'' amnesty for officials accused of corruption in the republic. Neither amnesty policy had had a noticeable impact at year's end. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judicial branch did not consistently act as an effective counterweight to other branches of the government. Judges remained subject to influence from the executive, military, and security forces, particularly in high profile or politically sensitive cases. The law requires judicial approval of arrest warrants, searches, seizures, and detentions. This approval was generally honored, although the process of obtaining the judicial warrants was occasionally corrupted. An investigation committee, which is located within the Office of the Prosecutor General but whose chief is appointed directly by the president, oversees the investigation of many serious cases. Despite increases in judges' salaries, including an 8.5 percent raise in 2008, reports of judges being bribed by officials and others continued. In December 2008 the Supreme Qualifying Collegium of Judges reported that during the last four years, an average of 70 judges per year were removed from office while approximately 300 warnings per year were issued for a variety of offenses, including unreasonable length for processing cases, alcohol-related and other lapses of behavior, and conflicts of interest/corruption related issues. Authorities did not provide adequate protection for witnesses and victims from intimidation or threats from powerful criminal defendants. In May the Ministry of Internal Affairs estimated that nearly half of the approximately 10 million witnesses in criminal cases suffered threats or violence from criminal elements; they noted that the existence of the witness protection program was little known among the population. In an August article in Profile magazine, the Ministry of Internal Affairs estimated that 5.5 million witnesses in current cases required protection; however, it acknowledged that in the first six months of the year, they had only succeeded in providing this help to 834. In February a Moscow judge, Olga Kudeshkina, publicly criticized Moscow's judicial system, alleging widespread improper influence on rulings and calling it an ``instrument for settling political, commercial, or personal scores.'' She was subsequently dismissed from her position. She appealed her case to the ECHR, which in August awarded her 10,000 euros ($14,300). The judiciary is divided into three branches. The courts of general jurisdiction, including military courts, are subordinate to the Supreme Court. They hear civil and criminal cases and include district courts, which serve every urban and rural district, and regional courts. Decisions of the lower trial courts can be appealed only to the immediately superior court unless a constitutional issue is involved. An arbitration (commercial) court system under the High Court of Arbitration constitutes a second branch of the judicial system. Arbitration courts hear cases involving business disputes between legal entities and between legal entities and the state. The Federal Constitutional Court (as well as constitutional courts in a number of administrative entities) constitutes the third branch. Justices of the peace in localities deal with criminal cases involving maximum sentences of less than three years and with some civil cases. Justices of the peace work in all regions except Chechnya. In May the State Duma passed a law proposed by President Medvedev that allows him to appoint the head, deputy head, and court secretary of the Constitutional Court directly and that extends these officials' terms in office from three to six years. Judicial experts stated that the law contradicts the principle of judicial independence. The president approves judges after they have been nominated by the qualifying collegia, which are assemblies of judges and some members of the public. Judges (except for the judges on the three highest courts, the Constitutional, Supreme, and Higher Arbitrazh Courts) have heretofore been subject to a one-time, three-year ``probationary period'' that they had to complete satisfactorily before their term was made for life (although subject to mandatory retirement at age 70). After the probationary period was criticized as potentially undermining the independence of new appointees, President Medvedev signed a law in July that abolished the probationary period to remove this potential threat to the independence of the new appointees. The powers wielded by chief judges (who are presidential appointees) over their courts still permit encroachment by the chief judges on the independence of individual judges. In June the Council of Europe issued a report, based on interviews with judges, prosecutors, defense lawyers, and defendants, which asserted that judges routinely received intimidating telephone calls from superiors instructing them how to rule in specific cases, with particular emphasis placed on delivering convictions at any cost. The report stated that defense attorneys were frequently threatened and that corporations were at the mercy of corrupt law enforcement officials. Among the cases detailed in the report was one of a Moscow region judge who was dismissed and told publicly by a United Russia Duma deputy that she ``ought to be shot'' after voiding the results of a local election. In November the human rights ombudsman reported that most of the complaints that his office received in the previous year involved alleged violations of human rights during criminal court proceedings. In December, two Constitutional Court judges resigned in protest over what they stated was the justice system's lack of judicial independence. Trial Procedures.--Trials typically are conducted before a judge without a jury (bench trials). The defendant is presumed innocent. The defense is not required to present evidence and is given an opportunity to cross-examine witnesses and call defense witnesses. Defendants who are in custody during the trial are confined to a caged area and must consult with their attorneys through the bars. Defendants have the right of appeal. The law provides for the use of jury trials for a limited category of ``especially grave'' crimes, such as murder, in higher-level regional courts. During the year the ECHR on multiple occasions found the country in violation of provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights with regard to trial procedures. In 2008, the latest year for which statistics were available, the court found 159 violations by the country involving the right to a fair trial and 20 violations involving proceedings that exceeded a ``reasonable'' length of time. There has been a trend to further limit the use of jury trials. In December 2008 the State Duma enacted, and the president signed, a law providing that certain crimes, including terrorism, espionage, hostage taking, and mass disorder, would be heard by panels of three judges rather than by juries. Supporters of the legislation justified it on the grounds of the war on terrorism and juries' alleged incompetence to judge cases involving terrorism, espionage, and state security. They also alleged that clan relations in the North Caucasus made it impossible to empanel objective juries there. Although the competence of jury trial participants, including advocates for both parties and to some extent judges, remained a serious concern to domestic and international observers, critics described the legislation as a violation of the constitution and a major step backwards in the protection of individual liberties. No further action was taken during the year on a draft law introduced in the State Duma in December 2008 that would substantially expand the definitions of espionage and treason. The draft law caused serious concern among some lawyers, human rights activists, and government officials who claimed that, if enacted, the law would provide virtually unfettered discretion to security forces to charge almost anyone who had any contact with foreign governments or international organizations or persons with treason. In February, after consulting with the newly reconstituted Presidential Council on Human Rights, President Medvedev announced that the draft law would be revised to reflect these concerns. The law had not been discussed further by year's end. The government substantially increased the use of plea bargaining in criminal cases, and plea agreements increased from 10,000 in 2002 to more than 380,000 in 2007, the most recent year for which statistics were available. Plea bargains reduced defendants' time in pretrial detention, reduced the average prison sentence by one third, and allowed the courts and prosecutors to devote their resources to other cases. Some critics of law enforcement practices expressed fears that plea bargaining is subject to abuse by the authorities. Prior to trial, defendants are provided a copy of their indictment, which describes the charges in detail. They are also given an opportunity to review the criminal file following the completion of the criminal investigation. Defense attorneys were allowed to visit their clients in detention, although conditions reportedly made it difficult for attorneys to conduct meaningful and confidential consultations with their clients. The law provides for the appointment of an attorney free of charge if a suspect cannot afford one; however, this provision was often ignored in practice. The high cost of competent legal service meant that lower-income defendants often lacked competent representation. There were few defense attorneys in remote areas of the country. Public centers, staffed on a part-time basis by lawyers, continued to offer free advice on legal rights and recourse under the law; however, they were not permitted to handle individual cases. The federal government funded a limited experimental system of legal assistance for indigent persons in 10 regions. According to the NGO Independent Council of Legal Expertise, defense lawyers were the targets of police harassment. Professional associations at federal and local levels reported efforts by police to intimidate attorneys and cover up their own criminal activities. Authorities often abrogated due process in pursuing espionage cases involving persons, including foreigners, who allegedly obtained information that security services considered sensitive. In some instances prosecutors pursued such cases after earlier courts had rejected them. The proceedings in some of these cases took place behind closed doors, and the defendants and their attorneys encountered difficulties in learning the details of the charges. Some human rights observers contended that the Federal Security Service pursued these cases to discourage citizens and foreigners from investigating problems that the security services considered sensitive. In March, two scientists published an article in Novaya Gazeta accusing the government of deliberately targeting scientists on spurious spying charges. According to the article, more than 20 scientists had been detained without grounds in recent years. The article's authors alleged that the Federal Security Service groundlessly arrested the scientists for spying to create the impression that the government was protecting the country from foreign enemies. One of the scientists was Igor Reshetina, the former head of Tsniimash Export, who has been in custody since 2005 on charges of transferring precision engineering technology to a Chinese corporation in violation of state export controls. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Human rights organizations and activists identified the following individuals as political prisoners: Aleksey Sokolov, Zara Murtazaliyeva, Valentin Danilov, Igor Sutyagin, Mikhail Khodorkovskiy, and Platon Lebedev. All remained imprisoned at year's end. On May 13, authorities arrested Aleksey Sokolov, the head of the Sverdlovsk-based NGO Legal Basis, for allegedly participating in a burglary in 2004. Legal Basis investigated allegations of torture in penal colonies in Yekaterinburg and Tyumen as well as of corruption among senior FSIN officials in the Sverdlovsk Oblast. In February, Sokolov received an invitation from the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation to join the chamber's observation commission in the Sverdlovsk Oblast. At the same time Sokolov began receiving warnings that local authorities would ``find a reason'' to imprison him if he continued his human rights work. After his arrest, Sokolov was taken to an undisclosed location and denied access to his family and his lawyer. On July 31, the Sverdlovsk provincial court ruled that Sokolov's detention had been unlawful and ordered him released. However, the local prosecutor immediately opened a new case against Sokolov for allegedly stealing welding equipment, based entirely on the testimony of two inmates serving sentences for unrelated crimes. HRW alleged that the two inmates accused him after being mistreated in the prison. The court barred observers from attending an August 2-4 hearing on the legality of Sokolov's arrest and extended Sokolov's detention. The date for his release on bail was first set for October 23 and then moved to November 6. However, law enforcement officials refused to release him on November 6 and continued to bar him from meeting with family members. A November 23 hearing found the extensions of Sokolov's detention to be valid but did not provide a legal explanation. Zara Murtazaliyeva of Chechnya, a 23-year-old insurance worker with no history of involvement with extremism, continued serving a nine-year sentence handed down in 2004 for allegedly preparing a terrorist attack in Moscow. Murtazaliyeva's defense lawyers and human rights defenders who monitored her trial maintained that the charges against her were fabricated, and some considered her a political prisoner. Appeals to the Presidium of the Supreme Court and the ECHR in 2005 were pending at year's end. Valentin Danilov continued serving a 13-year prison sentence for allegedly transferring classified technology to China, although colleagues and supporters asserted that the information in question was declassified over a decade before his arrest. Igor Sutyagin, a disarmament researcher with the Institute for U.S. and Canadian Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, convicted in 2004 on espionage-related charges, continued serving a 15-year sentence in a maximum security prison for allegedly passing classified information about the country's nuclear weapons to a London-based firm. Former Yukos owners Mikhail Khodorkovskiy and Platon Lebedev continued to serve eight-year prison sentences following their 2005 convictions for fraud, tax evasion, and embezzlement. At the end of February, authorities moved Khodorkovskiy and Lebedev from Chita to Moscow, where, on March 3, a second trial against them began on new charges of money laundering and tax evasion; convictions could extend their imprisonment to as long as 15 years. The second trial continued at year's end. The defendants, as well as a number of observers, questioned the validity of the new charges, calling the amount of oil allegedly stolen unrealistic; they asserted that the money allegedly stolen from Yukos had covered its operating expenses and been invested, and they noted that it was illogical to combine the initial charges of tax evasion with the second charges alleging stolen assets. There was a mix of opinions as to whether due process was being followed in the second trial. One representative of the International Bar Association, who observed the case through the year, stated his opinion that the trial was being conducted properly in terms of following procedures to protect defendants' rights. However, other observers continued to raise concerns about due process. On December 23, the Russian Supreme Court ruled that the 2003 decision to arrest and detain Lebedev was illegal, in keeping with a 2007 ECHR ruling. The ruling indicated only that the first two months of Lebdev's six years to date of incarceration were illegal. In April gazeta.ru reported that, during the second Khordokovskiy/ Lebedev trial, authorities blocked video testimony from former Yukos manager Antonio Valdez-Garcia. Valdez-Garcia, who claimed he was staying abroad for his safety, alleged that he returned to the country in 2005 to give evidence in the Yukos case, but when he failed to accuse Khodorkovskiy and Lebedev, investigators beat and threatened him. The arrest, conviction, and subsequent treatment of Khodorkovskiy raised concerns about due process and the rule of law, including the independence of courts and the lack of a predictable tax regime. Some observers believed that, while the charges against Khodorkovskiy may have had some merit, he was selectively targeted for prosecution because of his political activities and as a warning to other oligarchs against involvement in political or civil society issues or providing financial support to independent civil society. On April 21, after a year-long public campaign for her release that garnered more than 100,000 signatures, a Moscow court released former Yukos lawyer Svetlana Bakhmina. In 2006 Bakhmina was convicted of tax evasion and embezzlement and sentenced to seven years in prison, reduced on appeal to six and a one-half years. Some human rights groups had considered Bakhmina a political prisoner and claimed that she was held in an attempt to pressure Dmitriy Gololobov, her former superior at Yukos, to return from London. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law permits an individual or business to seek civil compensation for a criminal violation. The law also provides for bringing a criminal or civil case on human rights violations, but implementation was inconsistent. Property Restitution.--Restitution of religious property seized by the Communist regime remained a problem, particularly for Muslim and Protestant groups. Many properties used for religious services, including churches, synagogues, and mosques have been returned, but efforts to secure the return of other property continued, and the return of property originally used for schools and other functions not strictly linked to worship has been more difficult to achieve. The Russian Orthodox Church had greater success reclaiming prerevolutionary property than other groups, although it still had disputed property claims, including claims to 30 properties in Moscow alone. The church also continued to face property difficulties concerning the Yaroslavl Kremlin. By January 1, all of the religious buildings at the Yaroslavl Kremlin had been returned to the Russian Orthodox Church except for the main cathedral. During 2008 the church continued to try to reclaim a mansion on Moscow's Red Square that it alleged was expropriated in 1917, but the government has not enforced court rulings in the church's favor in the case. In 2006 Muslims in Beslan appealed to the Presidential Council for Cooperation with Religious Associations to return the historic Cathedral Mosque, which was occupied by a vodka bottling plant and a bottle washing shop, to the Muslim community. The Jewish community was seeking the return of a number of synagogues, religious scrolls, and cultural and religious artifacts, such as the Schneerson book collection, which authorities claimed as part of the country's cultural heritage. The Roman Catholic Church reported 44 disputed properties, including the Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral in Moscow. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and it forbids officials from entering a private residence except in cases prescribed by federal law or on the basis of a judicial decision; however, this prohibition was not always respected in practice. The law also prohibits government monitoring of correspondence, telephone conversations, and other means of communication without a warrant and prohibits the collection, storage, utilization, and dissemination of information about a person's private life without his or her consent. While these provisions were generally followed, there were allegations that government officials and others engaged in electronic surveillance without judicial permission and entered residences and other premises without warrants. In 2007 prosecutors brought several cases against law enforcement officers for illegal wiretapping. Illegal wiretapping charges were also brought against a former high-ranking member of the State Narcotics Control Service. The cases continued at year's end. Boris Kuznetsov, a prominent human rights lawyer, remained abroad after fleeing prosecution in 2007 for allegedly revealing state secrets after he presented a court with transcripts of conversations of a client he was defending that had been recorded by the Federal Security Service without court authorization. A number of human rights observers described the charges against Kuznetsov as politically motivated, since he had represented sensitive high-profile clients, such as the family of Anna Politkovskaya. In February 2008 Kuznetsov received political asylum abroad. He appealed to the ECHR, which reportedly accepted the case. In May a Moscow court began examining a request by the Investigative Committee of the General Prosecutor's office that the case be reopened in the hopes of securing Kuznetsov's extradition to face the charges against him. At year's end he remained abroad. Law enforcement agencies have legal access to telephone, including cellular company clients' personal information and require providers to grant the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Federal Security Service 24-hour remote access to their client databases. In past years some experts asserted that this access was unconstitutional; however, the practice has not been challenged in court. The government requires Internet service providers to provide dedicated lines to the security establishment, enabling police to track private e-mail communications and monitor Internet activity. On January 16, the Ministry of Information and Communication officially required telecommunications companies and Internet service providers to allow the Federal Security Service to tap telephone calls and monitor information over the Internet. The ministry maintained that no information would be accessed without a court order, but there was no way to verify whether authorities respected this restriction in practice. There were no new wiretapping cases during the year. On July 21, the Ministry of Communication issued a decree stating that law enforcement agencies would henceforth have the right to examine citizens' mail. They would also have access to a database of users of postal services, including their use of the services and their postal addresses. Human rights activists and the human rights ombudsman criticized the ruling as a violation of citizens' constitutional rights. A ministry representative stated to journalists that agents would be able to exercise these powers only in conjunction with a court decision, which they would need to receive within 48 hours of any mail check. However, observers noted that the condition that would permit the ministry to seek this authority, namely a ``threat to the state security of the Russian Federation,'' could be open to broad interpretation. On September 4, the investigative branch of the General Prosecutor's Office found the initiative to be unconstitutional. However, with the backing of the General Prosecutor's Office, a St. Petersburg journalist appealed the ministry's decree to the Constitutional Court; on September 14, the court upheld the constitutionality of the ministry's decree. Human rights observers continued to allege that officers in the special services abused their positions by gathering compromising materials on public figures. Regional branches of the Federal Security Service reportedly continued to exert pressure on citizens employed by foreign firms and organizations, often to coerce them into becoming informants. According to an HRW report detailing abuses by parties to the August 2008 conflict between Russia and Georgia, Russian forces were at times involved in looting and destruction, either as passive witnesses to abuses by Ossetian militias or providers of transport that enabled the militias to engage in such activities. There was no official response that addressed these allegations. Federal forces and progovernment Chechen forces reportedly abducted relatives of rebel commanders and fighters. g. Use of Excessive Force and Other Abuses in Internal Conflicts.-- During the year complex and interlocking insurgencies caused continuing instability in the North Caucasus, with a marked upsurge in incidents committed by government and insurgent forces during the year. Overall, there were increases in disappearances, killings, and other abuses. There were reports that federal and local security forces seeking to quell the insurgencies continued to use excessive force and to engage in human rights abuses, including torture, summary executions, disappearances, and arbitrary detentions. Authorities in the North Caucasus reportedly acted with impunity, and some observers alleged that the federal government had ceded de facto control of the region to local authorities. Rebels also continued to commit human rights abuses, including major acts of terrorism and summary executions. In Chechnya, although remnants of a nationalist insurgency persisted, the role and number of federal forces decreased considerably, leaving most security operations to local forces. On April 16, the National Antiterrorist Committee announced the formal end of counterterrorist operations in Chechnya along with plans to reduce federal forces there from 50,000 to 25,000. Subsequently, however, instances of violence increased. In the Republic of Ingushetiya, unrest worsened considerably. A counterterrorist campaign, initiated after an attempt on the life of President Yunus-Bek Yevkurov in June, was lifted upon Yevkurov's return to duties in August. In Dagestan, where there was a widening insurgency, a counterterrorist campaign was announced in August after an attack by militants on the central police barracks in Nazran. In Kabardino- Balkariya, a temporary counterterrorist regime was lifted on August 29, following the death of three militants in a firefight outside Nalchik. An HRW report released in September concluded that the central government had failed to act on any of the ECHR rulings that called on it to investigate specific human rights violations in Chechnya. According to the report, the court had issued 115 rulings relating to Chechnya, almost all of which found the country responsible for serious human rights violations and for failure to investigate the crimes. HRW researched 33 of the cases and found that the government had not brought a single perpetrator to justice, even in cases where the court named the persons allegedly responsible. Killings.--There were numerous killings related to the conflict during the year, including those committed by the government and by rebels. The NGO Memorial reported that, during the year, 30 civilians were killed in Chechnya, 14 civilians were killed in Dagestan, and 158 civilians were killed in Ingushetiya. Rebels engaged in many killings of government officials in the North Caucasus. Memorial noted that 342 law enforcement officers lost their lives during the year, and the Council of Europe stated that 142 members of the security forces were killed and 280 injured during the three summer months of 2009, the highest level of losses among the police and the army in four years. On September 29, Interior Minister Rashid Nurgaliyev reported that, in the first nine months of the year, 270 insurgents had been killed and 450 arrested in the North Caucasus. According to Dagestan's president, Mukhu Aliyev, 150 insurgents, including five foreigners, were killed in the republic, and 29 were detained. According to the Internet-based news portal Caucasian Knot, as a result of armed clashes and special operations, 177 suspected militants were killed, 213 were detained, and 16 surrendered in Chechnya. In Ingushetiya, 129 suspected militants were killed and 34 were detained. Indiscriminate use of force by government forces in areas of the North Caucasus with significant civilian populations resulted in numerous deaths. Security forces generally conducted their activities with disregard for due process, civilian casualities, and apparent impunity from investigation or prosecution for their conduct. Human rights organizations reported that there were more killings, attacks, and abductions of both officials and other citizens in Ingushetiya during the year than in any other republic in the North Caucasus. In June a suicide bomber attacked the motorcade of Ingushetiya's president, Yunus-Bek Yevkurov, leaving him in serious condition in the hospital. Yevkurov recovered and reassumed his duties in August. On January 13, assailants in Vienna shot and killed Umar Israilov, a former bodyguard of Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov and who later became a critic of Kadyrov's rule. Israilov had filed a complaint with the ECHR in which he stated that he had witnessed Kadyrov torturing prisoners and that Chechen authorities and Kadyrov had also beaten and tortured him and his family. At the time of the killing, opposition journalists described a ``hit list'' allegedly found in Kadyrov's residence containing the names of 5,000 persons considered threats to the president. On February 24, Polish authorities arrested a suspect in the Israilov killing and charged him in an unrelated case. As of year's end, Austrian police had arrested eight Chechens for suspected involvement in the case, but a trial had not yet taken place. On March 28, Sulim Yamadayev, a member of a powerful Chechen family that formerly had ties to President Kadyrov but subsequently became involved in high-profile disputes with him, was shot in Dubai and reportedly died there on March 30. On April 8, Dubai police issued an arrest warrant for Adam Delimkhanov, Kadyrov's cousin and a State Duma deputy with the United Russia party, and charged him with masterminding the shooting. On July 28, Sulim's brother, Isa Yamadayev, was attacked in his Moscow apartment. In March Natalia Estemirova, a prominent human rights activist and journalist, told The Los Angeles Times that she believed Kadyrov was orchestrating a campaign against the Yamadayevs to prevent the investigation of serious crimes committed in recent years in Chechnya by eliminating those who had useful information on the crimes. A few months later, on July 15, several men abducted Estemirova from outside her home in Grozniy, killed her, and left her body in neighboring Ingushetiya (see section 1.a.). On August 10, in Chechnya, five armed men abducted and killed charity workers Zarema Sadulayeva and Alik Dzhabrailov, who were married. The couple ran the Grozniy-based NGO Save the Generation, which helped Chechen children suffering from disabilities caused by the conflict. A witness said that three of the abductors wore uniforms and identified themselves as members of the local security services, saying that they would return with the couple. The bodies of Sadulayeva and Dzhabrailov were later found in the trunk of a car with multiple gunshot wounds. At the end of the year, the federal General Prosecutor's Office concluded that the assailants had killed Dzhabrailov because of his former activities as a militant and that Sadulayeva had died because of her proximity to Dzhabrailov. There were no arrests in the case. There were no reported developments in the December 2008 killing of three Chechen brothers, Zurab, Akhdan, and Alvi Ilaev, who were found dead with evidence of beating and torture after allegedly having been detained by local officials. Local NGOs took the case to the Chechen ombudsman. No developments were reported during the year in the 2007 police killings in Ingushetiya of suspected insurgent Ruslan Aushev, of Apti Dolokov in the town of Karabulak, of the brothers Said-Magomed Galayev and Ruslan Galayev, and of Albert Gorbakov in Malgobek. There were several developments in the September 2008 killing in central Moscow of Sulim Yamadayev's brother Ruslan, a former State Duma member, whose family had been involved in high-profile disputes with President Kadyrov. On January 27, Aslan Diliyev, an advisor to Kadyrov and former subordinate of Yamadayev in the Vostok battalion, already in custody for an unrelated 2006 shooting, was questioned in connection with the killing. Diliyev was released at the end of the year. On April 6, authorities arrested three suspects in the killing who had ties to Kadyrov's cousin, Adam Delimkhanov. In May the Ingush Prosecutor's Office declined to reexamine an earlier ruling that the detention of Magomed Yevloyev, who was killed by a police officer while in custody in August 2008, had been illegal, but it opened a wrongful death case in the Nazran District Court against the chief of Ingush security services, Ibragim Yevloyev. The Ministry of Internal Affairs had earlier ruled Magomed Yevloyev's death an accident. In December Ibragim Yevloyev was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, which human rights advocates criticized as overly lenient. Yevloyev, an owner of the opposition Web site Ingushetiya.ru, had been a sharp critic of corruption and electoral manipulation by Ingush authorities. A subsequent owner of the site fled the country in August and her successor, Maksharip Aushev, was shot and killed in October, after he had ceased to be the site's owner (see section 1.a.). No new developments were reported in the September 2008 killing of Telman Alishayev, a journalist from the Islam-focused TV Chirkey, in Makhachkala, Dagestan. In most cases security forces acted against civilians with impunity, and even the limited efforts by authorities to impose accountability failed. In January Yuriy Budanov, a former tank commander in Chechnya convicted of murdering an 18-year-old Chechen girl in 2000, was released on parole after serving just over half of a 10-year sentence. Chechen ombudsman Nurdi Nukhazhiyev publicly criticized the parole decision and stated that the remains of 67 persons had been found in a hole in the ground at the site where the subunits under Budanov's command had been stationed. Thousands of Chechens, along with human rights activists, participated in street protests against the decision, and lawyers for the victim's family unsuccessfully appealed the parole. At a September 2 press conference, human rights groups alleged that death squads had formed in Dagestan, abducting and torturing persons, especially young men, regardless of whether they had engaged in any threatening activity, and holding them in extralegal detention centers. They also alleged that local authorities were behind the creation of the death squads. The government offered no reaction to these charges. According to Caucasian Knot, rebels killed 342 law enforcement officers and injured 680 during the year in the North Caucasus. Caucasian Knot also quoted Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs Arkadiy Yedelev as stating that 235 law enforcement officers had died and 686 were wounded in clashes with insurgents. In Chechnya rebel killings of soldiers and civilians increased during the year. According to Caucasian Knot, from January to April 16, before the lifting of the counterterror regime in Chechnya, 28 persons (11 civilians, three police officers, and 14 militants) were killed. However, the killings continued after the declared end of counterterror operations, as 147 persons (31 civilians, 49 law enforcement officers, and 67 militants) were killed in Chechnya from April 16 through November. On March 21, a shootout between police and insurgents in a wooded area of Dagestan near the Georgian border left five officers and approximately 12 militants dead. On the previous day, police in Makhachkala, Dagestan shot and killed four men who failed to stop their car at a checkpoint and began shooting at officers. On March 25, a police officer was abducted and killed in the Vedeno region of Chechnya. Officials accused militant groups of organizing the abduction. On April 19, a grenade attack on the home of Criminal Police chief Alikhan Geroyev of Sunzhenskiy District, Ingushetiya, killed both him and his sister. Also in mid-April, an attack in Chechnya killed three Russian police officers. On June 5, an unidentified sniper, firing from a nearby building, shot and killed the chief of the Dagestan Ministry of Internal Affairs, Adilgirey Magomedtagirov, as he was attending the wedding of a subordinate's daughter. The shooters also injured the head of the ministry's administrative department, Abdurazak Abakarov, as well as eight police officers. Magomedtagirov had escaped several previous attempts on his life since taking office in 1998. On July 10, in Nazran, unknown assailants shot and killed Magomed Gadaborshev, head of the Ingush Republic's criminal investigation department. Two days later, the head of a city-level Ministry of Internal Affairs department, Isapil Ozdoeyev, was shot and killed while driving in Nazran. There were no new developments in either case at year's end. On July 26, a suicide bomber killed six persons and wounded 10 others while entering a concert hall in Grozniy, Chechnya, just minutes before the start of a play. Four police officers stopped the attacker outside the hall and died in the explosion. On August 12, an unknown assailant shot and killed Ingush construction minister Ruslan Amerkhanov. On August 17, a suicide bomber killed 25 persons and wounded 280, including 11 children, at an Ingush police station in a heavily populated part of Nazran. The event led President Medvedev to fire Ingushetiya's interior minister, Ruslan Meriyev. The attack came in the middle of a week in which 20 individuals were killed in sporadic clashes between militants and authorities, including an August 13 attack in which 10 men opened fire at a police post in the city of Buinaksk in Dagestan, killing four officers, and then shot and killed seven women in a nearby sauna. On September 1, a suicide attacker detonated a car bomb outside a police station in Makhachkala, killing one person and wounding 14, with five in critical condition. Five of the casualties, including the one who died, were police officers; the others were civilians. Radio Liberty, citing Russian press services, reported a number of clashes between rebels and security forces in the region in mid-October. Federal forces and their opponents continued to use antipersonnel mines in Chechnya. In 2008 Landmine Monitor reported 39 deaths and 171 casualties overall in the preceding three years from land mines and other unexploded ordnance. The number decreased in each of the three years, although Landmine Monitor stated that casualty numbers were often underreported. Abductions.--Government personnel, rebels, and criminal elements continued to engage in abductions in the North Caucasus. Officials and observers disagreed on the numbers or persons involved. Human rights groups believed that the numbers of abductions were underreported due to the reluctance of detainee's relatives to complain to authorities out of fear of reprisal. The NGO Memorial reported that during the year there were 90 kidnappings in Chechnya, while the NGO MAShR reported 234 disappearances in Ingushetiya and 31 disappearances in Dagestan. Allegedly, there was no accountability for government forces involved in abductions. There were continued reports that abductions were followed by beatings or torture to extract confessions and that abductions were conducted for political reasons. Criminal groups in the region, possibly with links to rebel forces, frequently resorted to kidnapping. On April 22, The New York Times reported the attempted kidnapping in Dagestan of Eldar Navruzov while he was walking home from work. In March 2008 Navruzov had allegedly been detained, beaten, and tortured by security services for alleged terrorism and extremism. Navruzov, a devout Muslim, was accused of membership in the Wahhabi sect, which has been deemed extremist by local authorities. He was in jail for 11 months before authorities dropped all charges for lack of evidence and released him in February. On June 19, Maskhud Abdullayev, the 22-year-old son of Chechen rebel leader Supyan Abdullayev, disappeared upon arriving in Moscow following deportation by Egyptian authorities. Maskhud Abdullayev and another Chechen student, Akhmed Azimov, were arrested in Egypt in security sweeps targeting foreign students after a February bomb attack there; Egypt deported four other Chechen students. Azimov was questioned at the airport in Moscow for several hours and released. Human rights activists asserted that Abdullayev was not connected with the Chechen rebels. In July a group of nine men, seven of whom wore camouflage uniforms and carried machine guns, abducted 26-year-old Batyr Albakov from his home in Ingushetiya, near the Chechen border. The men reportedly stated they were police officers from Nazran, but spoke Chechen among themselves. Eleven days later, police reported that Albakov had been killed ``in a shootout with authorities.'' When they returned Albakov's body to his family, it showed extensive signs of torture. Albakov's family denied that he had any rebel connections. The official who announced Albakov's death was Adam Delimkhanov, a cousin of President Kadyrov who was named as a suspect in the killing of Sulim Yamadayev. In early November a procurement and logistics assistant for the Danish Refugee Council, Zarema Gaisanova, was abducted from her home in Grozniy. Amnesty International asserted that law enforcement officials had carried out the abduction. Her whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On December 28, Caucasian Knot reported that two brothers and two uncles of slain activist Maksharip Aushev's widow had disappeared in St. Petersburg. Their whereabouts were unknown at year's end. There was no additional information on the whereabouts of Mokhmadsalakh Masaev, a Muslim preacher accused of ``salafism'' by authorities and abducted in 2008; of Ramaz Dibirov, Isa Isayev, and Muhamar Mammayev, who disappeared in 2007 in police custody; or of Vagap Tutakov, former member of the Ichkeria Parliament who was abducted by armed men. In December 2008 the ECHR found Russia to be responsible for the disappearance of Chechen Ruslan Kasumov in 2003 and awarded his family 37,000 euros ($53,000), but there was no information on compliance with this decision as of September. On May 28, the ECHR found the country in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights in the 2002 disappearance and death of Lech Basayev, Lema Dikayev, Khavy Magomadov, and Muslim Nenkayev, all of whom were detained in operations in Chechnya. In September 2008 human rights organizations and international media reported that the Chechen government began a widespread, concerted campaign of arson in villages and towns designed to punish families of suspected insurgents. Many of the attacks were accompanied by declarations that the homes were being destroyed as punishment. The campaign followed explicit threats announced by Chechen president Kadyrov and by Grozniy mayor Muslim Khuchiyev. During the campaign, Khamzat Dzeytov was arrested without explanation in November 2008 in the village of Pervomayskaya. At year's end, Dzeytov was awaiting trial in pretrial detention in Grozniy. Human rights activist Natalya Estemirova was working on a documentary on the arson campaign when she was killed in July (see section 1.a.). There were numerous reports that the Chechen government's arson campaign continued during the year, although there was no information available as to how its scale compared with that of the campaign in September 2008. The security forces under the command of Chechen president Kadyrov played an increasing role in abductions, either on their own initiative or in joint operations with federal forces. Human rights groups reported that these forces were frequently suspected of conducting disappearances and abductions, including those of family members of rebel commanders and fighters. Amnesty International reported that federal and Chechen security forces targeted female civilians, both in response to terrorist bombings carried out by Chechen women and to put pressure on male relatives suspected of being rebels. In the first four months of the year, the ECHR issued judgments that found Russia responsible in 25 cases involving the disappearance and presumed death of disappeared persons and for inhuman treatment of victims' families by refusing to provide information on their fate. In some cases appellants said they were offered settlements or threatened in an effort to have them drop their cases. Physical Abuse, Punishment, and Torture.--Armed forces and police units were reported to have frequently abused and tortured persons in holding facilities where federal authorities sorted out fighters and persons suspected of aiding rebels from civilians. In Chechnya and Ingushetiya, there continued to be reports of torture by government forces. In July 2008, 50 armed men, reportedly law enforcement officials, forcibly searched the home of Ingushetiya human rights activist Zurab Tsechoev without a warrant and abducted him. He was allegedly detained and beaten by officials, who questioned him about his work with the human rights NGO MASHR. Tsechoev was released, but there were no disciplinary measures against the abductors. There were no further developments in the 2007 cases of alleged torture and mistreatment by security officers of Shamsudi Khadisov, Ramzan Khasiyev, or Mihkail Akbulatov. There was no new information concerning the alleged torture in 2007 of Shakhid Ipayev or the mistreatment of Ramzan Khasiyev at a detention center in Chechnya. The trial of suspects in the 2005 attack on security service buildings in Nalchik, which began in October 2008, continued. Many of the persons accused alleged that they were singled out because of their religious beliefs and then, after the attack, arrested and tortured to extract confessions. HRW asserted that at least eight of the detainees were mistreated and that lawyers for five detainees were barred from representing their clients. On December 11, Kommersant reported that the trial would likely have to start again from the beginning, because Judge Galina Gorislavskaya had been reappointed to a different position. The defendants remained in detention at year's end. Government forces continued to abuse individuals seeking accountability for earlier mistreatment in Chechnya and to harass persons who had applied to the ECHR for the redress of grievances. Amnesty International and other human rights groups reported that reprisals against applicants to the court, included killings, disappearances, and intimidation. According to press reports and human rights NGOs, as of September at least six applicants to the ECHR had been killed or abducted. In a 2007 ruling the court emphasized that the relatives of disappeared persons and witnesses should be protected from intimidation and revenge. However, this practice continued during the year. Chechen Human Rights Ombudsman Nurdi Nukhazhiyev continued the practice of his predecessor in not cooperating with the area's leading human rights NGO Memorial. The Independent Commission on Human Rights in the Northern Caucasus, headed by the chairman of the State Duma Committee on Legislation, continued to hear hundreds of complaints, ranging from destruction or theft of property to rape and murder; however, the commission was not empowered to investigate or prosecute alleged offenders and referred complaints to military or civil prosecutors. Almost all complainants alleged violations of military discipline and other crimes by federal and Chechen Republic forces. Other Conflict-Related Abuses.--Throughout the year security forces continued to conduct security sweeps and passport checks at temporary settlements in Ingushetiya housing internally displaced persons (IDPs) from Chechnya (see section 2.d.). At times these sweeps reportedly led to human rights abuses or disappearances. In February the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHR) reported that Chechen authorities had begun visiting approximately 2,500 Chechen IDPs in 22 temporary shelters in Ingushetiya and urging them to return to Chechnya, sometimes with verbal threats. By June the Ingush branch of the Federal Migration Service had removed most Chechen IDPs from its beneficiary list. Human rights groups visited illegal detention centers in Chechnya and other locations in the North Caucasus, where they documented continuing abuses. Chechen Republic security forces reportedly maintained secret prisons in Tsentoroi, Gudermes, and other locations. HRW reported that it had detailed descriptions of at least 10 unlawful detention facilities. Human rights groups reported that officers of the federal Ministry of Internal Affairs' Second Operational Investigative Bureau illegally detained and tortured persons in its Grozniy offices. Since 2004 authorities have refused to grant the ICRC access, under ICRC's standard criteria, to persons detained as part of the conflict in Chechnya, and the ICRC subsequently suspended its detention visits. The suspension remained in place during the year. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, in practice government pressure on the media persisted, resulting in numerous infringements of these rights. While the government frequently respected citizens' rights to freedom of speech, it increasingly restricted this right, particularly with regard to issues such as the conduct of federal forces in Chechnya, human rights, corruption, and criticism of the government. Some regional and local authorities took advantage of the judicial system's procedural weaknesses and overly broad laws to detain persons for expressing views critical of the government. With some exceptions, judges appeared unwilling to challenge powerful federal and local officials who sought to prosecute journalists. These proceedings on occasion resulted in high fines. The government used direct ownership or ownership by large private companies with links to the government to control or influence the major national media and a majority of the regional media outlets, especially television; many media organizations saw their autonomy weaken further. During the year the government used its leverage to restrict dissemination of information about issues deemed sensitive, including coverage of opposition political parties and candidates in local elections that were held in March and October, and economic problems. International observers criticized the unbalanced access to the media for candidates in the local elections as well as in nationwide elections in 2007 and 2008, noting that the overwhelming majority of prime-time television coverage--the primary source of information for the public--was devoted to United Russia candidates. Observers also noted numerous press freedom abuses, including harassment of media outlets, legislative limitations, lack of equal access to information, and arbitrary application of rules. During the campaign leading up to the April 26 election of the mayor of Sochi, state-controlled television networks provided minimum coverage and focused the reports they carried on the incumbent mayor and United Russia candidate, Anatoliy Pakhomov. Opposition candidates noted that they were denied equal access to both local and national television. While the largest daily newspaper, Moskovskiy Komsomolets, was independently owned, other influential national newspapers, including Izvestiya, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, and Kommersant, were owned by the government, persons affiliated with the government, or state-owned companies. In addition, the Ministry of Defense owned the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda. More than 60 percent of the country's 45,000 registered local newspapers and periodical were owned by the government or state-owned companies. The government continued selective attempts to influence the reporting of independent publications. In May the government-affiliated Bank Rossiya purchased a controlling stake in Izvestiya from state-owned Gazprom. Under its new ownership, Izvestiya maintained a progovernment stance on key policy issues and increasingly avoided controversial topics. Despite Kommersant's ownership, most observers believed that its editorial line remained independent during the year and was frequently critical of government policy. Of the six national television stations, the federal government owned one and had a controlling interest in one other. State-owned or affiliated companies owned controlling interests in three others, and the Moscow city administration owned the sixth. Approximately two- thirds of the 2,500 other television stations in the country were completely or partially owned by the federal and local governments. As a result, the media often constrained editorial content, in particular, that which was critical of the government. However, government influence over networks' editorial policies was not uniform. For example, some observers initially alleged that the REN-TV network's editorial line became more progovernment when in 2006 the government-affiliated Bank Rossiya purchased a controlling interest in it. However, in contrast with the other networks, REN-TV continued to cover opposition rallies and broadcast interviews of some critics of the government. International media continued to face some impediments to their ability to operate freely. In 2007 authorities curtailed all stations broadcasting Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) and Voice of America (VOA) news programs except for stations in Moscow and St. Petersburg, which continued to broadcast RFE/RL and VOA programs. As a result of government measures in 2007, the BBC's Russian language services were available only on medium and shortwave broadcasts as well as the Internet. In April Kit Gessen, an American correspondent from The New Yorker magazine, was arrested in Sochi for ``lack of registration to be in Sochi.'' Gessen alleged that he sought to register with authorities when he arrived, but they did not allow him to do so. The government exerted its influence most directly on state-owned media. During the August 2008 conflict in Georgia, reporting in state- owned or state-controlled media adhered closely to the government's position. Journalists and news anchors for the Rossiya and First Channel networks reported receiving ``guidelines'' from management prepared by the presidential administration indicating which politicians they should support and which they should criticize. Government-controlled media consistently and disproportionately exhibited favoritism in their coverage of the former president and current prime minister, Vladimir Putin, and President Dmitriy Medvedev. The government maintained ownership of the largest radio stations, Radio Mayak and Radio Rossiya, both of which adhered to government positions in their news reporting. Ekho Moskvy radio, despite being majority-owned by the state corporation Gazprom, provided balanced coverage and independent editorial comments, often sharply critical of the government, and provided a platform to members of opposition. The government also owned the national news agencies ITAR-TASS and RIA-Novosti. In 2007 the new director general of the Russian News Service radio reportedly established an editorial policy that required at least 50 percent of its reports about the country to be ``positive'' and forbade the mention of some key opposition politicians. The changes prompted many staff members to resign in protest. In April, in what appeared to be a further move to minimize the airing of dissenting views and independent shaping of public opinion, the Gazprom-owned television channel NTV cancelled the popular talk show To the Barrier, during which famous individuals debated important topics and the viewing audience voted for the debate's ``winner'' via text message. The program had been broadcast since 2003 under the leadership of Vladimir Solovyev. The station cited falling ratings as the official reason for cancelling the show. Another of Solovyev's talk shows, Sunday Evening with Vladimir Solovyev, was cancelled by NTV in 2008. At year's end, the Glasnost Defense Foundation reported that 59 journalists had been attacked during the year and eight killed (Telman Alishayev, Anastasia Baburova, Natalia Estemirova, Sergey Protazanov, Vyacheslav Yaroshenko, Olga Kotovskaya, Abdulmalik Akhmedilov, and Shafiq Amrakhov) (see section 1.a.). In comparison, there were 69 attacks in 2008. The Center for Journalism in Extreme Situations (CJES) documented eight killings of journalists in 2006-08 in which they concluded that the motive for the killing was work-related. In most cases authorities did not identify suspects and did not establish a direct link between an assault and the journalistic activities that presumably motivated it. Most high-profile killings and kidnappings of journalists were unresolved. In March the CJES reported that there had been more than 40 unsolved killings of journalists since 2003. Many of the abuses took place in the Northern Caucasus; however, the Glasnost Defense Fund and other media freedom monitoring organizations reported cases of abuse of journalists by police and other security personnel elsewhere as well, including physical assault and vandalism of equipment. In most cases, according to the Glasnost Defense Foundation (GDF), mistreatment appeared to have been at the initiative of local officials. Independent media NGOs characterized beatings of journalists by unknown assailants as ``routine,'' noting that those who pursued investigative stories on corruption and organized crime found themselves at greatest risk. The GDF reported that in many cases the killings appeared to be related to the journalists' work. On January 8, a senior traffic police officer in Yekaterinburg assaulted a correspondent of YekaterinburgNEWS, an online publication, who took a photo of the officer's car illegally parked in a pedestrian crossing zone. In December a court in Yekaterinburg ordered authorities to stop criminal proceedings against the officer. On February 5, Federal Security Service officers in Moscow detained a correspondent of the Noviy Region news agency who was covering an opposition rally. The officers took the journalist to a police station and forced him to delete all the photographs he took at the rally. On March 12, police in Moscow detained journalists who covered the dissenters' march opposition rally, including correspondents of Kommersant daily, ITAR-TASS, TV Center, the Associated Press, and Internet publications Gazeta.ru and Politionline.ru. The journalists were released the same day. Also in August, Rosa Malsagova, owner and editor of the Web site Ingushetiya.org, gave up her position and left the country with her three sons. She claimed her decision was motivated by threats from Ingush militants. She sought political asylum in France. Ingushetiya.org, originally Ingushetiya.ru, was known for its investigations into local government corruption and electoral manipulation. Its previous owner, Magomed Yevloyev, was killed in 2008 by a police officer while in police custody (see section 1.g.). The site was shut down by the authorities and was reestablished by Yevloyev's colleagues as Ingushetiya.org. According to the Web site International Freedom of Expression Exchange, Ingush authorities also continued to criticize the site, which they regarded as favoring the opposition. In September piracy expert Mikhail Voitenko, editor of the Sovfrakht Marine Bulletin Web site, left the country after questioning the official version of the July disappearance and August rescue of the cargo ship Arctic Sea. Voitenko told the Moscow Times that he had been pressured into leaving by ``persons working in the interests of the government.'' Also in September, Aleksandr Podrabinek, a freelance journalist, reported on his blog that he had gone into hiding because of threats he received after writing an Internet editorial that recalled the prison camps and crimes of Stalinism and accused the current leadership of seeking to burnish Stalin's image. Podrabinek asserted he had reliable information that a senior-level decision had been made to settle scores with him ``by any means.'' The progovernment youth group Nashi harassed Podrabinek and picketed outside his house until Prime Minister Putin criticized their activity. Ella Pamfilova, head of the Presidential Council on Human Rights and Civil Society, spoke publicly on behalf of Podrabinek, which led some United Russia leaders to call for her ouster; however, she remained in her position. According to the NGO Reporters without Borders, authorities rejected visa applications of two of its representatives, including the organization's secretary general, preventing them from traveling to Moscow in October to hold a news conference on the eve of the third anniversary of the killing of Novaya Gazeta reporter Anna Politkovskaya. In May prosecutors filed murder charges in the Dagestan Supreme Court against two men for the March 2008 death of Gadzhi Abashilov, head of the local branch of the Russian State Television and Radio Company in Makhachkala. Law enforcement authorities and Abashilov's colleagues believed that his killing was related to his journalistic work, including his reporting on the situation in Dagestan. A criminal investigation of the September 2008 attack on Miloslav Bitokov, editor in chief of the Gazeta Yuga newspaper in the North Caucasus Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria, produced no results. The investigative arm of the Kabardino-Balkaria Ministry of Internal Affairs agreed with Bitokov's colleagues that the attack was related to Bitokov's work. No arrests were reported in the November 2008 beating by unknown assailants of independent Khimki journalist Mikhail Beketov, publisher of the weekly Khimkiskaya Pravda. Beketov's newspaper frequently criticized local authorities for construction projects that damaged the local environment and for corruption associated with those projects. There were no arrests or indications that authorities were investigating the December 2008 beating of several journalists during a series of protests in response to a planned increase in tariffs on imported cars. The journalists represented such media outlets as Primorskoye TV, TV Center, NHK, the Moskovskiy Komsomolets daily, and ITAR-TASS. Authorities also destroyed the journalists' equipment. The Committee to Protect Journalists called for an investigation of the December 2008 attack on Zhanna Akbasheva, a correspondent for the Regnum News Agency in Karachay-Cherkessia who wrote about corruption and press freedom issues. Local authorities opened an investigation into the attack, but no progress was reported by the year's end. No investigation had been opened by year's end into the 2007 kidnapping and beating in Ingushetiya of three REN-TV journalists and Memorial's Oleg Orlov; they were in Ingushetiya to cover an opposition political demonstration and also reportedly filmed, the day before their abduction, a special forces operation during which a young boy was killed by stray gunfire. In June the Supreme Court overturned a February lower court decision to acquit the four suspects in the 2006 killing of prominent investigative journalist Anna Politkovskaya. The new trial, with three of the original defendants, the brothers Dzhabrail and Ibragim Makhmudov and Sergei Khadzhikurbanov, was set to begin in September; however, the start of the retrial was indefinitely postponed at the insistence of Politkovskaya's adult children, who criticized the poor quality of the initial investigation. The case was sent back to prosecutors. In October the Moscow Times reported that investigators had identified new suspects in the case but would not comment on their identities. The suspected shooter, Rostam Makhmudov, a third brother, remained at large. The Politkovskaya family and other supporters called for a new investigation to determine who ordered the shooting. Politkovskaya's writing was highly critical of the war in Chechnya, human rights abuses, including by Chechen authorities, and President Putin's administration; she had previously received many death threats. During the year, a court convicted Georgiy Totoyev, a police officer in Vladikavkaz, of the 2006 beating of Channel One reporter Olga Kiriy; it sentenced him to three and one-half years in prison. On July 3, the Investigative Committee of the General Prosecutor's Office resumed proceedings in the case of the 2004 murder of Paul Klebnikov, the U.S. citizen and former editor in chief of Forbes Russia. A Moscow court suspended the trial in 2007 when the lead defendant, Kazbek Dukuzov, failed to appear, and the Supreme Court ordered a new trial. Prosecutors obtained an arrest warrant for Dukuzov and claimed to be searching for him. Dukuzov remained at large by year's end. Marat Valeyev, another defendant in the case, was cleared of the murder charges and released from custody in December. On April 6, the Investigative Committee of the General Prosecutor's Office closed its investigation into the 2003 death of Yuriy Shchekochikhin, a member of the State Duma and deputy editor of the newspaper Novaya Gazeta. The investigators endorsed the official findings that Shchekochikhin died of a severe allergic reaction to an unknown substance. However, some observers speculated that he was killed because of allegations he made about high-level corruption. At the time of his death, Shchekochikhin was investigating allegations of Federal Security Service responsibility for a series of 1999 apartment building bombings and the purported involvement of senior security officials and the General Prosecutor's Office in smuggling goods through the storage facilities of the Federal Security Service. Government officials occasionally responded to negative coverage by taking legal action against journalists and media outlets. Although the law prohibits courts from imposing damages in libel and defamation cases that would bankrupt a media organization, one NGO reported that local courts did not always follow this in practice. In April the Basmanniy Court in Moscow ordered the newspaper Novaya Gazeta and journalist Vyacheslav Izmaylov to pay 110,000 rubles ($3,640) to settle a libel case filed by Chechen president Kadyrov in connection with reports the newspaper published in 2008 on abductions in Chechnya. On June 15, authorities sued to shut down the independent Dagestan weekly Chernovik because of its alleged support for extremist views. At the same time, the newspaper's editor in chief, Nadira Isayeva, and several reporters were charged with inciting interethnic hatred. In July 2008 the General Prosecutor's Office opened a criminal investigation of Isayeva on charges of publishing articles that ``called for extremist activities'' and ``incited hatred or enmity on the basis of ethnicity.'' The articles that led to the charges had alleged widespread corruption in the Dagestan Ministry of Internal Affairs. In August the Prosecutor's Office in Sayano-Shushenkskaya opened a libel case against blogger Mikhail Afanasyev, editor in chief of the online publication New Focus, for his reporting about an accident that killed 75 workers at a local hydroelectric plant owned by the state-run power company RusHydro. Afanasyev tried to verify official death counts independently and questioned the adequacy of the rescue effort. Rights activists criticized the government for initiating the libel case, and in August prosecutors dropped it. Tensions between journalists and authorities over the disaster continued, with President Medvedev describing reporting about infrastructure problems as lies pushed by ``those who do not approve of Russia in its current boundaries and its role on the world stage.'' On September 9, two men attacked Afanasyev near his home. After confirming that the man they had accosted was Afanasyev, they punched and kicked him until he lost consciousness. On October 6, a district court in Moscow ruled in favor of Chechen president Kadyrov in a civil libel case against Oleg Orlov of the NGO Memorial for accusing Kadyrov of complicity in the killing of human rights activist and journalist Natalya Estemirova. On October 20, a criminal complaint brought by Kadyrov against Orlov was registered with the Moscow Central Directorate for Internal Affairs, under article 129 of the criminal code .''slande.''), which allows for fines and imprisonment. On September 3, the public prosecutor refused to register the complaint; however, on September 8, Kadyrov successfully appealed the refusal. Human rights advocates and international observers criticized the case against Orlov as a curtailment of free speech. The criminal case had not begun at year's end. Also in August, the Constitutional Court affirmed the 2007 decision by immigration authorities to deny entry into the country to Natalya Morar, a Moldovan citizen and a correspondent for the magazine New Times. Morar had published critical investigative articles about the government's handling of the 2007 State Duma elections and illegal financial transactions by senior government officials. Border officials reportedly told her that she was considered a threat to state security and that an order to refuse her entry had come from the Federal Security Service. After several unsuccessful appeals to the country's courts, Morar applied to the ECHR in August 2008. As of year's end, the Samara edition of Novaya Gazeta remained unable to publish, pending the conclusion of a court case in which Sergey Kurt-Adzhiyev, the editor of the local edition, was fined 15,000 rubles ($496) for using unlicensed software on his office computer. Kurt-Adzhiyev appealed the sentence, and the court ordered further examination of the case, which turned up violations committed by the prosecutors as well as new evidence. In March the court returned the case to the prosecutors. Authorities at all levels used their authority, sometimes publicly, to restrict or limit the effectiveness of journalists who criticized them. One method was to deny the media access to events and information, including denying filming opportunities and statistics theoretically available to the public. On January 10, a correspondent for Gazeta.ru was denied access to a Moscow city government press event. According to the publication, the journalist was told that the Moscow city government withdrew the accreditation of all Internet publications. On April 15, a vice governor of Altay territory prevented correspondents of newspaper Argumenty I Fakty and the GTRKAltay television company from covering a local administration meeting, although other journalists were allowed to attend the meeting. There were numerous comments in the media alleging that government pressure led reporters to engage in self-censorship, particularly on issues critical of the government. The government increasingly restricted press freedom with regard to coverage of sensitive issues, such as the conduct of federal forces in Chechnya, human rights abuses, government corruption, and criticism of government leaders. In one notable exception, Chechen authorities in April announced the lifting of all restrictions on the work of journalists in the republic as a result of the formal completion of the counterterrorist operations there. In contrast with previous years, there were no known detentions of reporters in Chechnya during the year. In practice, however, journalists in Chechnya continued to face pressure and restrictions. The government continued to use legislation and decrees to curtail media freedom. A 2007 law expanded the definition of extremism and provided law enforcement officials with broad authority to suspend media outlets that did not comply with restrictions. Media freedom advocates asserted that the law was used by officials to restrict criticism and label independent reporters as extremists. In October 2008 the State Duma Security Committee passed an amendment to the law that would enable authorities to close any organization deemed extremist by submitting charges to the court, which could not be challenged by the organization. In November 2008, in the context of rising concerns over the economy, the General Prosecutor's Office announced that it would monitor the media for any ``damaging'' reports that might exacerbate the financial crisis. Prime Minister Putin also publicly admonished media not to print anything ``unpatriotic,'' and media members were told to avoid using the word ``crisis'' in reference to the situation. In August the Justice Ministry published an update of its list of ``extremist'' materials with 414 new additions. The additions included, among others, a picture of Winnie the Pooh wearing a swastika, a flag with a cross, and the popular Web site Samizdat, which Russian researchers use for neutral information in a manner similar to Wikipedia and which had more than 500,000 subscribers. Some analysts asserted that the vague definitions of extremism were expanding the list to the point of discrediting it altogether. Officials or unidentified individuals sometimes used force or took extreme measures to prevent the circulation of publications that were not favored by the government. On February 25, unknown persons in the Perm region stopped a truck delivering copies of the local newspaper Uralskiy Shakhter and seized the entire issue, which contained articles written by candidates running in the upcoming local elections. On February 20, police in Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk region, seized 150,000 copies of the newspaper Pravda Primorya, published by the local branch of the Communist Party. The issue carried articles related to the upcoming elections for the local legislative assembly. On the night of March 5, police in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy entered the apartment of Vladimir Vasilchenko, editor in chief of Ekspress-Kamchatka newspaper, without presenting a search warrant and seized copies of the newspaper's latest issue. According to Vasilchenko, police claimed that the newspaper's criticism of the city government was ``disruptive'' to the ongoing mayoral election campaign. On March 10, representatives of incumbent mayor Vladislav Skvortsov, a candidate in the election, went to the plant where the newspaper was printed and warned that they would confiscate the issue in accordance with instructions they received from local election authorities. Vasilchenko did not send the newspaper to print. According to the Glasnost Defense Fund and other media NGOs, there continued to be instances of authorities using investigations into intellectual property rights violations (i.e., use of pirated software) to selectively confiscate computers and pressure opposition media across the country. On February 16, police in Samara searched the offices of the newspaper Samarskaya Gazeta and confiscated nine computers, claiming that pirated software had been installed on them. A warning to the media, first issued in 2006, against referring to the National Bolshevik Party without indicating that it was banned remained in place during the year. The media were informed that omitting the fact that the party was illegal could be considered dissemination of false information and lead to the ``application of restrictive, precautionary, and preventive measures.'' According to the Glasnost Defense Fund and media NGOs, some authorities used the media's widespread dependence on the government for transmission facilities, access to property, and printing and distribution services to discourage critical reporting. The fund reported that approximately 90 percent of print media organizations relied on state-controlled organizations for paper, printing, or distribution, and many television stations were forced to rely on the government (in particular, regional committees for the management of state property) for access to the airwaves and office space. The Glaznost Defense Fund also reported that officials continued to manipulate the price of printing at state-controlled publishing houses to apply pressure on private media rivals. It noted that this practice was more common outside the Moscow area. Internet Freedom.--The government did not restrict access to the Internet. Individuals and groups could generally engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, but traffic was reportedly monitored by the government. The government continued to require Internet service providers to install, at their own expense, a device that routes all customer traffic to a Federal Security Service terminal called the ``system for operational investigative measures'' that enabled police to track private e-mail communications and monitor Internet activity. There appeared to be no mechanism to prevent Federal Security Service access to the traffic or private information without a warrant. It was not required to give telecommunications companies or individuals documentation on targets of interest prior to accessing information. There was widespread and growing access to the Internet through home, work, or public venues. Approximately 25-30 percent of adults had Internet access; almost all of them used the Internet at least once a month. In contrast to other forms of media, the law does not require Web sites to register as mass media, and unregistered Web sites were not subject to administrative sanctions. Internet forums, including blogging services, continued to serve as the most open media vehicle in the country for expressing political views. However, individual postings on the Internet were subject to the same restrictions that applied to other types of expression, and some bloggers were investigated or charged for their Internet postings based on extremely broad definitions of legally prohibited activities, such as ``extremism'' or inciting hatred as well as for libel. In addition, the law allows authorities to hold bloggers liable for comments that others post on their blogs. A proposal in the State Duma in 2008 to amend the media law to define Internet sites as mass media and place them under greater government control failed to pass. However, pressure increased on Internet sites that were affiliated with newspapers or broadcast media or that engaged in reporting that was not favorable to the government. A number of bloggers were investigated or prosecuted during the year. In June the Prosecutor's Office in Samara confirmed an earlier decision by local authorities to ?pen a criminal case against local resident Dmitriy Kirilin on charges of calling for extremist activities. Investigators claimed that in 2006 Kirilin called for ``overthrowing the current political regime'' and ``spoke disrespectfully about the government'' in his blog. On October 7, a court in Samara sentenced Kirilin to a one-year suspended jail term. On July 20, Tatar writer and journalist Irek Murtazin went on trial in Kazan, Tatarstan, on charges brought by Tatarstan president Mintimer Shaimiev that included ``disseminating false information'' about the president and ``violating his privacy'' by suggesting in a September 2008 blog that Shaimiev had died while vacationing in Turkey. On August 10, Shaimiev spoke at the trial, asking the judge to sentence Murtazin to five years in prison. On November 26, the court sentenced Murtazin to one year and nine months in prison. In May Sverdlovsk authorities brought a criminal libel case against a LiveJournal blogger with the pen name ``Father Christmas,'' who was critical of the Sverdlovsk police and the security cadre of the mayor. In June a court in Ufa, Bashkortostan, ordered local Internet service providers to block access to the revinform blog on LiveJournal because of its allegedly extremist content. The court cited as an example of extremist content an article from a local opposition newspaper posted on the blog, which reported on top-level corruption in the local government. On August 10, police in Ufa arrested bloggers Nikolay Shvetsov, Sergey Orlov, Konstantin Nesterov, and Igor Kuchumov on charges of extremism and fomenting ethnic hatred in their blogs for quoting a book criticizing Bashkortostan president Murtaza Rakhimov. In July 2008 a court in Syktyvakar gave blogger Savva Terentyev a suspended one-year prison sentence for extremism for inciting hatred against a ``social group'' by posting a comment in an online discussion on LiveJournal about the elections in Komi and police corruption and calling for the police to ``burn in the squares of Russian cities.'' A linguistic examination conducted by the Scientific Center of the Komi Republic alleged that Terentyev's comment aimed to stir up hatred and humiliate persons belonging to a ``social group.'' A number of NGOs and rights activists criticized the court's ruling, asserting that the court employed an overly broad interpretation of the extremism law to target criticism of authorities, and questioned the classification of police as a ``social group.'' In April authorities issued warnings to mass information Internet sites against negative coverage of government news. In 2008 authorities issued two official warnings to the Yekaterinburg-based online news publication URA.ru because of comments posted by readers, which authorities deemed extremist. Under the law two warnings issued in the course of one year allow courts to shut down the media outlet. URA.ru continued to operate at the year's end. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government generally did not restrict academic freedom; however, human rights and academic organizations believed the continued imprisonment of disarmament researcher Igor Sutyagin, physicist Valentin Danilov, and others inhibited academic freedom and contact with foreigners on subjects that authorities might deem sensitive, and there were a few reports of pressure on teachers. In January the Ministry of Internal Affairs sent a letter to the Higher School of Economics in Moscow recommending that the university expel students whom police had detained at a dissenters' march. The letter referred to the students as ``extremist'' and asked the university to inform the Ministry of Internal Affairs ``about the action taken.'' University officials publicly criticized the letter on REN-TV and refused to expel any students on political grounds. In May President Medvedev announced the formation of a Committee against the Falsification of History dedicated to countering statements denigrating the role of the Soviet Union in the victory over Nazism. A corresponding law was proposed in the State Duma but never passed. In connection with this initiative, a small number of professors in Moscow universities reported receiving instructions to submit their teaching materials to the university administration for examination as to whether they were violating the proposed law. At year's end, no further pressure on teachers was reported. After some individuals expressed concern that the ``antifalsification'' campaign indicated that the government wanted to rehabilitate Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, President Medvedev stated, in an October 30 speech on the national day for remembrance of Stalin's victims, that ``it is important to prevent the justification of those who killed their own people.'' The future of a project to study the country's elections, based at the Geliks Center in St. Petersburg, remained in doubt. In February 2008 authorities in St. Petersburg suspended all activities at the private European University, where the study was initially being undertaken, allegedly due to fire safety violations. Activists suggested that the decision was related to an EU grant the university received in 2007 for the study. The university decided to discontinue conducting the research project, called IRENA, and city authorities then declared the university free of fire safety violations. It reopened in March 2008. In August leaders of IRENA, newly based at the Geliks Center, reported that the project's funds had disappeared from the organization's account at the VTB-24 bank. Initially the bank's administration assured the organization that the money would be returned, but later IRENA was told that the issue was being discussed ``at the highest level.'' Geliks' leaders stated their belief that this might be an additional attempt to destroy the project. In March hearings began in the criminal case against Yuriy Samadurov, director of the Sakharov Center, for instigating ethnic and religious hatred by hosting a provocative art exhibit in 2007. Samadurov subsequently resigned as director of the center, and the Prosecutor General's Office formally presented the charges against him in May 2008. During the year the prosecution began questioning its 136 witnesses, consisting of visitors to the exhibit who found it offensive and members of Orthodox religious groups. Samadurov faced a potential sentence of three years in prison. The trial continued at year's end. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, but local authorities increasingly restricted this right in practice. Permits are required for most types of public meetings, demonstrations, or marches and must be requested between five and 10 days before the event. Local elected and administrative officials selectively denied some groups permission to assemble or offered alternate venues that were inconveniently located. According to a representative from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, through April approximately 2,500 public rallies took place in the country, of which 140 were unsanctioned. On December 28, the State Duma passed a law increasing the severity of punishment for anyone found guilty of illegally interfering with the flow of traffic. The law increased the fine from 2,500 rubles ($82.70) to 100,000 rubles ($3,307) or two years in prison. Human rights activists saw this as a move to restrict freedom of assembly. On January 25, police arrested four organizers of a demonstration entitled March of Those Who Agree. Marchers carried posters sarcastically declaring their agreement with higher prices on utilities, 12-hour working days, and lower salaries. The detainees were accused of insulting the national flag and released after being officially charged with crossing the street in an unauthorized place. During the year a group of human rights activists began holding a ``dissenters' march'' on the last day of every month with 31 days, in honor of article 31 of the constitution providing for freedom of assembly. On the last of these marches, which took place on December 31, 2009, approximately 50 protestors, including prominent 82-year-old human rights activist Lyudmila Alekseyeva of the Moscow Helsinki Group, were briefly detained. There were reports that police mistreated the protestors while in detention. Dissenters' march organizers consistently applied for permission to assemble, but they were denied permission a total of seven times during the year. In some cities police detained opposition activists ahead of dissenters' marches. In Tyumen, for example, authorities searched activists' apartments and seized their computers. Official hostility led opposition leaders to keep their rallies scattered and small, numbering approximately 3,000 or 4,000 participants, often fewer than the number of law enforcement officers assigned to maintain order. In numerous instances, security officers arrested and beat dissenters' march participants. A Vladivostok protester who held up a banner calling Prime Minister Putin ``Putler'' was investigated for ``extremism.'' Many observers noted a selective pattern of encouraging government- friendly rallies while preventing politically sensitive demonstrations. On the same day as the January dissenters' march, United Russia organized progovernment rallies, which were the only demonstrations to receive coverage on state-run television news channels. Some demonstrators at the progovernment rallies told news media that they had been pressured to attend, and one student stated that he would receive class credit for his attendance. In February Moscow Helsinki Group head Lyudmila Alekseyeva announced that she had obtained a copy of an Internal Affairs Ministry order (Order number 800) that allegedly instructed law enforcement officers to fire on groups of criminals, terrorists, and ``participants in disorderly events'' with socioeconomic causes. Alekseyeva told gazeta.ru that the head of the ministry had signed the order in 2005 after the protests over monetization of government benefits. The ministry categorically denied the allegations. Alekseyeva said that she had called the Moscow police director, who reportedly acknowledged the existence of the order but told her that it had been annulled. Alekseyeva indicated that she had no evidence of its annulment beyond this verbal assurance over the telephone. On July 23, 70 to 100 persons attempted to hold a rally in Moscow's Pushkin Square in memory of slain rights activist Natalya Estemirova. Law enforcement officers, primarily local Ministry of Internal Affairs OMON (Otryad Militsii Osobogo Naznacheniya) forces, violently broke up the protest, beating both male and female protesters. A rally memorializing the Estemirova killing had taken place the previous week without incident. On August 26, riot police broke up a gathering of 100 persons assembled in Makhachkala, Dagestan, to protest a series of abductions and other alleged law enforcement abuses. The protesters included relatives of five men who, according to Memorial, had been abducted, beaten, tortured, and almost killed several days previously. The police beat protesters and detained several of them. Authorities detained 49 persons, two of them minors, at an unauthorized protest against the results of the Moscow Duma elections in October in Pushkin Square in Moscow. In January 2008 police broke up an opposition demonstration of several hundred individuals in Nazran and arrested 30 to 40 persons, including at least 10 journalists and human rights representatives. This followed a January 25 Federal Security Service order banning demonstrations and restricting movement in several districts of Nazran. There were no further developments relating to several instances in which authorities prohibited or disrupted demonstrations and marches by groups they regarded as opponents, including the appeal to the Constitutional Court by activists from Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, and Samara over what they considered unconstitutional actions by authorities to restrict their rallies; the December 2008 dissenters' march in Moscow by Other Russia, and the forceful disruption of a protest in Vladivostok against a tariff on imported automobiles. There was no response from the Constitutional Court to the July 2008 petition by human rights activists from Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, and Samara challenging restrictions on their freedom to hold rallies, restrictions they asserted were based on political considerations. There were no developments related to the refusal of authorities to permit a December 2008 dissenters' march in Moscow to protest constitutional changes lengthening the terms office of the president and deputies in the State Duma or in the beating of demonstrators in Vladivostok by OMON units while breaking up a December 2008 demonstration protesting tariffs on imported automobiles. On June 17, the Constitutional Court ruled in favor of Maksim Filandrov, who was arrested at a dissenters' march in 2007. The court stated that police had failed to give Filandrov the opportunity to contest the charges against him and that henceforth police would be required to do so in such cases. At year's end there was no discernable effect on law enforcement practices from this ruling. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government respected this right in many instances; however, there were a number of significant exceptions. Public organizations must register their bylaws and the names of their leaders with the Ministry of Justice. Several organizations were forced to suspend activities while registration was pending, and restrictions were applied in a discriminatory and selective manner to some NGOs, particularly those receiving foreign funding or involved in issues of political opposition or in human rights monitoring. In April the government enacted a law that reduced the number of signatures required to register a political party (see section 3). The finances of registered organizations are subject to investigation by the tax authorities, and foreign grants must be registered. A June 2008 prime ministerial decree reduced the number of foreign organizations whose grants were exempt from taxation from 101 to 12 and imposed a potentially onerous annual registration process on those that met the proposed requirements. Many NGOs interpreted the decree as a further step to restrict NGO funding. Authorities subjected some NGOs to lengthy financial audits or delayed the registration of their foreign-financed programs. The financial investigations were particularly burdensome, and some NGOs, particularly smaller NGOs with limited organizational capacity, stated that it restricted their activities. In several cases authorities appeared to apply tax regulations selectively to threaten certain organizations with possible closure. Regulations within the law give the government authority to oversee NGO activities, including ensuring their compliance with stringent registration requirements, particularly the branch offices of foreign NGOs. The law also provides a basis for strict government monitoring of NGO activities, including the oversight of extensive reporting requirements by NGOs concerning their programs and activities, as well as for government enforcement of limitations on the participation of foreign citizens. Authorities obtained authorization to use intrusive means to carry out these responsibilities as well as authority to deny registration to, or shut down, an organization, based on vague and subjective criteria. The body that previously had responsibility for enforcing these regulations, the Federal Registration Service, was abolished in 2008 and its functions transferred to the Ministry of Justice. Domestic organizations that sought to register under the law generally did so successfully. However, in March 2008 authorities informed 43 international organizations that they would need to reregister under a more burdensome requirement. As of year's end, none of these requirements had, by themselves, forced an NGO to cease operations. However, human rights advocates believed that the government maintained the regulations as a mechanism for closing them, should it decide it was in its interest to do so. In June, after hearing criticism of the 2006 NGO law at a meeting with the Presidential Council on Human Rights, President Medvedev called existing regulations a ``burden'' and announced that some requirements in the law would be eased. On July 7, an amendment to the law took effect that revoked the Justice Ministry's authority to arbitrarily demand documents from domestic NGOs; provided that flaws in documentation would be grounds to suspend, but not annul, a domestic organization's registration; and removed ``threats to national unity and identity'' from the list of reasons for denying registration. The amendment also simplified reporting forms for domestic NGOs and required them to be inspected by the government once every three years, rather than annually. None of these amendments applied to foreign NGOs. At year's end, however, these changes had not resulted in any notable improvement in circumstances for NGOs. There continued to be allegations that the government used the fight against extremism as a pretext for cracking down on organizations opposed to government policy. In May the antiextremism branch of the Ministry of Internal Affairs detained opposition activist Roman Dobrokhotov, a participant in the For Human Rights Movement, giving no explanation why his activities were deemed extremist. In June two Orel members of Solidarity, Dmitriy Krayukhin and Georgiy Sarkisyan, were accused of extremism, and ``wanted'' posters of their faces were posted in the Orel Ministry of Internal Affairs. When they protested, the Orel mayor apologized and had the posters taken down. Several times between 2006 and 2008, the government amended the law on extremism to expand the definition of extremism and make it easier to bring cases against an organization. In February a member of the progovernment youth group Nashi announced that she and several other Nashi members had infiltrated opposition groups in order to spy on their activities and send reports back to Nashi and the presidential administration. They had received payment from an unknown source for this activity. A March article in Novaya Gazeta by Yabloko youth head Ilya Yashin described numerous examples of harassment and ``provocations'' that he had experienced in previous months. These included unknown persons sending prostitutes to join opposition rallies, throwing obscene items during his speeches, sending a man to publicly pose as a gay lover during one of his press conferences, pouring mud on him, and defiling his car. In February 2008 authorities ordered the closure of the Center for Educational and Research Programs (CERP). Authorities accused the center of tax evasion and interfering with government agencies. The center had advised other NGOs in the northwest part of the country on how to comply with the NGO law. CERP applied to the ECHR, but at year's end the court had not ruled on CERP's case. During the year some senior officials made critical statements that contributed to, and reflected, increased suspicion of NGO activity. Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov and other leaders in the North Caucasus accused local NGOs of being on the payroll of foreign intelligence services. The first deputy chief of staff to President Medvedev, Vladislav Surkov, questioned the loyalty of some human rights NGOs that covered human rights issues or received foreign funding. There were no reports during the year that political parties had their registration revoked or denied. In the past, a number of parties were denied registration, including political parties have had their registration revoked or denied since the passage of the 2006 registration law, including the National Bolshevik Party, the Republican Party, Great Russia, and the Popular Democratic Union, former premier Mikhail Kasyanov's political movement. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, in some cases authorities imposed restrictions on certain groups. The country does not have an official state religion. The law recognizes Russian Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism as ``traditional.'' The Russian Orthodox Church is the dominant faith in the country and, while no faith holds privileges or advantages in law, in practice the Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a preeminent status and maintained a number of formal and informal agreements with government ministries that gave it particular weight on matters such as guidelines for education in schools, religious training for military personnel, ownership of historical property, and law enforcement and customs decisions. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church has been allowed ``indefinite use'' of buildings for worship but not of the land on which the buildings are located. These agreements gave the Russian Orthodox Church far greater access than other religious groups to public institutions, such as schools, hospitals, prisons, and the military services. Although the constitution provides for the equality of all religions before the law and the separation of church and state, the government did not always respect these provisions. Conditions improved for some minority religious groups, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and the Lutheran Church, while remaining largely the same for most. Government policy continued to contribute to the generally free practice of religion for most of the population. Religious groups are not required to register with the government for members to practice their faith, but all religious groups that want legal status (needed in order to open bank accounts, purchase property, or enter into contracts) must register. The law prevents religious groups that have existed in the country for less than 15 years from registering as legal organizations. Local courts largely upheld the right of nontraditional groups to register, but a few religious groups continued to contest denials of registration in the courts. In some cases, including that of the Salvation Army in Moscow, government officials refused to comply with court orders to register certain groups. According to the vice chairman of the Commission for Religious Associations, Andrei Sebentsov, approximately 800 religious organizations were dissolved in 2007. In October 2008 the government circulated a list of approximately 20 religious organizations slated for possible liquidation, but there were no further developments at year's end. In July the United Russia party and Russian Orthodox Church patriarch Kirill announced an agreement allowing the Russian Orthodox Church to review all draft legislation pending before the State Duma. A United Russia deputy stated that requests from other faiths to do the same would be ``considered'' if ``they represent a significant portion of the electorate.'' The onset of the economic crisis late in 2008 led the Russian Orthodox Church and Orthodox social groups to seek and obtain aid from the government. Some human rights groups and religious minority groups criticized the prosecutor general for encouraging legal action against some minority religions and for giving official support to materials that were biased against Muslims, members of Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and others. There were credible reports that individuals within the federal security services and other law enforcement agencies harassed minority religious groups, investigated them arbitrarily for purported criminal activity and violations of tax laws, and pressured landlords to renege on contracts with them. The Ministry of Justice and other federal and local authorities, continued to restrict the rights of a few religious minority groups. Legal obstacles to registration under the Law on Religions disadvantaged some religious groups considered ``nontraditional.'' The law on NGOs permits government inspections of religious organizations and attendance by government agents at some public religious events with advance notice. Like other public organizations, registered religious organizations must provide annual financial reports and other documents upon the request of the Ministry of Justice and report within three days any changes in their organizational leadership or address. However, according to the religion news service Forum 18, Ministry of Justice officials could not explain which government agencies, other than the tax inspectorate, had the right to initiate the closure of religious organizations. Some regional officials used contradictions in federal and local laws and varying interpretations of the law to restrict the activities of religious minorities. According to many observers, local governments were more susceptible than federation officials to pressure from the local religious majority and therefore were more likely to discriminate against local minority religious communities. However, in contrast with previous years, there were only isolated instances of local officials detaining individuals engaged in public discussion of their religious views, and these incidents were usually resolved quickly. The Office of the Federal Human Rights Ombudsman has a department for religious freedom issues, which received and responded to complaints. Religious complaints made up 5 percent of all complaints the Ombudsman's Office received, according to its 2009 report. In March authorities charged Aslambek Ezhayev, the Moscow-based publisher of The Personality of a Muslim by Arab theologian Muhammad Ali Al-Hashimi Ezhayev, with copyright violations and use of harmful software. These charges replaced an earlier charge of inciting religious hatred. The trial began in Lyublino District Court in Moscow on March 24; Ezhayev was convicted on July 3 and fined 50,000 rubles ($1,650) for unlawful use of computer software. The law recognizes three categories of religious communities-- groups, local organizations, and centralized organizations--that have differing levels of legal status and privileges. The law requires a group of believers to have been present in the country at least 15 years before it is eligible to register as a ``legal organization.'' While a 1997 Supreme Court ruling grandfathered religious organizations that had registered before the law took effect, the Church of Scientology had only one local organization (in Moscow) that was legally entitled to reregister. However, the Moscow church remained unregistered while authorities appealed a 2007 ECHR ruling that their refusal to register it violated article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights. On October 1, the ECHR ruled that the country's prohibition of the Church of Scientology had violated the European Convention on Human Rights and awarded 5,000 euros ($7,170) to each of the two Scientology groups (in Surgut and in Nizhnekamsk) that had originally applied to the ECHR, as well as 10,000 euros ($14,300) to the two groups jointly for legal costs. There continued to be some restrictions on establishing, building, or maintaining places of worship and training sufficient clergy to serve believers. Jehovah's Witnesses had difficulty getting permits to build assembly halls in some regions. In Zlatoust, Chelyabinsk Oblast, local authorities provided the Jehovah's Witnesses a plot of land to build a Kingdom Hall, and in April 2008 worshipers began holding meetings there. However, in September 2008, following complaints from local residents, authorities opened a case against the Jehovah's Witnesses for alleged violations of fire regulations posed by a neighbor's garage. The Jehovah's Witnesses received a warning, paid a fine, and applied to have the garage removed. At year's end members of Jehovah's Witnesses had not been allowed to resume use of the facilities. Various minority religious organizations encountered difficulties in obtaining or renovating property. Authorities continued to deny the Muslim community's request to build a mosque in the city of Sochi. There were reports that permission would be granted before the 2014 Olympics, but religious freedom advocates expressed doubt that the mosque would be allowed under the control of the local Muslim Yasin group. Regional and local authorities as well as businessmen on a number of occasions refused to lease facilities to local Jehovah's Witnesses communities. During 2008 two Baptist congregations in the regional center of Lipetsk lost their legal status and a third lost its rented prayer house. In the first two cases, authorities removed their status for alleged tax violations. In the case of the prayer house, the Orthodox diocese of Lipetsk filed a suit for control of the building, and local authorities offered a building in need of substantial repair as compensation. Some local and municipal governments prevented minority religious groups from obtaining venues for large gatherings and from acquiring property for religious uses. There were no restrictions on worship by individuals in public or in private. The Ministry of Justice is responsible for conducting expert reviews of religious groups. On February 18, the ministry issued order number 53, effective March 31, which expanded the authority of the Expert Council for Government Theological Review to oversee the operations of religious groups. Alexander Dvorkin, a self-described expert on ``sects,'' was elected by his colleagues to head the council, which was tasked with determining the religious nature of an organization on the basis of its founding documents and information about the fundamentals of its dogma and its corresponding practice, verifying and evaluating the authenticity of the information contained in a religious organizations' founding documents, and verifying that the forms and methods of a religious organization's actual activities correspond with its assertions at the time it was registered by the state. Officials associated with law enforcement, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the legislative branch spoke at various times of protecting the ``spiritual security'' of the country by discouraging the growth of ``sects'' and ``cults,'' usually understood to include some Protestant and newer religious movements. The 2009 National Security Concept of the Russian Federation stated that ``ensuring national security includes countering extremist activity by nationalist, religious, ethnic, and other organizations and structures directed at disrupting the Russian Federation's unity and territorial integrity and destabilizing the domestic political and social situation in the country.'' Government officials and journalists often labeled Muslim organizations ``Wahhabi,'' a term associated with extremism. The republics of Dagestan and Kabardino-Balkaria formally prohibited Wahhabism. While in the past there have been no legal prohibitions on missionary activities, in November President Medvedev proposed legislation that would impose new restrictions on missionaries. According to the draft legislation, only religious groups registered in Russia for at least 15 years would be allowed to engage in missionary activity; foreigners in Russia on temporary visas would be prohibited from engaging in missionary work; missionary activity would be prohibited at hospitals, orphanages, or homes for persons with disabilities; and children or minors could not be present at religious activities without the permission of their parents or guardians. Many observers raised the concern that this law could seriously curtail missionary activity in the country. There was also societal pressure against proselytizing by non-Orthodox faiths, and some groups reported that missionaries had been harassed or attacked when proselytizing. Authorities either deported or denied entry to several religious workers with valid visas. Some religious personnel experienced visa difficulties while entering or leaving the country. Laws in three oblasts--Belgorod, Kursk, and Smolensk--forbid foreign visitors from engaging in missionary activity or preaching unless specifically authorized by their visas. According to local religious officials, the laws were not enforced. Chechen authorities continued to enforce President Ramzan Kadyrov's 2006 decree prohibiting women entering government institutions without headscarves. Since 2006 schools in four of the country's 85 regions required the teaching of a controversial Foundations of Orthodox Culture course; in many other regions, the course was taught as an elective. On October 29, Prime Minister Putin signed a decree outlining a pilot program to teach religion in schools. The program, which was scheduled to begin in April 2010 in fourth-grade classes in schools in 19 federal provinces, is intended to give students a choice among the four traditional religions, as well as a course on ``secular ethics.'' Russian Orthodox Church officials stated that the process of instituting this policy would be ``very democratic'' and that there would be no discrimination against any minority religion. Some regions offered a course on the history of religion, an initiative that the minister of education suggested but did not introduce nationally. Although the Ministry of Education rejected continuing the publication and dissemination of a controversial textbook that detailed Orthodox Christianity's contribution to the country's culture, some schools continued to use the text. The textbook contained descriptions of some religious groups that members of those groups found objectionable. The Congress of Religious Associations in the Tyumen Oblast appealed to the governor and oblast department of education to allow input from other religious groups into the religious culture curriculum, claiming that the course contained only the viewpoint of the Russian Orthodox Church. The number of official mosques has increased from four to 241 since Soviet times. However, according to a recent speech by the head Mufti, there were approximately 2000 mosques throughout the country, an increase from 98 ten years ago. There have also been reports of significant growth in the Muslim population, and estimates placed the number of Muslims at between 15 and 20 million at years end. News reports indicated that, on May 26, Moscow municipal authorities approved the construction of a new mosque. Mosques opened in Kupavna in December 2008 and in Balashikha in March. As of January the mufti in Cherkessk reported that the mayor of Stavropol had not returned the centrally located mosque to worshippers, as previously promised by the government. In February the Suzdal Diocese Office of the Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church confirmed that since 1990 the Federal Agency for State Property Management (Rosimushestvo) deprived it of 11 churches and two bell towers--including the group's main church, Tsar Constantine Cathedral--in Suzdal, Vladimir Oblast, and its surrounding areas because it failed to sign agreements for free use of the buildings by other groups. The church appealed the decision to the First Court of Arbitration Appeals, which upheld the regional arbitration court's decision. The church's lawyers challenged the decision, asserting that the use of the church buildings was under earlier ``protection'' agreements between the church and the state center in charge of keeping records concerning historical and cultural monuments, their use, and restoration. The Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church stated its intention to appeal the decision once again to the Volgo-Vyatka Circuit Court of Arbitration. Security service personnel prevented church personnel from removing religious objects from the churches in March. In September the church reported that the parishioners of the Moscow Patriarchate church in Suzdal were filing suit to remove all icons from Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church churches. There was no further information on this possible suit at year's end. Many foreign religious organizations continued to report difficulties with requirements for visas, which limit foreigners with business or humanitarian visas to spending only 90 of every 180 days in the country. According to religious experts, the rules were not aimed at religious workers, but their effect has been to severely restrict religious groups that rely upon foreign religious workers. The Roman Catholic Church, which relies almost exclusively on priests from outside the country, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with more than 300 foreign missionaries, have been particularly affected by the provision. Foreign religious workers appeared able to acquire visas with few problems, but the 90-day limit on their stay limited their ability to work and significantly increased their expenses. Although registered religious organizations had the option of sponsoring foreign workers and missionaries on work visas (which do not have 90-day or 180-day limits), this was a complicated process that placed significant financial and administrative burdens on the organizations. The Jehovah's Witnesses were a target for many actions by local and regional authorities during the year. Early in the year, the first deputy prosecutor general sent a letter to prosecutor's offices across the country ordering wide-ranging investigations of all Jehovah's Witnesses legal representatives and religious groups. Subsequently, prosecutor's offices, the Federal Security Service, and police summoned members of congregations and their legal representatives for questioning and visited kingdom halls and personal homes of Jehovah's Witnesses. As a result of the prosecutor's directive, law enforcement, security service, and judicial officials have opened more than 500 recorded investigations of legal representatives and unregistered groups of Jehovah's Witnesses. On April 16, Human Rights Ombudsman Vladimir Lukin sent a letter to the prosecutor general protesting ``the prejudicial attitude of certain officials of the Prosecutor's Office'' towards Jehovah's Witnesses and asked him to ``take steps to prohibit mass violations'' of their rights. Lukin had not received a response to his letter at year's end. On April 4, Federal Security Service and police officials in Vladikavkaz detained and verbally abused two attorneys and one other traveler from Canada representing the Jehovah's Witnesses in a local court case. The lawsuit proposed to liquidate four local religious organizations of the Jehovah's Witnesses in North Ossetia (Vladikavkaz, Alagir, Mozdok, and Beslan). Officials detaining the lawyers claimed they had entered a zone restricted to foreigners when they pulled off the highway to visit the home of their driver's relatives. On April 5, a local judge ruled that all three foreigners would be deported for violating the restricted zone and disrespecting police. The judge promised to free the detainees, provided they signed a statement indicating their desire to leave the country immediately, which all three did. The lawyers would be barred from Russia for five years if the deportation rulings come into force. The Jehovah's Witnesses appealed the ruling; the appeal was pending at year's end. On May 8, police in Salsk, Rostov Oblast, detained a Jehovah's Witness attorney with foreign citizenship for allegedly practicing law without a valid license. He had represented the church in the Salsk City Court and had been legally representing Jehovah's Witnesses with a power of attorney for several years. He was forced to leave the country. On May 24, police and Federal Security Service personnel raided Sunday services of the Jehovah's Witness organization in Asbest, Sverdlovsk Oblast. They copied passport information for most of the approximately 50 worshippers present. A local spokesman, Sergei Tantsura, told Forum 18 that one worshipper, 37-year-old Aleksandra Mastyugina, suffered a miscarriage after police threatened to send her and others who protested the intrusion to a detoxification unit and an investigator summoned her for questioning on May 31. On July 6, the Prosecutor's Office announced that it had closed the investigation but, on July 31, announced that it was reopening the case on a charge of distribution of extremist literature. Authorities took a number of measures to discourage dissemination of literature by the Jehovah's Witnesses. On September 11, the Rostov- on-Don Regional Court ruled that 34 texts used by the Jehovah's Witnesses were extremist. The court also declared the church's congregation in Taganrog to be extremist and ordered its liquidation. The Jehovah's Witnesses appealed to the Supreme Court. On December 8, the Supreme Court in Moscow upheld the Rostov-on-Don decision. Religious freedom advocates asserted that this decision could effectively prohibit Jehovah's Witnesses from the country, as the ``extremist'' designation of the literature could also apply to those who distribute it. On October 1, the Gorno-Altaisk City Court ruled that 18 Jehovah's Witnesses' publications were extremist, a decision that was appealed to the Supreme Court. On September 9, the Pacific Ocean Star, Khabarovsk's main newspaper, published an article accusing local members of the Jehovah's Witnesses of being U.S. agents. According to the Slavic Law Center, in April government officials in Elista, Republic of Kalmykia, threatened to take ``extreme measures'' against Seventh-day Adventists for not allowing their children to attend school on Saturdays. According to the Union of Councils (UCSJ), at a March 14 meeting of the Elista Commission on Youth Affairs, officials called three Adventist parents ``sectarians,'' relying on testimony from a Russian Orthodox activist and other students. The commission brought charges against the Adventists and ruled that youth affairs officials should interview the children to determine why they did not attend school on Saturdays. After the interviews officials reported to the commission that the parents had ``terrified their children'' into refusing Saturday classes. In March the Elista City Court fined each parent 100 rubles ($3.30). On April 24, the Elista city court ruled that the Adventists were not liable to pay the fine. In April the St. Petersburg Ministry of Internal Affairs University, a training facility for future law enforcement leaders, removed 1,000 copies of a textbook containing anti-Semitic passages. The Russian and Soviet history textbook, written by two professors at the university, contained statements promoting theories on Jewish conspiracies against the Soviet Union. One passage claimed that former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev stated to the Israeli parliament in 1992 that ``everything I did to the Soviet Union, I did in the name of our god Moses.'' The Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia complained about the textbook and promised to undertake its own investigation. The university subsequently fired the book's author, 80- year-old professor Vasiliy Drozhzhin. According to a January 21 report by the AEN news service, a brochure written by Evgeny Gerasimenko and published by the Ministry of Internal Affairs's Institute for Raising Qualifications, connected Judaism to Satanism. The brochure, Extremism: Understanding Socioeconomic, Political, and Historical Roots and Trends, was distributed at a meeting of police officials charged with combating extremism and terrorism. The brochure described Satanism and Chasidism as both arising from Judaism and ``specifically its secretive, cruel, and kabalistic sects.'' According to the UCSJ, on January 25, Oleg Elnikov, spokesman for the Ministry of Internal Affairs, responded to questions about the brochure by claiming that the author made ``stylistic mistakes'' and did not intend to offend Jews. On January 28, the Investigative Committee of the Republic of Mordovia and the Russian Federal Security Service announced that it had shut down the activities of a Satanist sect founded and headed by a 24- year-old medical student. Officials claimed that the group distributed Satanist literature and performed ``religious rituals accompanied by illegal actions, including alcohol marathons, sexual practices, and antisocial behavior.'' Officials initiated a criminal case, charging the student with organizing a union that encroached on citizens' rights. On January 24, the court ordered law enforcement personnel to detain two members of the sect, including its leader. On April 28, authorities in Dagestan prevented activists belonging to Nurjular, a Muslim religious organization in Izberbash, from assembling. The Supreme Court prohibited Nurjular in April 2008. A spokesman for the Federal Security Service stated that all activists who participated in the meeting were questioned and released and that their activities remained under surveillance ``across Dagestan and elsewhere in Russia.'' On May 7, the Russian Supreme Court ruled that the international religious organization Tablighi Jamaat was extremist and prohibited its activity. The prosecutor general maintained that the Tablighi Jamaat was a radical organization whose goal was the reestablishment of an Islamic caliphate, but Tablighi Jamaat and some human rights activists claimed that the organization scrupulously followed the law and existed solely to educate others about Islam. Authorities permitted Orthodox chapels and priests on army bases and gave Protestant groups limited access to military facilities. Authorities largely prohibited Islamic services in the military and generally did not give Muslim conscripts time for daily prayers or alternatives to pork-based meals. Some Muslim recruits serving in the army reported that their fellow servicemen insulted and abused them on the basis of their religion. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious belief and practice. Although religious matters were not a source of social tension or problems for the large majority of citizens, there were some problems between majority and minority groups, including incidents of harassment and violence. Prejudices against non-Orthodox religions were behind some manifestations of anti-Semitism and occasional friction with non- Orthodox Christian denominations. Because xenophobia, racism, and religious bigotry were often intertwined, it was sometimes difficult to determine which prejudice was the primary motivation behind discrimination against members of religious groups. Conservative activists claiming ties to the Russian Orthodox Church occasionally disseminated negative publications and held protest meetings against religions they considered nontraditional, including alternative Orthodox congregations. Some Russian Orthodox clergy publicly stated their opposition to any expansion of the presence of Roman Catholic, Protestant, and other non-Orthodox denominations. Popular attitudes toward traditionally Muslim ethnic groups remained negative in many regions, and there were manifestations of anti-Semitism as well as societal hostility toward adherents of more recently established religions, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Scientology. On November 22, inscriptions abusive to Muslims appeared on a mosque in Kirov. There were no other recorded cases of acts of vandalism against Muslim communities. Instances of harassment of persons of the evangelical and Pentecostal faiths reportedly decreased during the year. According to the Moscow Bureau of Human Rights (MBHR), during the year there were seven reported cases of vandalism against Orthodox Christian churches and eight cases of vandalism against non-Orthodox churches, which was comparable to the level in 2007. An estimated 250,000 Jews lived in the country, constituting less than 0.25 percent of the population, according to government sources and various Jewish groups. Some researchers believed that the number was underreported due to the hesitation of some Jews to publicly identify their background. The trend toward a decrease in violent attacks against Jews, reported in recent years, continued. According to the MBHR, the number of anti-Semitic attacks against Jews decreased during the year by 7 percent. On March 9, two young men dressed as neo-Nazis attacked two students in Moscow. One of the students was the son of a Jewish Agency employee. The attack coincided with the celebration of the Jewish holiday Purim. In March a court convicted a resident of Omsk of spreading ``a deliberately false alarm'' concerning an act of terrorism for putting a fake bomb in front of a synagogue in November 2008. The sentence was suspended. Authorities did not charge him with a hate crime. There continued to be reports across the country of vandals desecrating Jewish synagogues and cemeteries and defacing Jewish religious and cultural facilities, sometimes combined with threats to the Jewish community. Anti-Semitic graffiti and leaflets appeared frequently in many regions. Anti-Semitism on television or in other mainstream media was infrequent and was more likely to appear in low- circulation newspapers or in pamphlets. However, anti-Semitic material on Russian-language Internet sites increased. On July 16, a rock was thrown through the window of the Syktyvar Jewish community center in the Komi Republic; on July 12, in Ryazan, unknown vandals painted swastikas on the doors of a Jewish community center; on September 12, four skinhead youths were arrested for throwing two Molotov cocktails at a synagogue in Khabarovsk. On the same night, the home of a police officer who investigated racist crimes was also firebombed. On September 13, skinheads in Khabarovsk threw Molotov cocktails into a synagogue and into the house of a policeman who had been investigating cases of extremism. Khabarovsk Antiextremist Department police detained the group, and criminal proceedings were opened against two of the suspects. They faced up to five years of imprisonment for the synagogue attack and up to life imprisonment for the police attack. The MBHR reported that 43 synagogues and community centers were vandalized during the year. The SOVA Center, an NGO that seeks to combat extremism and nationalism, also reported desecrations of graves in Jewish cemeteries in Nizhny Novgorod, Makhachkala, and Kaliningrad. Officials often classified these crimes as ``hooliganism.'' In many cases where local authorities prosecuted cases, courts imposed suspended sentences. In some cases, however, the hate crime motive was taken into consideration. There were many reports of anti-Semitic publications during the year. A number of small, radical-nationalist newspapers that print anti-Semitic, anti-Muslim, and xenophobic articles were readily available throughout the country. There were also reports of anti- Semitic literature on sale in cities across the country. The estimated number of xenophobic publications exceeded 100, many sponsored by the local chapters of the National Power Party. In addition, there were at least 80 Web sites in the country with anti-Semitic content. There was evidence of a concerted government campaign to limit the sale and distribution of anti-Semitic literature. There were no reports that the government prosecuted any persons or groups for anti-Semitic statements or publications during the year. However, the government publicly criticized nationalist ideology and expressed support for legal action against anti-Semitic acts. Federal authorities, and in many cases regional and local authorities, facilitated the establishment of new Jewish institutions. Vladimir Putin, both as president in 2008 and subsequently as prime minister, publicly criticized anti-Semitism and supported the establishment of the Museum of Tolerance by the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia. Work continued on a 2.7 billion ruble (89 million dollar) complex on land donated by the Moscow city government to house the museum as well as Jewish community institutions, including a school and a hospital. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement,. Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration and repatriation; however, the government placed restrictions on freedom of movement within the country and on migration. The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. All adults must carry government-issued internal passports while traveling internally and must register with the local authorities within a specified time of their arrival at a new location. Authorities often refused to provide governmental services to individuals without internal passports or proper registration. The official grace period for registration given to an individual arriving in a new location is 90 days. Darker-skinned persons from the Caucasus or Central Asia were often singled out for document checks. There were credible reports that police arbitrarily imposed fines on unregistered persons in excess of legal requirements or demanded bribes from them. Although the law gives citizens the right to choose their place of residence freely, many regional governments continued to restrict this right through residential registration rules that closely resembled Soviet-era regulations. Citizens moving permanently must register within seven days in order to reside, work, or obtain government services and benefits or education for their children in a specific area. Citizens changing residence within the country, migrants, and persons with a legal claim to Russian citizenship who moved to the country from other former-Soviet republics often faced great difficulties or simply were not permitted to register in some cities. The registration process in local police precincts was often corrupt. There were frequent reports of police expecting bribes to process registration applications and demanding them during spot checks for registration documentation. The law provides for freedom to travel abroad and citizens generally did so without restriction; however, there were exceptions. Citizens with access to classified material needed to obtain police and Federal Security Service clearances to receive a passport for international travel. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. The law provides all citizens with the right to emigrate, and this right was generally respected. De facto authorities in the Georgian separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, as well as Russian troops in the region, restricted freedom of movement. Checkpoints operated by de facto militia and Russian troops often obstructed citizens' internal movement in these regions and between these regions and areas controlled by the Georgian government. International organizations were generally allowed to operate in Abkhazia, with limitations; however, virtually all international organizations, including humanitarian ones, were blocked from entering South Ossetia. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--As of December 31, 8,938 IDPs displaced to Ingushetiya by Chechnya's second conflict were registered in the Danish Refugee Council's North Caucasus database. Of these, 7,217 persons lived in private quarters, while 1,721 resided in temporary settlements. The Federal Migration Service reported that, as of December 31, Ingushetiya was also home to 2,836 IDPs from Prigorodny. At year's end 3,654 Chechen IDPs were living in Dagestan and an estimated 4,193 continued to live in temporary settlements and temporary accommodation centers within Chechnya proper. Also as of December 31, nearly 10,000 forced migrants from South Ossetia in Georgia remained in North Ossetia as a result of conflicts over the Tskhinvali region in the early 1990s and in August 2008. Although sources differed on the exact figures, approximately 46,000 IDPs returned from Ingushetiya and Dagestan in the last six years. Authorities continued to employ negative incentives--including deregistration from IDP rolls, cancellation of food assistance, and utility cuts to temporary settlements--to induce often unwilling IDPs in Ingushetiya to return to Chechnya. In many cases deregistration took place following IDPs' signature of applications for voluntary return to Chechnya; IDPs told the UNHCR and NGOs that local officials had obtained their signatures under pressure, for example by threatening to terminate their child allowances and pensions. Beginning April 1, the Ingushetiya office of the Federal Migration Service refused to accept any claims for reinstatement on its registration lists. In addition, forced evictions of IDPs from temporary accommodation centers within Chechnya continued during the year. Amnesty International reported that, between February 20 and February 23, bulldozers knocked down all the homes in the informal settlement KSM-1 on orders from the Grozny administration, despite the fact that persons were still living in them. Compensation for such lost housing was typically inadequate to insure long-term shelter for the beneficiaries. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government in general provided protection against the expulsion or return of persons to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion; however, the Federal Migration Service did not maintain a presence at airports and other border points. Asylum seekers thus had to rely on the good will of border guards and airlines personnel to call immigration officials to the scene or else face immediate return to their countries of origin, including in some cases to countries where a well-founded fear of persecution could be demonstrated. At year's end, three migrants denied admission to the country but whose countries of origin could not be determined remained living in Moscow airport transit zones. By law the decision of a Migration Service official could be appealed to a higher-ranking authority or to a court. During the appeal process, the applicant received the rights of a person whose application for refugee status was being considered. If a person did not satisfy the criteria for refugee status, but could not be expelled or deported for humanitarian reasons, he could be granted temporary asylum after a separate application. The government rarely granted convention status to those who managed to present their asylum applications to the migration service. The UNHCR and NGOs stated that asylum seekers at times faced detention, deportation, fines by police, and racially motivated assaults, which sometimes led to the loss of life. The UNHCR, the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and NGOs assisted the government in trying to develop a more humane migration management system. Officials continued to demonstrate an incomplete grasp of refugee law, but the Federal Migration Service cooperated well with international organizations to provide trainings for its officers across the vast country. In 2008 the UNHCR ceased providing refugee status determinations in parallel with the government, deeming the practice no longer necessary. The government committed to, and in the UNHCR's judgment usually provided, access to its status determination process to applicants, regardless of national origin. The government agreed to reconsider individuals whom the UNHCR had previously determined to be in need of international protection, to whom it had previously denied asylum, provided the UNHCR prepared updated dossiers on each individual. The UNHCR continued to provide counseling services to support the government's status determination process. During the year there were reports, not confirmed by the UNHCR, that the Krasnodar office of the Federal Migration Service appeared to engage in a ``Catch 22'' approach, turning away a number of asylum seekers on the grounds that they could not apply for asylum while already holding valid student or work visas; at the same time, applicants whose visas had expired were told that their asylum applications would not be accepted because they were no longer in the country legally. For asylum seekers who were allowed in the country to pursue their claims, the refugee law provides the right to temporary accommodations. However, there was only one temporary accommodation center in operation, and it was located far outside the major cities where asylum seekers concentrated. There are no reception centers at border points. The Federal Migration Service and its territorial branches are obliged by law to cover travel expenses to centers for holders and seekers of refugee or temporary asylum status. However, the law was not respected in practice, and the trip to the center was usually funded by the UNHCR or the individual involved. While federal law provides for education for all children, regional authorities occasionally denied access to schools to children of asylum seekers if they lacked residential registration. According to the UNHCR, during the year all children of asylum seekers (even those without civil registration) were entitled to attend school free of charge. In cases where parents encountered difficulties enrolling their children in schools, authorities consistently cooperated with the UNHCR to resolve the problem. Authorities frequently denied migrants the right to work if they did not have residential registration. Refugees also cannot legally work if they are not registered and cannot obtain registration if they do not have an employer or landlord willing to register them. Human rights groups continued to allege that authorities made improper use of international agreements that permitted them to temporarily detain persons with outstanding arrest warrants from other former-Soviet states. This system, enforced by informal ties among senior law enforcement officials, permitted detention for up to one month while the prosecutor general investigated the nature of the warrants. Human rights groups asserted that these arrangements were employed to detain, and possibly repatriate, opponents of the governments of other former Soviet republics without legal grounds. On June 21, Atabek Tukhtamuradov, an Uzbek citizen, was administratively expelled to his native country after authorities in Uzbekistan's Andijan region filed criminal charges against him for alleged terrorist activity. In this connection, observers recalled the government's 2007 extradition of an Uzbek national, despite a Russian court ruling against it and an ECHR determination that the individual could be subjected to torture if returned to Uzbekistan. Abdulrasul Mamarakhimov, a Kirgiz citizen of Uzbek ethnicity, was extradited on October 14, two days before a court decision on his asylum claim was to be delivered. The return journey was routed through Kazakhstan, where officials permitted the UNHCR to interview him. Following the UNHCR's determination that Mamarakhimov was in need of international protection, Kazakh authorities agreed to allow him to remain in Kazakhstan while the UNHCR identified a resettlement country. He remained in detention in Kazakhstan at year's end. On April 10, the Federal Migration Service, in compliance with a December 2008 ECHR ruling, granted temporary asylum status to the ``Ivanovo Uzbeks,'' a group of 13 persons arrested in 2005 for alleged involvement in violent unrest in Andijan, Uzbekistan. Authorities detained them for two years before the country's courts ordered them released. In December 2008 the ECHR ordered authorities not to return the 13 to Uzbekistan and to pay each 15,000 euros ($21,500) in restitution. As of year end the group members had received the ordered compensation; however, authorities had denied repeated requests to grant them exit permits in order to enable them to take up offers of asylum in Sweden. During the year Ambullazhon Isakov lost his appeals against the government's denial of his claim to Russian citizenship as well as his claim to refugee status. The ECHR ruled in November 2008 that Isakov, who was originally detained in March 2008, could not be extradited to Uzbekistan, despite an extradition request by Uzbek authorities. At year's end he remained in detention while awaiting a Moscow district court ruling on his appeal of the Federal Migration Service's denial of refugee status. At year's end Yashin Dzhurayev was awaiting resettlement in a foreign country that had agreed to accept him. Dzhurayev claimed he had been persecuted for religious reasons in Uzbekistan. Russian courts first ordered his extradition to Uzbekistan and then cancelled the order. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived both by birth within the country's territory (jus soli) and from one's parent's (jus sanguinis). A child becomes a citizen at birth if both parents are citizens; if one parent is a citizen and the other one is stateless; if one parent is a citizen and the other is a foreigner and the child was born on the territory of the country; or if both parents are foreigners or stateless and the child was born on the territory of the country and there is concern the child might become stateless. According to UNHCR data from mid-year, there were approximately 50,000 stateless persons in the country. Migration Service statistics registered 21,443 stateless persons in the country as year end 2008. The law exempts former Soviet citizens residing in the country without benefit of Russian citizenship from having to meet most requirements for naturalization. Amendments to the citizenship law that were adopted in 2008 extended the deadline for such individuals to obtain citizenship through a simplified procedure until July 1, after which date they had to use the general procedure. In addition, the law extended the right to seek citizenship to those who obtained a residence permit in the country after January 1, 2002, which increased the number of persons potentially eligible for citizenship. In Krasnodar Krai at least several hundred Meskhetian Turks (with some estimates as high as 5,000), Batumi Kurds, Hemshils, and Yezidis, both political and environmental refugees and their descendants, remained without Russian passports and were denied the right to register as residents, which deprived them of all rights of citizenship and prevented them from working legally, leasing land, or selling goods. The law in Krasnodar Krai that defines illegal migrants includes stateless persons. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully in regularly scheduled national and regional elections; however, citizens could not exercise this right in practice, as the government restricted political competition directly and indirectly by limiting the ability of opposition parties to organize, register candidates for public office, access the media, or conduct political campaigns. Elections and Political Participation.--On March 1, elections were held for seats in the legislative bodies of nine Russian regions, 10 posts of mayor, and seats in the representative bodies of 12 administrative centers of the Russian regions. The independent election monitoring NGO GOLOS observed a number of irregularities in the elections, including: pressure on voters in Tatarstan, where workers at the Kamaz plant in Naberezhnye Chelny were forced to report their voting to management; the presence of unauthorized groups at polling stations in St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, and Chelyabinsk; and interference with election monitoring in Tatarstan, Dolgoprudny, and Tomsk. In St. Petersburg local Yabloko party representatives were prevented from registering more than half of their candidates. Some voters complained of unlawful materials in polling places, blackmail, and threats. In Volgograd voters alleged that electoral commissions recorded their votes using invisible ink that disappeared. United Russia candidates won in all regions they contested and in all significant mayoral elections except Tver and Smolensk. In Smolensk the winner immediately joined United Russia. In Mozhaisk (population 70,000) an environmental activist, Dmitry Belanovich, defeated the United Russia candidate, despite being unable to stay at any hotels in Mozhaisk due to what he called ``administrative pressure'' on the proprietors. Anton Chumachenko, the United Russia candidate for a local legislative council in St. Petersburg, won an election in which there were charges of voting irregularities. In response, he resigned from his position, saying that he did not want to begin his political career with what he called ``a cynical mockery'' of rights and laws. On April 26, the city of Sochi held a mayoral election in which widespread problems were observed. Candidates included opposition leader Boris Nemtsov, acting mayor Anatoly Pakhmanov, and four others. One candidate, billionaire Aleksandr Lebedev, was struck from the ballot a week before the election, based on his alleged misfiling of financial statements. Lebedev immediately appealed the decision to the regional court, which rejected the appeal. Rival candidates stated that incumbent Pakhmanov enjoyed a virtual monopoly of local media coverage during the campaign. Former deputy prime minister Nemtsov was repeatedly prevented from campaigning and was not given access to media. For example, NTV prepared a report on the Sochi race that included interviews with four of the candidates, including Nemtsov, but pulled the report without broadcasting it. According to Nemtsov, NTV did so at the direction of first deputy chief of staff of the president, Vladislav Surkov. On March 23, several youths threw a mixture of water and ammonia into Nemtsov's face after a press conference. Nemtsov's aides called police, who did not respond. In another incident that Nemtsov termed a government provocation, his campaign received an unsolicited and anonymous contribution of $5,000 from a foreign bank. Acceptance could have led to Nemtsov's removal from the ballot, but the campaign quickly returned the money. On April 4, the Sochi Electoral Commission confiscated, without explanation, 125,000 of Nemtsov's campaign pamphlets. On the evening before the election, all four local television channels broadcast a 20-minute documentary harshly critical of Nemtsov. On October 11, elections took place in 76 regions, including for the Moscow City Duma. Observers criticized the elections as being neither free nor fair; GOLOS described the scale of election fraud as worse than prior elections and reported multiple abuses, including a considerable inflation of the turnout, widespread ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation on election day. United Russia candidates received 32 of the 35 available seats. On October 14, the three opposition parties represented in the State Duma staged a walkout in protest of the problems in the conduct and results of the elections. After a meeting with President Medvedev, they rejoined the State Duma without further incident. In a December 30 article entitled ``The Most Scandalous Campaign of the Year,'' the newspaper Nezavisimaya Gazeta reviewed the October campaign and noted that every complaint regarding irregularities had been rejected in the courts. A number of irregularities appeared in the months leading up to the October elections. Moscow mayor Yuriy Luzhkov prevented the Right Cause party from participating in the May Day march with other civic organizations, and the Moscow electoral commission eventually barred the party from the campaign. Although the Yabloko party was allowed to participate in the campaign as a party, it experienced interference and harassment connected with the campaign. On July 30, Interfax reported that Yabloko volunteers were detained while attempting to collect signatures to register the party list. Solidarity member and former Yabloko youth leader Ilya Yashin, who was running in the same electoral district as Moscow City Duma speaker Yuriy Platanov, was arrested and knocked unconscious (due to banging his head while entering the police van rather than directly due to police violence) during an August 22 protest in Moscow. A week later, on September 1, election authorities disqualified Yashin from running due to an alleged mistake in the format of the sheet on which he had gathered his required 4,500 signatures. Over the following two days, authorities eliminated all seven Solidarity candidates from the rolls, leaving only candidates sanctioned by the government. Solidarity member Vladimir Milov noted on his LiveJournal blog that even his own signature was disqualified. In Astrakhan, progovernment youths destroyed campaign materials belonging to opposition parties and removed their leaflets from mailboxes. In March 2008 the country held presidential elections in which Dmitriy Medvedev, the candidate of the ruling United Russia party, received 70 percent of the vote. Observers from the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) stated that while the election results reflected the will of the people, ``an election where candidates are confronted with almost insurmountable difficulties when trying to register risks not qualifying as free. An election where there is not a level playing field for all contestants can hardly be considered fair.'' GOLOS reported massive, widespread violations. Medvedev was sworn in as the country's third president in May 2008. In the 2007 federal State Duma elections, four parties exceeded the 7 percent threshold for gaining seats in the Duma. The United Russia party received a two-thirds majority, sufficient to amend the constitution. A team of parliamentarians from PACE, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Nordic Council observed the elections and concluded they were ``not fair or democratic.'' Frequent abuses of administrative resources, media coverage strongly in favor of the United Russia party, and restrictive revisions to the election code combined to hinder political pluralism. The elections in many North Caucasus republics were marked with apparent fraud as the official voter turnout was described by several analysts as artificially and impossibly high. The OSCE representative on freedom of the media reported numerous media freedom violations during the parliamentary and presidential elections. Electoral violations and problems observed by GOLOS included an ``unprecedented'' number of absentee ballots, collective voting under pressure, multiple voting by the same voters, and vote counting violations. GOLOS observers, however, reported good organization of voting procedures and that the secrecy of voting was mostly respected. In both the presidential and parliamentary elections, official delays in issuing visas and restrictions on the activities of the mission led the OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights to decline to send observation missions. As of year's end, the ECHR had not issued a judgment on the application filed in 2008 by the Communist Party's Mordovia branch in which it alleged that it was prevented from distributing election fliers prior to the 2007 election. The law provides that republic presidents and regional governors be nominated by the president, subject to confirmation by regional legislatures. If a regional legislature fails to confirm the president's nominee three times, the president may dissolve the legislature. The president also has the power to remove regional leaders in whom he had lost confidence, including those who were popularly elected. As of year's end, no regional legislature had failed to confirm the president's nominee. In April the State Duma passed a law allowing parties receiving between 5 and 7 percent of the vote to have one or two seats in the Duma. Prior to the law's passage, a party had to receive more than 7 percent of the popular vote in order to be represented in the Duma. The election law provides for a strict party list system and prohibits electoral blocs. There is no minimum voter turnout requirement. The election law prohibits the observation of federal elections by nonpartisan domestic groups, making it difficult for NGOs to observe elections. Also in April, the Duma passed a law described as giving equal airtime on electronic media to all political parties represented in the Duma. Observers noted that the law would limit airtime for the United Russia party's leaders when they spoke in their party capacity rather than as government officials and that the airtime in question related to discussion of party affairs rather than policy issues. The law gives the president significant influence over the Federation Council, since regional leaders selected by the president in turn appoint half of its members. Political parties that win elections to regional parliaments may propose candidates for the head of a region, but the selection is still subject to the president's and the regional legislature's approval. In April the State Duma passed and the president signed a law allowing parties that have won local elections to propose candidates for the heads of regions and to give local legislatures the right to dismiss heads of municipalities. The law prohibits early voting and negative campaigning and provides a number of criteria for removing candidates from the ballot, including for vaguely defined ``extremist'' behavior. The executive branch and the prosecutor general have broad powers to regulate, investigate, and disqualify political parties. Other provisions limit campaign spending, set specific campaign periods, and provide for restrictions on campaign materials. A law enacted in March requires that, to be registered as a political party, a group must have at least 45,000 members with at least 450 in each of half of the country's regions and 250 members in each of the remaining regions. The new law slightly relaxed these minimum membership requirements, which made it difficult for smaller parties to register. The law envisions a further reduction in the requirement (to 40,000 members overall and 400 in each of half of the regions) by 2012. An additional law passed in June allows a political party to avoid the requirement for signatures altogether if it enjoyed political support in at least one-third of the regions of the Russian Federation. In March 2008 a Moscow court denied registration to the political party People for Democracy and Justice, led by former prime minister Mikhail Kasyanov. The court cited errors in 18 percent of the more than 57,000 signatures as grounds for denying registration. While parties represented in the Duma may nominate a presidential candidate without having to collect and submit signatures, prospective presidential candidates from political parties without Duma representation must collect two million signatures from supporters throughout the country to register to run for president. These must be submitted to the Central Election Commission (CEC) for certification. An independent candidate is ineligible to run if the CEC finds more than 5 percent of the signatures to be invalid. In January the Duma adopted a law eliminating financial requirements for registering a political party for elections. While the new law was billed as a boost for democratic participation, others were concerned that it could actually close off the possibility of registering a political party by financial means rather than signatures. According to CEC chief Vladimir Churov, three of the 14 parties that sought to run in the 2007 State Duma elections were disqualified due to problems with their registration documents. Authorities used the law on extremism to restrict election- related activities of political parties. The law was used in some cases to suppress the campaign materials of opposition political parties during the 2007 and 2008 elections. For example, in March 2008 authorities used the laws against extremism to confiscate campaign materials from the St. Petersburg branch of the Yabloko party. Officials also cited the law a basis for evicting Yabloko staff members from their offices. There were 63 women in the 450-member State Duma and nine women in the 166-member Federation Council. There were two female ministers. Valentina Matviyenko, governor of St. Petersburg, was the only woman to lead one of the country's 83 regions. Three of the 19 judges on the Constitutional Court were women. None of the political parties was led by a woman. Data on number of minorities in the Duma and other legislative or governmental entities was not available. Information on the ethnic composition of the State Duma and the Federation Council was not available. National minorities took an active part in political life; however, ethnic Russians, who constitute approximately 80 percent of the population, dominated the political and administrative system, particularly at the federal level. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government acknowledged that it had not implemented the law effectively, and many officials continued to engage in corrupt practices. Corruption was widespread throughout the executive, legislative, and judicial branches at all levels of government. Manifestations included bribery of officials, misuse of budgetary resources, theft of government property, kickbacks in the procurement process, extortion, and improper use of official position to secure personal profits. The NGO Information Science for Democracy (INDEM) reported that other official institutions, such as the higher education system, health care, the military draft system, and the municipal apartment distribution system were also riddled with corruption. INDEM also estimated that bribes and corruption cost the country the equivalent of 33 percent of the country's gross domestic product. Corruption also exacerbated illegal logging and hunting, further complicating the country efforts to enforce environmental standards. President Medvedev has designated the fight against corruption and ``legal nihilism'' as priorities. In December 2008 he signed into law a package of anticorruption legislation that defines corruption and sets forth key principles for combating it. The legislation imposes financial disclosure requirements on government officials, restricts postgovernment employment at entities with which the official had prior connections, and requires reporting of actual or possible corrupt activity. Implementation of the legislation, however, was in a nascent stage. Although some decrees identifying agencies responsible for enforcement of various aspects of the legislation were signed, at year's end agency regulations to implement many of the measures had not been drafted, and enforcement of these laws remained ineffective. While there were prosecutions for bribery, a general lack of enforcement remained a problem. Cases of bribery and other corrupt practices are investigated by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Federal Security Service, both of which were themselves widely perceived as corrupt. Under the law, giving and receiving bribes remains punishable by up to 12 years of incarceration; a person who pays a bribe is relieved of criminal liability if the bribe was extorted from him or if he voluntarily informs law enforcement about it. Prosecutors charged some high-level officials with corruption during the year; however, most government anticorruption campaigns were limited in scope and focused on lower-level officials. Allegations of corruption were also used as a political tactic, which made it more difficult to determine the actual extent of corruption. On December 1, Moscow Mayor Yuriy Luzhkov won a libel suit against Boris Nemtsov, who accused Luzhkov and his wife Yelena Baturina of extensive corruption in a pamphlet he published entitled ``Luzhkov. Conclusions.'' Nemtsov was ordered to pay 500,000 rubles ($16,530). Human rights and press freedom NGOs generally asserted that the charges were spurious. There were reports that corrupt officials largely controlled illegal hunting and trafficking in endangered and protected species through the issuance of licenses and other permits in return for bribes and other illegal benefits. On January 9, the crash of a Mi-171 helicopter in the Altai brought to light the alleged involvement of senior officials in hunting argali sheep, listed as endangered in the Russian Red Book. Among those killed in the crash were Aleksandr Kosopkin, President Medvedev's representative in the Duma; Viktor Kaimin, director of the Altai division of federal environmental regulatory agency Rosprirodnadzor (the Altai Republic official responsible for issuing hunting licenses); and Sergey Livishin, a senior member of the presidential administration. On May 4, the General Prosecutor's Office opened a criminal investigation into the illegal hunting. Observers believed that the investigation would not have been opened without the engagement of environmental organizations, which collected more than 6,000 signatures urging the president and Duma speaker to act. There were allegations that violence and threats of violence were employed against activists and journalists who threatened to expose these activities. The country continued to score poorly on indicators of corruption and transparency, such as those compiled by the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010. It scored poorly on other measurements of transparency and corruption as well, including judicial independence, fairness in the decisions of government officials, the transparency of government policymaking, and the influence of organized crime. The law authorizes public access to all government information unless it is confidential or classified as a state secret. Refusal by authorities to provide access to open information, or the classification of information as a state secret without cause, has been successfully contested in court in a few cases. However, access to information often remained difficult and subject to prolonged bureaucratic procedures. In February President Medvedev signed a law requiring officials to disclose within 30 days, upon a citizen's request, any information controlled by the government that is not considered a state secret. Those seeking information must file their requests via the Internet. Officials who do not comply may be fined or imprisoned for up to five years if the withholding of information causes serious bodily harm, as was the case in the Chernobyl disaster. Although the law was billed as comparable to freedom of information laws in other countries, observers expressed concern that officials would use the ``state secrets'' provision to deny citizens access to information arbitrarily. There were no reports of court cases implementing this law during the year. In November former Hermitage lawyer Sergei Magnitsky died in a Moscow prison where he was being held on tax evasion charges. It was widely believed that the charges were fabricated and that his imprisonment took place as a result of his testimony in a corruption case against government officials (see sections 1.a. and 1.c.). Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Domestic and international human rights groups operated in the country, investigating and publicly commenting on human rights problems, but official harassment continued, and the operating environment for these groups was further restricted. Authorities increasingly harassed NGOs that focused on politically sensitive areas. Other official actions and statements indicated a lack of tolerance for unfettered NGO activity, particularly by those NGOs that received foreign funding or reported on human rights violations. NGOs operating in the Northern Caucasus were severely restricted. There were several dozen large NGO umbrella organizations as well as thousands of small grassroots NGOs. In the regions, NGO coalitions continued to focus their advocacy on such causes as the rights of the disabled and of entrepreneurs, environmental degradation, violations by law enforcement authorities, local corruption, and the conflict in Chechnya. The law regulating NGOs, as subsequently amended, requires them to register with the Ministry of Justice. The local affiliates of foreign NGOs faced more stringent registration requirements than purely domestic ones. Officials are authorized to scrutinize NGOs, including public associations, intrusively, and the law gives NGOs only limited procedural protections. Under the law as amended, the Ministry of Justice has discretion to deny registration or to request that the courts close organizations based on vague and subjective criteria. In June President Medvedev convened a working group to modify the NGO law, resulting in a decrease in registration requirements for NGOs. A June 2008 prime ministerial degree, implemented in January, removed tax-exempt status of most international NGOs, making their grants taxable, and imposed a potentially onerous annual registration process on those that met the requirements for continuing operation in the country.'' Many NGOs interpreted the decree as a further step to restrict NGO funding and operations; however, at year's end there was no notable decrease in NGO activity. All NGOs are required to submit periodic reports to the government that disclosed potentially sensitive information, including sources of foreign funding and detailed information as to how funds were used. Since foreign funding remained a sensitive issue for the security services, NGOs indicated they were increasingly cautious about accepting this support and in many cases those who continued to do so either restricted their activities to less sensitive issues or suffered harassment by the Federal Security Service. At the same time, many NGOs found themselves forced to rely on foreign funding due to insufficient support from within Russia. Observers believed the government selectively applied the NGO law to target certain NGOs, such as human rights organizations, whose activities they regarded as hostile to the authorities. The law on extremism was also employed to restrict the activities of NGOs and criticism of the government. The law defines extremist activity to include public libel of a government official or his family as well as public statements that could be construed as justifying or excusing terrorism. During the year officials increasingly applied the libel law against NGOs and individuals. In October 2008 new amendments to this law enabled authorities to act upon an accusation of extremism without evidence or a court case; however, in practice, outside of the North Caucasus, this generally did not lead to detentions without court proceedings. A number of indirect tactics were applied to suppress or close domestic NGOs, including creative application of various laws and harassment in the form of investigations and raids, including those carried out ostensibly to check for pirated software or extremist materials. Several prominent activists were killed or injured by unidentified persons during the year in circumstances that suggested that their human rights activities were the cause for reprisals against them (see sections 1.a. and 1.c). In March unknown persons threw eggs at Lev Ponomarev, the director of the NGO For Human Rights, during a press conference on prison abuses. A journalist who pursued the attackers claimed he was assaulted and punched by men who were taken away, along with the egg throwers, in a black Mercedes. In May authorities opened a criminal case against Olga Kurnosova, the leader of the St. Petersburg branch of the United Civil Front, accusing her of illegally transporting black caviar from Astrakhan in October 2008. Observers believed that she was targeted due to her work. There were no further details at year's end. On June 8, law enforcement officers searched the apartment of Maksim Ivantsov, the leader of the St. Petersburg branch of the youth opposition group Oborona. The reason given for the search was an investigation of one of Ivantsov's acquaintances suspected of painting a swastika on a Russian flag. Police confiscated Ivantsov's computer and 50 DVDs and threatened him with criminal charges for using unlicensed Windows software. Observers alleged that the real reason behind the search was Ivantsov's campaign against the abuse of authority by law enforcement agencies and his demand for the dismissal of the interior minister. On July 20, agents of the Tatarstan Ministry of Internal Affairs raided the offices of two Kazan-based human rights NGOs--AGORA and the Kazan Rights Defense Center--that were investigating police abuses. The reason given for the raid was possible violations of tax law. The raid came after the organizations began investigating high-ranking police officials in Tatarstan to determine whether, in the fall of 2008, police colonel Ramzil Salakhov beat and threatened to shoot residents of the village of Biurgan during a dispute over burning waste from a local factory. By seizing the organizations' financial documents, local authorities effectively paralyzed their activities. On December 7, the Tatarstan tax authority charged AGORA with failure to pay 870,000 rubles ($28,770) in taxes on grants received from the National Endowment for Democracy. The case continued at year's end. On October 6, a district court in Moscow ruled in favor of Chechen president Kadyrov in a civil libel suit against Moscow Memorial chief Oleg Orlov, who accused Kadyrov of complicity in the killing of human rights activist Natalya Estemirova. The court ordered Orlov and Memorial to pay damages to Kadyrov and publish a retraction on the Memorial Web site. On September 3, the Moscow Internal Affairs Department dropped a criminal libel suit on the same changes but then, on October 27, announced that it would reopen criminal charges. On September 4, a week before the beginning of the hearings, men identifying themselves as government tax inspectors had visited the apartments of relatives of Orlov and fellow Memorial worker Aleksandr Cherkasov. Calls to the tax inspectorate determined that officials there had not sent them, raising the suspicion that unidentified security personnel wished to put pressure on Orlov and Cherkasov in connection with their work in the North Caucasus. According to September press reports, prosecutors in Novorossiisk were seeking to close the local human rights organization Committee for Human Rights for ``extremist activities.'' At one of its gatherings, the NGO reportedly promulgated the slogan ``Nobody gives you liberty, you have to take it.'' After having the slogan reviewed by two linguistic experts, a historian, and a child psychologist, local authorities concluded that the phrase was an extremist call for disorder. On January 20, the Dzerzhinskiy Regional Court of St. Petersburg ruled that a December 2008 raid by agents of the Prosecutor's Office on the offices of the Memorial Research and Information Center in St. Petersburg was illegal. Memorial was raided by seven representatives of the Prosecutor's Office, three of whom wore masks. The sweep was undertaken under a warrant related to an article in the newspaper Novy Peterburg that authorities regarded as extremist. The agents were looking for evidence of financial ties between Memorial and the newspaper, which were denied by both Memorial and the newspaper. The investigators removed 12 computer hard drives and the archives of Memorial member Aleksandr Margolis, a local expert on architectural preservation. Part of Margolis's archive was returned. The St. Petersburg Prosecutor's Office immediately appealed the court decision, but on January 27, the Supreme Court upheld it and stated that the Novy Peterburg article was not extremist. Despite this ruling, the St. Petersburg Prosecutor's Office continued to pursue the case. In March a regional court judge confirmed the illegality of the manner in which the raid was conducted but stated that the grounds for the raid were legitimate. On April 24, authorities returned to Memorial the last material they had confiscated in the raid. Chechen human rights ombudsman Nurdi Nukhazhiyev continued the practice of his predecessor of not cooperating with Memorial, and he and Chechen President Kadyrov spoke out publicly against the NGO. Smaller Memorial centers throughout the country reported that landlords were frequently instructed by city administration officials not to rent it office space. A foreign NGO that worked with GOLOS in some of its democracy promotion efforts continued to experience periodic harassment. In February the firm that had processed visas for the NGO's members stated that it would no longer do so; however, the NGO continued to operate. In January government authorities accused this same foreign NGO of orchestrating the election of an unsanctioned candidate as mayor of Murmansk. As of year's end the ECHR had not ruled on Stanislav Dmitriyevskiy's appeal of his conviction in a Russian court of inciting racial and ethnic hatred. At the time of his conviction, Dmitriyevskiy was head of the Russian-Chechen Friendship Society (RCFS), which advocated negotiations between the government and Chechen rebels to settle the Chechen conflict. The incitement charge was based on Dmitriyevskiy's publishing of statements by Chechen rebel leaders. The RCFS was closed after Dmitriyevskiy's conviction. Dmitriyevskiy remained executive director of a successor organization, the Foundation to Promote Tolerance, which reported on human rights abuses by both sides of the conflict. In March 2008 police searched the offices of the successor foundation and confiscated equipment, such as cellular telephones, allegedly connected to violations of the extremism law. The government continued to scrutinize organizations that it considered to have an opposition political agenda. Numerous groups reported politically motivated hostility from the government. In the view of some observers as well as reports from those NGOS experiencing harassment, NGOs working in the North Caucasus were particularly vulnerable to government interference. During the year the government attempted to damage the public image of the NGO community with statements that NGOs were suspicious organizations funded by foreign governments. Government accusations that implied connections between foreign-funded NGOs and alleged espionage by resident diplomats increased public perceptions that NGOs served foreign interests and fueled instability. In January Vladislav Piotrovskiy, director of the St. Petersburg branch of the Central Directorate of the Internal Affairs Ministry, publicly accused NGOs of acting as fronts for foreign intelligence services. In the same month, Yuriy Popugayev, head of the Economic Security Department of the Federation Ministry of Internal Affairs, accused nonprofit and charitable organizations of acting as fronts for money laundering. In March Duma members from United Russia and the Liberal Democratic Party claimed that ``foreign money'' had financed the antitariff protests in the Primorye region, although two months later the Ministry of Internal Affairs announced that that it had found no basis for this claim. In May two progovernment analysts, Maxim Grigoryev and Pavel Danilin, along with United Russia Duma deputy Aleksandr Khinshtein, claimed that the opposition group Other Russia and affiliated groups were ``corrupt'' and foreign funded. They did not provide any evidence for the claim. In August Ingush president Yunus- Bek Yevkurov claimed that several Western countries were supporting the antigovernment insurgency in Ingushetiya. On more than one occasion during the year, Vladislav Surkov continued his practice of accusing NGOs that receive foreign funding of seeking to undermine the country's sovereignty. The case against Irina Malovichko continued as of September. The Volgograd Ministry of Internal Affairs opened a criminal case against Malovichko, the head of Child's Dignity, an NGO that works with troubled local juveniles, for allegedly embezzling 8,584 rubles ($284) from the NGO's budget. Her apartment was searched without a warrant and all documents and computers seized. Malovichko filed an appeal in June 2008 that the Voroshilovsky Court rejected. The investigator in the case threatened to open new charges against her daughter and her colleague unless she admitted guilt. A lawyer retained by Malovichko subsequently had his license revoked without explanation. The Center for International Legal Defense, headed by a former lawyer for Yukos CEO Mikhail Khodorkovskiy, continued to face confiscatory penalties arising from charges of alleged tax fraud. In August an arbitration court confirmed that tax claims against the British Council, an international cultural body funded by the United Kingdom, were groundless. Authorities had shut down council offices in St. Petersburg and Yekaterinburg temporarily after an initial adverse tax ruling. They reopened in October 2008, after a Moscow arbitration court ruled that the tax claims were illegitimate. The British government and others alleged that the closure order was politically motivated. Dmitry Medvedev, in his 2008 presidential campaign, accused the British Council of conducting espionage. Government and legislative officials recognized and consulted with some NGOs, primarily those focused on social issues, and select groups participated, with varying degrees of success, in drafting legislation and decrees. Some officials, including Ombudsman for Human Rights Lukin and the chair of the Presidential Council for Promoting the Development of Institutions of Civil Society and Human Rights (Human Rights Council), Ella Pamfilova, regularly interacted and cooperated with NGOs. In January Human Rights Ombudsman Lukin's mandate was renewed for an additional five years. Many leaders of human rights NGOs continued to consistently note that Lukin was generally effective as an official advocate for many of their concerns, despite and within the legal constraints on his position. The Ombudsman's office reported in December that it had received approximately 30,000 complaints per month during the year and that it succeeded in ``providing help'' to 10 percent of the complainants. It added that during the year the number of complaints grew by 10.6 percent compared with 2008 and that most of the complaints were about issues related to children, housing, and employment issues. In December the St. Petersburg Legislative Assembly replaced its unpopular human rights ombudsman, Igor Mikhailov, with Aleksey Kozyrev, head of the St. Petersburg Public Council and the endorsed candidate of Governor Valentina Matviyenko. Numerous activists had complained that Mikhailov had worked to undermine human rights in the Leningrad Oblast. On February 10, President Medvedev reconstituted the Human Rights Council, with Pamfilova still at the head. Its membership continued to include prominent human rights activists strongly critical of the government's human rights record. Medvedev held meetings with the council in April and in November. During the Podrabinek controversy (see section 2.a.), Pamfilova took a public stance defending Podrabinek's right to free expression and succeeded in removing the pressure on the journalist. When the council met with Medvedev in November, Pamfilova attacked the government over the Sergei Magnitsky case (see sections 1.a., 1.c., and 4), and stated, ``A sudden death in a detention center is the professional disease of Russian businessmen.'' This quote appeared on the Kremlin Website in the transcript of the meeting and was also broadcast on REN-TV. In February President Medvedev gave an interview to the editor of the opposition Novaya Gazeta newspaper, in which he expressed condolences over the killings of its journalists and praised the newspaper's independence. In April Medvedev opened a blog on the popular Web site LiveJournal, soliciting comments from citizens. Many of the comments were critical, including one that featured Prime Minister Putin in a Nazi uniform; however, there was little government reaction to the comments, either to punish any commentators or to follow through on their requests. Medvedev appeared on the blog on March 17 to address previous comments and questions. On August 1, a law came into force creating a human rights ombudsman for the city of Moscow. Two candidates ran for the post: former Yabloko member Valeriy Borshchev, a prominent member of the human rights community; and Aleksandr Muzikantskiy, the former minister of information for Moscow and the endorsed candidate of Mayor Luzhkov. On September 23, Ekho Moskvy reported that Muzikantskiy would be the new Moscow ombudsman; however, he stated that he would consult with Borshchev. In the Jewish Autonomous Republic, Amur Oblast, and some oblasts in Primorskiy Krai, local governments worked with NGOs to encourage citizen participation in local self-governance. In Astrakhan government officials worked closely with local NGOs devoted to building civil society. Some international NGOs maintained small branch offices within Chechnya staffed by local employees. However, all were headquartered outside of Chechnya. Following the killing of Natalya Estemirova (see section 1.a.), many NGOs left Chechnya or temporarily closed their operations there due to fears for their safety and ability to operate. By law any person in the country may bring allegations to the ECHR concerning human rights violations covered by the European Convention on Human Rights that occurred after 1998, provided they have exhausted ``effective and ordinary'' appeals in the country's courts. This condition was usually satisfied by two appeals (first and cassation) in courts of ordinary jurisdiction or three (first, appeal, and cassation) in the commercial court system. The ECHR, which has received more than 33,600 complaints involving Russia (28 percent of the total, the largest proportion for any Council of Europe member), including 716 during the year, ruled against the state in 273 cases on which it reached a decision during the year. The Demos Center reported in January that state agencies enforced ECHR rulings approximately 60 percent of the time. When they did, the government generally paid financial judgments ordered by the ECHR in a timely fashion; however, it rarely carried out judicial orders from the ECHR and it issued blanket refusals in response to ECHR requests for disclosure of the domestic case files relating to alleged gross violations in Chechnya. The ECHR criticized this failure of disclosure. For many years the government refused to ratify Protocol 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, designed to streamline the process by which the ECHR examines cases and thus reduce its current backlog of six to nine years. In December President Medvedev and leading State Duma deputies announced that Russia would ratify Protocol 14 in January; however, this had not taken place at year's end. On July 28, Justice Minister Aleksandr Konovalov announced that to reduce the number of cases referred to the ECHR, it was preparing legislation to compensate citizens who had suffered from counterterrorist operations, in particular those that took place in Chechnya during the past two decades. Konovalov did not specify the amount of compensation, but said that it would correspond to the European standards. He outlined these plans in more detail at an October 27 press conference, but the law had not passed by year's end. In November the UN Human Rights Committee issued a report stating that Russia had failed to protect journalists, activists, prison inmates, and others at odds with authorities from a wide range of abuses, including torture and murder. Government human rights institutions continued to promote the concept of human rights, to challenge the activities of some local governments that violated human rights, and to intervene in selected abuse complaints. Ombudsman Lukin commented on a range of human rights problems, such as police violence, prison conditions, the treatment of children, and hazing in the military. During the year Lukin criticized intolerance and the growing wave of ethnic, religious, and sociopolitical hatred. He defended the rights of participants in the dissenters' marches, noting that the constitution states clearly that citizens have a right to participate in meetings and marches and that only notification of authorities is required to hold meetings and marches, not permission from the government. The ombudsman's annual report, published in April, noted that his effectiveness was limited because he was not empowered to propose human rights legislation. He also noted the difficulty of getting some government officials to respond to inquiries from his office. Lukin's office has used its influence to draw attention to human rights questions in prisons. The Office of the Ombudsman included several specialized sections responsible for investigating complaints. In 2008 the office published a report on the protection of crime victims' rights. Lukin's role remained primarily consultative and investigatory, without powers of enforcement. As of September, 47 of the country's 83 regions had regional human rights ombudsmen with responsibilities similar to Lukin's; their effectiveness varied significantly. Despite a 2008 law apparently intended to increase its authority, many observers did not consider the 126-member Public Chamber of the Russian Federation to be an effective check on the federation government. Some prominent human rights groups declined to participate in the chamber from the beginning out due to concern that the government would use it to increase control over civil society. Its weakness was demonstrated when, in December 2008, it publicly and unanimously, but unsuccessfully, called upon President Medvedev not to sign legislation curtailing jury trials. However, some activists were consulted regarding the membership of the chamber during its inception, and some members succeeded in raising the profile of human rights cases, such as that of journalist Mikhail Beketov. In September the Public Chamber issued a report asserting that the Moscow city and oblast authorities had violated people's right to freedom of speech and to freedom of conscience. The report cited instances wherein authorities refused to allow ``dissenters' marches'' and referred to persecution of religious minorities. In December 2008 President Medvedev signed a law requiring all future draft legislation restricting individual freedoms to be reviewed by the Public Chamber. (Under earlier legislation the Duma forwarded laws to the chamber for examination only at the chamber's own request.) As of year's end the law had not had a discernable effect on the legislative process. In April Interior Minister Rashid Nurgaliyev signed a decree allowing rights groups to monitor conditions of arrest and detention for those being held in pretrial detention. However, the decree lacked firm instructions on a mechanism to implement the plan, effectively giving law enforcement authorities discretion as to whether to cooperate. The decree also requires that law enforcement authorities be present during any discussions of conditions with detainees. Prisoners' rights advocates made use of the decree with varying success (see section 1.c.). Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, language, social status, or other circumstances; however, the government did not effectively enforce these prohibitions. Women.--Rape is illegal, and the law makes no distinctions (as in cases of spousal rape) based on the relationship between the rapist and the victim. According to NGOs, many women did not report rape or other violence due to social stigma and lack of government support. Rape victims may act as full legal parties in criminal cases brought against alleged assailants and may seek compensation as part of a court verdict without initiating a separate civil action. While members of the medical profession assisted assault victims and sometimes helped identify an assault or rape case, doctors were reluctant to provide testimony in court. The Syostry call center, which helps victims of sexual abuse, reported in December that it had received 3,534 calls in Moscow during the year. Domestic violence remained a major problem. As of March the Ministry of Internal Affairs maintained records on more than 4 million perpetrators of domestic violence. The ministry estimated that a woman died every 40 minutes at the hands of a husband, boyfriend, or other family member and that 80 percent of women had experienced domestic violence at least once in their lives. The ministry also estimated that 3,000 men a year were killed by wives or girlfriends whom they had beaten. However, the reluctance of victims to report domestic violence meant that reliable statistical information on its scope was impossible to obtain. Official telephone directories contained no information on crisis centers or shelters. Law enforcement authorities frequently failed to respond to reports of domestic violence. Spousal or acquaintance rape was not widely perceived as a problem by society or law enforcement authorities. Women were unlikely to report cases of rape by persons they knew. Law enforcement personnel and prosecutors did not consider the problem a priority and reportedly did not encourage reporting or prosecution of such cases. There is no legal definition of domestic violence. The law prohibits battery, assault, threats, and murder, but most acts of domestic violence did not fall within the jurisdiction of the Prosecutor's Office. Victims of these crimes had to prosecute such cases themselves, which was difficult without legal training or state assistance. Consequently, few cases were prosecuted, and there were few convictions. According to a March study by the Smolensk-based Center for Women's Support, police often gave lackluster and inadequate responses to calls reporting domestic violence, at times suggesting that the case ``wait until morning.'' Police were often unwilling to register complaints of domestic violence and frequently discouraged victims from submitting them. A majority of cases filed were either dismissed on technical grounds or transferred to a reconciliation process conducted by a justice of the peace whose focus was on preserving the family rather than punishing the perpetrator. Civil remedies for domestic violence included administrative fines and divorce. The Center for Women's Support asserted that many perpetrators of domestic violence themselves belonged to law enforcement agencies. There were more than 600 government centers for social rehabilitation and shelters of various types; the number of these that offered services to domestic violence victims was unknown. There were also an estimated 20 crisis centers, with a total of 200 beds, 90 percent of them run by NGOs; three of these were in the Moscow area. Crisis centers did not focus exclusively on violence against women, although some offered services, including temporary shelter, to domestic violence victims. Honor killings were a problem in some areas, such as the Caucasus region. Observers estimated that 35 to 60 women annually were victims of honor killings in Chechnya. On February 4, the body of a 21-year-old woman with six bullet wounds was found in the Shelkovsky region of Chechnya. Investigators considered ``honor killing'' as a possible motive but did not reach a definitive conclusion by year's end. In November 2008 a series of killings of young women occurred in Chechnya. According to the head of Chechnya's Investigation Committee, (an office within the Republic-level Ministry of Internal Affairs), the killings were likely motivated by the women's refusal to adhere to what the perpetrators considered to be Muslim traditions. President Kadyrov initially spoke out against the killings and called for the perpetrators to be brought to account, but he later called the killings justified, telling journalists that the women had ``loose morals'' and that ``no one can tell us not to be Muslims.'' A Chechen NGO that worked to counsel perpetrators of honor killings faced harassment by local authorities, who threatened to shut it down and reportedly made a veiled death threat against its director. The organization and operation of a prostitution business is a crime, while selling sexual services is a lesser administrative offense. Prostitution remained widespread, and some observers noted that the country was a destination for sex tourism. Police worked closely with at least one foreign government to ensure the prosecution of sex tourists. There were reports of persons in prostitution bribing police and of police violence against persons in prostitution. It was widely believed that police were involved in the protection of prostitution. According to a May 4 Reuters article, approximately 100,000 persons in Moscow were engaged in prostitution. The law does not prohibit sexual harassment, which remained a widespread problem. NGOs operating hot lines reported that women routinely sought advice on the problem. The lack of legal remedies and limited economic opportunities caused many women to tolerate harassment. Authorities have successfully prosecuted only two sexual harassment cases since 1992. In July 2008 a 22-year-old female executive attempted to pursue a sexual harassment suit but lost the case when the judge declared that sexual harassment is necessary to further the human species. A participant in the trial noted that ``if Russia were to measure sexual harassment by Western standards, 100 percent of female professionals would report that they had experienced sexual harassment.'' According to a 2005 report by Profil magazine, 32 percent of women said that they had had sexual relations with their bosses, and 7 percent said that their bosses had raped them. Of the respondents, 80 percent said that they could not achieve promotion without engaging in sexual relations with their male superiors. Although the constitution states that men and women have equal rights and opportunities to pursue those rights, women encountered discrimination in employment. Job advertisements often specified gender and age groups. Some even specified desired physical appearance and preference for applicants who were open to intimate relations with their prospective supervisors. Employers often preferred to hire men to save on maternity and childcare costs and avoid the perceived unreliability associated with women with small children. The labor market was characterized by gender discrimination in compensation, professional training, hiring and dismissal, and career promotion. However, such discrimination was often very difficult to prove. According to both RosStat, the federal state statistics service, and the Center for Labor Studies (of the Higher School of Economics), in 2007 the gender differential in wages was 35 percent, although some more recent studies have given a lower estimate. There is no government office devoted to women's legal rights. The most recent census, in 2002, indicated that 62 percent of women in the country had higher education, compared to 50 percent of men, and that women made up more than 50 percent of university tutors and professors. Women ran approximately 30 percent of medium businesses and 10 percent of big businesses in the country. A March study by Price- Waterhouse-Coopers found that the number of women taking managerial positions had grown from 30 to 40 percent since the onset of the economic crisis. In May the Supreme Court rejected a St. Petersburg woman's appeal to drive metro trains; she had filed a discrimination suit after being turned down for the job because of her gender. The Soviet-era labor code includes this job among 460 positions considered too dangerous or physically demanding for women. Although polygamy is illegal, the Chechen government has encouraged men to take more than one wife. Authorities require women and girls in Chechnya to wear headscarves in all schools, universities, and government offices. Some observers alleged that Chechen president Kadyrov was intentionally promoting Islamic values to tighten his authoritarian rule and to co-opt Islamist separatists. Women made up approximately 10 percent of the workforce of the federal and regional governments. In 2008 Liberal Democratic Party leader Vladimir Zhirinovskiy stated that women should stay at home and have children and let men take care of everything else. The government officially recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. There are no legal restrictions on access to contraceptives. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. However, some reproductive rights advocates said that the atmosphere for their work was difficult. International family planning organizations were unable to operate in the face of opposition from the government and from the Orthodox Church. Education regarding family planning was limited, especially outside of big cities. The government explicitly encourages women to have as many children as possible to counteract the country's demographic problems (the country's population has shrunk by six million since the end of the Soviet Union). President Medvedev announced in 2008 that the government would build 23 more maternity hospitals by the end of 2009; Medvedev requested a progress report at year's end. Children.--By law citizenship is derived from parents at birth or from birth on Russian soil if the parents are unknown or are foreigners. As a rule all newly born babies are registered at the local civil registry office (ZAGS) where parents live. One of the parents must apply for registration within a month of the birth date, and on the basis of medical certificate of the hospital where the baby was born, a birth certificate is issued. There were unsubstantiated reports of occasional unregistered births. Although education was free to grade 11 and compulsory until age 15 or 16, regional authorities frequently denied school access to the children of persons not registered as residents of the locality, including Roma, asylum seekers, and migrants. Child abuse was a widespread problem. The law did not adequately protect children from abuse, and the majority of child abuse cases were not subject to legal action. In June the Duma passed a law that increased the maximum sentence for rape of a minor to 20 years. It also increased the penalties for child molestation and distributing child pornography. Children, particularly homeless children and orphans, were exploited for child pornography. While authorities working on the issue viewed child pornography as a serious problem, the law prohibiting it lacked important details and authorities seldom invoked it. The law does not define child pornography, criminalize its possession, or provide for effective investigation and prosecution of cases of child pornography. Courts often dismissed criminal cases because of the lack of clear standards. When a court convicted a suspect, it frequently imposed the minimum sentence, often probation. Authorities investigated and prosecuted relatively few child cases involving pornography cases, creating an environment in which it proliferated. Nonetheless, according to the General Prosecutor's Office, the number of child pornography investigations increased threefold in the four-year period ending in 2007. In 2008, the most recent year for which figures were available, authorities registered 331 cases of child pornography (an increase of 2.2 percent over the previous year), opened preliminary investigations into 159 (an increase of 17.6 percent over the previous year), and brought indictments in 157. The maximum sentence for most sex offenses (including those against children) is four years, but sex offenders usually received lesser sentences and frequently obtained early release for good behavior. Early release posed a problem, because offenders disappeared into communities, often to commit new crimes. The government has created two federal resources to respond to the threat of child pornography through the Internet: the Russian Safer Internet Center, established in 2008 with a hotline to receive information on illegal content sources with a view to getting them closed, and the Friendly Runet Foundation created during the year with the direct participation of, and working in close partnership with, the federal Interior Ministry, which also has a hotline for reporting of Internet sources with illegal content. During the year NGOs began a project entitled, ``Prevention of Sexual Exploitation of Children in the Russian Federation,'' with support from European Commission. The three-year project is a joint initiative led by the Moscow Crisis Center ``Syostr.'', the Perm Center for Violence Prevention and the Far Eastern Center in Support of Social Initiatives, which intended to put in place a system for training social workers, militia, and educators in their regions on the prevention of violence against children, the provision of support for victims, and the early identification of sexual violence. The government did not play a significant role in this initiative. In a December 2008 report, the NGO Children's Rights estimated that approximately 40,000 children ran away from home annually to escape abuse and neglect and that 20,000 orphans fled similar conditions in orphanages. The report, as updated in February, noted that there were approximately 120,000 new orphans every year. In 2005 the Moscow Helsinki Group indicated that approximately two million children under 14 years of age were victims of domestic violence annually. While the government paid some attention to child abuse, it did not generally link it to the broader problem of domestic violence. At a public roundtable on children's rights in January 2008, a representative of the Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that approximately 2,000 children died annually from violence, most of it domestic. As of year's end, there were approximately 5,000 active court cases against parents for abuse and neglect of their children. At a Public Chamber roundtable in February, Aleksandr Bastrikhin, the head of the investigative committee of the General Prosecutor's Office, estimated that more than 196,000 crimes of violence against children were recorded in 2008, including 1,900 that resulted in death. More than 12,000 children were reported missing. In the first nine months in 2008, 784 sexual offenses against children were reported. Many observers believed that the number of such crimes was underreported. The NGO Children's Rights estimated that an average of 700,000 children lived in the streets as of the end of the year. Police attempted to return approximately 70 percent of them to a home or institution. According to the Investigating Committee of the Prosecutor General's Office, more than six million children lived in socially improper conditions. In 2008, 126,000 children were victims of various crimes, of which 1,914 died and 2,330 were abused with serious damage to their health. During the same time, 784 children were sexually abused. An estimated 12,500 children were missing at year's end.. According to the Ministry of Education and Science, in 2008, 120,000 children without parents' care were registered. Over 74,000 found foster families. Homeless children often engaged in criminal activities, received no education, and were vulnerable to drug and alcohol abuse. Some young girls on the streets turned to, or were forced into, prostitution, often to survive. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, 91,584 of the 2,563,000 crimes recorded between January and October were committed by minors or with their complicity. This was a 6.1 percent decrease compared with the same period in 2008. Although there was no nation-wide telephone hotline for reporting child abuse, the Presidential Administration, in conjunction with foreign governments, provided grants through the National Charity Foundation to local NGOs such as the National Foundation for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NFPCC) to train staff and strengthen local hotlines about child abuse across the country. The NFPCC was a prominent child welfare NGO in Russia. The Foundation for Assistance to Children in Difficult Life Situation (the Foundation), established in 2007 by presidential order, conducted its first grant competition during the year supporting regional projects to address child welfare and prevention of cruelty to children at the regional level. The grants, totaling 53.8 million rubles ($1.9 million), were awarded to 64 projects submitted by municipal child welfare organizations, regional administrations and 11 NGOs. President Medvedev also directed that the foundation hold a national public awareness campaign specifically targeting reduction of violence against children. By the end of the year, the government had allocated 5.7 billion rubles ($188 million) to the Fund for Children's Support that it established in 2008. The fund's mission is to support social programs that work with orphans and provide social rehabilitation of disadvantaged children. On September 1, President Medvedev established the post of ``ombudsman for the rights of children'' and appointed Aleksey Golovan, a well-known human rights activist, to the position. The responsibilities of the children's ombudsman include following the activities of state agencies at the federal level, ensuring the observance of the rights of children, and writing an annual report similar to that of Ombudsman Lukin. Some experts feared that the direct appointment of the children's ombudsman by the president and the planned oversight by the Public Chamber would make the ombudsman dependent on the government. In December Golovan was replaced with lawyer and Public Chamber member Pavel Astakhov. According to the Moscow Times, authorities dismissed Golovan at the behest of Russian Orthodox groups who objected to his support for a juvenile justice system separate from that for adults. Regional ombudsmen for children operated in 25 regions with the authority to conduct independent investigations relating to violations of children's rights, inspect any institutions and executive offices dealing with minors, establish councils of public experts, and conduct independent evaluation of legislation affecting children. In a number of schools in the Moscow and Volgograd Oblasts, there were school ombudsmen dealing with children and families and identifying potential conflicts and violations of rights of children. According to 2007 data from the Moscow Department of Social Security, 12 percent of street children in shelters had run away from orphanages or boarding schools. Law enforcement officials reportedly abused street children, blamed them for unsolved crimes, and committed illegal acts against them, including extortion, illegal detention, and psychological and sexual violence. Then children's ombudsman Aleksey Golovan noted in a September 15 interview with Vremya Novostei that of the country's 700,000 orphans, approximately 160,000 lived in orphanages and that those who did suffered from ``psychological and emotional neglect.'' Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons. However, Russia remained a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. The scope of trafficking was difficult to quantify, but observers believed that it remained widespread. Women were trafficked within, to, and from the country for prostitution. Those trafficked to the country for this purpose often came from neighboring countries and from Asia and Africa. The major destinations for women trafficked from the country for prostitution were Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Men, women, and children were trafficked to the country for forced labor, especially in the construction, agricultural, fishing, and manufacturing sectors. Countries of origin included Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Ghana, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Nigeria, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. Destination countries included Bahrain, China, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, and the United Arab Emirates. The exploitation of children in the production of child pornography for Internet distribution was a significant problem. The International Labor Organization reported that labor trafficking was the predominant form of trafficking. The IOM obtained information through its migrant and human trafficking projects indicating that the incidence of sex trafficking exceeded labor trafficking. Victims of labor trafficking often surrendered their passports or other documentation to their employers, despite passage of a 2007 migration law requiring workers to register directly with the state. Labor traffickers controlled their victims by such means as withholding their wages, the use and threat of force, threats to report them to authorities, and confiscating their travel or personal identity documents. Sex traffickers typically targeted unemployed women and girls between the ages of 14 and 45, with those between the ages of 15 and 25 being the primary targets. They often lured their victims into prostitution by false promises of legitimate work. They employed means of coercion similar to those used by labor traffickers. The country was a major producer and distributor of Internet child pornography, leading to confirmed cases of child sex trafficking and child sex tourism. Traffickers often targeted homeless children and children in orphanages for sexual exploitation. Moscow and St. Petersburg were destinations for children trafficked within Russia and from Ukraine and Moldova for purposes of sexual exploitation and forced begging. Child sex tourism by men from Western Europe and the United States to western Russia, particularly to St. Petersburg, declined. According to experts the decline resulted from aggressive police investigations and cooperation with foreign law enforcement agencies. In one such case, an American was prosecuted in the United States for raping girls he obtained from an orphanage on the outskirts of St. Petersburg. Authorities used both anti-trafficking statutes and traditional criminal law to prosecute human traffickers. The maximum sentences are 15 years' imprisonment for trafficking and forced labor, eight years for imprisonment and recruitment into prostitution, 10 years for organizing a prostitution business, and 15 years for the manufacture and distribution of child pornography. The law does not define child pornography or criminalize simple possession of such material. Victims in trafficking cases received protection under the witness protection law. During the year the government sustained its investigation efforts. The Ministry of the Interior collects and reports statistics on the number of investigations opened and indictments filed. In 2008, using the trafficking provision of the criminal code authorities initiated investigations of 95 cases (down 15 percent over 2007) and filed indictments in 68 (up 4.6 percent). Using the forced labor provision of the criminal code they initiated investigations of 16 cases (down 59 percent over 2007) and filed indictments in seven (down 71 percent). During the first half of the year, authorities began 63 investigations for trafficking and four for forced labor. There were trafficking convictions during the year. A court in Stavropol Krai gave nine defendants prison sentences of six months to 13 years in prison for organizing prostitution and trafficking; a court in the Tula region sentenced six members of an organized prostitution ring to eight and one-half to 10 years on similar charges; a court in Moscow sentenced three members of a criminal group to terms of 10 to 12 years for trafficking in persons, including minors, by means of slave labor and illegal detention; and a court in the Krasnodar Territory sentenced four persons to terms of four to nine years for using slave labor and human trafficking to extract recyclable material from a landfill. Public officials were charged or investigated for trafficking offenses. A senior military officer and 10 other defendants were on trial in the Moscow District Military Court for organizing an international sex trafficking syndicate involving more than 100 women and girls from Russia, other former Soviet republics, and Southeast Asia to Western Europe and the Middle East between 1999 and 2007; a junior police officer was arrested on suspicion of trafficking women to the United Arab Emirates; two junior police officers were arrested for trafficking women for sexual exploitation within the country; and a senior district police commissioner in the Astrakhan region was under investigation for taking passports and travel documents from migrants and forcing them to work as agricultural laborers. There were no national policies or federal programs to assist trafficking victims. International donors provided the majority of aid to NGOs and international organizations that assisted victims. Some local governments provided modest financial and in-kind support to some antitrafficking NGOs. A local government in the Russian Far East provided space for a foreign-funded shelter that opened in February (and was to cover basic operating costs of the shelter beginning in 2010). The City of St. Petersburg funded a number of shelters that assisted some child victims of trafficking. Some trafficking victims received limited assistance at domestic violence centers funded and run by local and regional governments. The quality of these shelters varied, and they were often ill-equipped to respond to the legal, medical, and psychological needs of individual trafficking victims. At times the shelters refused to assist foreign and domestic victims who were not official residents in their locality. The IOM Human Trafficking Rehabilitation Center in Moscow, the main center for trafficking victims, previously funded by international donors, closed in November when it was unable to secure financial support from the federal or local governments. There was no federal trafficking prevention program, although a number of ministries addressed trafficking on an individual basis. There were warnings about trafficking on the Web sites of both the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Ministry of Foreign Affair. Newspapers, television programs, and Internet sites carried numerous stories and documentaries about human trafficking. These accounts often detailed ways for potential victims to avoid falling prey to traffickers. A Russian Academy of Sciences survey of 837 potential victims of trafficking, which was conducted as part of an IOM human trafficking project, found that more than 70 percent of respondents were aware of the dangers of both sex and labor trafficking. On a regional and local level, there were a number of active trafficking prevention campaigns, typically conducted by local NGOs with support from local and regional governments. These programs ranged from ad hoc provision of facilities and equipment to continuing arrangements between regional government and NGOs. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at: www.state.gov/j/tip/ . Persons With Disabilities.--Several laws prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities or mandate their equal treatment; however, the government generally did not enforce these laws. Citizens with disabilities continued to face discrimination and denial of equal access to education, employment, and social institutions. The situation for persons with disabilities reportedly worsened following the replacement of government in-kind subsidies for such items as transportation and medicine with cash payments in 2004. Some affluent regions, such as Moscow, preserved benefits for persons with disabilities at preexisting levels, while most other regions provided a limited number of benefits, such as free transportation. In May Moskovskiy Komsomolets reported that there were 13 million persons with disabilities. In 2006 the human rights ombudsman stated that in the previous 10 years more than 120,000 persons became ``invalids'' as a result of military actions and war injuries, and according to the NGO Perspektiva, the number continued to grow as a result of new conflicts. Persons with disabilities were generally excluded from the social and political life of their communities and isolated from mainstream society. A joint study released in May by the Public Chamber and EU representatives found that 20 percent of respondents considered persons with disabilities to be burdens on society. Forty percent of the invalids surveyed said they experienced social problems, in particular insults and hostility. Conditions in institutions for adults with disabilities were often poor, with unqualified staff and overcrowding. The residents were mainly ``graduates'' of similar institutions for children. Institutions rarely attempted to develop the abilities of residents, who were frequently confined to the institutions and sometimes restricted in their movement within the institutions themselves. The use of psychotropic drugs as punishment was allegedly widespread. Federal law on the protection of persons with disabilities requires that buildings be made accessible to persons with disabilities, but authorities did not enforce the law and in practice most buildings were not accessible. A reporter for Noviye Izvestiye estimated in a September 16 article that 10 to 30 percent of Moscow's buildings were inaccessible to persons with disabilities. Likewise, only 8 percent of the city's 36,000 street crossings were completely equipped for the disabled. There are laws establishing employment quotas for persons with disabilities at the federal and local levels; however, some local authorities and private employers continued to discourage such persons from working, and there was no penalty for failure to honor quotas. Human rights NGOs made some progress in persuading foreign companies in larger cities, including Moscow, to consider persons with disabilities as potential employees, and the Moscow city government reportedly encouraged employers to hire persons with disabilities. However, according to the NGO All-Russia Society of Invalids, the number of persons with disabilities in the Moscow workforce fell from 72,500 in 2002 to 28,000 in 2007, a decline the NGO attributed to the 2002 elimination of tax benefits that encouraged employers to hire such persons. In December 2008 the NGO Perspektiva reported that the number of unemployed persons with disabilities nationwide had decreased to 85 percent from 90 percent in 2007. In September Perspektiva reported that the onset of the economic crisis had worsened employment prospects for persons with disabilities; however, Perspektiva had no statistics on the scope of the problem. In 2008 the Ombudsman's Office reported that approximately 640,000 of the country's ``invalids'' were children. Authorities generally segregated such children from mainstream society through a system that institutionalized them until adulthood. Observers concluded that issues of children's welfare were often ignored and there were few means of addressing systemic problems of abuse. Human rights groups alleged that children with disabilities in state institutions were poorly provided for and, in some cases, physically abused by staff members. ``Graduates'' of state institutions also often lacked the necessary social, educational, and vocational skills to function in society. According to a 2006 report by the Prosecutor General's Office, half of the more than 600,000 children with disabilities in state care lacked medicines, hearing aids, and wheelchairs. The NGO Children's Rights confirmed in September that this situation had not changed. There appeared to be no legal mechanism by which individuals could contest their commitment to a facility for persons with disabilities. The assignment of categories of disability to children with mental disabilities often followed them through their lives. The labels ``imbecile'' and ``idiot,'' which were assigned by a commission that assesses children with developmental problems at the age of three and signifies that a child is uneducable, were almost always irrevocable. Even the label ``debil'' (slightly retarded) followed an individual on official documents, creating barriers to employment and housing after graduation from state institutions. This designation was increasingly challenged in the case of children with parents or individual caregivers, but there were few advocates for the rights of institutionalized children. Youths with disabilities not in institutions faced significant barriers to education, including a lack of access to schools. According to the May Public Chamber study, only 3 percent of children studied under conditions analogous to mainstream students and 87 percent of higher education institutions did not accept students with disabilities. Education authorities often tried to keep youths with disabilities out of school due to lack of special programs. At the same time, an alternative ``home program'' was much inferior to school classes. The majority of teachers and administrators in schools and universities had little or no understanding of disability issues. Often parents of children without disabilities were averse to their children studying with children with disabilities. NGOs cited some examples of courts ordering that children with disabilities be admitted to schools that initially refused them. For example, two children with disabilities in Petrozavodsk, Karelia, were denied permission to attend a preschool program because the preschool stated that it did not have the capacity to accommodate children with their disabilities. In a final decision in 2007, the Petrozavodsk court ruled that the children's right to education had been violated and that a local special school must be created (by the time of the verdict the children were of school age) to provide a satisfactory education program for the children. According to government reports, of approximately 450,000 school- age children with disabilities, an estimated 200,000 did not receive any education. Of the 250,000 who received an education, 140,000 attended regular schools, 40,000 studied at home, and 70,000 attended special schools. Because special schools comprised only 3 percent of all schools, most children with disabilities could not study in the communities where they lived and were isolated from other members of the community. The election laws contain no special provisions concerning the accessibility of polling places, and the majority of polling places were not accessible to persons with disabilities. The mandates of government bodies charged with protecting human rights included the protection of persons with disabilities. These bodies carried out a number of inspections in response to complaints from disability organizations and, in some cases, appealed to the responsible agencies to remedy individual situations. Inspections by the Ombudsman's Office of homes for children with mental disabilities continued to disclose severe violations of children's rights and substandard conditions. In May the head of the Public Chamber's Commission on Social and Demographic Policy stated that by the end of the year, the government would spend 9.68 billion rubles ($320 million) to support services for persons with disabilities throughout the country, adding that she did not consider this sum sufficient. There was no information available at year's end regarding actual expenditures. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law prohibits discrimination based on nationality; however, government officials at times subjected minorities to discrimination. Recent years have seen a steady rise in societal violence and discrimination against minorities, particularly Roma, persons from the Caucasus and Central Asia, dark- skinned persons, and foreigners. Although the number of reported hate crimes decreased during the year, skinhead groups and other extreme nationalist organizations fomented racially motivated violence. Racist propaganda remained a problem during the year, although courts continued to convict individuals of inciting ethnic hatred by means of propaganda. A number of studies released in March by independent NGOs and advocacy groups, such as the Tajik Migrant Workers Union, found widespread problems of unpaid laborers with no legal recourse. Federal and local law enforcement personnel continued to target members of ethnic minorities disproportionately. Police reportedly beat, harassed, and demanded bribes from, persons with dark skin or who appeared to be from the Caucasus region, Central Asia, or Africa. In Moscow authorities continued to subject dark-skinned persons to far more frequent document checks than others and frequently detained or imposed illegally large penalties on them for lacking documents. In a January raid, police confiscated presents that migrants had bought as New Year's gifts for family members back home. During one of several raids on the Chelobityevo shantytown, where many migrant laborers were housed, police officers reportedly forced a dozen men to strip to their underwear in frigid temperatures when they could not produce a sufficiently large cash bribe. Police often failed to record the abuse of minorities or to issue written citations to the alleged victims. Law enforcement authorities often targeted such persons for deportation from urban centers. The Federal Migration Service announced in September that it had created a new center to assist migrant laborers with such tasks as putting documents in order to facilitate registration and permission to work. Service director Mikhail Tryukhin estimated that the center would be able to process 4,000 clients per day. At year's end it was too early to evaluate the effectiveness of the center. There was no further information regarding the 2007 demolition by local authorities of the homes of several members of the local Romani community in Chudovo, Novgorod Oblast. According to a court decision, the construction of the homes was unauthorized as there were no proper deeds of ownership for the houses or land. In October Sochi Mayor Anatoliy Pakhomov proposed that Roma (whom he called ``gypsie.'') and homeless persons should be forcibly employed as laborers at the Olympic construction sites on a round-the-clock basis. In Bashkortostan authorities required applicants for new identity documents to state their ethnic origins, contrary to the constitution, which states that ``nobody shall be forced to identify and state their ethnicity.'' In September 2008 unknown persons abducted a 35-year-old Ingush man, Magomed Khamkhoyev, and held him captive in the basement of a cottage in northwest Moscow for several days. During that time he was reportedly beaten and tortured, but he managed to escape. An Ingush opposition leader later visited the cottage with police and was informed that it belonged to a military unit of the Defense Ministry. There was no indication that authorities were pursuing the matter. Some officials appeared to stoke societal antipathy toward labor migrants from Central Asia by making statements imputing greater criminality to migrants than to Russian citizens. At the end of May, Investigative Committee head Aleksandr Bastrykin stated in an interview that migrants were to blame for the majority of crimes in society. At the end of 2008, hundreds of members of the Young Guard, a youth wing of the United Russia party, rallied in Moscow to demand expulsion of millions of non-Russian labor migrants. Skinhead violence continued to be a serious problem. Skinheads primarily targeted foreigners, particularly Asians and individuals from the Northern Caucasus, although they also expressed anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic sentiments. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, neofascist movements had approximately 15,000 to 20,000 members, more than 5,000 of whom were estimated to live in Moscow. However, the ministry stated that if the category were expanded to include ``extremist youth groups'' in general, the number was closer to 200,000. In February the MBHR estimated that there were up to 70,000 skinhead and radical nationalist organizations operating in the country compared with a few thousand in the early 1990s. Skinhead groups were most numerous in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhniy Novgorod, Yaroslavl, and Voronezh. The three most prominent ultra-nationalist groups--the Great Russia party, the Slavic Union movement, and the Movement against Illegal Immigration (DPNI)--claimed, respectively, 80,000, 10,000, and 20,000 members. However, membership claims by these underground organizations were difficult to verify. Some military and law enforcement personnel openly sympathized with the DPNI, in some cases voluntarily guarding its events. On May 28, a Moscow court convicted Aleksandr Belov, former DPNI leader, of hate speech for an address he gave at a nationalist rally in 2007 that expressed hostility toward members of ethnic groups from the Caucasus region. The court gave him an 18-month suspended sentence; Belov resigned from the DPNI in April because of the charges. Authorities registered a total of 12,900 racially or religiously motivated crimes during the year, which they stated was a slight decrease from 2008. According to the SOVA center, during the year 54 persons were killed and 294 injured in violent attacks by nationalists, a decrease of 51 deaths and 255 injuries compared to 2008. The MBHR reported 212 racially motivated attacks during the year, resulting in 68 deaths and 273 injuries (a decrease of 40 deaths and 90 injuries from the MBHR's reported amount in 2008). According to the SOVA Center, there were 30 convictions in the first six months of the year for ethnically or racially motivated crimes. The MBHR stated that during the year, 292 persons were convicted for crimes motivated by ``aggressive xenophobia,'' of which 138 were imprisoned. In most cases the attackers wore skinhead attire or proclaimed nationalist slogans. In February The Observer reported that since 2004, racist attackers had killed more than 350 persons. As a result of the organization's antiracist activities, SOVA's directors received death threats from extremist organizations in a February letter that also threatened attacks on journalists and lawyers. At a press conference, SOVA representatives stated that they would send a copy of the letter to authorities; however, there was no response during the year. Attacks during the year that appeared to be racially motivated included the February attack by three youths in St. Petersburg on an African student at the Bonch-Bruyevich telecommunications University. The student was hospitalized with head injuries and the attackers were arrested and charged with hooliganism. On the evening of May 4, a group of skinheads used sticks and brass knuckles in an attack on an Indian restaurant near the Belorusskaya Metro in Moscow. The Web site life.ru reported that on the same evening, skinheads killed a police officer, but the police later denied that the killing had taken place. There were no further developments during the year. On October 26, authorities found a young Kyrgyz man murdered on the Bolshoy Cherkizovsky street in Moscow. Unknown assailants had severely beaten him with a metal bar and had stabbed him. Gzt.ru reported that a new youth gang, targeting Asian migrants, was operating in the area, and had killed another young Kyrgyz man a week earlier. There were no arrests in the case. There were no reports of arrests or prosecutions related to the following 2008 cases: the May skinhead attack on Kyrgyz and Vietnamese students at a Ufa university; the July incendiary attacks by masked perpetrators on a group of Tajik guest workers in Moscow, the November 4 attack on a Turkmen embassy official by 10 neo-Nazis, and the December 2008 attack near Moscow on two Tajik workers, one of whom was beheaded. There were developments in ethnically motivated killings reported in previous years. In February the trial began of the Borovikov gang, whose members were charged with seven murders motivated by ethnic hatred between 2003 and 2006. Fourteen skinheads were involved, and nine were arrested. Of the two leaders of the gang, only Aleksey Voevodin would stand trial; the other, Dmitriy Borovikov, was shot and killed by militiamen when resisting the arrest in 2006. The case consists of 13 episodes of criminal activities of the gang. The trial continued at year's end. On October 9, a jury found four members of the skinhead group, the ``White Wolves,'' accused in 12 racist attacks (11 of them fatal) during 2006-07, guilty of murder but did not declare their actions to have been motivated by ethnic hatred. During the year court cases related to the 2006 ethnic rioting in Kondopoga, Karelia, continued, including the trials of six persons of Caucasus ethnicity charged in 2008 with murder, assault, or hooliganism. In August the St. Petersburg branch of the Internal Affairs Ministry forwarded a case of possible racial incitement to a ``linguistic expert'' named Elena Kryukhina, a staff member of an official body that provided expertise for the courts. Kryukhina determined that slogans shouted by a group of 25-30 young persons who attacked and beat two teenagers with Asian appearances on February 14 did not represent examples of ethnic hatred. Kryukhina opined that the slogan ``Russia for the Russians'' did not constitute incitement and that the slogan ``Beat the Blacks'' might not be incitement, depending upon the motives of the persons who uttered it. In the ensuing uproar over this decision, the ministry stated that it would have the case reexamined. One of the two victims of the attack, Tagir Kerimov, was in a coma for several months. In 2008 Kryukhina found the satirical animated television series ``South Park'' to be extremist, a decision that Moscow's Basmanny Court threw out in June. Police investigation of cases that appeared to be racially or ethnically motivated was frequently ineffective. Authorities were at times reluctant to acknowledge the racial or nationalist element in the crimes, often calling attacks ``hooliganism.'' Many victims met with police indifference, and immigrants and asylum seekers who lacked residence documents recognized by police often chose not to report attacks. According to the SOVA Center, willingness to recognize crimes as hate crimes varied widely depending on the personal views of the local prosecutor; the center noted that the number of hate crimes prosecuted in Moscow increased significantly after a new prosecutor took office in 2008. There were indications that the government was taking ultra- nationalism seriously as a potential threat to the social order. In March investigators expressed concern that ultra-nationalists, no longer consigned to the fringes of society, might include members with steady jobs as bankers and stockbrokers and consequently were gaining greater access to wealth and resources. In April a leading expert on the security services told Politkom.ru that in the context of the economic crisis, the Federal Security Service considered nationalism a threat to national security comparable to terrorism. A June report by SOVA noted that in addition to their more traditional targets, neo- Nazis were increasing their attacks on law enforcement personnel. On August 4, Federal Security Service officers arrested Anton Mukhachev, one of the suspected cofounders of the extreme nationalist organization Northern Brotherhood and its Internet-based game ``Bolshaya Igra,'' and charged him with incitement to ethnic hatred. Mukhachev remained in detention awaiting trial as of September. Many online nationalists expressed support for Mukhachev, with some threatening revenge against authorities. Muslims and Jews continued to encounter prejudice and societal discrimination, although it was often difficult to separate religious discrimination from ethnic discrimination (see section 2.c.). Human rights organizations expressed concern that Romani children in the education system experienced discrimination. According to the NGO Anti-Discrimination Center Memorial, a number of schools refused to register Romani students on the grounds that they lacked documents, while others segregated Romani students or placed them in classes designed for children with learning disabilities because of their ethnicity. Indigenous People.--The law provides for support of indigenous ethnic communities, permits them to create self-governing bodies, and allows them to seek compensation if economic development threatens their lands. In some regions local communities organized to study indigenous cultures and make recommendations regarding their preservation. Groups such as the Buryats in Siberia and ethnic groups in the far north (including the Enver, Tafarli, Chukchi, and others) continued to work actively to preserve and defend their cultures as well as their right to benefit from the economic resources of their regions. Most asserted that they received the same treatment as ethnic Russians, although some groups asserted that they were not represented, or were underrepresented, in regional governments. Some indigenous groups claimed that they were denied profits from the exploitation of natural resources in their territories. NGO reports from 2006 through the end of the year noted that indigenous minorities were adversely affected by wider government use of authoritarian methods of rule, harsher migration laws, campaigns against illegal migration, the increasing authority of law enforcement bodies, and a reduction in government support for minority-language media. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--While homosexuality was decriminalized in 1993, the gay and lesbian communities continued to suffer societal stigma and discrimination. Gay rights activists asserted that the majority of gay Russians hide their orientation out of fear of losing their jobs or their homes, as well as the threat of violence. Medical practitioners reportedly continued to limit or deny gay and lesbian persons access to health services due to intolerance and prejudice. According to recent studies, gay men were refused work due to their sexuality. Openly gay men were targets for skinhead aggression; police often failed to respond out of indifference. A few gay rights organizations operated but did so out of public view. In March 2008 two youths killed a man they perceived to be gay. Police arrested both individuals and at year's end they remained under investigation. On May 16, the gay rights organization Project GayRussia attempted to stage a gay pride parade timed to coincide with the annual Eurovision song contest hosted by Russia. Authorities arrested all 50 participants in the Sparrow Hills park before they could organize, releasing the majority on the same day and the remaining seven the following day. Organizer Nikolay Alekseyev had announced that the parade would take place downtown near Pushkin Square, a decoy that attracted some police and hostile counterdemonstrators. Moscow mayor Yuriy Luzhkov, who in the past had called homosexuality ``satanic,'' told the television program ``Facing the City'' that ``the morals of society'' do not accept gay persons, to whom he referred using a slur. Four days before the scheduled date of the parade, the Russian Orthodox Church Youth organization held a press conference to criticize it, calling it ``spiritual terrorism.'' On the eve of the scheduled parade, the Communist Party Web site posted an article suggesting that persons should kill gay parade participants in the same manner that ``healthy persons'' killed lepers in the Middle Ages, to avoid being infected. A correspondent from Kommersant reported hearing a group of young men on the scheduled parade day describe in graphic detail the violence they hoped to inflict on parade participants. According to the reporter, a nearby police officer smiled upon hearing this. However, no violence took place during the event. As of September Project GayRussia was awaiting a ruling from the ECHR regarding its complaint that Russian authorities had denied it a total of 155 permits for marches since 2006, for which the group was asking 1.7 million euros ($2.4 million) in damages. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Persons with HIV/AIDS often encountered discrimination. A federal AIDS law contains antidiscrimination provisions but was frequently not enforced. HRW reported that HIV-positive mothers and their children faced discrimination in accessing healthcare, employment, and education. Persons with HIV/AIDS found themselves alienated from their families, employers, and medical service providers. In 2008 Project GayRussia succeeded in its campaign to persuade the Ministry of Health to cancel a ban on gay men donating blood. They began a new campaign during the year to persuade the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to end discrimination against foreign travelers with HIV-positive status, without success as of year's end. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to form and join unions, but government policy limited its exercise. The Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia (FNPR) reported that approximately 45 percent of the workforce was unionized, a decline from approximately 55 percent over three years. However, the rate of decline reportedly slowed during the economic crisis as workers began to see unions as a mechanism for protecting their labor rights. By law labor unions are independent of executive branch agencies, local government bodies, employers and employer associations, political parties, and other NGOs. Interference by government authorities in union activities is prohibited. According to labor activists, however, police interfered with union activities and in labor disputes. Unions in Leningrad, Tver, and Yaroslavl oblasts issued specific complaints. Police intimidation tactics against union supporters included demanding that they cease their activities, taking them to police stations for questioning, provoking physical confrontations and subsequently detaining them, and pressuring them to become informants. The National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) continued to seek the release of Valentin Urusov, a Russian miner allegedly framed and imprisoned after recruiting workers to a union. According to the NUM, Urusov was sentenced to six years of hard labor on a fabricated charge of drug possession. He was an employee of Alrosa, a diamond mining company and became a target after an industrial dispute in July 2008 at Alrosa's mine in eastern Siberia. In May the Yakut Supreme Court released Urusov and ordered another investigation; however, in September the court upheld the conviction but reduced his sentence to five years. At year's end the prosecutor general was reviewing the case in response to a request by the Public Chamber. Labor activists also alleged that the government tried to weaken independent unions by setting up competing unions that they could control. The All-Russia Union of Labor Unions (Sotsprof) received a 1.8 million ruble (59,520 dollar) civil society grant from the government and in October 2008 signed a protocol outlining areas of cooperation with the ruling United Russia party. Activists alleged that Sotsprof established its own unions at Ford and General Motors (GM) plants in Vsevolozhsk and St. Petersburg to compete with existing chapters of the independent Interregional Union of Autoworkers. According to Sotsprof, at year's end it had 1.5 million members across 72 Russian regions. In February unidentified assailants attacked Yevgeniy Ivanov, the chair of the independent Interregional Union of Autoworkers' GM affiliate near his home. Prior to the attack, he received telephone threats, which he had reported to police, who took no action. No results were reported in the criminal investigation of the attack. In November GM terminated Ivanov under article 81 of the labor code for absence from work for more than four hours. According to Ivanov, he was present at the factory but refused to work while participating in an ``Italian strike'' (work to rule) over labor safety violations. In December Ivanov filed a request with the district court for the restoration of his position and monetary compensation. He remained chair of the union. There were no reports that assailants who attacked Alexey Etmanov, the head of a local trade union and the co-chairman of the Interregional Union of Autoworkers twice in December 2008, were prosecuted, even though police apprehended the second assailant. Between the attacks the deputy chairman of the factory trade union received a telephone call informing him that the incident was a warning against the union's activities. There were reports that both government agencies and private companies resisted employee efforts to form trade unions. In July the ECHR ordered the government to pay 80,000 euros ($114,000) to members of the dockworkers union at the Kaliningrad Commercial Seaport in compensation for discrimination against union members and violation of their freedom of association. The court ruled that the government failed to provide effective judicial protection against discrimination. In 1997 the seaport pressured employees to relinquish their union membership in response to a strike for better pay, working conditions, and insurance benefits. The union members appealed to the ECHR after Russian judicial authorities refused to entertain their applicants' discrimination complaints. The law provides the right to strike, but it was difficult to exercise. The majority of strikes were considered technically illegal because they violated one or more of a complex set of procedures governing disputes. According to the FNPR, the legal preparation for a strike takes at least 40 days. The law also requires the provision of a minimum level of essential services if a strike could affect the safety or health of citizens. article 413 of the labor code prohibits strikes in the military and emergency response services at any time. In addition, it prohibits strikes in essential public service sectors, including utilities and transportation, or strikes that would threaten the country's defense and safety or the life and health of its workers. The law prohibits reprisals against strikers; however, managements frequently engaged in reprisals, including threats of night shifts, denial of benefits, blacklisting, and termination. Courts may confiscate union property to cover employers' losses in the event that a declared strike continued after it was ruled illegal. Solidarity strikes and strikes on issues related to state policies are also prohibited. Most employers' requests to declare a strike illegal have been upheld by the courts. In July labor union activists at the naval ship repair yard in Dunai, Primorskiy Krai, confronted shipyard authorities over five months of wage arrears. Owed 23 million rubles ($760,000), the shipyard workers suspended work. Factory leaders paid the workers 15 million rubles ($496,000) in an effort to end the action. Workers, however, extended the protest and demanded full payment. Factory leaders accused the labor union of violating the law and requested that the Prosecutor's Office investigate the labor union's activities. The shipyard's labor union claimed the action was a ``break in work,'' which is legal in cases of wage arrears, rather than a strike. In August the Primorskiy Krai FNPR announced that all wage arrears had been paid and that the Military Prosecutor's Office of the Pacific Ocean Fleet had issued administrative reprimands to the shipyard authorities. In August workers for AvtoVaz in Tolyatti, Samarskaya Oblast, held a rally to protest the suspension of production at the plant and a planned reduction in work schedules. Four days later an investigator from the company's security section visited the office of Edinstvo, the union that planned the event, to initiate a case against Piotr Zolotarev, Edinstvo's chair, for administrative violations. Subsequently, officials from the government's Department for Combating Extremism summoned Zolotarev for questioning. No further information was available at year's end. According to the ITUC, the country's labor legislation permits only one collective agreement in any enterprise. While the FNPR had a union in almost every plant, the Interregional Union of Auto Workers and other independent unions were often the second, often the smaller, union in the companies where they operated. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining but favors larger, established unions over newer, smaller unions or professional ``craft'' unions. Employers were slow to recognize newly formed unions. In addition, they often accepted union requests for collective bargaining reluctantly and failed to provide union representatives with financial reports. In 2007 the FNPR reported that approximately 88 percent of its enterprises had collective bargaining agreements. However, during the year the FNPR noted that unions in approximately 20 percent of companies that had such agreements experienced difficulties in meeting or renewing the terms of their agreements. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination, but at the local level managements continued to harass union leaders and employees. State agencies with responsibility for overseeing the observance of labor legislation frequently failed to fulfill their responsibilities. Although unions were occasionally successful in courts, the majority of managements that engaged in antiunion activities were not penalized. In April labor activists reported that the Tolyattikauchuk company, in Tolyatti, Samara Oblast, placed Vladimir Zhilchenko, chair of the Nashe Delo union, and all of his deputies at the top of a list of workers it planned to terminate as part of a production optimization program. According to human rights activists, Nashe Delo was able to prove that the termination order was unlawful after appealing to the Federal Ecological, Technological, and Atomic Supervisory Service and the Prosecutor's Office. In December Zhilchenko confirmed that the union was actively functioning despite continued pressure from the plant's administration. According to the ITUC, state registration authorities demand more from trade unions than from commercial organizations prior to accepting their registration. In June employees of Volkswagen Group Russia in Kaluga Oblast conducted an ``Italian strike'' to protest unhealthy working conditions, including dangerously high temperatures in the workshop. Factory shift directors threatened to fire employees if they did not leave their union. One supervisor issued disciplinary violations based on false pretexts to employees who refused to quit the union. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. There were also reports that women, children, and men were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and for labor in the construction, manufacturing, and fishing sectors (see section 6). Military personnel reportedly forced recruits into involuntary servitude for profit (see section 1). In a study of migrant construction workers published in February, HRW documented numerous cases of forced labor. In all cases employers confiscated the workers' passports to coerce and confine them. Employers also withheld their wages, physically abused them, threatened to denounce them to the authorities, and induced indebtedness, which they then had to work to repay. HRW also documented incidents of police extorting and beating migrant workers and asserted that the executive or judicial agencies charged with addressing labor rights violations failed to investigate and ensure prosecution of violations effectively. The law prohibits forced or bonded labor by children; however, such practices reportedly occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, including laws against compulsory labor; however, authorities did not effectively implement laws and policies that would protect children, nor did the government appear to consider child labor to be a problem. In urban areas the employment of children occurred primarily in the informal sector--retail services, selling goods on the street, washing cars, and making deliveries. In rural areas children worked in the agriculture sector. In June the Federal Labor and Employment Service (FLES) reported 10,000 violations of child labor laws in 2008, noting that the victims often received little pay and suffered from unsafe working conditions. FLES noted that most of the abuses it discovered occurred in the industrial, trade, and agricultural sectors. According to FLES, employers paid 1.5 million rubles ($49,600) in fines for violating child labor laws in 2008. Labor inspectors also corrected or created more than 300 labor agreements for minors encumbering legal positions for workers their age and cancelled more than 250 illegal terminations of minors. Children's rights activists reported incidents of trafficking in children, particularly those living on the streets, for commercial sexual exploitation and other forms of street labor (see section 6). In 2008 the Ministry of Internal Affairs registered 223 crimes related to the dissemination of pornographic materials or items involving minors. The law prohibits the employment of children under the age of 16 in most cases and regulates the working conditions of children under the age of 18, including prohibiting dangerous nighttime and overtime work. The law permits children, under certain conditions and with the approval of a parent or guardian, to work at the age of 14. Such work must not threaten the child's health or welfare. FLES is responsible for inspecting enterprises and organizations to identify violations of labor and occupational health standards for minors. Local police only investigated in response to complaints. Individuals as well as labor unions can file complaints. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--In January the legal minimum wage increased from 2,300 rubles ($76) to 4,330 rubles ($143) a month. The minimum wage was not sufficient to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Monthly subsistence minimum wages, calculated by government agencies, averaged 5,083 rubles ($168) in the first quarter of the year. In the same period, 24.5 million persons, or 17.4 percent of the population, earned less than the subsistence minimum, according to the government statistics service. During the year wage arrears, which occurred primarily in the industrial processing, transportation, and construction sectors, greatly increased, owing to the financial crisis and companies' lack of funds. Arrears peaked at approximately 8.86 billion rubles ($293 million) in May. Workers and unions responded by sending appeals to the public prosecutor to secure their unpaid wages and, on occasion, by staging protests, picketing or striking. By December arrears had decreased to approximately five billion rubles ($168 million). The law provides for a standard workweek of 40 hours with at least one 24-hour rest period and requires premium pay for overtime or work on holidays. Information was insufficient to determine the extent to which employers observed these standards in practice. The law establishes minimum conditions for workplace safety and worker health. The Federal Labor and Employment Service was responsible for enforcement. However, the government did not allocate sufficient resources to enforce these standards effectively. In August the Ministry of Public Health and Social Development reported that in 2008 more than 50 percent of workers labored in conditions that were harmful or dangerous to their health. In many cases factory workers did not have adequate protective equipment and clothing, enterprises stored hazardous materials in open areas, emergency exits were locked, and smoking was permitted near flammable substances. FLES reported that occupational incidents caused more than 4,100 deaths in 2008 and that unsatisfactory working conditions directly or indirectly caused up to 40 percent of all diseases among workers. In 2008 the Health Ministry initiated a two-year program to improve working conditions and worker safety in an attempt to transition from a reactive policy to one of proactive management of hazards to workers' health. The law gives workers the right to remove themselves from hazardous or life-threatening work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment; however, the government did not effectively enforce this right. Many companies employing workers in hazardous conditions awarded bonuses based on worker productivity, thereby encouraging workers to jeopardize their safety for higher salaries. The law entitles foreign workers working legally in the country to the same rights and protections as citizens. However, HRW noted in a May report that many employers in the construction sector, where migrant workers were often employed did not enforce safety standards, nor did they provide migrant workers with mandatory insurance or medical treatment for work-related accidents. __________ SAN MARINO The Republic of San Marino, with a population of approximately 30,000, is a multiparty democracy. The popularly elected unicameral Great and General Council (parliament) selects two of its members to serve as captains regent (cochiefs of state). They preside over meetings of the Council and the Congress of State (cabinet), which has no more than 10 other members (secretaries of state) selected by the council. Parliamentary elections, last held in November 2008, were considered free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were some reports of violence against women. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the civil police, the Gendarmerie, and the National Guard, and the government had effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Suspects were apprehended openly with warrants based on sufficient evidence and issued by a duly authorized official. The law provides a detainee with the right to a prompt judicial determination of the legality of the detention, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. There is a well-functioning bail system. Detainees are allowed prompt access to family members and to a lawyer of their choice; the state provides legal assistance to indigent persons. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public and are presided over by a single judge. There are no provisions for a jury trial. Defendants have the right to be present and to consult with an attorney even during preliminary investigations. Defendants can confront or question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. They have access to government- held evidence relevant to their cases. They enjoy a presumption of innocence and have the right to two levels of appeal. In case of legal actions against military personnel, a civil judge is temporarily given a military grade and assigned to an ad hoc military tribunal. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Judges act independently and impartially on civil matters, and administrative as well as judicial remedies exist for alleged wrongs, including human rights violations. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. As of June the country had 16,000 Internet users. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for these rights, and the government generally respected them in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The Catholic Church receives direct benefits from the government's income tax revenues; taxpayers may request that 0.3 percent of their income tax payments be allocated to the Catholic Church, regulated under a concordat with the Holy See, or to other charities, including religious groups such as the Waldesian Church, the Baha'is, and Jehovah's Witnesses--all of which are included in a registry of cultural associations. The government does not require official recognition, registration, or licensing for religious groups. However, it requires legal status for tax or other commercial purposes. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were small numbers of Muslims, Jews, and other religious groups in the country. During the year there were no reports of violence or discrimination against religious minorities or of anti-Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government was committed to cooperating with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--While the law does not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, the government has a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. The government may grant refugee status or asylum by an act of the cabinet. There were no requests for asylum during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Parliamentary elections, held on November 9, 2008, were considered generally free and fair. The ``Pact for San Marino,'' a Center-Right coalition led by the Christian Democratic Party, won 35 of the 60 seats in the Great and General Council. Political parties could operate without restriction or outside interference. Nine women were elected to the Great and General Council in the November elections, and two women were in the 10-member Congress of State, including the head of government (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.) There were no members of minorities in the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. However, there were no reports of corruption by public officials during the year. Public officials are subject to financial disclosure requirements. The law provides for public access to government information, and the government provided access for citizens and noncitizens through the Great and General Council's Web site. There were no known cases of corruption involving public officials. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were no domestic human rights organizations, although the government did not restrict their formation. The government declared itself open to investigations by international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) of alleged human rights abuses; there were no known complaints or requests for investigations during the year. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government effectively enforced it. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense, and the government effectively prosecuted persons accused of such crimes. The penalty for rape is two to six years' imprisonment. In the case of aggravating circumstances, the penalty is four to 10 years' imprisonment. There were no reports of rape during the year. The law prohibits violence against women, and the government effectively enforced it. The penalty for spousal abuse is two to six years' imprisonment. In the case of aggravating circumstances, the penalty is four to 10 years' imprisonment. According to official sources, there were 14 pending cases and four sentences of violence against women during the year. Prostitution is illegal and was not common. No arrests were reported during the year. Sexual harassment is prohibited, and the government effectively enforced the law. There were no reports of sexual harassment during the year. Women enjoy the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. There was no reported economic discrimination against women in pay, employment, or working conditions. Couples and individuals have the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children and had the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Access to information on contraception and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care were widely available. Women and men had equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. In January, the country established an Authority for Equal Opportunities, provided for by law, by nominating three female officers as Authority members for a four-year term. The Authority's priority goals are information campaigns about the law and about the services the government provides to the victims of violence, including legal assistance free of charge. The Authority also publishes an annual report on violence against women and on gender-based violence. Children.--The government is committed to children's rights and welfare. Violence against or abuse of children was uncommon. According to government sources, there were two pending cases and one sentence of violence against minors. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons. The penalty for trafficking in persons is 10 to 20 years' imprisonment. If the trafficking involves minors, prostitution, or the taking of organs, the penalty is from 14 to 24 years' imprisonment. There were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the country during the year. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and in the provision of other state services, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. There were no reports of societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The Ministry for Territory has not fully implemented a law that mandates easier access to public buildings by persons with disabilities, and many buildings were inaccessible. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no reports of discrimination based on sexual orientation. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--By law all workers (except those in the Gendarmerie and National Guard) are free to form and join independent unions of their choice, and workers exercised this right. The law sets the conditions to establish labor unions. Union members constituted an estimated 50 percent of the workforce, which numbered approximately 15,000 citizens plus 6,000 workers who resided in Italy. The law allows all civilian workers, including the civil police, the right to strike, and workers exercised this right. A ``conciliatory committee'' composed of representatives from labor, business, and government generally resolved complaints of antiunion discrimination amicably. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law prohibits antiunion discrimination and allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Collective bargaining agreements have the force of law and are applicable to all workers, whether unionized or not. Negotiations were conducted freely, often in the presence of government officials by invitation from both unions and employer associations. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The minimum age for employment is 16, and the Ministry of Labor and Cooperation granted no exceptions. The law does not limit children between the ages of 16 and 18 from any type of legal work activity. The government devoted adequate resources and oversight to child labor policies, and the Ministry of Labor and Cooperation effectively enforced compliance with the law. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage is 7.54 euros ($10.49) per hour. According to NGOs, this amount did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family who do not own their own home. However, 90 percent of citizens owned their own homes, and wages generally were higher than the minimum provided by law. The law sets the workweek at 36 hours in the public sector and 37.5 hours for industry and private businesses, with 24 consecutive hours of rest per week mandated for workers in both categories. The law requires a premium payment for overtime and allows a maximum of two hours of overtime per day. There was effective enforcement of laws and industry contracts that prohibit excessive compulsory overtime. The government set safety and health standards, and the judicial system effectively enforced these standards. Most workplaces complied with the standards. However, there were exceptions, especially in the construction industry, where some employers did not consistently abide by safety regulations, such as work hour limitations and use of personal safety devices. There was one serious on-the-job injury in October, resulting in the death of a worker in a metalworking company. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger health or safety without jeopardy to their employment, and the authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ SERBIA The Republic of Serbia is a parliamentary democracy with approximately 7.5 million inhabitants. Boris Tadic was reelected president in February 2008. In May 2008 voters elected a new parliament in which some minority ethnic parties won seats. Observers considered both elections to be mostly in line with international standards. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The following human rights problems were reported: physical mistreatment of detainees by police; police corruption; inefficient and lengthy trials; harassment of journalists, human rights advocates, and others critical of the government; limitations on freedom of speech and religion; large numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs); corruption in legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government; government failure to apprehend the two remaining fugitive war crimes suspects under indictment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY); societal violence against women and children; societal intolerance and discrimination against minorities, particularly Roma and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) population; and trafficking in persons. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings. On November 13, the Belgrade District Court convicted Miljan Raicevic, a Belgrade police officer, for the March 19 killing of Djordje Zaric during a traffic stop. The court found Raicevic guilty of murder and sentenced him to seven years in prison. On November 24, the Supreme Court upheld 40-year prison sentences handed down to Milorad Ulemek, former commander of the Special Operations Unit and Zvezdan Jovanovic for the 2003 assassination of then prime minister Zoran Djindjic. On December 16, the Supreme Court upheld the 40-year sentences handed down to Ulemek and 20 members of the Zemun organized crime group for a total of 18 murders, three kidnappings, and two bombings that were classified as terrorist attacks. On December 25, the Supreme Court upheld 40-year sentences for Ulemek, Radomir Markovic, Nenad Ilic, and Branko Bercek for the 1999 killing of four Serbian Renewal Movement members and the attempted assassination of movement leader Vuk Draskovic. In June the investigative judge examining the 2004 deaths of Dragan Jakovljevic and Drazen Milovanovic, two guards from Belgrade's Topcider military facility, took depositions from three new military witnesses as part of plans to depose an additional 35 witnesses. On June 12, the Zajecar municipal court postponed indefinitely the trial of Ivan Stojadinovic in connection with the March 2008 death of Knjazevac municipal court President Dragisa Cvejic. Judge Jovo Krtinic adjourned the trial to allow the defense to conduct additional tests on the explosive device that killed Cvejic. Police suspected that Cvejic's killing was related to his work as a judge. There were no developments during the year in the February 2008 request by the Special Prosecutor's Office for further investigation into the 1999 killing of prominent independent journalist Slavko Curuvija, owner of the Dnevni Telegraf newspaper and Evropljanin magazine. No developments were reported in the investigation into the August 2008 death of Ranko Panic, who died after police allegedly beat him at a pro-Radovan Karadzic demonstration in July 2008. There were no reports that authorities completed disciplinary proceedings opened against six officers from Belgrade, Nis, and Novi Sad, including a senior commander, for exceeding their authority during the demonstration. The special war crimes chamber of the Belgrade District Court continued to try cases arising from crimes committed during the 1991-99 conflicts in the former Yugoslavia and two cases from World War II. During the year the war crimes chamber continued the trial in the 1991 killing of more than 70 civilians in the village of Lovas, Croatia. The defendants included four former members of territorial defense units, four members of the Yugoslav People's Army, and six members of the ``Dusan Silni'' paramilitary unit. On July 16, in response to an appeal filed by one of the defendants, Milan Radojcic, alleging a violation of the right to liberty and security of a person as provided by the constitution and the European Convention of Human Rights, the Constitutional Court declared that the lower courts had not provided sufficient reasons in their decisions for keeping Radojcic in detention and ordered his release. On January 28, the war crimes chamber sentenced former Scorpions paramilitary group member Aleksandar Medic to five years in prison following his retrial on charges of assisting in the 1995 killing of six Muslim civilians in Trnovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. On November 23, the Supreme Court upheld the verdict, dismissing defense and prosecutorial appeals. On February 26, the war crimes chamber ordered an investigation against several persons suspected of war crimes related to a 1992 attack on Yugoslav People's Army forces in Dobrovoljacka Street in Sarajevo that led to the deaths of at least 18 persons. The allegations included war crimes against prisoners of war and the use of illegal means of warfare. The Ministry of Internal Affairs issued an arrest warrant for 19 persons suspected of the crime, including Stjepan Kljujic and Ejup Ganic, members of the wartime presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On March 12, the war crimes chamber issued verdicts in the retrial of 18 individuals accused of committing war crimes related to the killing of 200 Croatian prisoners at the Ovcara farm near Vukovar, Croatia, in 1991. The court convicted 13 of the defendants and handed down the maximum 20-year sentences to seven individuals, including former Vukovar Territorial Defense commander Miroljub Vujovic and his deputy, Stanko Vujanovic. The other sentences ranged from five to 15 years. Five defendants were acquitted. The prosecution appealed 10 of the verdicts, including the acquittals and the convictions of Predrag Dragovic and Milan Lancuzanin who received five- and six-year sentences, as opposed to 20 years during the first trial, which ended in 2005. On March 13, the war crimes prosecutor filed a request for an investigation against five former members of the 37th Squad of the Special Police Unit on suspicion they committed war crimes against civilians and prisoners of war in Kosovo. Those named in the request were Zoran Nikolic, Dragan Milenkovic, Zoran Markovic, Nenad Stojkovic, as well as Radoslav Mitrovic, acquitted in the Suva Reka war crimes trial. War crimes spokesman Bruno Vekaric announced that information related to the case was gathered in the course of a police investigation and from a request filed on March 3 by the nongovernmental organization (NGO) Humanitarian Law Center (HLC) to bring charges against 15 members of the 37th Squad. On April 1, the war crimes prosecutor requested that an investigation be opened against Stanko Vujanovic on suspicion that he committed war crimes against the civilian population in Vukovar, Croatia, in 1991. The prosecutor alleged that Vujanovic, as a member of the Vukovar Territorial Defense Unit, killed four persons and seriously injured another. On March 12, the war crimes chamber sentenced Vujanovic to 20 years' imprisonment in the separate Ovcara case (see below). On April 23, the war crimes chamber convicted four former police officers and acquitted three others in the trial of eight officers for the 1999 killing of 48 ethnic Albanians in Suva Reka, Kosovo. The court sentenced Radojko Repanovic and Sladjan Cukaric to 20 years in prison, Miroslav Petkovic to 15 years, and Milorad Nisavic to 13 years. The principal defendant, former commander of the 37th Special Police Unit Radoslav Mitrovic, as well as Nenad Jovanovic and Zoran Petkovic were acquitted. On March 3, the war crimes prosecutor dismissed charges against the eighth defendant, Ramiz Papic. On September 17, the war crimes prosecutor appealed the acquittals and asked for stiffer penalties for Petkovic and Nisavic. According to press reports, the war crimes prosecutor continued its investigation of Fatmir Limaj and 27 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) members in connection with the killing of 22 ethnic Serb and Albanian civilians in the Kosovo municipalities of Lipljan, Stimlje, and Glogovac in 1998. The reports indicated that the war crimes prosecutor also discovered evidence pointing to the involvement of Limaj, Sahit Jasari, Sami Ljustaku, and Sulejman Selimi in kidnapping at least 30 Serbian civilians in the Drenica region in central Kosovo, as well as the kidnappings of several police officers and at least 11 Albanian civilians. On May 3, war crimes spokesman Vekaric announced that his office, in accordance with procedures for investigations of individuals acquitted by the Hague Tribunal, had consulted with the ICTY trial chamber before proceeding. The ICTY acquitted Limaj of unrelated charges in 2005. On May 27, the war crimes chamber convicted and sentenced Boro Trbojevic to 10 years in prison for the 1991 killing of five civilians in Grubisno Polje, Croatia. The district court in Bjelovar, Croatia, previously sentenced Trbojevic in absentia to 20 years' imprisonment for crimes committed in the villages of Topolovica and Velika Peratovica. The case was one of 12 that the Croatian national prosecutor passed to the Serbian war crimes prosecutor under an agreement between the two countries regarding cooperation in prosecuting war crimes. On June 18, the war crimes chamber convicted four members of the Scorpions paramilitary unit for the 1999 killing of 14 ethnic Albanians in the town of Podujevo, Kosovo. Zeljko Djukic, Dragan Medic, and Dragan Borojevic received the maximum 20-year sentence, while Miodrag Solaja, who was a minor at the time of the crime, received a 15-year sentence. In 2005 the Belgrade District Court convicted Scorpions member Sasa Cvjetan for participating in the crime and sentenced him to 20 years' imprisonment. On June 23, the war crimes chamber sentenced former member of the Vukovar Territorial Defense Unit Damir Sireta to the maximum prison term of 20 years for participation in the killing of more than 200 Croatian prisoners of war at the Ovcara farm near Vukovar, Croatia, in 1991. On July 7, the authorities extradited Zoran Maric on the basis of an international arrest warrant issued in 2008 by the Office of the Prosecutor of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Together with other unidentified individuals, Maric was suspected of committing war crimes in 1992 against the Bosniak civilian population in the villages of Ljoljici and Cerkazovici in the Jajce region, 35 miles southwest of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. On September 22, the war crimes chamber acquitted Sreten Popovic and Milos Stojanovic, two former members of the police unit accused of involvement in the disappearance and subsequent killing of three U.S. citizen brothers, Ylli, Mehmet, and Agron Bytyqi, in 1999. Their bodies were recovered, with hands bound and gunshot wounds to their heads, in 2001 from a mass grave in rural Petrovo Selo, near a police facility. On December 18, the war crimes prosecutor, citing ``serious violations of criminal procedure provisions,'' appealed the acquittals to the Supreme Court. On June 12, the director of the Humanitarian Law Center, Natasa Kandic, sent a letter to the war crimes chamber stating that she would no longer represent the plaintiffs' family since she believed that the trial was calculated to protect those who had ordered the killings. On September 23, the trial of 17 members of the so-called Gnjilane group of the KLA began in the war crimes chamber. On June 26, the war crimes prosecutor filed an indictment charging them with crimes related to the deaths of at least 80 Serbs, Roma, and Albanians, as well as rape, in the region near Gnjilane, Kosovo, in 1999. On October 6, the war crimes prosecutor issued an indictment charging five individuals with war crimes committed in Metak, Croatia, in 1991. The indictment alleged that territorial defense and reserve police unit members Milorad Lazic, Perica Djakovic, Nikola Vujnovic, Mirko Marunic, and Nikola Konjevic inhumanely treated Mirko Medunic, a Croatian police officer who had surrendered. The Gospic District Court in Croatia convicted all five individuals in absentia in 1996, and the Croatian war crimes prosecutor later turned over the case to the Serbian war crimes prosecutor. On November 6, the war crimes prosecutor submitted a request for an investigation against five individuals suspected of committing war crimes in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 1992. The charges alleged that the suspects imprisoned, mistreated, and killed at least 23 Romani civilians in Skocic, Malesic, Petkovci, and Drinjaca villages in Zvornik municipality. On November 6, the war crimes chamber investigative judge approved the request and ordered the defendants placed in detention for 30 days. On December 7, the war crimes chamber convicted Nenad Malic and sentenced him to 13 years in prison in connection with charges that he, as a member of the Sixth Krajina Brigade of the Republika Srpska Army, killed two Muslim civilians, Husein Grbic and Refik Velic, and attempted to kill Dzemal Hadzalic in Stari Majdan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 1992. On December 14, the war crimes prosecutor issued an indictment against Dusko Kesar on charges that he participated in the killing of three Muslim civilians in Prijedor, Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994. The indictment stated that Kesar, as a member of a Republika Srpska Ministry of Internal Affairs reserve unit, killed Faruk Rizvic, Refik Rizvic, and Fadila Mahmuljin. The trial of Sasa Djilerdzica and Goran Savic for war crimes against civilians in Zvornik, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 1992 was underway at year's end. The case against Branko Popovic, leader of the self-proclaimed ``interim government of the Serbian municipality of Zvornik,'' and Branko Grujic on charges including the imprisonment, inhumane treatment, and death of more than 700 persons, 270 of whom have been exhumed from mass graves in Crni Vrh and Grbavci and identified, was in the trial phase at year's end. There were no new developments in the investigation of U.S. citizen and former Gestapo member Peter Egner, who was accused of crimes, including genocide, related to the killing of 17,000 Serb civilians at the Staro Sajmiste concentration camp between 1941 and 1943. The war crimes prosecutor asked that the war crimes chamber request the extradition from Hungary of Sandor Kepiro for war crimes allegedly committed in Novi Sad in 1942. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. In cooperation with neighboring countries, the International Commission on Missing Persons, and other international organizations, the government continued to make modest progress in identifying missing persons from the Kosovo conflict. During the year the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) chaired two meetings of the Working Group on Persons Unaccounted for in Connection with Events in Kosovo, which included government representatives from both Serbia and Kosovo. The total number of persons still unaccounted for from the Kosovo conflict stood at 1,885 at year's end (450 Serbs and 1,435 Albanians). During the year 58 cases were closed: 49 bodies were exhumed in Kosovo and nine in Serbia. The remains were delivered to the families through the working group. According to the ICRC, families in the country claimed there were 1,250 relatives missing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Kosovo stemming from regional conflicts. These cases remained open at year's end. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, police at times beat detainees and harassed persons, usually during arrest or initial detention for petty crimes. On January 14, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report documenting findings from its 2007 visit to the country. According to the report, the committee received credible allegations of physical mistreatment ``consisting of punches, kicks, truncheon blows, blows with a thick book or with a wet rolled newspaper, and handcuffing to fixed objects in a hyperextended position'' employed to obtain confessions or other information and concluded that juveniles suspected of serious criminal offenses were particularly exposed to physical violence. The CPT criticized the presence of various nonstandard items, such as baseball bats, iron rods, wooden sticks, and thick metal cables, in offices used by police for interrogations. The report concluded that the number of allegations of mistreatment by the police was lower, and the mistreatment alleged less severe, than during the first CPT periodic visit in 2004. A case against Police Inspector Miljan Komnenovic, the subject of three brutality complaints filed by the Committees for Human Rights in Serbia (CHRIS), continued in the district court in Kursumlija at year's end. At year's end, the investigation was continuing into the September 2008 incident in which unidentified plainclothes police officers in Brus allegedly beat three youths detained on suspicion of robbing a gas station. According to CHRIS, police during the year took statements from the victims and identified possible suspects. However, no charges were filed pending positive identification of the suspects by the victims. There were no new developments in the November 2008 case in which four Valjevo police officers allegedly beat and abused Goran Z., Aleksandar S., and Zarko Dj. at the Valjevo police station or in the December 2008 case in which three police officers in Arandjelovac allegedly beat college student Nemanja Mijaljevic after he failed to obey a command to stop his vehicle at a checkpoint. On November 4, the trial of Milan Zivanovic on charges of grave offenses against general safety and aggravated larceny in connection with the February 2008 attacks on foreign embassies began in the Belgrade District Court. The trial continued at year's end. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions varied greatly among facilities. The January 14 CPT report criticized officials at the Zabela correctional facility in Pozarevac for creating ``an atmosphere of fear'' among inmates housed in Pavilion VII, where many inmates claimed to have been warned by staff that they would be beaten if caught asleep during the day or if they complained. The media reported prison overcrowding, and General Milan Obradovic, head of the Ministry of Justice's Department for the Enforcement of Penal Sanctions, stated in July that the country had 10,260 persons incarcerated in 28 prisons, whereas capacity in accordance with European standards was 7,000. On December 18, Justice Ministry state secretary Slobodan Homen stated that there were approximately 11,100 individuals in the country's prisons. In its January 14 report, the CPT noted that, at the time of its visit in 2007, the Belgrade District Prison held 1,020 inmates, 897 of whom were on remand, while its official capacity was 450 individuals. In some prisons, inmates continued to complain of dirty and inhumane conditions. The quality of food varied from poor to minimally acceptable, and health care was often inadequate. On September 28, approximately 100 inmates from the C-2 cellblock at the Nis prison began a hunger strike to protest living conditions. The Department for the Enforcement of Penal Sanctions acknowledged the protest in a public statement that stressed prison doctors were watching the situation closely. On October 7, Serbian deputy ombudsman for prison detainees Milos Jankovic conducted a surprise inspection at the facility and announced the prison would need government assistance and funding to address problems concerning living conditions, hygiene, food, and health care. Guards were poorly trained in the proper handling of prisoners. On November 9, the Department for the Enforcement of Penal Sanctions suspended nine employees, including former prison head Zoran Jovic, from the Leskovac prison in connection with alleged beatings and mistreatment of several prisoners in January. The department took action after conducting an investigation of prison surveillance tapes forwarded anonymously to the Justice Ministry. Police eventually arrested 12 of the 50 guards employed in the prison on charges that they kicked and beat 25-year-old N. Dj. and P.Dj. from Brestovac, 33- year-old B.Y. from Presevo, and 31-year-old D.S. from Leskovac on January 28. Investigative judges for the Leskovac District Court ordered 30 days' detention for 10 of the guards. On September 4, Ombudsman Sasa Jankovic told a conference held in connection with an unofficial working visit by the UN special rapporteur on torture, Manfred Nowak, that his office received approximately 100 complaints per year from prisoners alleging ``inhumane conditions, overcrowding, and lack of physical activity.'' The government permitted the ICRC and local independent human rights monitors, including the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia (HCS), to visit prisons and to speak with prisoners without the presence of a warden. However, on November 19, Lidija Vuckovic from the Nis-based Center for Human Rights told the press that the Nis prison, citing concerns about a possible H1N1 flu epidemic, denied access to one of the organization's lawyers. According to Vuckovic, this prevented the lawyer from visiting a prisoner who had sent the center a letter alleging torture. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government mostly observed these prohibitions. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) found three violations by the country of the right of liberty and security under Article 5 of the European Convention of Human Rights. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The country's approximately 43,000 police officers are under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The police are divided into four main departments that supervise 33 regional secretariats reporting to the national government. The effectiveness of the police was uneven. While most officers were Serbs, the force included Bosniaks (Slavic Muslims), ethnic Hungarians, ethnic Montenegrins, a small number of ethnic Albanians, and other minorities. The police force in southern Serbia was composed primarily of Serbs, although there were small numbers of ethnic Albanian officers. There were reports of police corruption and impunity. During the year the government addressed many of the reports. On March 9, police, in cooperation with the district prosecutor in Kraljevo and the special prosecutor in Belgrade, arrested 35 persons, including 18 active-duty police officers, from Novi Pazar, Raska, and Kraljevo. Police suspected that these individuals received and gave bribes; smuggled oil, meat, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and other goods across the border between Serbia and Kosovo; and were in illegal possession of weapons and narcotics. On March 23, the district court in Negotin convicted nine Kladovo border police officers in connection with charges from 2007 that border police allegedly received bribes and allowed customs-free transport of goods across the Serbian-Kosovo border. A deputy border police commander, Andjelka Petrovic, received a 10-month prison sentence, and border police officer Dragan Prvulovic received a sentence of 18 months. Police officers Djordje Grekulovic, Milan Radic, Dejan Zivadinovic, Ljubisa Bobokovic, Slavoljub Borakovic, Nikola Grujcic, and Dusan Grekulovic were sentenced to 16 months in prison. On June 25, the Sabac District Court sentenced 16 border police officers from the Gucevo border police station to 18 to 20 months' imprisonment for accepting bribes from four individuals to facilitate smuggling of cattle across the Drina River to Bosnia and Herzegovina; the smugglers also were convicted. On December 22, the Ministry of Internal Affairs announced the arrest of 13 police officers and six customs officers on bribery and abuse of power charges. Police officers Goran Spica, Milan Lojanica, Selma Kozica, Zajm Loncarevic, Goran Lucic, Svetozar Matovic, Igor Petric, Sasa Radovic, Danilo Femic, Pera Pejatovic, David Despotovic, Igor Garabinovic, and Saud Causevic and customs officers Slobodan Bjedov, Predrag Mandic, Veljko Kijanovic, Dragan Stamenkovic, Veselin Gasic, and Gordana Jecmenica were accused of acting as an organized crime group from April to December. Arrest and Detention.--Arrests were generally based on warrants, although police were authorized to make warrantless arrests in limited circumstances, including well-founded suspicion of a capital crime. The law requires an investigating judge to approve any detention lasting longer than 48 hours, and authorities respected this requirement in practice. Bail was allowed but rarely used; detainees facing charges that carried possible sentences of less than five years were often released on personal recognizance. The constitution and law provides that police must inform arrested persons immediately of their rights, and authorities respected this requirement in practice. The law provides access for detainees to counsel, at government expense if necessary, and authorities often respected this right in practice. Family members were normally allowed to visit detainees. Suspects detained in connection with serious crimes can be held for up to six months without being charged. The law prohibits excessive delays by authorities in filing formal charges against suspects and in opening investigations; however, such delays occurred regularly. Authorities frequently held such persons for the full six-month period allowed before charging them. The law prohibits police use of force, threats, deception, and coercion to obtain evidence, as well as use in court of evidence acquired by such means; however, police sometimes used these means to obtain statements. The law limits the length of pretrial detention from indictment to the conclusion of a trial to two years for most cases, but allows detention for up to four years for crimes that carry up to the maximum penalty (40 years in prison). The law sets two years as the maximum detention permitted after an appellate court vacates the judgment of a trial court. Nonetheless, prolonged pretrial detention was a problem. Due to inefficient court procedures, some of which were required by law, cases often took extended periods to come to trial; once begun, trials often took a long time to complete. The Constitutional Court also reported receiving a large number of citizens' complaints concerning delays in trial proceedings. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary; however, the courts remained susceptible to corruption and political influence. Observers believed that judicial reform, particularly replacement of judges appointed during the Milosevic era, was essential to eliminating corruption. The 2006 constitution expanded the role of the High Judicial Council (HJC, also referred to as the High Court Council) in the appointment of judges, and gave the parliament the right to appoint eight of its 11 members. Human rights groups and the independent Association of Judges criticized this provision for giving the parliament a controlling voice in judicial appointments and affairs. Judges and prosecutors, particularly those handling organized crime and war crimes, continued to receive death threats or were subject to physical attack. On October 9, Belgrade district court judge Velimir Lazovic reported that an unidentified Belgrade lawyer had threatened that he would not be reelected as a judge if he ``was not careful.'' Lazovic was the presiding judge in the trial of Uros Misic, a soccer fan charged with attempted murder for an attack on a police officer during a 2007 match. On October 10, the Office of the Republican Prosecutor announced that it would investigate the threat, which it equated to an attempt to obstruct justice. War crimes prosecutor Vladimir Vukcevic continued to receive death threats from within the country and abroad; on December 13, his office reported receiving 66 threatening letters during the year. In late October Justice Minister Snezana Malovic and HJC member Bosko Ristic received anonymous threats, which most observers attributed to their role in ongoing judicial reform. In early November republican prosecutor Slobodan Radovanovic received death threats through a Facebook page created to call for his removal from office. On December 4, Supreme Court chairperson Nata Mesarovic received a written death threat from a diaspora group from Evanston, Illinois, in response to the November 24 Supreme Court decision upholding 40-year prison sentences for the 2003 assassination of then prime minister Zoran Djindjic. On December 15, the press reported that a Serbian citizen resident in Chicago, Illinois, was suspected of sending the threats to Vukcevic and Mesarovic. The courts were inefficient. Although the system of recordkeeping made it difficult to assess accurately the backlogs or efficiency nationwide, cases could take years to be resolved. On July 21, Ministry of Justice State Secretary Homen stated that almost 155,000 cases had been in municipal courts for more than two years and that there were 8,235 such cases in district courts. He added there were instances when cases took more than 30 years to resolve. Justice Minister Malovic announced on August 5 that 93 cases had been in the Belgrade District Court alone for more than 10 years, and press reports in April indicated that there were more than 2,600 such cases in municipal courts. The number of judges in the main courts was inadequate to meet the increasing caseload. Other causes of delay and backlog in the courts included failure of postal workers to serve subpoenas and other court documents, failure of police to execute arrest warrants, failure of prisons to bring prisoners to court for scheduled hearings, issuing indictments or scheduling hearings without complete and thorough investigations, excessive continuances of court hearings, a lack of professional court administration, the existence of a centralized budget for all courts managed by the Ministry of Justice, and failure to invest in professional personnel and modern infrastructure. In many cases, unwieldy procedures required by the law contributed to delays. In 2008 the ECHR found three violations by the country of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights concerning length of proceedings. In April the press reported that 17 of the 27 ECHR judgments against the country since September 2006 concerned violations of the right to a trial within a reasonable timeframe. The Constitutional Court also reported receiving a large number of citizens' complaints concerning delays in trial proceedings. The judicial system consists of municipal courts, district courts, commercial courts, a Supreme Court, a High Commercial Court, a Constitutional Court, an administrative court, and courts of appeal. The law also provides for special courts within the Belgrade District Court for war crimes and organized crime. The law provides for an administrative appeals court and a second instance appeals court to reduce the Supreme Court's caseload. The core of the HJC established in December 2008 was appointed behind schedule on April 6. The law provides for the council to have supervisory authority over almost all aspects of court operations as of January 1, 2010. During the year its only responsibility was the selection of all judges in the country's judiciary. Approximately 5,050 individuals submitted 8,000 applications for 2,483 judgeships, and on December 17, the HJC announced the reappointment of 1,531 sitting judges to permanent positions. Approximately one-third of sitting judges were not reappointed. The HJC also forwarded to the parliament for confirmation an additional 876 candidates for first-time judgeships, who would serve three-year terms before becoming eligible for permanent positions. The parliament confirmed these appointments on December 29. On July 9, the Constitutional Court denied a challenge by the Judges' Association, which argued that making sitting judges apply for reappointment contravened constitutional provisions of life tenure for judges. In September, in response to criticism by the Council of Europe, the Ministry of Justice announced plans to revise the selection criteria used by the council and defended the process as necessary to ensure that the judiciary was qualified and not corrupt. After the HJC announced its selections in December, a number of judges and the Judges' Association criticized the HJC for lack of transparency, in particular regarding the selection criteria, and called for the HJC to provide a justification to those judges not chosen. Several observers noted it was not possible to verify if the selection criteria had been changed in response to the Council of Europe's comments. In 2008 the ECHR found three violations by the country of the right to a fair trial under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Trial Procedures.--Trials are usually public, but they are closed during testimony of a state-protected witness. There are no juries. The law stipulates that defendants are presumed innocent, have the right to have an attorney represent them at public expense, and have the right to be present at their trials. Defendants have the right to access government evidence and to question witnesses. Both the defense and the prosecution have the right to appeal a verdict. The government generally respected these rights in practice. On August 31, the parliament adopted amendments to the criminal procedure code, which introduce plea bargaining and cross-examination and provide more detailed provisions on the use of special investigative techniques such as wiretaps, undercover agents, and controlled delivery. The special war crimes chamber continued trying war crimes cases (see section 1.a.). According to the law, evidence gathered by special investigative techniques is admissible. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution establishes an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, and citizens can bring lawsuits seeking damages for or cessation of a human rights violation. Remedies usually involved monetary awards. In one case in 2008, the ECHR found the country in violation of its obligation to provide an effective remedy under Article 13 of the European Convention of Human Rights. Property Restitution.--During the year the government made no progress toward enacting a private property restitution law or in returning property to private citizens. The government took no significant action to register claims or return communal property in accordance with the 2006 law on restitution of communal property. On August 31, the parliament adopted a new law on planning and construction which opponents argued would create additional difficulties in carrying out restitution. In 2008 the ECHR found that in three cases the country had not protected property of plaintiffs. In accordance with the separate 2006 law on return of property to churches and religious communities, the government's Directorate for Restitution of Communal and Religious Property continued to process 3,049 restitution claims filed from October 2006 to September 2008 by the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Jewish community, the Romanian Orthodox Church, the Reformation Church, the Islamic community, the Evangelical Church, and the Association of Christian Baptist Churches. On March 11, Dusko Polic, director of the ``Srbijasuma'' public enterprise, and Bishop Lavrentije of Sabac signed an agreement on the return of 4,400 acres of woodlands to the Tronosi, Petkovici, and Radovasnici monasteries. On July 8, officials from the Belgrade municipality of Vracar announced plans to return to the Serbian Orthodox Church four buildings and four apartments in downtown Belgrade that were nationalized in 1964. The authorities also stated that the central government would compensate the church for those parts of the buildings that were sold to private owners. On November 11, the Directorate for Restitution returned 1,850 acres of woodlands seized in 1946 from the Saint Prohor Pcinjski monastery in Vranje Eparchy. On December 28, officials from the Belgrade municipality of Palilula returned 12,700 square feet of business space and 6.2 acres of land to the Church of Saint Mark. On September 17, the Constitutional Court, as in other cases in which adopted legislation was under the Court's review, requested the parliament to provide an opinion within 60 days regarding a challenge to the constitutionality of the law on restitution of property to churches and religious communities. As of year's end, no further information was available on this matter. The Federation of Jewish Communities and other religious groups protested the use of 1945 as a cut-off date for restitution or compensation for property, since their properties were largely confiscated in 1941-44. The Federation of Jewish Communities expressed concern that linking religious community restitution with individual restitution would cause delays. The federation also strongly criticized the law on planning and construction, which it believed would irreversibly legalize the seizure of property through nationalization, racial laws, confiscation, sequestration, land reform, and expropriation. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions; however, the government interfered with privacy and correspondence. While the law requires the Ministry of Internal Affairs to obtain a court order before monitoring potential criminal activity and police to obtain a warrant before entering property except to save persons or possessions, police occasionally did not respect these provisions in practice. Rodoljub Sabic, the commissioner for information of public importance, expressed concern publicly that the country was seriously behind European standards regarding protection of personal data. This lag, he feared, would have implications in January 2010 when the Data Protection Act adopted in October 2008 comes into force. Most observers believed authorities selectively monitored communications, eavesdropped on conversations, read mail and e-mail, and tapped telephones. Human rights leaders also believed that their communications were monitored. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and the Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press; however, there were reports of government interference with these freedoms. Human rights activists charged that they were subjects of smear campaigns in the majority of media for expressing criticism of the government or challenging the popular narrative about the country's role in the wars of the 1990s. In most other cases, individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. In August the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), and local journalist associations expressed concern over draft amendments to the media law that would impose excessive fines that could limit media freedom and lead to self-censorship. The OSCE added that the lack of transparency and public dialogue during the drafting of the amendments was a particular cause for concern. The IFJ called on authorities to withdraw the draft law as it represented ``unjustified and unnecessary intervention in freedom of the expression of media'' and a ``violation of the European principle of the freedom of press.'' On August 31, parliament adopted the law; the president signed it the same day. On September 23, the ombudsman submitted the amendments to the Constitutional Court for review, and on October 8, the Constitutional Court requested that the parliament as initiator of the law provide its opinion. On December 5, the South East Europe Media Organization and the International Press Institute expressed concern that the amendments could limit investigative journalism and possibly lead to the closure of certain media. Parliament approves the budget of the independent Republic Broadcast Agency (RBA), which has broad authority to revoke radio and television station licenses without the right of appeal. However, the RBA did not revoke any national broadcasting licenses during the year. Generally, the press was not limited or prevented from criticizing the government publicly or privately. The print and broadcast media were mostly independent and privately owned, although privatization of municipally owned media was not yet completed. Radio-Television Serbia (RTS), a public media outlet funded by mandatory subscription, was a major presence, operating two television channels as well as Radio Belgrade. The RTS' coverage was usually objective, although the government had considerable influence over the RTS and public service Radio Television of Vojvodina. In addition, many television stations relied on the state-owned agency Tanjug for news. The independent news agencies BETA and FONET complained that state financing gave Tanjug an unfair commercial advantage. Binding RBA instructions required the RTS to broadcast parliamentary sessions live, despite the RTS' complaints that it suffered financial and advertising losses as a result. The RTS' managing board stated that the order directly interfered with its editorial policy. Parliament occasionally cancelled or postponed its sessions when RTS was not able to broadcast them due to conflicting contractual commitments. The OSCE mission previously expressed concern that the RBA's decision was not in accordance with European standards of media freedom. Independent media organizations were generally active and expressed a wide range of views; however, some media organizations experienced threats or reprisals for publishing views critical of the government. On June 16, the Ministry of Culture filed a misdemeanor offense charge against Radeta Jerinic, editor in chief of the daily newspaper Kurir, for revealing the identity of a minor detained by the police. On June 19, the Association of Independent Electronic Media released a statement criticizing the Kurir article and a subsequent incident in which unknown individuals threw a Molotov cocktail at the offices of independent Radio B92 and slashed the tires of B92 journalist Olja Beckovic, the minor's mother. During the year some reporters and media organizations were victims of vandalism, intimidation, and physical attacks for coverage and portrayal of views unpopular with the government and right-wing elements of society, such as the capture and extradition of war crimes fugitives. On January 27, the Independent Journalists' Association of Serbia (NUNS) issued a statement calling on the authorities to investigate separate incidents in which unknown individuals disabled the Web site of the Pescanik radio show through multiple and repeated hacker attacks and damaged a car owned by Pescanik cofounder Svetlana Lukic. These incidents coincided with unexplained technical difficulties that affected radio broadcasts on B92 on January 23 and 24. On January 28, President Boris Tadic requested government bodies to look into the incidents, but there were no developments or arrests by the end of the year. On February 2, the Ministry of Internal Affairs announced the arrest of Dejan M. from Pancevo for sending threatening e-mails to Danica Vucenic, the host of B92's ``Kaziprst'' show, her family, other employees of B92, and their families. On March 25, the Journalists' Association of Serbia (UNS) issued a statement criticizing an attack on an RTS cameraman and an assistant cameraman of the RTS program TV Studio B during a protest by right-wing organizations on the 10th anniversary of the NATO air campaign against Serbia. The UNS called for an immediate investigation and government measures to defend journalists. On May 26, B92 reported that lawyers for the Port of Belgrade Company had sent it letters marked with the word ``warning'' protesting an investigative journalistic report concerning business dealings between Belgrade municipal authorities and the company, which reportedly cost the city hundreds of millions of euros. NUNS denounced the letters as pressure on B92, and Deputy Prime Minister Bozidar Djelic accused the company of ``stifling the best form of journalism'' and stressed the importance of the government's standing on the side of those media outlets that try to defend the public interest. The trial in Belgrade of Milan Savatric, Nikola Lazic, and Stefan Milicevic in connection with the July 2008 attack on B92 cameraman Bosko Brankovic was ongoing at year's end. On December 5, TV B92 announced that Branka (Brankica) Stankovic, the host of its investigative journalism program Insider, had received anonymous death and other threats in response to an expose examining the ties between violent hooligans and sports fans' clubs. In response, President Tadic announced the country would not tolerate violence and threats against journalists performing their jobs, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs provided her with security. On December 8, police in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Pancevo, and Sremska Mitrovica detained Vladimir Samardzic, Mladjen Bogdanovic, Petar Bazalac, Stefan Hadzi Antonovic, and three minors in connection with the threats. After soccer fans directed new threats against Stankovic during a match on December 16, police arrested an additional seven individuals: Nemanja Bogdanovic, Nemanja Odalovic, Bojan Glisovic, Goran Kljestan, Aleksandar Perisic, Milan Gudovic, and Dragan Djurdjevic, an army lieutenant employed by the Military Geography Institute. Police investigations and judicial processes involving assaults on journalists were often long and inefficient. One local assessment of the country's laws determined that, although the legal framework was mostly harmonized with international standards, local courts in practice often diverged from the ECHR in application of Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides for freedom of expression. The government did not censor the media, but journalists sometimes practiced self-censorship to avoid possible libel suits. Critics of the August 31 amendments to the media law, including the OSCE, argued that its provisions for excessive fines would encourage self-censorship. Libel is a criminal offense; persons convicted of libel could be imprisoned or fined 40,000 to one million dinars (approximately $600 to $14,900). On June 25, the government approved emergency measures to assist media companies during the global economic downturn. The measures reduced RBA fees and set aside 60 million dinars (approximately $895,500) to cofinance media and press projects. On July 10, the government published additions and amendments to the Rulebook on Measures for Establishing Fees for Broadcasting Radio and TV Programs. The amendments reduced the basis of the fee structure for regional and local broadcasters by 40 percent and national broadcasters by 5 percent. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet, e-mail, or Internet chat rooms; however, as in previous years, there were some isolated reports that the government monitored e-mail. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 24 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government usually respected it in practice. However, organizers from the LGBT community cancelled a pride parade scheduled for September 20 after the government, citing security concerns, banned the event at its desired location and proposed what the organizers deemed unacceptable alternate venues. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government mostly respected this right in practice; however, the government maintained discriminatory laws on religion, property, and taxes. There were isolated reports that officials made public, negative statements against minority religious groups. While there is no state religion, the majority Serbian Orthodox Church continued to receive some preferential treatment. The law recognizes seven ``traditional'' religious communities (the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Slovak Evangelical Church, the Reformed Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church, the Islamic community, and the Jewish community) and requires all ``nontraditional'' religious groups to register with the Ministry of Religion. The ministry has discretion to approve ``nontraditional'' groups. However, many minority religious groups that attempted to register with the ministry reported confusing and irregular procedures. The Ministry of Religion focused its efforts on monitoring the law's implementation. As of July 1, six religious communities--the League of Baptists, Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement, Church of Christian Oath, Jehovah's Witnesses, Montenegrin Orthodox Church, and Protestant Evangelical Church of Leskovac--had filed a total of eight appeals with the Supreme Court concerning ministry decisions to deny them registration; the cases were pending at year's end. The League of Baptists and the Evangelical Church of Leskovac also had cases pending before the Constitutional Court. Tax law exempts property owned by the seven recognized traditional religious groups, although a challenge to the law was pending in the Constitutional Court at year's end. Non-Serbian Orthodox religious organizations continued to report difficulty in obtaining permission from local authorities to build new worship facilities. Authorities continued at times to deny unregistered groups building permits and refused to recognize their official documents. Jehovah's Witnesses in Bor were not able to obtain an occupancy permit for a completed house of worship, although they filed an appeal with the Ministry for Environment and Spatial Planning district office in Zajecar; the appeal was pending at year's end. The League of Baptists in Belgrade, which conducted its services and other activities in an old building it purchased to use as a church, reported that municipal authorities continued to refuse, without explanation, a permit to renovate the building. The Romanian Orthodox Church continued to receive no response to its permit request to build a monastery in Vojvodina. The law requires students in primary and secondary schools either to attend classes of one of the seven traditional religious communities or to take a civic education class. Protestant leaders and NGOs continued to voice their objection to the teaching of religion in public schools, while leaders of religious groups excluded from the program continued to express dissatisfaction with the government's narrow definition of religion. The Islamic Community in Serbia criticized, as state interference in religious affairs, provisions that assign responsibility for appointing religious teachers to the Ministry of Education. There were some reports that government officials criticized minority religious groups using pejorative terms such as ``sects,'' ``satanists,'' and ``deviants.'' Zoran Lukovic, head of the section for polygraph examinations for the Belgrade police, stated in a March 27 newspaper article that Jehovah's Witnesses were a ``hermetic sect'' that should not be allowed to act as adoptive or foster parents. Lukovic previously equated Protestant churches with ``satanic sects.'' Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Local religious groups and NGOs believed there were fewer cases of physical and verbal attacks against religious minorities during the year. Leaders of minority religious communities continued to report acts of vandalism, hate speech, physical attacks, and negative media reports. On December 4, unidentified individuals destroyed 48 gravestones and other markers in a Catholic cemetery in Backo Gradiste. The investigative judge qualified the act as a criminal offense. On December 5, police arrested four minors ages 14 to 17 on suspicion that they damaged the grave markers. On September 13, unidentified individuals destroyed a bust of Martin Luther in the center of Subotica. According to Rudolf Vajs, the vice president of the Evangelical Church Community, police inspected the damage to the bust and its marble pedestal. The mayor of Subotica, Sasa Vucinic, and the Ministry of Religion publicly criticized the vandalism. As of year's end, police had not made any arrests in the case. There was no further information available on the investigation into the November 2008 incident in which four vehicles belonging to the Christian Adventist Church in Belgrade were damaged, the 2007 attack on Jehovah's Witnesses missionaries in Stari Banovci, or the 2007 stabbing of Zivota Milanovic, a Hare Krishna follower in Jagodina. The press, mostly tabloids, continued to label smaller, multiethnic Christian churches, including Baptists, Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other minority religious groups, as dangerous ``sects.'' A number of right-wing youth groups referred to nontraditional religious communities as sects posing a threat to Orthodox Christian society in the country. The Jewish community comprised an estimated 3,000 persons. Jewish leaders reported continued incidents of anti-Semitism, including anti- Semitic graffiti, vandalism, books, and Internet postings. Bookshops widely sold books with anti-Semitic content. Several booksellers at the annual Belgrade Book Fair in October, including the Nikola Pasic publishing house, Pesic and Sons, and Dveri Srpske, as well as booksellers at the annual Christmas Book Fair in December, displayed anti-Semitic works. Right-wing youth groups and Internet forums continued to promote anti-Semitism and use hate speech against the Jewish community. On March 3, the Supreme Court upheld the sentence of Goran Davidovic, leader of the unregistered neo-Nazi organization Nacionalni Stroj, to one year in prison for instigating national, racial, and religious hatred and animosity in connection with a 2005 incident in which he and other group members disrupted an antifascist discussion panel at the Philosophy Faculty in Novi Sad. Davidovic also faced charges for violent behavior and spreading racial hatred during an unauthorized rally in Novi Sad in October 2007. On April 20, Italian police arrested Davidovic on the basis of a Serbian arrest warrant; his extradition to Serbia was pending at year's end. Holocaust education continued to be a part of the school curriculum at the direction of the Ministry of Education, and the role of the collaborationist National Salvation government run by Milan Nedic during the Holocaust was also debated as part of the secondary school curriculum. There was a tendency among some commentators to minimize and reinterpret the role of national collaborators' movements during the World War II period and their contribution to the Holocaust in Serbia. During the year the Islamic community remained divided along political lines with one group aligned with the local Islamic authority (Riyaset) in Belgrade, while the other group retained its traditional ties to the Riyaset in neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--According to UNHCR figures, approximately 205,835 displaced persons from Kosovo resided in the country, mainly Serbs, Roma, Ashkali (an Albanian-speaking ethnic group considered by outsiders as similar to Roma but self-identifying as a separate group with cultural distinctions from Roma), Gorani, and Bosniaks who left Kosovo as a result of the 1998-99 conflict. As of the end of the year, according to the country's Commissariat for Refugees, approximately 3,323 displaced persons from Kosovo remained in 43 official collective centers and 1,875 in 28 unrecognized collective centers. Although the government continued to close collective centers, many displaced persons remained in minimally habitable facilities originally constructed for temporary accommodation rather than for long-term occupancy. Without an official identification card, individuals were not able to access services. The government allowed displaced persons access to assistance from NGOs and international organizations. The government continued to pay minimum wage salaries, including social and pension contributions, to displaced persons who were in the Kosovo government and state-owned enterprises before mid-1999 and who were not employed during the year. Displaced persons who found a job permanently lost eligibility for government assistance. The government's investigation into the eligibility of displaced persons who were recipients for such payments continued at year's end. The law requires all residents of the country to record changes of residency and to appear in person at the place of their prior registration to remove themselves from the registry. Displaced persons from Kosovo who lacked personal or residency documents from there were unable to deregister from their Kosovo addresses and register at a new address in Serbia. Without an authorized local address in the country, individuals were ineligible for health insurance, social welfare, and public schooling. NGOs provided legal assistance to displaced persons from Kosovo to register residency successfully. There were 22,103 officially registered Romani displaced persons in the country. However, the UNHCR estimated that 40,000 to 45,000 displaced Roma, many of whom presumably lacked personal documents necessary to register their status, were living in the country. Kosovo Albanians assumed that many Roma displaced from Kosovo were Serb collaborators during the Kosovo conflict. The Roma might be at risk if they tried to return. While some displaced Roma lived in government- supported collective centers, living conditions for Roma (both local and displaced) were generally extremely poor. Local municipalities often were reluctant to accommodate them. If Roma did stay, they often lived in unauthorized encampments near major cities or towns. While government officials continued to make public statements that displaced persons from Kosovo should return to Kosovo, senior government officials also claimed that it was unsafe for many to do so. Approximately 540 individuals who had been living in displacement in Serbia returned to Kosovo during the year. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. During the year the government registered 250 asylum seekers. During the year the government rendered four positive refugee status determination (RSD) subsidiary protection decisions on cases dating to 2008. The government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Asylum seekers had freedom of movement in the country after establishing their identity and filing an application for asylum. They were eligible for public assistance, including accommodation and food, but they did not have the right to employment until recognized as refugees through an RSD. The Commissariat for Refugees controls the country's sole asylum center, which had capacity for approximately 80 persons. The commissariat is also responsible for status determination and care of refugees from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On June 16, the government informed the presidents of 26 municipalities and cities across the country that they would receive 29 million dinars (approximately $433,000) in financial support under a project to provide housing for refugees and displaced persons. The commissioner for refugees, Vladimir Cucic, announced that the government had set aside 20.5 million euros (approximately $29.3 million) to address problems encountered by refugees and IDPs. According to the Commissariat, 303 families received government assistance during the year. The government and the UNHCR estimated that 86,336 refugees from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina resided in the country, while the government estimated that there were approximately 200,000 to 400,000 former refugees who were naturalized but not socially and economically integrated into the country. The government also provided temporary protection (refugee status on a prima facie basis) to individuals from former Yugoslav republics who may not qualify as refugees. The refugee status of individuals from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia continued to be regulated under the 1992 Decree on Refugees. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). According to the local UNHCR office, there were no de jure stateless persons in the country. According to UNHCR statistics, there were 17,050 stateless persons in the country at the end of 2008. Most of these persons were listed as stateless due to a cumbersome and lengthy citizenship registration process. Lack of information, administrative fees, difficulty of obtaining documents, the lack of an official recognized residence, and sometimes the need to go to court to prove origin and identity made it difficult or impossible for some persons to register. These problems disproportionately affected the Romani, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities, particularly displaced persons from Kosovo, although they also affected others who were destitute and living in isolated areas. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The country held two rounds of presidential elections in January and February 2008 and parliamentary elections in May 2008, resulting in the creation of a pro-EU government. The OSCE and other election observers, including domestic organizations, judged these elections mostly free and fair. Political parties mostly operated without restrictions or outside interference. However, in its final report on the May 2008 parliamentary elections, the OSCE Limited Election Observation Mission noted that some aspects of the campaign went beyond the acceptable limits for a democratic society, in particular when death threats to senior officials were reported. The mission reported that this culminated with the display, in Belgrade, of a large number of posters that could be interpreted as suggesting the assassination of top state officials. There were 56 women in the 250-seat parliament. The speaker and three of six parliamentary vice presidents were women. There were five women in the 27-member cabinet. The law on elections of members of parliament requires parties' election lists to include at least 30 percent women, and political parties participating in the 2008 elections observed this provision. The constitution and law exempt ethnically based parties from the 5-percent threshold required for a political party to enter parliament. A new law on political parties adopted in May requires parties to reregister by January 23, 2010. Although the law requires parties to submit 10,000 signatures, ethnic minority parties need to submit only 1,000. In the May 2008 parliamentary elections, minority parties and lists received a combined 3.9 percent of the vote. Seven members of national minorities, including ethnic Hungarians, Bosniaks, and Albanians, were elected to parliament. Two members of ethnic minorities, both Bosniaks, were in the 27-member cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; although there was some improvement, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. There was a widespread public perception of government corruption at all levels. According to the World Bank governance indices, corruption was a problem in 2008. On November 30, Predrag Jovanovic, director of the Public Procurement Office, told the press that at least 10 percent of money spent each year in the country on public procurement was lost due to corruption and waste. During the year the Customs Administration reported that it investigated and referred for prosecution 10 percent more officials suspected of corruption than in 2008. The private sector considered corruption in the commercial courts to be widespread. Land transfers often were difficult to conclude, leading many in the private sector to allege administrative corruption. It was unclear, however, to what extent these problems were due to corruption rather than bureaucratic inefficiency. Many public officials are subject to financial disclosure under the conflict of interest law, but the Republic Board for Resolving Conflicts of Interest may only recommend dismissal for failure to file reports. The board has no authority or means to investigate the substance of the information reported. On June 15, the board recommended that the deputy mayor of Belgrade, Milan Krkobabic, resign for failing to submit the mandatory financial disclosure; however, as of year's end, Krkobabic remained in his position. During the year the board also opened investigations of Energy Minister Petar Skundric for serving simultaneously as president of the Serbian Oil Industry's shareholders assembly and of presidential media adviser Nebojsa Krstic for possible violations regarding the transfer of management rights in private companies. On December 21 and 28, respectively, the board halted its proceedings involving Skundric and Krstic, although it determined that Krstic had committed minor violations that he then rectified. There were reports of authorities failing to act in response to detailed reports of suspected corruption. There were isolated reports of high-profile politically motivated investigations. During the year authorities made some arrests for corruption and continued the prosecution of high-profile cases from previous years. While the government's Anticorruption Council frequently made public statements and granted interviews, the body had only an advisory role. On April 16, the parliament established a committee to select leadership of the Anticorruption Agency created in October 2008. On July 3, the committee selected Zorana Markovic to head the agency and Vladimir Jankovic as her deputy. The agency, an independent state body that reports to the parliament, is responsible for implementing the national anticorruption strategy and overseeing problems related to conflict of interest and financial disclosure, including political party financing. It was scheduled to become operational on January 1, 2010, and will replace the Republic Board for Resolving Conflicts of Interest. On February 10, a joint operation by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Military Security Agency, and the organized crime special prosecutor resulted in the arrest of 16 persons accused of corruption in the army, including seven Ministry of Defense officials and two doctors from the Military Medical Academy. On March 31, police arrested an additional three Ministry of Defense employees, including Head of the Military Medical Academy Department for Neuropsychology Miroslav Radovanovic, and three ministry retirees. Authorities alleged that the individuals gave and received bribes and committed fraud related to obtaining state-owned apartments and medical and social security benefits. In addition, on February 10, police in an unrelated operation arrested eight persons in Belgrade, Valjevo, and Vrhpolje for corruption related to misappropriation of National Investment Plan funds. Those arrested included Ministry of Economy and Regional Development officials Dragan Kokunesoski and Ljubomir Jovanovic, former assistant ministers of trade Radivoje Pirgic and Milos Simic, and businessmen Branivoje Lazovic, Nebojsa Antunovic, Nikola Knezevic, and Savo Cvjetojevic. On April 1, the special prosecutor for organized crime issued an indictment against Zrenjanin Mayor Goran Knezevic and 21 other defendants on charges of criminal association, abuse of office, and accepting and offering bribes. On October 26, the trial of Knezevic and his codefendants began in the organized crime chamber of the Belgrade District Court. On November 5, Knezevic was released from custody to stand trial. On June 4, police arrested the mayor of Arandjelovac, Radosav Svabic, on suspicion of abuse of office. The Ministry of Internal Affairs announced that in 2007 Svabic concluded a contract with the ``Cira'' company for the gasification of Arandjelovac that violated public procurement procedures and cost the city budget more than 500,000 euros (approximately $715,000). The police also arrested Aleksandar Ciric, the owner of ``Cira.'' On June 30, police in Nis arrested Vesna Stevanovic, a registrar with the Nis Municipal Department, in connection with allegations that she accepted bribes in exchange for issuing expedited or false citizenship, birth, death, and marriage certificates, mostly to displaced persons from Kosovo, whose civil registry has been located in Nis since 1999. According to press reports, police also detained an unidentified Serb from Nis and an unidentified Kosovo Albanian from Podujevo on suspicion of bribery and acting as intermediaries in securing documents for Albanians from several Kosovo municipalities. On November 11, the special organized crime chamber of the Belgrade District Court convicted and sentenced 41 of the 53 defendants in the ``highway mafia'' case to a total of 131 years and 10 months in prison. Those convicted received sentences ranging from 18 months to six years. Alleged group leader Milan Jovetic, who received a six-year sentence, and his codefendants also were ordered to reimburse the state enterprise ``Putevi Srbije'' for using false payment cards and illegal software on two major tollgates from 2004-06, resulting in a loss of approximately 6.5 million euros ($9.3 million) in state revenue. Nine defendants were acquitted, and an additional three committed suicide during the case. The government has not fully implemented the access to information law and generally did not provide access in practice. The law provides for public access to information of ``legitimate public importance'' (with many exceptions) and establishes an independent commissioner for information of public importance selected by parliament to handle appeals when government agencies reject requests for information. On January 27, the commissioner for information of public importance announced that only 750 of 3,000 public administration entities had filed annual reports for 2008 as mandated by the law on free access to information of public significance, despite receiving an extension until January 20. Noting that failure to file the reports had become a chronic problem, the commissioner expressed chagrin that the Office of the President, the parliament, the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the republican prosecutor, and eight ministries had not met their legal obligation. The commissioner also stated that statistical analysis indicated that in 2008 authorities failed to obey his instructions in 7.5 percent of cases. However, on March 25, the commissioner noted the Security Information Agency had become more open to the public and was acting on requests for access to information of public importance. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of independent domestic and international human rights groups operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. However, these groups were often subjects of harassment, threats, and libel suits for expressing views critical of the government or contrary to nationalist views regarding Kosovo, the ICTY, and the wars of the 1990s. Prominent human rights groups included HCS, the HLC, the Lawyers' Committee for Human Rights (YUCOM), the Fund for an Open Society, the Youth Initiative for Human Rights (YIHR), and the Belgrade Center for Human Rights. On May 31, Vecernje Novosti, a high-circulation Belgrade daily, published a series of articles criticizing HCS head Sonja Biserko, HLC head Natasa Kandic, YUCOM head Biljana Kovacevic-Vuco, and the NGO Women in Black for ``attempting to inflict as much damage as possible upon their country and people.'' The articles, which appeared on the eve of parliamentary debate on a draft law on NGOs, sought to discredit the organizations and their leaders by depicting them as unpatriotic and tools of foreign governments. There were no further developments in the October 2008 incident in which two persons accosted and threatened HCS head Sonja Biserko as she approached her home or in the investigations into the 2007 attacks on Violeta Djikanovic and Milos Urosevic of the NGO Women in Black, YIHR activist Radojica Buncic, and youth members of the NGO My Initiative. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and during the year hosted visits by UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief Asma Jahangir and UN High Commissioner for Refugees Antonio Guterres. The UN Special Rapporteur on Torture Manfred Nowak also visited the country to participate in a conference. Sasa Jankovic, the national ombudsman, gave periodic public statements on issues of concern. On August 21, the ombudsman cited the Ministries of Defense and Internal Affairs for their responsiveness and level of cooperation with his office but criticized the Ministry of Education for its failure to heed his recommendations. Vojvodina Province had its own ombudsman who operated independently during the year. According to the Ministry of Human and Minority Rights, 14 of the country's 169 municipalities had ombudsmen. In April parliament established a Working Group for Children's Rights. The parliament also has standing committees for gender equality and health and family. The government continued to make progress on its cooperation with the ICTY. It has declared cooperation, including the capture and transfer to The Hague of remaining war crimes fugitives, to be one of its top priorities. ICTY Chief Prosecutor Serge Brammertz declared in his semiannual report to the UN Security Council on December 3 that he was satisfied with the government's cooperation. However, two ICTY suspects, Ratko Mladic and Goran Hadzic, remained at large, and the ICTY continued to insist on their arrest. On March 18, parliament passed a law on international legal assistance in criminal matters that allowed for the extradition of defendants and convicted persons under bilateral or multilateral treaties. Previously the law prohibited the extradition of any citizen except in cases of extradition of citizens to the ICTY and other international tribunals. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government made efforts to enforce these prohibitions effectively. However, discrimination against women and ethnic and sexual minorities, trafficking in persons, and violence against women and children were problems. On March 26, the parliament adopted a law prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, and other grounds. In addition to elaborating the forms of discrimination prohibited by the constitution, the law introduces prohibition of discrimination based on sexual preferences. The law also establishes an independent state body, the Trustee for Protection of Equality, tasked with monitoring enforcement of the law, calling attention to violations of equality, and prescribing preventive measures. Outspoken government officials also came under attack for defending human rights. On April 14, the state secretary for human and minority rights, Marko Karadzic, received a death threat at his office. The letter alleged that he was ``taking orders from Europe'' by defending national minorities. The death threat followed an incident on April 11- 12, in which posters appeared in Pancevo calling for Karadzic's lynching. Karadzic reported the threats to the police and requested that the Ministry of Internal Affairs assess his personal security, but he received no response. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is punishable by up to 40 years in prison. Advocates believed that only a small percentage of rape victims reported their attacks due to fear of reprisals from their attackers or humiliation in court. Few spousal rape victims filed complaints with authorities. Women's groups believed that sentences were often too lenient in practice. Violence against women was a problem, and high levels of domestic violence persisted. Minister for Labor and Social Policy Rasim Ljajic announced on November 25 that there were 7,666 domestic violence victims in 2008, a 32-percent increase over 2007, and that 70 percent of the victims were female. Research by NGOs concluded that domestic violence was widespread: every second woman suffered from some form of psychological violence and every third from physical abuse by a family member. In 92 percent of these cases, the perpetrator was the victim's husband or partner. On April 16, Minister Ljajic stated that four men had killed their wives since the beginning of the year and that there were 22 such killings in 2008. Announcing a donation of 1.7 million dinars (approximately $25,400) to Belgrade's four domestic violence shelters, Ljajic stated that 250 children and 150 women had made use of the facilities since the beginning of 2009. Domestic violence is punishable by up to 10 years' imprisonment. The law provides women the right to obtain a restraining order against abusers. Such cases were difficult to prosecute due to the lack of witnesses and evidence and the unwillingness of witnesses or victims to testify. The few official agencies dedicated to coping with family violence had inadequate resources. The NGO community played the primary role in combating violence against women. NGOs operated shelters for female victims of violence, and the government continued to provide financial support to safe houses for victims of family violence throughout the country. Osvit, a Nis-based NGO, operated a Romani- language telephone hotline for female victims of domestic violence or abuse. Prostitution is illegal, although being a client of a prostitute is not a criminal offense. Sexual harassment was a common problem. The law provides that sexual harassment is a crime punishable by up to six months' imprisonment for a simple case and up to one year's imprisonment for abuse of a subordinate or dependent. Public awareness remained low, and few complaints were filed during the year. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs were permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health. There is a National Center for Family Planning, and local health centers frequently also have family planning centers. There are no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives, but research conducted in 2008 by the Association for Reproductive Health indicated that 53 percent of youth lacked adequate information on contraceptives. The government guaranteed free childbirth services. Women used nurses and midwives for prenatal and postnatal care unless the mother or child suffered more serious health complications. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization in 2006, there were approximately 13 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women have the same legal rights as men, including under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. These rights were to a great degree enforced in practice. The government's Council for Gender Equality, the parliamentary Committee for Gender Equality, the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy's Directorate for Gender Equality, and the deputy ombudsman worked during the year with NGOs to raise public awareness of gender equality problems. On February 13, the government adopted a National Strategy for Improvement of the Status of Women and Gender Equality for 2009-15. On December 11, the parliament adopted a law on gender equality, which requires employers to guarantee equal opportunities and treatment for men and women. It also requires state bodies to ensure that the less-represented gender occupy at least 30 percent of the positions in each organizational unit, including management. Traditional views of gender roles, particularly in rural areas, resulted in discrimination against women. In remote rural areas, particularly among some minority communities, women could not effectively exercise their right to control property. The social status of women was generally considered inferior to that of men, and women were not well represented in the business world. Women's average wages were approximately 16 percent lower than those of men for the same job. Women over 50 years of age who lost their jobs due to the economic crisis had more difficulty finding work than men of a similar age, and more women than men became unemployed as a consequence of economic crisis. According to a Bureau of Statistics survey conducted in October, the unemployment rate for women was 18.4 percent, which was 3.1 percent more than for men. Thirty percent of managers and 20 percent of chief executive officers were women. Only 12 women sat on the administrative boards of companies. According to statistics cited on November 10 by Djordje Stanicic, general secretary of the Standing Conference of Towns and Municipalities, only 4 percent of municipality heads were women. Children.--Romani children had limited access to education, health care, employment, and protection from family violence. According to the UN Children's Fund, Romani children were one-third as likely to live to their first birthday as other children. Romani families also experienced some difficulties registering the births of children, mostly due to a lack of permanent address or documentation of parents' identity. While the educational system provided nine years of free, mandatory schooling, including a year before elementary school, ethnic prejudice, cultural norms, and economic hardship discouraged some children, particularly Roma, from attending school. Research conducted in March showed that economic status affected children's education--more than one-third of children from families that lived under the poverty line did not attend postelementary education. Romani education remained a problem. More than 60 percent of Romani children did not attend primary school, and only half of those who attended completed primary education. Reasons included poverty, family objections, lack of identity documents, judgments by school administrators that they were unqualified, societal prejudice, and a lack of trained teachers in the Romani language. In August the Ministry of Education hired Romani teaching assistants for 26 schools across the country. While the law provides that government clinics offer free medical care, including free medicines from a limited list of covered drugs, there were reports that corruption resulted in restricted access to medication for some. Romani children often were not vaccinated. Child abuse was a problem. Children were often victims of family violence, and peer violence among children was on the rise. Girls were victims of sexual violence. According to available data, 73 percent of children in the country were exposed to verbal or physical abuse on a daily basis, and many children were exposed to alcohol, drugs, and violence. In June the labor and social policy minister, Rasim Ljajic, stated that 150,000 children lived below the poverty line and that at least another 150,000 were on the edge of poverty. While teachers were instructed to report suspected child abuse cases, they often did not do so. Police usually responded to complaints, and authorities prosecuted child abuse cases during the year. In several court cases, defendants were found guilty of child abuse and sentenced to imprisonment. Psychological and legal assistance was available for victims. Children also were accommodated in safe houses for victims of family violence. Child marriage was a problem in some communities, particularly among the Roma and in rural areas of southern and eastern Serbia. In the Romani community, boys and girls generally married between the ages of 14 and 18, with 16 as the average; boys generally married a few years later than girls did; some girls married as early as 12 years of age. Child marriage was most common among Muslim Ashkali, most of whom were displaced from Kosovo. The minimum age for consensual sex is 14. The criminal code sets penalties for statutory rape ranging from three to 12 years in prison. If the statutory rape is qualified as particularly severe, punishment ranges from five to 15 years' imprisonment. If the rape results in the victim's death, the perpetrator is sentenced to a minimum of 10 years in prison. The law prohibits child pornography. Using a child to produce pornographic materials or for a pornographic show is punishable by six months to five years in prison. Selling, showing, or exhibiting publicly or electronically, or otherwise making available child pornography is punishable by up to two years' imprisonment. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that women, children, and men were trafficked through, to, within, and from the country for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor. The government's Agency for the Coordination of the Protection of Victims recorded 127 trafficking victims during the year. Of these, 104 were women and 59 were minors. A total of 114 victims were citizens, while 13 were foreigners (three from Romania, two from the Dominican Republic, two from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and one each from Macedonia, Moldova, Slovenia, Albania, the Czech Republic, and Montenegro). Less than half of identified trafficking victims were children, mostly Roma, who were trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation, forced marriage, or forced street begging. Economic hardship, dysfunctional family situations, gender-based violence, ethnic background, and age continued to be the main factors determining vulnerability to trafficking. The majority of identified victims were Serbian women and girls trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Trafficking for forced labor increased relative to trafficking for sexual exploitation and in comparison to previous years. The country was a transit corridor for East European and Central Asian trafficking victims to Western Europe. Traffickers tended to be part of small organized-crime groups, often with international links. In the majority of cases, friends or family members facilitated contact between traffickers and victims. Traffickers recruited victims through enticements including advertisements for escorts and modeling agencies, marriage offers, and offers of employment as housekeepers, babysitters, and service staff in bars and restaurants. Some women went to work as prostitutes knowingly and only later became trafficking victims. Authorities reported increased use of the Internet and mobile text messaging as a method of recruiting victims. The criminal code differentiates between trafficking and smuggling. Amendments to the criminal code adopted in August increased penalties for trafficking in persons. The penalty for trafficking in persons is three to 10 years in prison; for trafficking minors, the penalty is a minimum of five years; if the act of trafficking resulted in death, the penalty is a minimum of 10 years; if it involved serious physical injury, the penalty is three to 15 years; if there were multiple acts of trafficking or if perpetrated by an organized group, the penalty is a minimum of 10 years. During the year police filed 50 criminal charges for trafficking against 93 persons, including 20 women. Of those charged, 90 were Serbian citizens, two were Macedonian, and one was Turkish. Government officials estimated that the number of unidentified cases was increasing. NGOs and government antitrafficking bodies worked with 108 trafficking victims identified during the year; 95 of the victims were Serbian nationals, and 59 were minors. The government cooperated in combating trafficking with other countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Ukraine, but the Serbian government's refusal to cooperate with the government of Kosovo hampered efforts to investigate and prosecute transnational trafficking. The government did not extradite any citizens accused of trafficking by authorities of other countries. On August 11, the Supreme Court upheld the May 2008 convictions of Senad Palamar, the former public prosecutor in Novi Pazar, and 12 others for running a trafficking and prostitution ring. Twelve defendants were convicted and received sentences ranging from one to eight years in prison. Palamar and two police officers who received suspended sentences were released on time served. The group's ringleader received an eight-year prison sentence. On August 17, the district court in Novi Pazar convicted and sentenced Elvir Jasarevic and Veljko Stankovic to six and five years in prison, respectively, on charges that they, together with Edvin Jasarevic and Mithat Bisevec, operated a trafficking and prostitution ring from 2006 through June 2008. The court also ordered seizure of 60,000 euros ($85,800) of Elvir Jaserevic's assets, the amount determined to be equivalent to what he acquired from exploiting trafficking victims. Edvin Jasarevic and Bisavec remained at large. The government continued funding antitrafficking programs. The agency for coordination of protection of victims continued to disburse funds from a mandatory, supplemental postage stamp to NGOs directly assisting victims. The government's antitrafficking team, headed by Ministry of Internal Affairs official Mitar Djuraskovic, led government antitrafficking efforts and incorporated government agencies, NGOs, and international organizations. In April the government adopted a national antitrafficking action plan for 2009-11. The organized crime police included a full-time antitrafficking unit, and the border police had a full-time office to combat trafficking and alien smuggling. The government assisted in international investigations of human trafficking and participated in regional antitrafficking operations. The government offered temporary resident visas to foreign victims, regardless of their willingness to testify against their traffickers. It also provided victim and witness protection and did not prosecute victims. The government agency charged with coordinating victim protection worked to ensure that trafficking victims were correctly identified and referred to assistance providers. There were separate shelters in operation for domestic and foreign trafficking victims. During the year 40 victims, including 10 minors, were accommodated in two shelters and at the Center for Children without Parental Care. The NGO Astra and the Ministry of Internal Affairs operated hot lines for trafficking victims. NGOs, government agencies, and volunteers provided legal, medical, psychological, and other assistance to victims. The NGO Atina operated a long-term reintegration program for victims and had limited repatriation funds. The OSCE funded training programs for police, judiciary, schoolteachers, and social welfare officers. Government and NGO public awareness efforts to combat trafficking included conferences on trafficking and awareness raising campaigns. The interior and justice ministers held a press conference on International Women's Day (March 8) specifically to draw attention to human trafficking. Astra continued an awareness campaign, titled ``Naked Facts,'' and several NGOs took part in filming television documentaries on trafficking. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government generally enforced the law. However, lack of access to older public buildings and public transportation was a problem. The law mandates access for persons with disabilities to new public buildings, and the government generally enforced this provision in practice. The Center for Independent Living (CIL), a disability rights NGO, reported that most persons with disabilities lived isolated from their communities and that facilities for their education and care were nonexistent or inadequate. Unemployment remained a serious problem for persons with disabilities. A lack of workplace accommodations combined with overall high unemployment made it difficult for persons with disabilities to obtain work. While there were no reports of overt discrimination against persons with mental or physical disabilities, CIL reported that detecting discrimination in employment was difficult because employers usually gave other reasons for not hiring persons with disabilities. In January the CPT's report expressed concern about the living conditions and a shortage of nurses and specialists qualified to provide psychosocial rehabilitative activities at the Specialized Neuropsychiatric Hospital in Kovin. Although the CPT welcomed the introduction of specific registers of the use of mechanical restraint on the wards, it cautioned against the frequent use of mechanical restraints, sometimes for prolonged periods of up to two days without interruption, and advocated for adoption of a clear policy. During the year the HCS expressed concern in two reports with regard to social care institutions for the elderly and persons with disabilities and such institutions for children and youth with social behavior problems or without parental care. The reports, based on fact- finding missions in 2008 and 2009, found a severe shortage of qualified staff, insufficient funding, and problems with quality of life. On May 21, the Vreme weekly magazine published an article alleging brutal methods of treating drug addicts at the Crna Reka Spiritual and Rehabilitation Center, a facility near Novi Pazar founded under the patronage of the Serbian Orthodox Church (SOC). Vreme posted a video on its Web site that allegedly showed the head of Crna Reka, Father Branislav Peranovic, beating one of his patients with a shovel. The Holy Synod of the SOC immediately called for Bishop Artemije of Raska and Prizren to close the facility and dismiss Peranovic. On May 27, Artemije relieved Peranovic of his duties but refused to shut the center. Shortly thereafter, the Ministry of Health released the results of an investigation that found no ``quackery'' at the institution but did not exclude the possibility that individuals could be held criminally responsible for mistreating patients. On June 2, the district prosecutor in Tutin requested an investigation of Peranovic and his associate, Nemanja Radisavljevic, on charges of abuse and torture. On October 13, the district court in Novi Pazar convicted Radisavljevic of violent behavior and assault and sentenced him to 29 months in prison. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--A report on the country by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance in April 2008 noted the existence of a climate of hostility toward national and ethnic minorities, who constituted 25 to 30 percent of the country's population and included ethnic Hungarians, Bosniaks, Roma, Slovaks, Romanians, Vlachs, Bulgarians, Croats, Albanians, and others. Roma, who constituted 1.4 percent of the population, continued to be the most vulnerable minority community and were the targets of verbal and physical harassment from ordinary citizens, police violence, and societal discrimination. In April a series of attacks on Roma took place in the town of Cacak. On April 15, local skinheads accosted Andjelka Vujicic and her mother, Ruza. On April 16, unknown individuals attacked a 15-year-old girl on her way to school. On April 19, four individuals threatened a 17-year-old boy with a knife. According to press reports, police identified several youths, ages 15 to 17, in connection with the first attack. An investigation into the other two attacks continued at year's end. On January 8, unidentified individuals spray painted swastikas on the homes of six Romani families in the village of Grljan, near Zajecar. Within two weeks, police arrested an unidentified minor in connection with the graffiti, but there was no additional information available at year's end. Many Roma continued to live illegally in squatter settlements lacking basic services such as schools, medical care, water, and sewage facilities. Some settlements were located on valuable industrial or commercial sites over which private owners wanted to resume control; others were on the premises of state-owned enterprises due to be privatized. On April 3, in advance of the World University Games, Belgrade municipal authorities demolished an illegally established Romani settlement to clear the way for construction of event venues. On April 2, authorities notified residents but did not have a plan in place to accommodate those whose dwellings were razed. When city authorities attempted to house several of the families in three ``residential containers'' placed in the Belgrade suburb of Boljevac, 50 to 60 local residents staged a counterdemonstration and set one of the containers on fire. There were also reports of hate speech directed against the Roma, who as a result slept on the street. In contrast, on August 31, Belgrade authorities successfully resettled approximately 1,000 residents of another illegal settlement under the Gazela bridge to ``residential containers'' that were insulated for weather conditions and had water, electricity, and sewer connections. There were also reports of hostile acts directed against members of minorities other than Roma. On February 5, police in Zajecar opened an investigation in connection with nationalist graffiti directed against the district prosecutor, Zorin Zogovic, the local Catholic church, and the ethnic Albanian owner of a bakery. In May, during a visit to the southwestern region of Sandzak, Mustafa Ceric, leader (reis-ul-ulema) of the Islamic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina, alleged that the rights of Bosniak Muslims in the country were not respected. On August 22, CHRIS reported an incident in the village of Aleksandrovac in which a Serbian Orthodox Church priest from Rajac and unidentified civilians harassed ethnic Vlachs during a funeral procession due to the presence of a priest from the Romanian Orthodox Church, which the Serbian Orthodox Church does not recognize. The Vlachs reported the incident to the local police, but police undertook no action by the end of the year. Although not widespread, there continued to be physical attacks and incidents of vandalism against minorities in Vojvodina, including ethnic Hungarians. On March 17, unidentified individuals speaking Serbian attacked Eliot Balog in Sombor. On March 27, approximately 15 youths attacked Congor Ka in Temerin. On March 30, the Vojvodina ombudsman, Petar Teofilovic, condemned these attacks against the ethnic Hungarian community. On May 15, unidentified individuals spray-painted anti-Hungarian graffiti and slogans on a billboard in Backa Topola. The Vojvodina Assembly speaker, Sandor Egeresi, who is an ethnic Hungarian, issued a statement condemning the incident and calling for a response by authorities. Police investigated the crime and removed the graffiti, but there were no arrests by year's end. On June 15, supporters of the right-wing organization Nacionalni Stroj spray-painted graffiti with a swastika and hate speech against national minorities on the building housing a local self-government body in the multiethnic Vojlovica district of Pancevo. The deputy mayor of Pancevo, Dusan Mrvos, publicly criticized the incident on behalf of the local government. As of year's end, police had not made any arrests in the case. In January and June, respectively, Nenad Canak, the leader of the League of Vojvodina Social Democrats (LSV), and LSV deputy head Bojan Kostres reported receiving death threats in letters mailed from abroad by a group calling itself the ``Serbian Liberation Movement in Emigration.'' On September 21, the LSV reported that Canak and Kostres received threatening letters from an unidentified source warning them to withdraw from politics within a month or be killed. On November 11, the LSV denounced new anonymous death threats directed against Canak and Kostres for their support of increased autonomy for the Vojvodina region. The party reported the threats to the police and demanded a thorough investigation, but there was no police investigation as of year's end. There also were no developments in connection with the September 2008 incident in which a series of videos appeared on the YouTube Web site calling for Canak's killing. On June 10, the Belgrade Antifascist Initiative announced that 17 supporters of neo-Nazi organizations attacked three of its activists in the center of Belgrade on June 9. On June 28, supporters of the right- wing organization Obraz attacked and injured a member of the NGO Antifascist Campaign who was participating in a protest against a government decision to fence off a Romani settlement in the New Belgrade district. There were no developments in the October 2008 incident in which passers-by discovered neo-Nazi graffiti at the monument at the Novi Sad quay in memory of the 1942 raid in which Hungarian Nazis killed more than 1,300 Jews, Roma, and ethnic Serbs. No further information was available about the May 2008 incident in which unknown individuals spray-painted on a Muslim-owned house in Palic graffiti calling for ethnic-based violence and the banishment of non-Serbs. There was no further information available in the following 2007 cases: the January spray painting of 30 Romani homes in the village of Medja in Leskovac municipality with swastikas and anti-Roma graffiti; the February attack by a group of Serbs on the president and several members of the Democratic Association of Roma in Belgrade; and the series of attacks in August on Roma in Belgrade, including destruction of homes, assaults, and hate-speech graffiti. The law allows official use of the native language and alphabet of any national minority that constitutes 15 percent of the population in a given area. In early April residents of the village of Bucje in Bor municipality, which is almost 100 percent Vlach, organized a cultural event using the Serbian and Vlach languages. Some representatives from the municipality protested holding a bilingual event. On March 27, Minister of Public Administration and Local Self- Government Milan Markovic, who heads the Coordinating Body for Southern Serbia overseeing policy and assistance to the region, and the ethnic- Albanian member of the country's parliament, Riza Halimi, signed an OSCE-mediated agreement restructuring the coordinating body. The agreement created six working groups tasked with developing proposals for economic development, integration, security, education and culture, health, and capacity building. Progress was slow, and ethnic Albanian leaders in the southern municipalities of Presevo, Bujanovac, and Medvedja continued to complain that ethnic Albanians were underrepresented in state institutions at the local level. The government took some steps to counter violence and discrimination against minorities. It operated a hotline for minorities and others concerned about human rights problems. Civic education classes offered by the government as an alternative to religion courses in secondary schools included information on minority cultures and multiethnic tolerance. On May 29, the parliament passed a law prohibiting neo-Nazi and fascist organizations from gathering at events and using Nazi symbols. The law also prohibits inciting national, religious, and racial intolerance and allows authorities to fine and prohibit any organization that violates the law. On September 25, the republican prosecutor, Slobodan Radovanovic, submitted a request to the Constitutional Court to prohibit Obraz and the nationalist movement ``1389'' from actions that were intended to violently undermine the constitutional order, violate human and minority rights, and incite racial, ethnic, or religious hatred. On August 31, the parliament adopted a law on national minority councils giving national minorities substantial autonomy concerning language, education, and culture. The councils are to be formed by May 2010. There were no new developments regarding the various charges Belgrade police filed against supporters of a neo-Nazi organization for an October 2008 incident in which group members threw rocks and other objects at police. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Violence and discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender persons were serious problems. Societal perceptions of homosexual conduct and attitudes towards the LGBT ((introduced/defined p. 1)) population continued to be negative. Several Serbian-based neo-Nazi Web sites, nationalist Web forums, and Facebook pages hosted anti-LGBT forums and groups. During the public debate concerning the law against discrimination, politicians argued that the law would force religious communities to perform gay marriages, referred to homosexual conduct as a sickness that should be treated like kleptomania, and announced that the country, which needed to pass the antidiscrimination law to receive ``white list'' status under the Schengen Agreement on border controls, should not ``use pederasty to go to Europe.'' Members of the LGBT community continued to be targets of attacks. Psychologist and Professor Zarko Trebjesanin estimated that 25 percent of the country's population believed homosexual conduct was a disease that needed medical treatment. In April the Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly adopted a resolution that condemned attacks on the LGBT communityin the country and called for government investigations of the incidents. In a letter on November 16, Human Rights Watch urged the country's president to denounce violence and discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity and calling on the government to protect fully the rights of the country's LGBT population. In January Marko Karadzic, state secretary of the Ministry of Human and Minority Rights, announced that representatives of LGBT organizations experienced constant threats and attacks by ``organized profascist groups.'' During the year there were several attacks against gay clubs in Belgrade and against LGBT individuals on public transportation and on the streets. On February 26, management of the state-owned Sava Center in Belgrade did not allow the NGO Gay Straight Alliance (GSA) to hold a press conference on its premises. The broader NGO community, the Liberal Democratic Party, the League of Social Democrats of Vojvodina, and the Social Democratic Union strongly criticized the decision, and the Sava Center director, Dragan Vucicevic, and Belgrade's mayor, Dragan Djilas, eventually issued public apologies to the GSA. On March 9, a group of approximately five masked individuals broke windows and attempted to enter the Student Cultural Center in Kragujevac during a press conference held by the GSA to present its annual report on gay rights in Serbia. This was the press conference that was supposed to have been held in the Sava Center. The GSA alleged that the attackers had been emboldened by the government's decision to withdraw a draft law against discrimination from parliamentary procedure in response to pressure from the Serbian Orthodox Church and right-wing groups. On March 14, police arrested three individuals in connection with the incident, but there was no additional information available at year's end. Organizers from the LGBT community cancelled a pride parade scheduled for September 20 after the government proposed an alternate venue away from downtown Belgrade, citing security concerns. In advance of the event, right-wing and nationalist organizations openly threatened violence against the participants. The nationalist movement ``1389'' also sent a letter to the press offering to buy close-up photographs of the parade participants for future posting online so that ``parents will be able to recognize sexually deviant persons and protect their children from this harmful influence.'' The acting head of the Serbian Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Amfilohije of Montenegro and the Coastlands, called the event ``the shame parade, the parade of Sodom and Gomorrah.'' On May 29, the district prosecutor in Belgrade declined to file criminal charges in connection with the September 2008 attack by a group of approximately 20 youths wearing surgical masks and hoods on participants in a gay rights festival in Belgrade. In July the NGO Labris initiated a civil suit on behalf of one of the victims; the case was pending at year's end. Although the broadcasting law prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation, some media carried slurs against LGBT persons. The tabloid press continued to publish articles with hate speech against the LGBT population and interviews with homophobic right-wing groups. The anti-LGBT campaign peaked before the March adoption of the law against discrimination and again before the Belgrade pride parade planned for September. The right-wing organization Nasi continued its campaign against the LGBT community through leaflets and articles on its Web site. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--On April 13, the assistant health minister, Ivana Misic, stated that 2,300 persons infected with the HIV virus were registered in the country but that the actual number likely was a few times higher. NGOs reported acts of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, including job loss and harassment from neighbors. NGOs and some health workers also reported that some medical workers discriminated against persons with HIV/AIDS. On May 5, the Ministry of Health state secretary, Tomislav Stantic, announced the start of a joint government and NGO public educational campaign, ``Both Plus and Minus,'' which aimed to end prejudice regarding the methods of HIV transmission. On November 30, Human and Minority Rights Ministry State Secretary Marko Karadzic told a conference that a substantial number of state employees lacked sufficient knowledge about HIV/AIDS and therefore subscribed to stereotypes about persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution and law provide for the right of workers, except military and police personnel, to join or form unions of their choosing. This right is subject to restrictions, including approval by the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy and a statement from the employer that the union leader is a full-time employee, which reportedly was tantamount to a requirement of employer approval. The state-affiliated Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions of Serbia (CATUS), a federation of unions formed during the country's socialist period and supported by the Milosevic regime, outnumbered independent labor unions in the public sector. However, independent trade unions were able to organize and address management in state- owned companies on behalf of their members. In the state-owned sector, 55 to 60 percent of workers were unionized, while in the private sector 13 to 15 percent were unionized. In newly privatized companies, up to 35 percent of workers belonged to unions. The constitution and law allow unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The constitution and law provide for the right to strike except by persons providing essential services, such as public utilities, radio and television broadcasting, food production, healthcare, education, social services, military and intelligence services, work in the chemical, steel, and metals industries, and the postal service. Essential service employees constituted more than 50 percent of the workforce and had to announce planned strikes at least 10 days in advance and ensure that a ``minimum level of work'' was provided. Workers frequently exercised the right to strike, especially in the first part of the year. According to some estimates, a total of 40,000- 50,000 workers were on strike throughout the country at some point throughout the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The constitution guarantees the right to work, to unionize, and to strike, and the labor law protects the right to bargain collectively. This law was effectively enforced. Collective bargaining was protected by law but not always freely practiced. The law requires collective bargaining agreements for any company with more than 10 employees. However, in order to negotiate with an employer, a union must represent 15 percent of company employees. In order to negotiate with the government, a union must represent 10 percent of all workforce employees. Collective bargaining agreements covered approximately 40 percent of employed workers. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of trade union membership but does not expressly prohibit discrimination for trade union activities and establishes no specific sanctions for antiunion harassment. During the year the independent trade union Nezavisnost alleged discrimination against trade unions and violations of workers' rights. A trade union discrimination case initiated by Nezavisnost began in October 2008 at the Trayal Tire Factory in Krusevac, when the management of the company and CATUS refused to recognize that Nezavisnost represented a portion of the workforce and excluded it from collective bargaining negotiations. Nezavisnost alleged that similar situations existed in all large state-owned companies where CATUS had special ties with politically appointed management teams, citing as an example the state power company EPS where Nezavisnost had not been able to establish a presence, despite repeated efforts since 2004. In 2007 the Ministry of the Economy and Regional Development adopted a program to allocate funds to Termovent, a private company owned by a local citizen, so that the company could clear up pay arrearages to 113 workers. Upon the program's enactment, Termovent's director notified the company's trade union leader, Lela Milicevic, that in order to receive her share of funds, she had to resign from the union. Milicevic then reportedly was physically attacked by the company's director and hospitalized. According to Nezavisnost, Milicevic eventually received her wage arrears and severance payment, left the factory, and did not press charges against the director. According to the NGOs Felicitas and the Center for Democracy, the most common worker's rights violations were work performed without an employment contract; nonpayment of salary, overtime, and benefits; employers' withholding maternity leave allowances; discrimination based on sex and age; discrimination against persons with disabilities; unsafe working conditions; and general harassment. Workers fired for union activity have a legal right to reinstatement. According to Nezavisnost, with the help of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy's Labor Inspectorate, the trade union gained reinstatement of several of its members, who were fired for union activities during the year. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's three export-processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution and law prohibit forced and compulsory labor, including by children; however, women, men, and children were trafficked for commercial sexual and labor exploitation, and children were forced to beg and commit petty theft. The penalty for slavery, or a relationship similar to slavery, is one to 10 years in prison and applies to anyone who buys, sells, or transfers a victim, anyone who helps in the purchase, sale or transfer of a victim, and anyone who encourages a person to sell his or her freedom or the freedom of a dependent. The penalty for any slavery offense against a minor is five to 15 years. Throughout the year female victims were forced to work in jobs as dancers, waitresses, or sex workers in substandard conditions. Perpetrators confiscated their documents and held them against their will. Children were sexually exploited, forced, often by their families, to beg and commit petty crime and lived in substandard housing conditions without access to education. The law penalizes parents or guardians who force a minor to engage in begging, excessive labor, or labor incompatible with his/her age with prison terms of three months to five years. A government department within the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy also addressed the social problems in the Romani community that lead to forced labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws protecting children from exploitation in the workforce in industries but did not have authority to check informal workplaces or individual households. There were reports that children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation, labor, and begging. Children from impoverished, rural communities, Romani children, and children in foster care were at high risk of entering exploitive child labor. In urban areas, children worked in the informal sector as street vendors and car washers. In villages and farming communities, underage children commonly worked in family businesses. Children, particularly Roma, also worked in a variety of unofficial retail jobs, typically washing car windows or selling small items such as newspapers. Families often forced Romani children into manual labor and begging or trafficked them abroad to work in begging or theft rings. The minimum age for employment is 15, and youths under 18 require written parental or guardian permission for employment. The labor law stipulates very specific working conditions for youths, and limits their workweek to 35 hours. Penalties include fines of up to 780,000 dinars (approximately $11,640). According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy's Labor Inspectorate, which is responsible for enforcing the child labor laws, during the year inspectors registered 10 violations involving employment of youths under the age of 18 without a contract and thus without parental permission, all in the catering and construction industries. Labor inspectors ordered the employers to obtain written parental permission and health reports before signing contracts with these individuals. In three of the 10 cases, youths were working night shifts, which the law prohibits. According to the ministry, inspectors pressed charges against the employers in all cases in which there were violations of the law. In one case, a foreigner between 15 and 18 years of age and working without a contract was injured at work and later died from his injuries. The local labor inspector in Pancevo pressed charges against the employer. During the year, in response to a growing number of reported violations, the government increased inspections and preventative measures. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The Social Economic Council set the minimum wage for the period between July and December at 15,138 dinars (approximately $226) per month. The minimum wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. In companies with a trade union presence, there was generally effective enforcement of the minimum wage due to monitoring by the union. This was not the case in smaller private companies where employers were either unwilling or unable to pay minimum wages and mandatory social benefits. These companies often employed unregistered workers, i.e., workers ``off the books'' for whom the employer did not pay social and pension contribution and to whom the employer paid a cash salary directly without recording the transaction. Most unregistered workers did not report labor violations because they feared losing their jobs. The minimum wage was established in a transparent and tripartite manner. The Labor Inspectorate is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage. The average monthly net salary in November was approximately 31,576 dinars (approximately $471). The average salary was not adequate for a worker and family to live comfortably but covered expenses for average monthly consumption. Wage arrears were no longer reported to be substantial and widespread, although there were several high-profile cases of wage arrears related to failed privatization and bankrupt socially owned companies. Some of the strikers adopted increasingly extreme tactics to attract attention to their cause: 12 workers from the Partizan Leather Company in Kragujevac held an 18-day hunger strike; a textile worker in Novi Pazar cut off the tip of his finger; and workers blocked domestic and international railway routes for three days by laying down on tracks in Lapovo. The standard workweek of 40 hours prescribed by the labor law was generally observed in state-owned enterprises but not in private companies. The law provides that an employee may not work overtime for more than four hours a day or for more than 240 hours in a calendar year. For an eight-hour workday, one 30-minute break is required. At least 12 hours of break are required between shifts during a workweek, and at least 24 hours of break are required over a weekend. Collective agreements were the primary means of providing premium pay for overtime. However, the labor law requires that the premium for overtime work should be at least 26 percent of the salary base, as defined by the relevant collective bargaining agreement. Trade unions within a company are the primary agents for enforcing overtime pay; however, the labor inspectorate also has enforcement responsibilities. The inspectorate had mixed results enforcing labor regulations due to a variety of factors, including politics and corruption. Under the law companies must establish a safety and security unit to monitor observance of safety and security regulations; however, in practice, these units often focused on rudimentary aspects of safety, such as purchasing soaps and detergents, rather than on providing safety equipment for workers. Workers did not have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered their health or safety without jeopardy to their employment. The Labor Inspectorate was responsible for worker safety and health, and it increased inspections and preventative measures during the year. According to the Serbian Victimology Society, in 2008 there were 115 cases of workplace harassment, which represented more than 50 percent of the total number of reported cases of harassment. This harassment consisted of badgering and insults regarding workers' performance by their supervisors. __________ SLOVAKIA The Slovak Republic, with a population of approximately 5.4 million, is a multiparty parliamentary democracy led by a prime minister and a 150-member Narodna Rada (National Council). Voters elected the head of government, Prime Minister Robert Fico of the Smer Party, to a four-year term in 2006. President Ivan Gasparovic, the head of state, was reelected for a five-year term during the year. Both elections were considered free and fair. Eight political parties, three of which form the governing coalition, sit in the National Council. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. Notable human rights problems included some continuing reports of police mistreatment of Romani suspects and lengthy pretrial detention; restrictions on freedom of religion; concerns about the integrity of the judiciary, corruption in national government, local government, and government health services; violence against women and children; trafficking in women and children; and societal discrimination and violence against Roma and other minorities. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. In September the Supreme Court upheld the February 2008 Banska Bystrica Regional Court conviction of seven former police officers for torture and inhuman treatment in connection with the 2001 death of a Romani man in police custody. The man died while handcuffed to a radiator; the official autopsy revealed injuries to vital organs caused by fist and nightstick blows, kicks, and other forms of physical abuse. The former officers will serve between 18 months and eight years and six months in prison. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and the law prohibit torture and other cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment or punishment, and the government generally respected these provisions in practice. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and members of the Romani community cited a continuing trend of mistreatment of Romani suspects by police officers during arrest and while in custody. The Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released an inspection report in 2006 that noted significant allegations of mistreatment of detainees by law enforcement agencies, including slaps, punches, kicks, or blows with hard objects such as batons. In a ``notable proportion'' of cases the victims were Roma. The CPT conducted a follow-up visit from March 24 to April 2. In general the CPT noted that the situation in Slovakia had improved, despite recurring complaints from detainees about excessive force. The CPT recommended that the government reassess police training methods pertaining to detention and include independent experts in the process. The CPT also urged the government to investigate all allegations of sterilization of Romani women promptly and thoroughly, to enforce the 2004 Healthcare Act effectively, and train doctors about their criminal liability for performing sterilization without consent. On March 21, police officers abused six Romani boys (ranging in age from 11 to 16 years old) detained in Kosice following alleged theft of a purse. Videotapes of the incident, leaked to the media on April 7, showed the officers forcing the boys to strip naked, kiss, and hit each other. Police authorities immediately suspended nine officers, seven of whom subsequently lost their jobs, accused them of abuse of office and intimidation, and faced criminal charges; the trial was pending at year's end. Authorities also dismissed four of the officers' superiors. Police continued to provide special training on Romani culture and language to officers working in districts with Romani communities in the Kosice and Presov regions. The Bratislava branch of postsecondary schooling for police also offered an elective course in Romani language and culture. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards; however, overcrowding continued to be a problem. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. Observers expressed concern that no independent group or NGO regularly monitored prison conditions. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and the law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police has sole responsibility for internal and border security and reports to the Ministry of Interior. The head of the police force reports directly to the minister of interior, who has the authority to recall any member of the police. Human rights observers believed that police were occasionally reluctant to accept the testimony of certain witnesses, particularly Roma, women, and homeless persons and often failed to investigate cases involving Roma and other minorities promptly and thoroughly. Instances of police corruption and misconduct were reported, primarily the extortion of bribes during traffic stops. Headed by a director who reports directly to the minister of interior, the Bureau for the Inspection Service of the Police Corps is responsible for investigating police abuses. Cases may be initiated by, among others, the inspection service, the police corps, the police's organized crime unit, and individual citizens. In June authorities arrested six police officers following an investigation that indicated they had been working as security guards in a brothel in Senec. At year's end the officers, who were members of teams in Bratislava and Trnava, awaited trial. The most common charge authorities brought against police officers was abuse of power; other charges included battery, assault and battery, and illegal intrusion into private homes. In 2008 authorities charged 158 police officers with crimes; in 68 of these cases, the crime was abuse of power. Disciplinary action ranged from fines to expulsion from the police force. Several NGOs criticized the actions of police at a June protest in Bratislava during the visit of Chinese president Hu Jintao. During violent clashes between Slovak protesters and supporters of the Chinese president, police did not actively intervene. Subsequently, police detained nine protesters, six Slovaks and three Chinese. In July five NGOs filed a complaint against the Ministry of Interior, alleging that police did not protect the rights of protesters and expressing concern that the investigation of the event was inadequate. Prime Minister Fico publicly supported the police action. In September the ministry dismissed the NGOs' complaint. There were some indications that impunity was a problem, as evidenced in the continuing case of Radoslav Puky, a Slovak citizen of Romani origin. In 2004 Puky's body was found in a Trebisov canal following his disappearance during a police operation. A CPT investigation indicated that police took only perfunctory action to investigate reports of police assault against Puky. In 2007 the Constitutional Court dismissed a new complaint filed by the League of Human Rights Activists on behalf of the Puky family. In April 2008 the European Roma Rights Center submitted the case to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), where it was pending at year's end. Human rights training remained on the curriculum at police training facilities. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The constitution and the law stipulate that a person can only be taken into custody for explicit reasons and must be informed immediately of the reasons for detainment. A written court warrant is required for arrest. The court must grant a hearing to a person accused of a crime within 48 hours (or a maximum of 72 hours for ``serious cases,'' defined as violent crimes, treason, or other crimes with a sentence of at least eight years) and either release or remand the individual. There was a bail system in place that functioned effectively. Detainees have the right to consult with an attorney immediately and must be notified of this right. The government provides free counsel to indigent detainees. Attorney visits were allowed as frequently as necessary. The law allows monthly family visits upon request. If remanded by a court, the accused is entitled to an additional hearing within 48 hours, at which time the judge must either release the accused or issue a written order placing the accused in custody. The authorities respected these provisions in practice. Criminal court procedures mandate that the total time of detention (pretrial plus trial) cannot exceed 12 months in the case of minor offenses, 24 months for regular crimes, 36 months for severe crimes, and five years for crimes in which the expected sentence is 25 years or a life sentence. In addition, pretrial detention cannot account for more than half of the total detention time. In cases with extenuating circumstances, the Supreme Court may extend pretrial detention to four years. Delays in court procedures and investigations frequently led to lengthy detentions during both the pretrial and trial periods. According to 2007 statistics, pretrial detainees accounted for approximately one-third of the total prison population; detainees were held on the average for 125 days at the district court level and 399 days at the regional court level. At the district court level, 10 percent of detentions were longer than one year; at the regional court level, 51 percent of detentions were longer than one year. In 2008 authorities held 6,162 individuals in pretrial detention. The law allows plea bargaining, which reduced the backlog of court cases. During 2008 plea bargaining resolved 5,741 cases, compared with 4,428 cases in 2007. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, in practice problems with corruption, official intimidation of judges, inefficiency, and a lack of accountability continued to undermine judicial independence. In some cases the judiciary was subject to high-level influence and pressure by the government. In some cases judges felt they faced attempts to influence decision making as well as intimidation via disciplinary actions from the minister of justice or the Judicial Council. Cases are generally first heard in the district courts; appeals are made to the eight regional courts. The Supreme Court, consisting of 76 active judges, is the highest court of appeals and the court of last resort in all civil and most criminal cases. The Constitutional Court, with 13 judges serving 12-year terms, is nominally independent of the Ministry of Justice. It rules on compliance of lower legislation with the constitution and international treaties, and hears complaints about violations of basic rights and freedoms; its decisions cannot be appealed to the Supreme Court. The Judicial Council, a constitutionally recognized independent body of lawyers and judges, makes decisions regarding disciplinary actions, administrative issues, and appointments of judges. Military courts were abolished on April 1. In May the Constitutional Court ruled seven to six that the Special Court, designed to hear cases of official corruption and those related to high-ranking government and political figures and organized crime, was unconstitutional. In June the parliament passed a bill to create a new specialized court to hear corruption cases. Under the new law, judges' salaries were reduced, and judges were no longer required to have security clearances. These changes addressed the Constitutional Court's reasoning for declaring the special court unconstitutional. Some judges expressed that they felt pressure to rule against the special court. With the exception of the Constitutional Court, courts employed a computerized system for random case assignment to increase transparency. There were reports that this system was subject to manipulation. There were also reports of inconsistent decision making and substitution of judges to influence court decisions. Public skepticism toward the court system remained widespread. In June former minister of justice Stefan Harabin was elected chairman of the Supreme Court. Several NGOs mounted a campaign against his election, citing his personal contacts with a person suspected of organized drug-related criminal activity. They also criticized his misuse of disciplinary actions as tools to intimidate and persecute judges. Over 12,000 persons signed the petition. Several judges also filed a Constitutional Court claim against his election, which remained pending at year's end. In July a judicial disciplinary senate ruled that veteran judge Anna Benesova be demoted for allegedly prohibiting the recording of court proceedings in one of her cases. Benesova, however, asserted that the real motive for her demotion was her unwillingness to decide in favor of Harabin in a libel case against daily newspaper SME. After Benesova was suspended from the Bratislava Regional Court in July 2008, the judge who replaced her in the Harabin vs. SME case ruled in Harabin's favor and ordered SME to pay him 33,134 euros (approximately $47,400). Witnesses at her disciplinary hearings testified Benesova did not prohibit the recording and, moreover, in other cases when recording was prohibited, judges received only minor sanctions or were not sanctioned. Other disciplinary actions were criticized widely as unfair, such as the cases of judges suspended from function for filing a criminal complaint against Harabin, or for writing a letter to President Gasparovic about the situation in the judiciary. Disciplinary actions related to procrastination appeared heavily inconsistent-in some cases judges faced suspension from function for procrastination, while in other similar cases there was no action. Suspension from function is a severe action, as the suspended judge is prohibited from entering the court building, receives only one-third of salary, and cases are assigned to other judge. On September 15, 105 judges sent a letter to the president, prime minister, the chairman of the National Council, the minister of justice, and the Judicial Council protesting the improper use of disciplinary panels against independent judges. The letter stated that the disciplinary sanctions applied to critics of Harabin were nontransparent, inconsistent, and threatened the independence of the judiciary. The judges had not received a response at year's end. An open statement called ``Five Sentences,'' signed by 105 judges from across the country, was published on October 1. The judges wrote openly in their statement about ``an atmosphere of fear'' in conducting their work within the judiciary. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. They are also presumed innocent during the appeals process, meaning that a person found guilty by a court does not serve his imposed sentence nor pay any fine until the final decision on his appeal is reached. Persons charged with criminal offenses are entitled to fair and public trials and have the right to be informed of the charges against them. The law does not provide for jury trials. A panel of three judges is obligatory in criminal cases and in civil cases at the regional court and Supreme Court levels. However, NGO observers stated that judicial corruption often resulted in lengthy court delays and improper handling of police investigations. Defendants have the right to be present, consult in a timely manner with an attorney (at government expense if indigent), access government-held evidence, confront witnesses against them, and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants have the right to refuse self- incrimination, and may appeal adverse judgments. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens have unrestricted access to an independent judiciary to bring lawsuits in civil matters including human rights violations. Courts that hear civil cases were subject to the same delays as criminal courts and were often perceived by the public as corrupt. Administrative remedies are available in certain cases. The National Center for Human Rights has the authority to provide mediation for cases of discrimination and to represent claimants in court. The Office of the Public Protector of Rights (ombudsman) determined that 157 of the approximately 2,528 complaints received in 2008 constituted violations of the rights of the claimants, most of which involved delays in court proceedings. The ombudsman's office continued providing free legal services throughout the country by holding traveling legal clinics in cooperation with individual municipalities. As of July the ECHR had issued 13 rulings against the country based on exceeding the ``reasonable time'' requirement for civil and criminal proceedings under the European Convention on Protection of Human Rights. Property Restitution.--The law provides citizens an opportunity to apply for the return of land confiscated by the state between 1948 and 1989. Since passage of the property restitution law of 1991, citizens filed 48,518 claims. As of December 2008, 41,218 of these claims had been resolved through land return, land awards, or financial reimbursement. Under the 2003 property restitution law, 34,287 claims were filed, of which 18,481 were resolved (which included land return, awards, or financial reimbursement) through December 2008. A lack of historical documentation prolonged the process and prevented many cases from being resolved. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and the law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Police must present a warrant before conducting a search or within 24 hours afterwards. Romani advocacy groups pressured the government to acknowledge and compensate victims for past involuntary sterilization practices on Romani women in public health facilities. Patients are legally required to submit written requests at least 30 days before sterilizations are performed; however, criminal charges cannot be filed for offenses that took place prior to 2005, when the law took effect. No victims of involuntary sterilization or sterilization without informed consent received financial redress for sterilization in the country's court system. According to the NGO Poradna (Center for Civil and Human Rights), which helped alleged victims prepare cases, several civil court cases had been filed. In one case three Romani women claimed that they were sterilized without informed consent. In 2006 the Constitutional Court ruled that regional level prosecutors had violated the constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights by improperly closing the investigation of the original claim, and it awarded each of the claimants 50,000 koruna (approximately $2,380). The court instructed the prosecution to reopen its investigation in 2007, but the investigation did not yield any new results. The NGO representing the victims filed another appeal to the Constitutional Court, which was pending at year's end. Two additional cases were pending at regional courts following appeals, and four cases were pending before appeal courts. Three forced sterilization civil suits that predate the 2005 law were filed at the ECHR in 2004. Two were still pending at year's end. In April the ECHR ruled in favor of eight Romani women who suspected they had been sterilized without their knowledge. The hospitals where the procedures had been performed allegedly denied them access to their medical records and the ECHR ruled that this denial of access was a violation of privacy; the allegation of uninformed sterilization was not at issue. Four of the women subsequently received access to their medical files, and at least one discovered she had been sterilized. The remaining four women continued to be denied access to their medical records despite a government decree. In 2007 the Ministry of Health had informed Poradna that the women's medical records were lost. After numerous unsuccessful civil proceedings, the plaintiffs were each awarded 3,500 euros ($5,018) in damages. As of July there were two other rulings by the ECHR against the government for violating the right to privacy. In one case a domestic court restricted the legal capacity of a person suffering from a mental illness. The woman was required to wait three years before applying to have her full legal capacity restored, during which time she was restricted from acting on her own before public authorities. In March the ECHR ruled that this extended period was excessive and interfered with her right to privacy. In the second case, the Ministry of Interior authorized an investigation team to wiretap a lawyer's cell phone to obtain information about one of the lawyer's clients suspected to be involved in organized criminal activities. In June the ECHR ruled that this interference with the right to privacy was unlawful. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of speech and of the press; while the government generally respected these rights in practice, in some instances the government limited these rights, including attempts by government officials to impede criticism and to limit actions of extremist groups. The law prohibits the defamation of nationalities, which is punishable by up to three years in prison, and denying the Holocaust, which carries a sentence of six months to three years. The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views, although state-owned television and wire services were subject to political influence by the government. The three public media outlets (TV-STV, Radio SRo, and Wire-TASR) received state funding and were headed by political appointees. There were reports that directors of Slovak Public Television exerted pressure in the news department to provide favorable coverage of governing coalition events and activities. Both the 2008 act on broadcast fees and the 2007 audiovisual law increased broadcast media's dependence on state funding and the perceived schism between print and broadcast media. In June 2008 a media law went into effect that requires publishers to print responses to any ``statement of fact that impinges on the honor, dignity, or privacy of a natural person, or the name or good reputation of a legal entity.'' The law requires publishers to print replies on the same numerical page and space as the original article, regardless of whether the original statement was factually correct. Journalists and publishers opposed the law because it could force them to print official government responses without the opportunity for a counter response. Miklos Haraszti, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe's (OSCE) representative on freedom of the media, regretted the law's adoption and said, ``Instead of handling the right to correction or reply in compliance with the standards, Slovakia is forcing its media to become subject to political give and take. This goes against the country's international commitments to protect the freedom of its media. Members of government took several actions that observers believed were intended to pressure the media to curtail reporting critical of the government. In September Prime Minister Fico announced that he would seek changes to the press law that would require publishers to issue corrections within 24 hours during the election period and that would ascribe fines to violations that would not require a court trial; at year's end however the prime minister had not submitted any amendments to parliament. Arne Koenig, head of the European Federation of Journalists, stated that such a law would be dangerous, as it would ``distinguish between politicians and regular people.'' Haraszti declared ``if such a draft law is submitted to parliament, we will officially intervene. This would mean another serious worsening of the position of publishers and their rights to decide on the content of their newspapers.'' In November Prime Minister Fico used the right of reply provisions in the media law to respond to a commentary from the daily SME, which alleged that he was part of a privileged group prior to 1989 during the communist era in Slovakia. SME printed Fico's reply on its opinion page. Media analysts and publishers alike noted that when the media law was passed, Fico said that he would not use it, as it was designed to protect ordinary citizens from the press. Criminal penalties for defamation exist under the penal code, but these provisions were rarely used. Jana Teleki, a journalist, was charged with the crime of defamation, allegedly caused by a poem she wrote in 1998. The criminal proceeding was first closed in 1999, but the proceeding was reopened in 2000. The first instance court issued a conditional sentence of 18 months against her in 2003. The appeal procedure was still pending at year's end. Many experts claimed that the procedure was not legally sound as the case was closed in 1999. Members of the government, judiciary, and political elites targeted the press in a number of civil defamation lawsuits, which often required the press to pay large sums of money. The International Press Institute and other observers expressed concerns that this financial risk may lead to self-censorship in the media. Courts made multiple decisions in favor of political elites, despite compelling evidence of the veracity of the reports for which the media were being punished. In such cases many persons expressed concern that these decisions demonstrated that preserving a politician's personal reputation was valued more highly than the public's interest in the truth. In April Prime Minister Fico won a libel suit against the publisher of the weekly Trend. Fico filed the suit in response to the cover story ``Thief of Your Future Pensions'' published in Trend in 2007. The article reported on efforts of the Fico government to roll back pension reform introduced under the previous government. A judge ordered the publisher to pay Fico 8,000 euros ($11,400) in damages and publish an apology. In May then justice minister and current Chairman of the Supreme Court Stefan Harabin sent letters to three publishers and one radio station requesting out-of-court settlements of 200,000 euros ($286,000) from each of them to compensate for articles and statements published in 2008-09 that allegedly damaged his reputation. Harabin did not invoke the new press law to ask for an apology or any printed corrections. Harabin has won several libel lawsuits against the media since 2006, a fact that he highlighted in the letters to the media outlets. Observers expressed concern that the former minister's objective was to intimidate and extort the media rather than to restore his reputation. The Association of Publishers of the Periodical Press in Slovakia issued a statement that called the letters ``a very unusual, but characteristic in many aspects, continuation of the political representatives' actions against journalists and publishers.'' The statement claimed Harabin ``is demanding exorbitant sums that are higher than those awarded by courts in the cases of the gravest health injuries or deaths.'' In September former prime minister and current coalition partner Vladimir Meciar won 49,500 euros ($70,800) in damages from the publishing house 7 Plus. In 2005 the weekly Plus 7 Days published an interview with an individual who called the financing of Meciar's luxurious ``Elektra'' villa a ``virtual reality'' that could not be explained. The court of first instance ruled that Plus 7 Days should issue an apology to Meciar but awarded no financial compensation; however, after both Plus 7 Days and Meciar appealed, the second instance court, the Bratislava Regional Court, overruled the earlier verdict and awarded Meciar compensation. In September Prime Minister Fico sued Petit Press, the parent company of leading daily SME for 33,000 euros ($47,143) for damages allegedly incurred by publication of a cartoon on its opinion page. The cartoon depicted Prime Minister Fico in a doctor's office, with the doctor examining an x-ray of Fico's neck and implying he was spineless. In his lawsuit the prime minister stated that while he was suffering unbearable physical pain, the SME daily was misusing his image and mocking his suffering, which harmed his dignity and reputation. Media analysts observed that if the courts ruled in Fico's favor, it would set a dangerous trend penalizing satire. In December Fico held a press conference in which he accused the media of conspiring against him, attacking his family, and operating like the mafia. The publishers of all the leading dailies in the country responded with a joint article refuting Fico's claims that they had met to conspire against him and said, ``what is equally inappropriate and offensive are the continuing and escalating attacks against journalists, full of inappropriate, or even vulgar, epithets. The media and journalists are doing nothing other than what is customary in a democracy. The prime minister naturally has the right to use all legal means for his defense if he believes that these activities are beyond the limits of the law. However, he does not have the right to cross the limits of decency and incite an atmosphere of aggressiveness toward the media and journalists in society.'' Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mails or Internet chat rooms; however, police monitored Web sites hosting hate speech and attempted to arrest or fine the authors. The law defines hate speech as speech that publicly threatens an individual or group based on nationality, ethnicity, race, skin color, or that publicly incites the restriction of rights and freedoms of such an individual or group. Individuals and groups could otherwise engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access was generally available across the country. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 51 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. However, the regional authorities banned the activities of civic activist Ondrej Dostal in two instances. The courts subsequently ruled that the ban was illegal. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. However, the law requires organizations to pay a nominal registration fee and stipulates that those registering as foundations have ``substantial'' financial resources of 180,000 koruna (approximately $8,600) to operate. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and the law generally provide for freedom of religion; and the government generally protected this right in practice, however, the law prevents smaller religious groups from registering. Catholicism was the dominant religion due to the number of adherents and received larger state subsidies; however, there is no official state religion. In May 2007 the government amended the religious registration law to require that religious groups provide signatures of 20,000 citizens or permanent residents who are adherents of the faith in order to register officially. The law previously required the signatures of 20,000 citizens, not specifically adherents. Registered religious groups received state subsidies for clergy and office expenses and were permitted to proselytize in prisons and hospitals and to conduct legal marriage ceremonies. There were 18 registered religious groups in the country. No unregistered religious group had sufficient membership to meet the new requirements for registration. Leaders of smaller religious communities, particularly Muslims, but also some Protestant denominations, the Hare Krishna community, and the Church of Scientology, complained that the membership requirement for registration effectively barred them from obtaining official status, although these groups experienced no restrictions on assembly and worship. In February 2008 the prosecutor general filed a case with the Constitutional Court against the 2007 registration law, citing that it infringed upon the freedom of association. The case was pending at year's end. In April 2008 leaders of Christian Fellowship filed a case with the Supreme Court to appeal the minister of culture's rejection of their registration application in 2007, claiming that they had met all registration requirements. In March the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the appeal, and the Ministry of Culture renewed the registration process in May. The law requires public elementary school students to take either a religion or an ethics class. The law also allows government-funded religious schools to remove material inconsistent with church beliefs from their curricula. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of societal violence and discrimination against religious groups; however, the government made efforts to prosecute offenders and conducted programs to prevent it. Organized neo-Nazi groups, estimated to have 500 active members and several thousand additional sympathizers, promoted anti-Semitism and harassed and attacked other minorities, including Roma. Jewish community leaders expressed concern that some media coverage in the country exhibited anti-Semitic undertones. Jewish community leaders and 2001 census data estimated the size of the Jewish community at approximately 3,000 persons. In June the Ministry of Justice announced that all legally justified applications for compensation to Holocaust victims had been settled. The Central Union of Jewish Religious Communities submitted a list of applicants to the ministry in 2004. In total the ministry paid 411,000 euros ($588,000) in compensation. This was a symbolic payment meant to compensate survivors for suffering and was separate from property restitution. In November 2008 the cabinet approved a penal code amendment that would toughen penalties for extremist acts. President Gasparovic vetoed the amendment, stating that it did not sufficiently define extremism and extremist acts. NGOs also expressed concern that the amendment's ambiguity could be misinterpreted or misused to repress perceived enemies of government including NGOs or media. In June parliament overrode the veto, and the amendment took effect in September. The amendment provides penalties of two to six years' imprisonment for individuals convicted of membership in an extremist group and three to eight years' imprisonment for production of extremist materials. The Ministry of Interior officially disbanded the far-right organization Slovenska Pospolitost in November 2008. In July the Supreme Court annulled this dissolution ruling that the necessary conditions were not met for the organization to be disbanded. The Ministry of Interior expressed its intent to outlaw the organization a second time. In October it sent a warning letter to Pospolitost asking it to cease illegal activities, but the process remained pending at year's end. There were numerous acts of anti-Semitism reported. Police arrested individuals in Roznava, Nitra, Kolinany, Dolne Obdokovca, and other towns for painting swastikas on public buildings or propagating fascist ideology. In 2007 two young men were arrested and charged with defamation against an ethnic group; the men shouted Nazi slogans at the Bratislava rabbi and his son as they were leaving a synagogue. The case was pending trial at year's end. While direct denial of the Holocaust was not common, expressions of support for the World War II-era Slovak fascist state, which deported tens of thousands of Slovak Jews, Roma, and others to their deaths in German concentration camps, occurred during the year. In March approximately 250 persons gathered in front of the presidential palace in Bratislava to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the founding of the wartime fascist Slovak state in 1939 and pay respect to its president, Jozef Tiso, who was executed for treason after World War II. The participants planned to march from the palace to the presumed grave of president Tiso, but police disbanded the march after arresting a marcher for calling out ``Na Straz!'' (On Guard!). The law forbids use of that phrase, which was the greeting of the Hlinka Guard, an official World War II-era paramilitary organization responsible for internal security and the deportation of thousands of Slovak Jews and Roma. In August the extremist organization Slovenska Pospolitost held a rally to commemorate the 71st anniversary of the death of Andrej Hlinka, a priest and outspoken advocate for Slovak independence before his death in 1938, who continued to inspire nationalists. The Nation's Memory Institute (UPN) provided access to previously undisclosed records of the Slovak regimes from 1939-89, and in past years there were efforts to abolish it. In April parliament elected Arpad Tarnoczy, former chairman of the Union of Anti-Communist Resistance (ZPKO) and known for his pro-Tiso sentiments, to the UPN supervisory board. The ZPKO issues the newsletter Svedectvo (Testimony), which Jewish community officials have criticized for advocating the wartime fascist state. Tarnoczy previously unveiled a monument to Jozef Kirchbaum, a leader of the Hlinka guard. The Ministry of Interior pursued violent extremist groups, and police monitored Web sites hosting hate speech and attempted to arrest or fine the authors. The government also continued implementing its action plan to fight discrimination, racism, xenophobia, and anti- Semitism. During the year the government organized educational programs on minority and human rights issues. High school and university curricula promoted tolerance, and students could also compete in annual essay contests that focused on human rights issues. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established system for providing some protection to refugees. The government granted 22 asylum seekers refugee status out of 909 applicants in 2008, in contrast with 2007, when 2,643 asylum seekers applied and the government granted refugee status to only 14 applicants. The asylum law gives officials broad authority to reject applicants based on technical errors in their applications. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives of freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government accepted refugees from third countries and provided basic facilities and services to encourage integration. Language training and work permits were available for refugees and asylum applicants with extended stays. In July the government, the UNHCR, and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) signed an agreement to temporarily house 98 Palestinian refugees from Iraq. The refugees arrived in August and were expected to stay for six months in an asylum facility in Humenne and be provided with accommodation, food, and medical care while their applications for permanent asylum elsewhere were processed. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol. The law provides for temporary protection, classified as ``tolerated residence,'' which is granted if asylum is denied and the individual is not eligible for deportation to his or her country of origin due to administrative problems or fear for the person's safety. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and the law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In April President Ivan Gasparovic, the head of state, was reelected for a five-year term in the second round of voting in an election that was considered to be free and fair. In 2006 citizens voted six political parties into the National Council in free and fair elections. Three of the six parties then formed the governing coalition. While election observers reported instances of localized vote buying in Romani communities in the eastern part of the country, they noted that it had limited effect on the final election results. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. A political party must receive at least 5 percent of the ballots cast to enter the National Council. In the 2006 elections, voters had the option of marking a preferential vote for an individual candidate on a political party list in addition to voting for a party. There were 39 complaints of electoral abuse questioning the legality of the 2006 municipal elections. In 2008 the Constitutional Court ruled that procedures were illegal or unconstitutional in 14 of those cases. There were 29 women in the 150-seat National Council, 36 women on the 70-seat Supreme Court, and two women in the 16-member cabinet. The law prohibits collecting information on ethnicity, and it was not possible to determine the number of members of minority groups in government. The party of the Hungarian coalition holds 20 seats in the National Council. Some ethnic Romani individuals and parties were successful at winning representation at the local and regional levels; however, Roma were consistently underrepresented in government service, and no Roma were in the National Council. In November the country held elections for the chairmanships and parliamentarian seats in the eight regional governments. Voter turnout was 22.9 percent. For the first time in the country's history, two ethnic Romani candidates were elected to the regional parliaments. In the eastern part of the country, there were some allegations of vote buying, particularly in Romani settlements. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement the law effectively, and some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. There were also concerns, particularly in the business sector, about the privatization of justice. Some reported that court proceedings have become a contest of vested interests and connections to the judicial powers. While the country has some financial disclosure laws, compliance was the exception rather than the rule. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators also reflected that corruption remained a problem. Among many widely reported cases of large-scale corruption and lack of transparency in public procurements, three resulted in the replacement of high-level government officials. In April Minister of Construction and Regional Development Marian Janusek, a member of the Slovak National Party (SNS), was forced to resign following the ``bulletin board'' scandal at his ministry. A contract worth 119 million euros (approximately $170 million) for various services was announced only on a bulletin board inside the ministry and was awarded to two companies, Zamedia and Avocat, in 2007. Following intense pressure from NGOs, extensive press coverage, and an investigation by the European Commission, authorities removed Janusek and cancelled the remaining balance of the contract. However, his replacement, Igor Stefanov, had also signed the contract in question, and the government already paid nine million euros($12.9 million)for services received. In September the general prosecutor promised to initiate a criminal investigation, which remained pending at year's end. In May Viliam Tursky replaced Environment Minister Jan Chrbet (SNS) based on corruption allegations in connection with the sale of carbon dioxide emission allocations to a foreign company. The company was created only months before winning the contract and had no relevant experience or history in emissions trading. In October 2008 Chrbet approved the sale of emission quotas for 10 million tons of carbon dioxide and an option for an additional 5 million tons for 6.05 euros (approximately $8.65) per ton. The price of emissions quotas in comparable sales in the region at that time was at least 10 euros (approximately $14.30) per ton. In August Prime Minister Fico recalled Viliam Tursky and took political control over the Ministry of Environment from the SNS due to ``continuous lack of expert capacity to lead the ministry.'' Deputy Prime Minister Dusan Caplovic, serving as acting Minister of Environment, immediately announced he would cancel the future emissions options in the contract, but this legal process remains unclear. Caplovic also removed top-ranking Environment Ministry officers appointed by the SNS. Investigation of additional disadvantageous contracts with private consulting companies continued at year's end. Despite the removal of key players at the ministry for suspected corruption, authorities undertook no criminal investigation. In December 2008 Branislav Macaj, head of the telecommunications regulatory agency, was fired by a parliamentary vote at the request of Lubomir Vazny, the Minister of Transportation, Post, and Telecommunications, for allegedly delaying adoption of digital television standards. Macaj subsequently charged that financial interests behind two domestic television networks unduly influenced the digital television strategy favored by the coalition's leading party, and that high-ranking government officials threatened to fire him if he insisted on continuing with an open tender based on technical selection criteria. That strategy aimed to preserve existing market shares for broadcasters, whereas Macaj's plan was to admit more competition as a condition for broadcasters to participate in new market offerings. In August the Towercom company, which was financially linked to the two domestic networks, won the tender for digital broadcasting. Some observers believed the criteria for the tender was specifically designed to favor Towercom. In May the European Commission sent a letter of formal notice, the first step in an infringement proceeding against an EU member who is thought to be out of compliance with EU regulations. That inquiry remained pending at year's end. The Ministry of Interior is responsible for developing the government's overall strategy for combating corruption, with a specific focus on investigation and enforcement. The specialized court is responsible for most prosecution efforts (see section 1.e.). The general prosecutor, who is appointed by parliament and independent of the executive and judicial branches, also plays a leading role in prosecuting corruption. The government Office of the Slovak Republic, which answers to the prime minister, also plays a role in developing anticorruption legislation and regulations. The law provides for public access to government information; however, NGOs cited a need for greater public awareness of the responsibility of government to provide information. During the year both the constitutional court and the judicial council restricted access to information. The government often declined to provide information, reacted with extreme delay to requests, or released only heavily redacted information. In one case the government released a contract for the sale of carbon dioxide emissions allocations with the names of the buyers, the quantity of allocation units, and the price redacted. The reason given was that confidentiality clauses in the contracts protected these public procurements were protected by confidentiality clauses in the contracts. In several cases such as this, authorities finally released the information after widespread critical media coverage. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Most NGOs were independent, although the Slovak National Center for Human Rights receives its budget from the parliament, and is thus semi-independent. Government officials were generally cooperative, although NGOs reported that at times government officials seemed to view their activities with suspicion or mistrust. In February 2008 the government withdrew a draft NGO law that sparked much public debate and generated significant press attention for its provisions that would effectively eliminate the legal basis for some watchdog organizations and curb the activities of international NGOs in the country. The country is a member of the UN Human Rights Council. In May the UNHRC conducted the first Universal Periodic Review (UPR) for the country. Several nations expressed concern about the status of the Romani minority, and an NGO shadow report detailed concerns about school segregation. The country has a Parliamentary Human Rights Committee, with 11 members, including one chairperson and one vice-chairperson. In April the chairman of the committee hosted an event at parliament with the NGO community to highlight concerns about the segregation the Romani minority. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and the law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status; the government made efforts to enforce these prohibitions in practice. In April 2008 parliament amended the antidiscrimination law to include ``temporary balanced actions,'' or affirmative action. All government agencies are required to create special favorable conditions for groups who are victims of discrimination, including but not limited to, employment, education, and vocational training. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape. Although the government enforced the law effectively, rape was an underreported problem. In 2008 there were reports of 152 rapes, 100 cases of sexual violence, and 387 cases of sexual abuse. There were 43 convictions for rape that year. Rape victims had access to shelters and counseling offered by NGOs and government-funded programs. Domestic violence against women also continued to be a problem. The law prohibits domestic violence; however, it was widespread, and activists claimed that the government did not enforce the law effectively. A joint study performed by the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family and the Public Policy Institute concluded that one of every five women was a victim of domestic violence. In October 2008 parliament passed a law providing police with greater tools to combat domestic violence; the law allows police to prohibit suspected offenders from reentering the domicile where the victim resides for 48 hours after an incident was reported. In 2008 there were 195 persons convicted for domestic violence. The law provides stricter sentences for violence directed toward members of the same household and allows for continued criminal prosecution even when a spouse drops charges. Domestic violence is punishable by two to 12 years' imprisonment. Domestic violence often was underreported due to the social stigma associated with being a victim; crime statistics did not adequately reflect the extent of the problem. According to the Ministry of Health, under the National Action Plan for the Prevention and Elimination of Violence against Women for 2005- 08, the ministry cooperated with other members of the expert group to educate health workers to monitor violence against women. They were to increase empathetic acceptance, create detailed registration of cases of violence against women in their health documentation, and assure adequate crisis intervention by health workers. The aim was to provide greater cooperation between health workers and law enforcement authorities for the prosecution of perpetrators of domestic violence. Prostitution is legal, but related activities, such as operating brothels, knowingly spreading sexually transmitted diseases, or trafficking in women for the purpose of sexual exploitation, are prohibited. There were no reliable data on the extent of prostitution. The 2008 amendment to the Anti-Discrimination Act defined sexual harassment as unlawful discrimination; previously, there was no legal prohibition against sexual harassment. There were few statistics available to measure the frequency or severity of the problem. The National Center for Human Rights received 45 reports of sexual harassment in the workplace through the end of 2008. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Contraception is widely available, however, the costs must be covered by the individual; they are not covered by the public health services. According to the Ministry of Health, use of oral contraception is increasing (from 2 percent in 1988 to 20.5 percent in 2005). Between the ages of 15 to 18 years old, women must have the approval of their parents and gynecologist to obtain a prescription for oral contraception; they must pay the costs privately. Maternal and child mortality are very low. The 2004 law on public health care coverage provides comprehensive reproductive health services for women. As a participant in the World Health Organization (WHO) UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative, the percentage of women still breastfeeding in the sixth month increased from 6.2 percent in 1980 to 42 percent in 2006. Sexual education is conducted at all levels of schools, and the government's goal is to reduce unwanted youth pregnancies by 50 percent. However, NGOs noted that the quality of sexual education is very low, and it is not mandatory. The country has a low incidence of HIV/AIDS infection. Women and men are equal under the law, including family law, property law, and in the judicial system; however, discrimination against women remained a problem in practice. Although women are legally protected from discrimination in the labor market, NGOs reported that many women had been dismissed from their jobs upon becoming pregnant. The equal opportunity office in the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family worked in an advisory capacity to ensure the legal rights of women. The Council of the Slovak Republic for Gender Equality, established at the end of 2008, approved a National Gender Equality Strategy for 2009-13. The National Center for Human Rights reported that women's wages were an average of 24 percent lower than men's wages. According to outside experts and the Ministry of Labor, the reported wage differences were due to low participation of women in higher-paid management positions and large numbers of women working in low-paid occupations such as education, healthcare, social work, and light industry. NGOs continued to advocate increased opportunities for the political participation of women. Women were underrepresented in all spheres of public power. In 2008 women accounted for 6.2 percent of senior government officials, 20 percent of the National Council, and equally low numbers in regional authorities. Children.--Citizenship is acquired by birth to at least one citizen parent, regardless of where the child is born. Each domestic birth is recorded at the local vital statistics office. If the child is born in a foreign country, the foreign birth certificate must be notarized, translated, and recorded with a special vital records office administered by the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family and the Ministry of Education oversaw implementation of the government's programs for children. While education is universal, free through the postsecondary level, and compulsory until the age of 15, Romani children exhibited a lower attendance rate than other children. Although Romani children comprised only 15 percent of the total number of children under the age of 16 years old, they were disproportionately enrolled in ``special'' schools for children with mental disabilities, despite diagnostic scores that were often within the average range of intellectual capacity. In many special schools, the registered student body was nearly 100 percent Roma. In the 2008-09 school year, there were 18,333 students enrolled in special schools, of which 36 percent were from socially disadvantaged, primarily Roma, households. Regular schools in the same communities had very few Romani students, especially at the secondary school level. A special school education did not provide Romani children the necessary knowledge or certification to continue to higher education institutions. In July 2008 Amnesty International (AI) released a report on school segregation in the town of Pavlovce nad Uhom. AI found that 99.5 percent of the pupils in the town's special school were Romani students, some of whom were previously functioning at an acceptable level in the mainstream elementary school prior to their transfer. AI also found that Romani parents were offered cultural and financial incentives (through the provision of motivational scholarships to high- performing children at the special school, regardless of the presence of a mental disability to send their children to what was locally known as the ``gypsy'' school. Following AI's report the government conducted an investigation of enrollment procedures at the special school and found that only 21 of the 57 new pupils admitted in 2007 had been properly assessed; 12 of the 57 students were transferred to the mainstream school in February, a number that AI believed should have been much higher. During the year the government's School Inspection Service began conducting an audit of 50 percent of all special schools to determine if proper enrollment procedure was followed. In May 2008 the government passed a School Act that addressed some of the problems through reform and new programs. It eliminated motivational scholarships based on performance and replaced them with attendance-based financial incentives. It also provided for the creation of ``zero year'' classes, which offer one year of state-funded prekindergarten education to children from socially disadvantaged families. During the 2008-09 school year, 2,500 children participated in the zero year program. NGO observers expressed the view that the program was a successful model, but it needed to be expanded to be effective. Child abuse remained an underreported problem according to child advocates. The government continued to increase training programs to reduce the instance of child abuse and implemented a publicity campaign to raise awareness of the issue. A number of children's foundations operated programs for abused or disabled children (or both). In June 2007 the Ministry of Interior, UNICEF, and corporate contributors initiated a program to search for lost or runaway children, estimated at 800 per year nationwide, and to provide assistance to families of these children. The program continued to work actively to prevent lost and runaway children, and it had its largest public awareness activity on May 25, which is the International Day for the Search of Missing Children. UNICEF also operated a 24-hour hotline for children. During the year they received 16,964 calls, of which 9,162 were substantive conversations in which UNICEF provided advice or consultation to the troubled children. The hotline was supported financially in part by the Ministry of Interior. Child prostitution is prohibited; however, according to the UN, it remained a problem in Romani settlements with the worst living conditions. Most of the perpetrators were other Roma. According to the criminal code, the minimum age for consensual sex is 15 years of age. Rape and sexual violence carry penalties of five to 25 years imprisonment, depending upon the injury or harm caused, the victim, and the motive. The production, distribution, or possession of child pornography is also a crime according to criminal code; the penalties range from two to 20 years imprisonment. There were approximately 7,500 children in institutional care, the majority of who were Roma. Most government orphanages were long-term care facilities rather than short-term residences. Activists claimed that orphans had difficulty integrating into society at age 18 years old and faced an increased risk of falling victim to trafficking. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that women and children were trafficked from, within, and through the country and, to a limited extent, to the country. Men were also trafficked for forced labor. The IOM estimated that 200 persons were trafficked from or through the country during 2008, mainly for commercial sexual exploitation. There were isolated reports that children were forced into prostitution. The IOM reported expanded usage of victims' assistance programs linked to increased awareness of these programs. Most of the victims trafficked through the country came from the former Soviet republics (particularly Moldova and Ukraine), the Balkan and Baltic countries, and China. According to a UN Office on Drugs and Crime study, from 1998 to 2007, an estimated 86,000 illegal migrants transited the country. There were no foreign trafficking victims identified by law enforcement authorities during that period. The Ministry of Interior funded training in victim identification for 160 national police and border guards in 2008. Traffickers also recruited citizens. Victims were typically trafficked through the Czech Republic or Austria to Western and Northern Europe. Victims were typically between the ages of 18 and 25 years old and from various social backgrounds, but particularly from areas with high unemployment. Some experts believed that Romani women and persons raised in state institutions were most vulnerable to being trafficked because of their socioeconomic situation and reduced freedom of mobility. In particular Romani women and girls were also trafficked internally for sexual exploitation, and Romani children were trafficked to Austria, Italy, and Germany for the purpose of forced begging. Traffickers lured women with offers of employment, often relying on personal connections. Victims, frequently forced to work while transiting the country, were often placed as prostitutes or as exotic dancers in nightclubs. Such activity was concentrated on the border with Austria, close to Ukraine, and along trucking routes with a prevalence of nightclubs. Traffickers closely monitored victims, withheld their documents, and used violence to ensure their compliance. Traffickers allegedly threatened some victims with violence or even death if they attempted to escape. Under the law traffickers may be sentenced to four to 10 years in prison. The sentence may be increased to as much as 25 years depending on complicating factors, for example, if a trafficking incident involves wrongful death. Police initiated investigations in 18 cases of trafficking in 2008. Courts convicted and sentenced 11 traffickers in 2008, none of whom were involved in child trafficking. Sentences were mild, and seven were suspended. In 2007 police uncovered a trafficking ring organized by Slovak and Slovenian citizens that recruited young citizen women to work legally in Croatia and then forced them to work as prostitutes in Slovenia. Authorities arrested four members of the organization, who were in custody at year's end awaiting trial. The government agencies responsible for combating trafficking include the national coordinator to combat trafficking in persons; the police antitrafficking unit; the ministries of interior, finance, justice, and education; the prosecutor's office; the border police; the equal opportunity office at the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family; and the plenipotentiary for Romani communities. The government developed a 2008-10 national action plan to combat trafficking in persons, which focuses on training for law enforcement and social workers, as well as victim assistance. The government offered foreign victims a 40-day period to receive shelter and assistance and to consider assisting law enforcement. However, no foreign victims were granted shelter during the year. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs funded the repatriation of three foreign victims in 2008. During the year the national coordinator cooperated with five NGOs (Dotyk Crisis Center, Prima, Caritas, the IOM, and the Cultural Association of Roma) to identify and provide shelter and services to victims of trafficking. The government provided funding through these organizations for 17 victims who received shelter and assistance; an additional 20 victims were assisted through nongovernmental funding. The Ministry of Interior carried out prevention programs for teachers, students, and mayors, with a particular focus on towns near the Ukrainian border. Although no formal screening or referral process was in place, the law requires police to provide a list of assistance programs to suspected victims. NGOs reported increased cooperation and communication with police. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services. Persons with disabilities were able to vote and participate in civic affairs. In practice, however, experts reported that access to buildings and higher education remained a problem, and laws to provide assistance to students with disabilities have not been implemented with regard to school facilities or educational materials. There were reports that persons with severe physical disabilities received less than the minimum wage in some instances. NGOs reported deficiencies in psychiatric care of patients with mental disabilities and in mechanisms to monitor human rights violations against them. Psychiatric institutions and hospitals, which fall under the purview of the Ministry of Health, continued to use cage beds. The law prohibits both physical and nonphysical restraints in social care homes, managed by the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family. Several NGOs conducted public education campaigns on mental illness and worked cooperatively with the health ministry. A patient in a psychiatric facility in Pezinok was chained to his bed from February to July. The Ministry of Health believed that the physical restraint was lawful and necessary to protect facility staff, although several international NGOs expressed concern and dissatisfaction with this treatment. Plans existed to construct a detention facility to house violent psychiatric patients safely. While the government enacted legislation in 2007 requiring television stations to provide ``voiceover broadcasting'' for blind viewers, less than 30 percent of television programs provided such services. While the law defines mandatory standards for access to buildings, NGOs noted that they had not been fully implemented, although access to privately owned buildings improved more rapidly than access to state buildings. The Council for Citizens with Disabilities, chaired by the minister of labor, social affairs, and family, serves as a governmental advisory body regarding persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Government and societal discrimination against Roma and individuals of non-European ethnicity was a common problem. Roma are the second largest ethnic minority with a population of 90,000 according to the 2001 census. Experts estimated that the Romani population is actually between 350,000 and 500,000. The discrepancy was attributed to Roma identifying themselves as Hungarians or Slovaks. Racially motivated attacks on minorities (Roma and others) were widely reported throughout the year, but investigation of attacks and law enforcement varied by jurisdiction. Of the 213 cases of racially motivated crimes during 2008, two cases of racially motivated assault involving serious injury resulted in convictions; 33 cases of violence against a racial or ethnic group resulted in convictions; and 178 cases of promoting and supporting extremist groups resulted in convictions. There were no prosecutions for racially motivated murder in 2008. Roma were particularly singled out for violence, and police detained numerous individuals for attacks against Roma motivated by racial hatred. There were also reports that police mistreated Roma. On March 21, police officers in Kosice abused six Romani boys in detention (see section 1.c.). Skinhead and neo-Nazi violence against Roma and other minorities continued to be a serious problem. The League of Human Rights Activists (LPR) reported that, although police were increasingly responsive in their efforts to monitor and control the skinhead movement, the problem persisted. The LPR also reported receiving e-mail and telephone threats from skinheads. Several non-Romani minorities as well as foreigners were also victims of racially motivated attacks. In June two young men attacked two students from Chad, physically assaulting them and shouting racist insults. One of the students was seriously injured. The attackers faced up to two years in prison if convicted. In April 2008 two individuals attacked an African-American basketball player in Kosice. In response she cancelled her contract with the Kosice sport club and left the country. In August 2008 the Kosice prosecutor's office filed a case against one of the perpetrators and bargained a sentence with the other. The court sentenced the latter to a two-year suspended sentence and three years' probation. In March the court sentenced the other perpetrator to 17 months in prison, but he was released in June after serving only two months of his sentence, although criminal proceedings for a separate racially motivated attack were already underway at that time against him. The alleged 2006 attack on Hedviga Malinova, an ethnic Hungarian university student in Nitra, continued to draw media attention during the year, sparking public debate on the government's handling of the case. Two young men allegedly physically assaulted Malinova after hearing her speak Hungarian. The district prosecutor discontinued the investigation after two weeks, concluding that Malinova had lied. Amidst media and NGO criticism the Constitutional Court rejected Malinova's multiple appeals, and in May 2007 the Nitra police formally charged Malinova with perjury. In September Peter Labas, the dean of the Comenius University Medical Faculty, issued a report stating that Malinova's injuries were self-inflicted. Several of the doctors listed as expert witnesses on the medical report subsequently contradicted Labas' evaluation and asked to have their names removed from the report, casting doubts on its integrity. The case remained pending at year's end. Malinova's case against the government for ``inhuman and humiliating treatment'' also remained pending at the ECHR. The Slovak National Center for Human Rights reported receiving 804 complaints of discrimination in 2008. In 650 of these cases, the claims involved labor-related discrimination, especially concerning hiring processes. Other discrimination complaints concerned the provision of goods and services, social and health care, and education. One NGO criticized the length of time it took for the center to issue required legal opinions on claims of discrimination. Widespread discrimination against Roma continued in employment, education, health services, housing, and loan practices. Activists frequently alleged that employers refused to hire Roma, whose unemployment rate was estimated to be between 80 and 90 percent. Local authorities and groups forced evictions of Romani inhabitants or blocked construction permits or the purchase of land. Many Romani settlements lacked formal infrastructure, access to clean water, and proper sewage systems. In September there were reports of Roma inhabitants of the Lunik IX apartments in Kosice being offered money for transport to Western European countries. In October the local government of Ostrovany, a town in the east of the country, paid 13,000 euros (approximately $18,600) to construct a concrete wall to ``protect'' the houses, land, and gardens of non-Roma citizens from the ``Roma raids'' that allegedly originated in the town's Roma settlement. A number of observers and citizens criticized the development, stating that the municipality was supporting segregation. The law prohibits defamation of nationalities in public discourse; however, authorities enforced this law only when other offenses, such as assault or destruction of property, were also committed. There were instances of public officials at every level defaming minorities and making derogatory comments about Roma. Inflammatory speech by government officials also increased tensions between ethnic Hungarians and ethnic Slovaks, especially since 2006. In June parliament passed an amendment to the 1995 State Language Act. Members of the ethnic-Hungarian minority criticized the amendment as discriminatory and a restriction on their right to free speech, while Culture Minister Madaric defended the law as an effort to extend and promote the use of the Slovak language. The amendment includes a provision by which the Ministry of Culture can levy fines of up to 5,000 euros (approximately $7,150) for institutions that do not comply with the law. The OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities played an active role mediating the dispute and encouraged the government to develop a set of implementation guidelines to clarify some of law's provisions, particularly in the sanctions area. The government passed the guidelines in December, and they were set to enter into effect on January 1, 2010. Extreme right, nationalist, and neo-Nazi groups continued to hold events designed to intimidate minority groups. Dressed in uniforms similar to those of the Hlinka Guards (the fascist wartime militia), the groups' members held marches and rallies to commemorate the wartime fascist state and to spread messages of intolerance against ethnic and religious minorities. In August Slovenska Pospolitost held a rally in Sarisske Michalany to march against ``Roma terror.'' NGOs reported that most of the Romani residents of nearby settlements left their homes due to fear of violent confrontations. Days after the rally, police in Banska Bystrica briefly detained Marian Kotleba, the founder of Slovenska Pospolitost, and charged him with defamation of race. The minister of interior promised to send extra police to the eastern part of the country in areas with large Romani populations to prevent violence. In October and November, 289 new police officer positions were created in the eastern part of the country, of which 127 positions were in Presov, 94 in Kosice, and 68 in Banka Bystrica. These three regions had the highest concentration of the Romani minority, and the additional police positions were designed to curb criminality. In June a Bratislava court released the four defendants in the murder trial of Daniel Tupy, a student killed in Bratislava in November 2005. Tupy was allegedly singled out by neo-Nazis because of his long hair and dark clothes. Despite the minister of interior's statements that he would continue the investigation and appeal the court's decision, in September the prosecutor general stated that he was withdrawing the case, as the police had failed to collect sufficient evidence. The government continued to make efforts to address violence and discrimination against Roma and other minorities, although some critics worried that judges lacked sufficient training in the relevant laws. The government continued to implement its action plan against xenophobia and intolerance, which included a special police unit to monitor extremist activities. A commission consisting of NGOs, police, and government officials advised the police on minority issues. In June Anina Botosova, the plenipotentiary for Romani affairs, resigned from her position, amid reports that she had inappropriately allocated money to her own NGO. In part due to her resignation, there was limited progress on the national minority strategy, which incorporated a wide range of education, employment, housing, and social integration policy recommendations from the Romani advocacy community. While the government has allocated approximately 200 million euros (approximately $286 million) of EU structural funds to projects that specifically address the needs of the Romani community, NGOs complained that none of the funds had been spent and that the government lacked a comprehensive approach to Romani integration. The plenipotentiary maintained five regional offices to supervise the implementation of governmental policy on Romani issues, support infrastructure development, and cooperate with municipalities and villages to improve interaction between Roma and non-Roma. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family assigned specially trained social workers to Romani settlements to assist with government paperwork and to advocate the importance of education and preventative health care. The Ministry of Health continued to train Romani-speaking health care assistants to improve the community's access to health services. During the year the government continued to implement a national antidiscrimination plan. The office of deputy prime minister for human rights served as the secretariat for the Council of National Minorities and the Government Council for NGOs. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no reports of violence based on sexual orientation but, according to gay rights advocates, prejudice and official and societal discrimination persisted. In October there was a well-attended gay and lesbian film festival in Bratislava, which was in part supported by the international community. Officials at times expressed discriminatory views. In December Jan Slota, SNS Chairman (and governing coalition member), stated that ``we're strictly against any promotion of these sick (same-sex) relationships.when I see those transvestites having their parades, strutting down the street naked and presenting this as a fashion.I consider this to be outrageous and sick.'' Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons (LGBT) organizations existed and operated without impediments and continued to lobby for legal rights. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right to form and join independent unions of their choice except in the armed forces, and workers exercised this right in practice. Labor unions estimated that 17 percent of the work force was unionized; business associations believed the actual figure was less than 10 percent. The law provides unions the right to strike with advance notice when collective bargaining fails to reach an agreement or to support other striking employees' demands (solidarity strike). The unions generally exercised these rights in practice without restrictions. The law prohibits dismissing workers legally participating in strikes; however, strikers were not ensured protection if a strike was considered illegal or unofficial. Civil servants in essential services and members of the military may not strike. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government generally protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively, and workers exercised these rights in practice. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women and children were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. Men were also trafficked abroad for forced labor. The police have responsibility for investigating forced labor and trafficking. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law provides for the protection of children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were some reports that Romani children in some settlements were exploited for commercial sex. NGOs reported that most victims, including children with disabilities, were exploited by family members or other Roma. The minimum age for employment is 15 years old, although children under that age may perform light work in cultural or artistic performances, sports events, or advertising activities if it does not affect their health, safety, or schooling. The National Labor Inspectorate and Public Health Office must approve, determine the maximum hours for, and set conditions for child labor under the age of 15. Children younger than 16 may not work more than 30 hours per week; children who are 16 and 17 are limited to 37.5 hours per week. Children under the age of 18 are not allowed to work underground, work overtime, or perform work that is inappropriate for their age or health. District inspection units received and investigated child labor complaints. If a unit determined that a child labor law or regulation had been broken, it turned the case over to the national inspection unit of the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family. Enforcement was consistent across all communities. Child labor in the form of begging was a problem in some communities; there were also isolated reports of children forced into prostitution, often by family members. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--In September 2008 President Gasparovic signed an amended Act on the Minimum Wage, which was the result of negotiations between the Ministry of Labor, unions, and employer associations. The amended act increased the monthly minimum wage to 295 euros (approximately $422) as of January 1. The minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family in rural areas of the country, but not in urban areas. The amended act increased the government's role in the minimum wage negotiations and decreased the role of ``social partners''(the Ministry of Labor, unions, and employers) in the event these do not reach compromise on the exact amount of the minimum wage. The law mandates a maximum workweek of 48 hours including overtime, with 30-minute breaks after six hours of work or after four hours for employees younger than 18 years old, and rest periods of at least 12 hours between shifts. Trade unions, local employment offices, and the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family monitored observance of these laws, and authorities effectively enforced them. The law establishes health and safety standards that the office of labor safety generally enforced. Workers have the right to refuse to work in situations that endanger their health and safety and may file complaints against employers in such situations. On August 1, 20 miners died in an underground explosion in Handlova; a methane gas explosion caused the disaster. Official investigation results were not public at year's end; however, experts and analysts agreed that investment in safety standards was insufficient. Workers have the right to refuse work that endangers their life or health without risking the loss of their employment, and they exercised this right in practice. Employees who work under conditions that endanger their health and safety are entitled to ``relaxation'' leave in addition to standard leave. __________ SLOVENIA Slovenia is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional republic with a population of approximately two million. Power is shared between a directly elected president (head of state), a prime minister (head of government), and a bicameral parliament composed of the National Assembly (lower house) and the National Council (upper house). In September 2008 the country held free and fair multiparty parliamentary elections. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. There were reports of trial delays and cursory procedures for review of asylum applications. Societal violence against women, trafficking in women and girls, discrimination against Roma, violence against gays and lesbians, and discrimination against former Yugoslav residents without legal status were also problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. In August an inmate committed suicide; the coroner's report indicated that both clinical depression and a heroin addiction played a part. In February 2008 the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture released a report on its 2006 visits to the country's prisons and detention facilities. The report noted that some detainees alleged that they had been subjected to physical mistreatment, threats, excessive psychological pressure, and verbal abuse during interrogations. The report also concluded that juvenile detainees were not properly informed of their rights while in police custody and that overcrowding continued to be a problem in some prison facilities. During the year the government began work to increase the capacity of a prison located in Dob. In the first six months of the year, the government hired 60 additional prison guards to improve security among the increased prison population. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Police are centrally organized under the supervision of the Ministry of Interior. The ministry oversees the drafting of basic guidelines, security policy, and regulations governing the work of the police. It monitors police performance, with an emphasis on protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms. The police provided effective law enforcement. During the year the Independent Commission for the Prevention of Corruption referred eight credible reports of police corruption or corruption-related criminal acts to police and the state prosecutor for further investigation. There were allegations of prosecutorial corruption relating to the investigation into bribery on an arms procurement case. The law provides for the review of alleged police abuse by a three- person government committee that includes two representatives of civil society organizations. The committee does not have authority to conduct independent investigations, and it relies on information provided by the Ministry of Interior or police investigators. The committee usually forwarded its findings to the State Prosecutor's Office. During the year the police internal investigation division, which began operations in 2007, investigated 55 allegations of misconduct by police, prosecutors, and judges. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Police generally apprehended persons taken into custody openly with evidential warrants issued by either a prosecutor or judge. Authorities can detain persons for 48 hours before charging them. Authorities must also advise detainees in writing within 48 hours of the reasons for their arrest. Upon arrest, detainees have the right to contact legal counsel of their choice, and authorities generally respected this right in practice. The government provided indigent detainees with free counsel and generally allowed them prompt access to family members. The law also provides safeguards against self-incrimination. Once authorities charge a suspect, pretrial detention may last for up to four months, depending on the severity of the criminal act. An investigative judge must certify the charges. Once trial procedures have begun, authorities may extend the total period of detention for up to two years. Authorities must release persons detained more than two years while awaiting trial or while their trial is ongoing pending conclusion of their trial. Lengthy pretrial detention was not a widespread problem, and authorities generally released defendants on bail except in the most serious criminal cases. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. The law provides the right to a trial without undue delay; however court backlogs continued at times to result in lengthy trial delays. As of October the backlog totaled 273,247 cases. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The judicial system was overburdened and lacked administrative support; as a result the judicial process was frequently protracted. In many cases ongoing criminal trials took from two to five years. During 2008 the European Court on Human Rights issued judgments that found against the country for seven violations of Article 6 (length of proceedings) and eight violations of Article 13 (right to an effective remedy) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution and law provide for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, including damages for, or cessation of, human rights. As with criminal matters, court backlogs sometimes resulted in lengthy or delayed trials. Property Restitution.--By the end of 2008, the government had resolved 38,824, or 98 percent, of the 39,635 property restitution claims that individuals filed with authorities. Unresolved cases included those in which the courts had not reached a final decision and those pending appeal. Court backlogs, a lack of trained judicial and administrative personnel, amendments to the Denationalization Act, and inadequate land ownership records slowed claims processing. Some claimants alleged a general lack of transparency, bias, and potential conflicts of interest on the part of adjudicators and that restitution procedures were inconsistent with the law. The government has not started resolving claims for restitution of Jewish communal property. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Reports of indirect government influence on the media decreased during the year. The penal code criminalizes the promotion of ``national, race, or religious discord or intolerance or the promotion of superiority of one race over others.'' There were no reports that authorities charged any individuals or publications under this provision during the year. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not attempt to impede criticism. The independent media were active and expressed a variety of views, and international media operated freely. Private investment and advertising supported the major print media; however, the government owned substantial stock in many companies that were shareholders in the major media houses. The government operated a ``media pluralization'' fund intended to ensure that media reflected a diversity of viewpoints. The law provides criminal penalties for defamation that harms a person's honor or name; there were no reports of any prosecutions for defamation during the year. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by electronic mail. Internet access was widely available. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 49 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. While there are no governmental restrictions on the Muslim community's freedom of worship, services were commonly held in private homes for lack of a larger venue. In December 2008 the Islamic community's representative and Ljubljana's mayor signed a contract for purchase of land for the country's first mosque. Construction had not begun by year's end. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There are approximately 300 Jews in the country. Jewish community representatives reported some prejudice, ignorance, and false stereotypes of Jews propagated within society, largely through public discourse. There were no reports of anti-Semitic violence or overt discrimination. The government promoted antibias and tolerance education in the primary and secondary schools, and the Holocaust is a mandatory topic in the contemporary history curriculum. On September 6, the Jewish community, supported by local government officials, held the fourth annual European Day of Jewish Culture festival. President Turk was the honorary patron for the celebrations held in Ljubljana, Maribor, and Lendava. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and law provide for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Border police can perform an initial screen of asylum seekers and reject applications they deem to be ``manifestly unfounded.'' This procedure could prevent the applications of some asylum seekers from receiving a thorough review. The law permits asylum seekers to change their asylum applications if there are considerable changes in their circumstances; however, as of year's end, this provision had not been implemented. The law provides asylum seekers with the right to appeal decisions on their applications, but authorities did not inform many asylum seekers of this right. The independent ombudsman for human rights, the UNHCR, and several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that the government put excessive restrictions on refugees' freedom of movement by requiring asylum seekers to sign a statement renouncing their claim to asylum if they left the premises of the asylum center. The government received some complaints about living conditions but few complaints about the asylum process itself. The parliament drafted the country's asylum law to comply with EU asylum directives. However, Amnesty International (AI) and the UNHCR expressed concern that the law provides for accelerated asylum procedures with few safeguards and that its exclusion clauses and broad detention powers could lower the country's asylum standards. The country adheres to the EU's Asylum Policy Directive and Treaty of Amsterdam requirements. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year the government did not provide temporary protection to persons who did not qualify as refugees. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived from either birth in the country or from the parents. Naturalization is also possible. There were no reports of problems with immediate birth registration. In January the government began implementing elements of a 2003 Constitutional Court ruling that provides a way to apply for permanent residency, and in November the government adopted changes to the law intended to provide retroactive resident status to the estimated 4,000 to 6,000 citizens of the former Yugoslavia whose Slovenian permanent residency status was erased in 1992. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In September 2008 the country held free and fair national parliamentary elections. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. There were 13 women in the 90-seat National Assembly and one woman in the 40-seat National Council. There were four women in the 18-member cabinet. There were two members of minority groups in the National Assembly and none in the National Council or in the cabinet. The constitution provides the indigenous Italian and Hungarian minorities the right, as communities, to have at least one representative in the National Assembly. However, the law does not provide such rights to any other minority group. Twenty distinct Romani communities, each designated indigenous at the local level, are entitled to a seat on their local municipal council. As of year's end, one municipality--Grosuplje--remained in noncompliance with this law. This was its fourth year of noncompliance. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively; however, officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices. The public perceived corruption to be a widespread problem. Only the highest-level government officials--approximately 5,000 of the country's 80,000 public servants--were subject to financial disclosure laws. During the year the Independent Commission for the Prevention of Corruption received 1,018 cases of suspected corruption and found 207 out of the 721 cases they reviewed during the year to be credible (some of the 721 will likely have been cases from earlier years). The investigation of several officials and private individuals in Finland and Slovenia for corruption related to the 2007 Ministry of Defense purchase of armored vehicles from a Finnish defense contractor was ongoing at year's end. The commission played an active role in educating the public and civil servants about corruption; however, it claimed it had neither adequate staff nor funding to fulfill its mandate and assess all cases of suspected corruption that it received during the year. During the year the commission forwarded 213 suspected cases of corruption to police and prosecutors and 26 cases to other state institutions, including cases received in 2008 but not processed until the next year. The law provides for free public access to all government information, and the government provided access for citizens and noncitizens alike, including foreign media. The government may deny public access only to classified information, personal data protected by privacy laws, and other narrowly defined exceptions. The Office of the Government Information Commissioner reported that the number of complaints related to the nonresponsiveness of state institutions declined. During the year the office received 300 such complaints and 176 complaints under the Law on Access to Public Information. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials generally were cooperative and responsive to their views. The constitution provides for an independent human rights ombudsman to monitor violations of human rights, especially when perpetrated by persons in positions of public authority. The ombudsman prepares an annual report on the human rights situation and provides the government with recommendations. Individuals can file complaints with the ombudsman as a means of seeking nonjudicial aid in the case of a human rights violation. In July the ombudsman presented the 2008 report to the president and prime minister. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal; however, it was a problem. During the year SOS Helpline, an NGO that provided anonymous emergency counseling and services to domestic violence victims, estimated that one in seven women was raped during her lifetime but that only 5 percent sought assistance or counseling. In particular, victims rarely reported spousal rape to authorities. Police actively investigated reports of rape and prosecuted offenders. The penalty for rape was one to 10 years in prison. There were 46 reported criminal acts of rape in the first half of the year, 64 reported criminal acts of sexual violence, 20 reported criminal acts of sexual abuse of the weak, and 201 criminal acts of sexual attack on a minor under the age of 15. Although no accurate statistics were available, violence against women, including spousal abuse, occurred and was generally underreported. There were no laws specifically prohibiting domestic violence, however, authorities prosecuted the crime using assault statutes, which provide for penalties of up to 10 years' imprisonment in the case of aggravated and grievous bodily harm. SOS Helpline estimated that 25 percent of women had experienced domestic violence. The NGOs SOS Helpline and Kljuc provided support hotlines, and SOS Helpline reported receiving 3,417 calls during the year. The government fully funded eight crisis centers for children and adolescents with a total of 68 beds, with one of those centers specializing in children six years old and under. The government also partially funded 29 shelters, safe houses, and maternity homes that offered 397 total beds. Shelters, safe houses, and crisis centers specifically for women and children provided 258 beds in 19 locations, and maternity homes provided 139 beds in 10 locations. The government worked with NGOs on domestic violence cases, including providing shelters and social work centers. When police received reports of spousal abuse or violence, they generally intervened and prosecuted offenders. The police academy offered training on domestic violence. Prostitution is decriminalized but can be considered as a misdemeanor if its performance violates the Regulation on Public Order. Antitrafficking authorities and NGOs informally estimated that as many as 80 bars and clubs across the country could be engaged in facilitating or promoting prostitution. The law prohibits sexual harassment in the entire workforce; however, it remained a widespread problem. During the year, 16 criminal acts of sexual harassment were reported. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. They also have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was free access to contraception and to skilled attendance during childbirth, including essential obstetric and postpartum care. Women were equally diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. The law provides for equal rights for women, and there is no official discrimination against women in family law, property law, or the judicial system. The Office of Equal Opportunities protected the legal rights of women. While the average length of unemployment was the same for men and women, women frequently held lower paying jobs. Women's earnings averaged 93 percent of those of men. Children.--Citizenship is derived from either birth in the country or from the parents. Naturalization is also possible. There were no reports of problems with immediate birth registration. While education for children is compulsory through grade nine, school attendance and completion rates by Romani children remained low. Poverty, discrimination, lack of parental and familial permission or support, and language problems continued to be the main barriers to the participation of Romani children in education programs. AI reported that the Romani literacy rate was 10 percent. A number of Roma reported that their children attended segregated classes and that authorities selected them in disproportionate numbers to attend classes for students with special needs. The European Social Fund, working through the Ministry of Education, continued a program to fund 26 Romani educators to work with teachers and parents. During the year the government implemented a bilingual primary school curriculum developed in 2008. The government continued funding efforts to codify the Romani language. Child abuse was a problem. During the year 201 criminal acts of sexual abuse of a child under the age of 15 were reported to authorities. Trafficking in children, mainly teenage girls transiting the country, was a problem. The law provides special protection for children from exploitation and mistreatment, and the government generally enforced the law in practice. The law penalizes the possession, sale, purchase, or propagation of child pornography. The Center for Social Work Grosuplje, the Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs, and the retail company Mercator operated the Palcica safe house, which provided shelter for children up to the age of six who were victims of domestic violence or whose parents had died suddenly. Child marriage occurred within the Romani community; however, it was not a widespread problem. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, the country continued to be a transit point and, to a lesser extent, a destination for men, primarily trafficked for labor exploitation and women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficking in children, mainly teenage girls transiting the country, was a problem. There were also rare reports that the country was a point of origin for trafficking. Countries of origin of persons trafficked to or through the country included Ukraine, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Turkey, Albania, and Montenegro. Although primarily a transit point, the country to a lesser extent experienced internal trafficking and was a source for persons trafficked to European countries such as Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, and Germany. A 2006 Peace Institute study reported that victims were trafficked primarily for sexual exploitation and that traffickers lured victims through advertisements promising high wages, marriage, employment as entertainers and dancers, and employment with no mention of the sex industry. Organized criminal groups, nightclub owners, and local pimps were primarily responsible for trafficking. Teenage girls and young women who lived in impoverished areas with high unemployment were at particular risk of being trafficked. Many of these women were unaware of the trafficking problem and the risk that they might become trafficking victims. The law provides a maximum penalty for trafficking of 15 years' imprisonment. Authorities can also prosecute persons for rape, pimping, procurement of sexual acts, inducement to prostitution, sexual assault, slavery, and other related offenses. Confiscation of passports and other documents is also penalized. Article 112 of the Penal Code prohibits all forms of trafficking for purposes of enslavement. During the year there was one investigation under this provision. The government apprehended, investigated, and prosecuted traffickers; police investigated one instance of human trafficking and 27 instances of forced prostitution. During the year one criminal act of trafficking was reported to authorities. There were two trafficking convictions during the year for crimes committed in previous years. Regional police directorates had departments that investigated trafficking and organized crime. One prosecutor in each regional state prosecutor's office was dedicated to trafficking cases. During the year the government continued to cooperate actively with NGOs and Interpol in project ``Red Routes'' by sharing information about traffickers and patterns of illegal migration. The Ministry of Interior's Border Police Division also actively participated in Plan ILAEIRA, a Greek-led international transborder police cooperation project to combat trafficking. The government did not extradite any persons who were accused of trafficking in other countries. The government's national coordinator for trafficking in persons served as the head of an interagency working group on trafficking consisting of representatives of ministries, NGOs, international organizations, and the media. The coordinator is responsible for the government's long-term national strategy to combat trafficking. In October and November, the working group established a 2010-11 action plan against trafficking that included trafficking legislation, prevention, prosecution, victims' assistance, and antitrafficking projects. During the year the Ministry of Interior funded public awareness campaigns conducted by the NGOs Karitas and Kljuc that targeted groups most vulnerable to trafficking. The national coordinator conducted radio interviews and appeared on television talk shows to highlight the problem. In October the working group facilitated programs in high schools throughout the country in connection with European Antitrafficking Day. Karitas and Kljuc also provided shelter and assistance to trafficking victims under a contract with the Ministry of Labor. The Ministry of Interior, the UNHCR, Kljuc, and the NGO Filantropia jointly administered a project that addressed trafficking and gender- based violence by providing information and assistance to asylum seekers at greatest risk of being trafficked, particularly single women and children separated from their parents. The government also continued the ``Vijolica'' and ``CAP'' programs, administered by Kljuc, to provide trafficking awareness classes for elementary and secondary school students. Foreign victims who assisted law enforcement agencies could apply for a temporary residence permit and remain in the country while their traffickers were being tried and could choose to stay longer if they were employed or in school. The State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other government services, and the government generally enforced these provisions in practice. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities. Modification of public and private structures to improve access continued at a slow pace, and many buildings were not accessible in practice. The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs has primary responsibility for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law provides special rights and protections to indigenous Italian and Hungarian minorities, including the right to use their own national symbols and access to bilingual education. Each minority has the right for each to be represented as a community in parliament. Other minorities do not have comparable special rights and protections. The government considered ethnic Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Kosovo Albanians, and Roma from Kosovo and Albania to be ``new'' minorities, and the special constitutional provisions for autochthonous minorities did not apply to them. The new minorities faced varying degrees of governmental and societal discrimination with respect to employment, housing, and education. Many Roma lived apart from other communities in settlements that lacked such basic utilities as electricity, running water, sanitation, and access to transportation. According to Roma Association officials, 68 percent of Romani settlements were illegal. Organizations monitoring conditions in the Romani community have noted in recent years that Roma exclusion from the housing market was a problem and that the unemployment rate among Roma reached 98 percent. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation; however, societal discrimination was widespread, and isolated cases of violence against homosexual persons occurred. Recent data on the problem's scope was not available. On June 27, the ninth annual gay pride parade in Ljubljana took place with the support of local government officials, although there were reports that bystanders shouted homophobic slurs at participants and antigay graffiti and stickers were seen in various locations around the city. Organizers reported satisfactory police presence during the parade. However, one individual was assaulted prior to the parade. Police arrested three individuals, whom they charged with assault and promoting hatred and intolerance. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers to form and join unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. All workers, including police and military personnel, are eligible to form and join labor organizations. Approximately 30 percent of the workforce was unionized. The law provides for the right to strike without government interference, and workers exercised this right in practice. The law prohibits retaliation against strikers, and the government effectively enforced this provision in practice. The law restricts strikes by some public sector employees, primarily the police and members of the military services, and provides for arbitration to ensure due process and protection of these workers' rights. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows unions and workers to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to bargain collectively, and it was freely practiced; however, the law requires that 10 percent of the workers in an industry sector be union members before collective bargaining can be applied to the sector as a whole. Both general collective bargaining agreements and collective bargaining agreements that focused on a specific business segment covered all workers. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's eight Export Economic Zones and the one Free Customs Zone at the port of Koper. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Women were trafficked for forced prostitution. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; the government effectively enforced these laws. The minimum age for employment is 15; however, younger rural children often worked during the harvest season and performed other farm chores. The law limits working hours and sets occupational health and safety standards for children; the government effectively enforced these provisions in practice. Urban employers generally respected the age limits. The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs is responsible for monitoring labor practices and has inspection authority; police are responsible for investigating violations of the law. Enforcement practices were generally effective. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national monthly minimum wage of approximately 450 euros ($652) provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs sets the minimum wage, which is adjusted each August based on consumer price estimates. The government established new public sector minimum wages in August 2008. The law limits the workweek to 40 hours and provides for minimum annual leave of 20 days and a mandatory rest period of at least one day per week. Collective agreements regulated premium pay for overtime and were not standardized. The law limits maximum overtime to eight hours per week, 20 hours per month, and 170 hours per year. The Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs is responsible for monitoring labor practices and has inspection authority; police are responsible for investigating violations of the law. Authorities enforced the laws effectively, except in some cases involving migrant workers. According to a complaint filed by the Association of Free Trade Unions of Slovenia (AFTUS) to the International Labor Organization (ILO) Committee of Experts, migrant workers were often orally notified to perform forced and excessive overtime in violation of labor law provisions limiting overtime and specifying methods to formally request it. The AFTUS also noted that foreign nationals in the country on employment permits were made more vulnerable to exploitation in terms of overtime, wages, rest periods, and annual leave by virtue of being tied to the employer who provided the permit. According to the ILO's 2009 Report, inspectors also found numerous violations of the Employment and Work of Aliens Act with respect to migrant workers, especially in the construction industry, which employed approximately 50 percent of such workers. These workers came primarily from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro. Violations included the practice of employers' illegally trading foreign workers who were in the country on the basis of employment permits. Additionally, the ILO and AFTUS raised concerns that some migrant workers, especially seasonal laborers, lived in substandard housing conditions segregated from the national population and lacking minimum standards, in violation of the 2007 Principle of Equal Treatment Act. Special commissions under the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs set standards for occupational health and safety for all workers. The ministry's Inspector General Department conducted over 17,000 inspections in 2008, with almost 9,000 enforcement actions, including fines, prosecutions, and resolution of conditions resulting from those inspections. Workers had the legal right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardy to their continued employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ SPAIN The Kingdom of Spain, with a population of approximately 46.6 million, is a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch. The country has a bicameral parliament, the General Courts or National Assembly, consisting of the Congress of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house). The head of the largest political party or coalition is usually named to head the government as president. The national election held in March 2008 was free and fair. The Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) won the multiparty election, and Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero was reelected president. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were some reports of security forces abusing suspects and mistreating migrant children in detention centers, and authorities delayed legal assistance and the arraignment of arrested persons before a judge. In 2007 the terrorist group Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) declared an end to its 2006 ``permanent ceasefire'' and continued its terrorist campaign of bombings. During the year the ETA was responsible for three deaths. Jewish groups reported isolated acts of vandalism and anti-Semitism, Muslim groups reported some societal discrimination, and there were incidents of societal violence against other minorities. Domestic violence and trafficking in persons were also reported. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. As of December 31, there were 25 ETA terrorist attacks, resulting in three deaths and approximately 65 injuries. The deaths occurred in attacks on June 19 and July 30. Sixty-five persons were injured when a car bomb exploded outside the Guardia Civil barracks in Burgos on July 29, causing the collapse of the facade. Authorities arrested 35 ETA members in Spain, 17 in France, and 13 persons allegedly involved in ETA's street violence campaign during the year. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and laws prohibit such practices, and the government generally respected this prohibition; however, there were reports of police mistreatment and impunity. In December 2008 the UN special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism (hereinafter UN special rapporteur on human rights) called for the abolition of incommunicado detention wherein certain terrorist suspects can be held for up to 13 days prior to arraignment without the right to confer privately with the attorney of choice. In the report on his May 2008 visit, the UN special rapporteur on human rights stated that this type of detention facilitates the commission of torture and mistreatment. Between 2004 and 2007, the country's coordinator for the prevention of torture recorded 165 complaints of mistreatment during incommunicado detention. The Coordinator for the Prevention of Torture (a group of Spanish human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), universities, and bar associations) reported that in 2008 there were 520 reports of torture or mistreatment, down from 720 in 2007. According to the group, 68 of the reports involved local police authorities, 59 the national Guardia Civil, 187 the national police authorities, 45 the Mossos d'Esquadra (local Catalonian authorities), 45 the Ertzaintza (Basque authorities), and 74 prison staff. The autonomous regions with the highest number of complaints were Euskadi (97), Andalucia (82), Madrid (61), and Catalonia (45). The number of reports involving the Mossos d'Esquadra decreased from 128 in 2007 to 45 in 2008. Observers attributed the decrease in part to preventative measures, such as the use of surveillance cameras in detention and interrogation rooms. On January 22, an African-American civilian crewmember of a U.S. Navy vessel was assaulted by two individuals who did not initially identify themselves as law enforcement officers. The crewmember was pinned to the ground and his clothing torn. The crewmember stated that the officers neither showed badges nor identified themselves as police. Witnesses reported that one of the officers drew a handgun and pointed at the head of the crewmember when fellow crewmembers attempted to assist him in what they believed to be a mugging. The assailants, later identified as local police officers, said they suspected the crewmember of involvement in drug-related offenses. No contraband was found; the crewmember received 10 stitches in his eyebrow as a result of injuries sustained during the arrest. There were no further developments by year's end. In January the National Court sentenced two Catalonian police officers to six months in jail and fined them 450 euros ($650) for mistreating a man arrested for allegedly robbing two tourists and sexually abusing one of them. The officers, whose actions were not deemed ``serious'' by the court, were charged with biting and humiliating the arrestee. Also in January, a Barcelona court sentenced two Catalonian police officers to six months in jail for breaking the arm of a Guinean citizen during the course of his 2006 arrest. The court acquitted the officers of torture, finding that although excessive force was used, it was not employed as punishment or a means of interrogation. The court ordered the officers to compensate the Guinean 111,729 euros ($160,500). In February the Prosecutors' Office initiated an investigation into allegations of mistreatment brought by 85 persons detained in Madrid's internment center for foreigners. The detainees complained that authorities forced them to undress, beat them, and threatened them. They also claimed that the food served contained sedatives. A Ministry of Interior spokesman rejected the accusation, stating that international institutions that had inspected the facilities (including a delegation of the European Parliament) had approved of the living conditions. On February 27, a San Sebastian court moved to continue the case against 15 members of the Guardia Civil for alleged torture against ETA members Igor Portu Juanean and Martin Sarasola Yarzabal during their arrest in January 2008. The trial had not begun by year's end. On March 18, a Barcelona court sentenced three Catalonian police officers to prison for illegally arresting and beating a person in a disco in 2006. Two of the officers received four-year prison sentences and the third a three-year sentence. The court also ordered police to compensate the complainant 8,200 euros ($11,700). Prosecutors sought six-year sentences for four Catalonian police officers who allegedly assaulted a detainee in 2007. In June the Barcelona court found the officers had not mistreated the complainant or perjured themselves as the prosecutor claimed, but found them guilty of using excessive force. Three of the officers were fined 600 euros each ($860), and the judge ordered them to compensate the complainant 1,610 euro ($2,315). The Prosecutor's Office appealed the court's ruling. In August the Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Affairs complained that officials abused detained Paraguayan citizens in Madrid's Barajas airport. At year's end the government had not publicly responded. In February 2008 a Basque Country court judge interrogated eight members of the Spanish security forces charged with mistreating an alleged ETA member arrested in January. After his arrest, the suspect spent four days in a hospital's intensive care unit. He told the judge that the prison guards beat him. The Ministry of Interior claimed the guards used justified force to thwart an escape attempt. There were no developments during the year in case of a U.S. citizen residing in Morocco, who alleged that in July 2008 authorities in Cueta mistreated and unnecessarily detained him. He received medical attention when he later collapsed in his cell, but was not examined for mistreatment. Authorities suspected the man was using a false passport and allegedly denied him access to counsel and detained him without a hearing for three days, as allowed by law. As of year's end, the government had not investigated the allegations. Prosecutors sought a six-year sentence for four Catalonian regional police officers (Mossos d'Esquadra), who allegedly assaulted a detainee in 2007. As of December 2009, the trial had not begun. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. Prisons were overcrowded, with an overall inmate-per-cell ratio of approximately 1.7 for cells that were designed for one inmate. NGOs estimated the occupation rate to be 150 percent. Three new prison facilities opened during 2008. Of the prison population, 8 percent was female. There are four facilities exclusively for female prisoners. Juveniles, those under the age of 18, are sent to separate detention centers. The Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture's 2007 report on its 2005 visit to the country cited numerous allegations of mistreatment, including some of a serious nature. The report noted that inmates lacked adequate protection against mistreatment and recommended that jails maintain a log of inmate injuries and possible origins observed during the admission medical examination. In February 2008 the government ordered the installation of video cameras in detention areas in police and Guardia Civil stations. The UN special rapporteur on human rights reported in December 2008 that although systematic implementation had not been achieved, these initiatives had led to a decrease in torture complaints. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Police forces include the national police and the Guardia Civil, both under the authority of the central government, as well as municipal police and police forces under the authority of Catalonia and the Basque Country regional governments. All police forces operated effectively, with isolated reports of corruption. The constitution provides for an ombudsman who investigates claims of police abuse. In 2008 the national ombudsman filed 253 ex-officio judicial complaints, up from 26 complaints in 2007. During 2008 the ombudsman network processed 23,899 complaints, 4,325 of them relating to matters of justice, defense, and internal affairs. In February a Barcelona judge sentenced a Guardia Civil officer to jail for alleged ties to a drug-trafficking network. A Guardia Civil captain and other Guardia Civil members were also implicated in the case and accused of stealing 400 kilograms of cocaine in the course of a drug confiscation operation. In July a member of the Guardia Civil was charged with money laundering activities and involvement with Galician drug-traffickers. The accused was also suspected of having provided documents from his post at the Spanish embassy in Morocco to third parties in an attempt to discredit a criminal judge in A Coruna. While the case was pending, the government transferred the officer to the financial department. In May 2008 the chief of police of Coslada (a Madrid suburb) and 25 local police officers were arrested on suspicion of involvement in a fraud ring. The judge authorized detention without bail for 13 of the arrested officers. As of October the case was pending. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law provides that police may apprehend suspects with probable cause or with a warrant based on sufficient evidence as determined by a judge. With certain exceptions, police may not hold a suspect for more than 72 hours without a hearing. According to the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture's July 2007 report, the requirement that an arrested person must be brought before a judge within 72 hours was not rigorously met in practice. Detainees were not generally informed of their right to the services of a lawyer free of charge, and it was common practice for detained persons to be granted access to a lawyer only when they made a formal statement while in law enforcement custody. Detainees generally were promptly informed of the charges against them. The courts released defendants on bail unless they believed the defendants might flee or be a threat to public safety. In certain rare instances involving acts of terrorism or rebellion, the law allows authorities to detain persons for up to five days prior to arraignment with the authorization of a judge. In these cases a judge also may order incommunicado detention for the entire duration of police custody, which may be extended by the court up to 13 days. The law stipulates that suspects held incommunicado have the right to an attorney and medical care, but they are neither allowed to choose an attorney nor see a physician of their choice. The court-appointed lawyer is present during police and judicial proceedings, but detainees do not have the right to confer in private with the lawyer. In a December 2008 report to the UN Human Rights Council, the UN special rapporteur on human rights called for the elimination of incommunicado detention, stating that the ``use of this exceptional regime not only entails a risk of prohibited treatment but also makes Spain vulnerable to allegations of torture and as a result weakens the legitimacy of its counterterrorism measures.'' During the year the government continued to implement preventive measures to safeguard the rights of detainees held incommunicado, including the application of protocols and continuous video surveillance in the detention facilities and interrogation rooms. The UN special rapporteur, while acknowledging the decrease in complaints due to the government's actions, called for systematic implementation since protocols varied, depending on whether local or national police forces were involved, and the application of protocols was inconsistent. Lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. As of September approximately 22 percent of the 76,523 persons in prison were pretrial detainees. Under the law authorities may not detain suspects for more than two years before putting them on trial unless a judge authorizes a further delay, which may extend to four years. In practice pretrial detention was usually less than one year. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. The judiciary is structured hierarchically and divides the country's territory into autonomous communities, provinces, judicial districts, and municipalities. Generally, the courts are organized into five categories: civil, criminal, social, administrative, and military. Appeals against the decisions of lower courts are made to the higher court, as far up as the Supreme Court. The National Court, with country-wide jurisdiction, hears criminal cases of national or international importance (terrorism, counterfeiting, organized crime, and crimes that have occurred in more than one jurisdiction); provincial courts hear criminal cases in cases where the potential sentence is five years or less. Since 1985 the country has employed the doctrine of universal jurisdiction, wherein the National Court may claim criminal jurisdiction in cases of serious human rights abuses over suspects whose alleged crimes were committed outside Spain, regardless of the nationality of the subject or victim. However, on May 19, the Spanish Congress approved a proposal limiting the application of universal jurisdiction. The joint text provides that the National Court will be able to handle cases arising abroad only when Spanish interests are affected by them (either the criminals are found in Spain or the victim is a Spaniard), and the crime is not being investigated in the country where it was committed or in an international court. On October 7, the Senate approved the legislation. Trial Procedures.--The constitution and law provide for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public, and there is a nine-person jury system. Defendants have the right to be represented by an attorney (at government expense if indigent), confront witnesses, present witnesses on their behalf, and have access to government-held evidence. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and the right to appeal. In 2008 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found two violations by the country of the right to a fair trial, as provided under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--An independent and impartial judiciary exists for civil matters, and there is access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for a human rights violation. Violations of human rights can be pursued either criminally or, if committed by the administration in other than a criminal offense, administratively. The national ombudsman, established by the 1978 Spanish Constitution, serves to protect and defend basic rights and public freedom on behalf of citizens. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The independent media remained active and generally expressed a wide variety of views without restriction. Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government did not attempt to impede such criticism. The law prohibits, subject to judicial oversight, actions including public speeches and the publication of documents that the government interprets as glorifying or supporting terrorism. A 2007 Constitutional Court ruling stated that Holocaust denial could no longer be punished by incarceration, since it is permissible in the framework of freedom of speech. Previously, the law provided punishment of up to two years in prison for the offense. The court concluded that imprisonment for the offense of justifying the Holocaust or genocide would be compatible with the constitution. In October 2008 Reporters without Borders identified ETA for threatening journalists, contending that several journalists in the country required personal protection or chose to leave the Basque Country due to such threats; the judicial sentence against the weekly El Jueves for printing an obscene cartoon of the prince and princess of Asturias; the summoning of daily Gara and Deia editors by a court for the publication of satirical images of King Juan Carlos; the Partido Popular's boycott of Grupo Prisa; and the firing of Cristina Peri Rossi by radio station Cataluna Radio for speaking in Castilian rather than Catalan. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet. Authorities monitored Web sites for material containing hate speech and advocating anti-Semitism; there were no reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access was readily available from a number of providers. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 57 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. In 2003 the Basque nationalist political parties Batasuna and Herri Batasuna were declared illegal by the Supreme Court because of their alleged ties to the terrorist group ETA. The decision cut the parties off from the state funding received by legal political parties, prohibited their representatives from contesting elections or holding public demonstrations or rallies, and froze their assets. The country's Constitutional Court later confirmed the decision and the parliament approved an indefinite ban. In 2004 Batasuma and Herri Batasuma appealed their dissolution to the ECHR, where they alleged inter alia that the dissolution of the parties entailed a violation of freedom of association as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. On June 30, the ECHR issued a judgment in which the court concluded unanimously that the parties' dissolution had not violated the Convention. The ECHR decision noted that dissolution was a response to a ``pressing social need'' and that the national courts had arrived at reasonable conclusions after a detailed study of evidence that allowed them to conclude there was a link between the applicant parties and the ETA. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution declares the country to be a secular state, and various laws provide that no religion should have the character of a state religion; however, Roman Catholicism was the dominant religion and enjoyed the closest official relationship with the government. The Roman Catholic Church benefited from financing through the tax system in that taxpayers, regardless of denomination, could elect to dedicate a small percentage of their taxes to the Roman Catholic Church. The government also provided funding for religion teachers in public schools, military and hospital chaplains, and other indirect assistance. Jewish, Muslim, and many Protestant communities with ``notorio arraigo'' (``deeply rooted'' traditional) status received some tax benefits through agreements with the government but enjoyed fewer privileges than the Roman Catholic Church. Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had notorio arraigo status; however, they did not receive the same benefits and privileges granted to the other ``deeply-rooted'' religions. Muslim and Protestant leaders continued to cite the work of the government's Foundation for Pluralism and Coexistence as a positive step for integrating non-Catholic faiths. The foundation provided funds ($6.5 million during the year) to minority and religious groups to promote religious equality and dialogue. The funds were used for cultural, educational, and social integration programs and not for religious activities. Members of all religious groups also served as members of a government Committee of Advisors on Religious Freedom. There were isolated instances of local and regional government policies that ultimately restrict some individual religious groups. The Jewish, Islamic, and Protestant federations reported that the building permit process for construction of new sites of worship could be difficult and lengthy, especially for sites in central urban locations. The Islamic Commission reported that sometimes new mosque construction was forced into less visible suburban areas, primarily because of resistance from neighborhood groups. Muslims were sometimes forced to worship in converted buildings, often called ``garage mosques,'' because there were few buildings dedicated to Islamic worship for their growing numbers, and some localities resisted selling Muslims land and providing the necessary legal permits to build. Religious groups and municipal and other governmental authorities improved procedures for the treatment and reburial of disinterred remains. The national Federation of Jewish Communities (the official interlocutor between Spain's Jewish community and the government) and the Ministry of Justice created a nonbinding protocol for the national and local governments to follow in addressing such issues. The framework was used in reaching agreement on the reburial of Sephardic Jewish remains discovered in Toledo. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The growth of the country's immigrant population occasionally led to social friction, which in isolated instances had a religious component. Muslims continued to experience some societal prejudice, and some citizens blamed recent immigrants for increased crime rates in the country. During the year Muslims reported encountering no obstacles to practicing their religion in the country. According to Jewish community leaders, while violence against members of the approximately 48,000-member Jewish community was rare, anti-Semitic incidents, including graffiti against Jewish institutions, continued. On January 8, anti-Semitic graffiti appeared on the Chabad Lubavitch Jewish Studies Center of Barcelona. On January 30, a man associated with the extremist ``Republican Social Movement'' attacked the facade of the Synagogue Shlomo Ben Adret in Barcelona with a bat. He was arrested by the regional police force. On May 5, three men harassed the Israeli ambassador to Spain, Raphael Schutz, in public as he walked home from a sports event. The president of the Jewish Federation was similarly attacked with epithets when he appeared to speak at the invitation of a university in Madrid. On August 28, an organized Israeli tour group was confronted by a group of skinheads, who shouted ``Heil Hitler'' while raising their arms in a Nazi salute. The skinheads spat in the tour guide's face and threatened to throw stones at the group, while making gestures of cutting each other's throats. No charges were filed. The government continued to prosecute suspects in cases stemming from anti-Semitism. In 2008 Pedro Valera, a distributor of Nazi literature in Barcelona, was sentenced to seven months in prison on a ``justification of genocide'' charge. In March Barcelona police arrested Oscar Panadero, the owner of the Kalki bookstore, and three other neo-Nazis for incitement to genocide. There were also reports of vandalism against Catholic churches. On July 26, 20 Catholic churches were subjected to a graffiti attack by an anarchist group. The group painted messages such as ``the only church that gives light is the one that is on fire,'' and in some cases sealed church doors with silicon. The Catalonian government and Barcelona's archbishop criticized the attacks. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations, including the Spanish Committee for Assistance to Refugees, in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. There are no known restrictions on refugees' access to employment, health care, housing, education, law enforcement, or judicial redress. The country does accept refugees for resettlement from third countries and provides protections with the assistance of NGOs such as the Spanish Commission for the Assistance to Refugees. Potential asylum seekers were effectively able to exercise their right to petition authorities. In its 2008 report, the national ombudsman reported that the sometimes hasty deportation of those attempting to enter the Ceuta territory illegally most often stemmed from divergent interpretations of applicable regulations. In its 2007 report, the ombudsman criticized the requirement to prove membership in a religious faith as a prerequisite for accepting photographs (for official identification documents) wherein the applicant's head is covered. He asserted that the requirement was unconstitutional, violating basic religious freedoms. In 2008 the secretary of state for homeland security accepted the recommendation to suspend the rule. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. On October 15, the Parliament approved a new Asylum and Subsidiary Protection Law. The law provides ``subsidiary protection'' for those who do not meet the criteria for refugee status but who could face dangers such as torture or the death penalty if returned to their countries of origin. The law expands the rationale for providing additional protection beyond the currently contemplated ``humanitarian reasons,'' and increases the length of protection from one year to three years. The law also includes gender and sexual orientation as conditions for granting asylum; makes free legal assistance available to asylum seekers; provides a single process for both asylum and subsidiary protection (if asylum is denied, subsidiary protection will be automatically considered); contemplates family reunification for asylum seekers; allows asylum requests to be accepted at an embassy or consulate; and provides for the resettlement of refugees in neighboring countries in some cases. According to the Ministry of Interior, during the first seven months of the year the country received 4,457 undocumented migrants by boat, a 40 percent decrease from the same period in 2008. Approximately 40 percent of these undocumented migrants entered the country by way of the Canary Islands, compared to 69 percent in 2007. Spain continues to struggle with the treatment of unaccompanied migrant and refugee children. The national ombudsman, designated to protect and defend basic rights and public freedom on behalf of citizens, opened an investigation into conditions in the country's Canary Islands detention centers in September 2007. The report, released in June 2008, confirmed violations of children's rights as previously reported by Human Rights Watch (HRW) in 2007. The ombudsman concluded that, one year after the HRW investigation, care of unaccompanied migrant children in the Canary Islands remained inadequate. Despite some improvements, including renovation of the La Esperanza emergency center, separate housing for children below the age of 15, and school enrollment of children below the age of 16, systemic shortcomings of these centers remains unchanged. Specifically, the ombudsman found that there were credible reports of past mistreatment of children in the La Esperanza center; that children were often housed for up to a year in overcrowded, unsafe, and substandard facilities that were intended only as temporary shelters; that children were detained in police stations upon arrival; did not receive the documentation they were entitled under the law, thus becoming undocumented migrants after reaching the age of 18. According to the ombudsman's 2009 report, problems persist regarding documentation of legal residency for minors. A number of complaints were filed on behalf of minor wards of the state for whom residency permits had not been requested despite their express eligibility. In follow-up visits during the year to centers for minors, the ombudsman reported several improvements and positive evaluations. Siete Puertas facility in Gran Canaria received an overall positive evaluation. La Esperanza in Cueta was noted for the personnel's high level of day-to-day involvement with the minors. Overcrowding continues to be a problem in several centers, however, and substantial repairs are needed in many of the centers. Interviews with the minor residents at a center on Gran Canaria revealed alleged incidents of abuse by one of the caretakers; the authorities were informed of the urgent need for an investigation. In an October 2008 report, HRW stated there were approximately 3,000 to 5,000 unaccompanied foreign children from North and West Africa in Spain, the majority of whom were in the Canary Islands, Andalusia, Madrid, and Catalonia. The report documented detention upon arrival in residential centers, where they were subject to possible abuse and expulsion without due process to countries where they are at risk of inhumane treatment. The report criticized the government's failure to provide children with independent legal representation during repatriation procedures, claiming that the fact that child protection services may initiate repatriation procedures and are also responsible for the child's representation presents a conflict of interest. The number of unaccompanied children that the country repatriated in 2007-08 was low compared to the overall number of unaccompanied children in the country. In 2007, 27 children were repatriated. In December 2008 the Constitutional Court recognized children's right to defend themselves in court, irrespective of their guardians' decision. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. According to UNHCR statistics for 2008, the country granted refugee status to 151 persons. An additional 126 persons received subsidiary protection. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In March 2008 Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero of the Socialist Party was reelected president in a free and fair national election. Governmental power was shared between the central government and 17 regional governments. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference, and linguistic and cultural minorities had representation and participated in both local and national political parties. On June 7, the country also held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. There were 127 women in the 350-seat Congress of Deputies, 80 women in the 263-seat Senate, and nine women in the 17-member Council of Ministers. The government did not keep statistics on the ethnic composition of the parliament, but linguistic and cultural minorities were represented. The Catalan parliament included a member of Moroccan origin. There were Muslim political parties in the city enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa. Roma had little representation in government. In 2007 the government appointed the first Roma to a high- level position, as an advisor in the Women's Institute, a division of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. She was later fired for publicly accusing her employer of preventing her from performing her normal work duties. In March 2008 she filed suit against the ruling Socialist Party's secretary for social movements and the director of the Women's Institute for labor harassment; the case was dismissed in July for lack of evidence. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were several reports of government corruption during the year, particularly in local government. Also in February the Guardia Civil arrested 21 persons in Murcia for fraudulently issuing immigration documents. The arrestees included the chief inspector of Murcia's immigration office. In March, 17 persons were arrested as a result of construction contract irregularities in Palma. Among those arrested were a Balearic politician and the Mallorcan Council vice president. Arrests also took place in March in Zaragoza for alleged official involvement in ``urban and economic crimes''; the mayor of La Muela was among those arrested. In May the mayor of Arrecife and 20 others were arrested and were under investigation for corruption. They were suspected of receiving illegal commissions in exchange for awarding city contracts. The case was pending at year's end. In June 2008 the anticorruption prosecutor ordered the arrest of 25 persons suspected of defrauding the municipality of Estepona (M laga). The accusations included misuse of public office, bribery, fraud, and money laundering. PSOE Estepona Mayor Antonio Barrientos, and other PSOE local leaders, were among those arrested. PSOE immediately expelled Mayor Barrientos from the party. The trial had not begun by year's end. In 2007, 86 persons were charged in connection with the 2006 investigation into corruption and financial crimes in the Marbella local government. The mayor, former police chief, and much of the local government of Marbella were charged with crimes that included real estate graft, bribery, and embezzlement. In January Juan Antonio Roca, the suspected ringleader, and two other persons were sentenced to a total of 23 years and 10 months in jail. Public officials are subject to financial disclosure laws. The Ministry of Public Administration is responsible for managing and enforcing the Law of Conflicts of Interest. The government also has a code of good governance that applies to all high government officials. The law mandates public access to government information, and the government generally granted access to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The national ombudsman, established by the 1978 constitution, serves to protect and defend basic rights and public freedom on behalf of citizens. The ombudsman accepted 23,899 cases in 2008--a 37.56 percent increase from 2007. A large number of the complaints were regarding income tax matters and telecommunications. Of the total number of cases received, the ombudsman approved 53.38 percent for follow-up, with 432 resolutions drafted. On October 28, the Ministry of Equality announced the creation of a Council for the Promotion of Equal Treatment and No Discrimination due to Racial or Ethnic Origin. The council is advisory in nature-- responsible for conducting studies, drafting reports, making recommendations to the government, and assisting discrimination victims. Representatives from six governmental ministries, autonomous communities, local government, NGOs, and business administrations will serve on the council. The council did not take any public actions during the year. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally enforced it effectively. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape, and the government effectively enforced the law. According to 2007 government statistics, there were 6,845 cases of sexual assault, harassment, and aggression. The law prohibits violence against women, and independent media and government agencies paid close attention to gender violence. According to 2008 statistics of the General Counsel of the Judicial Power, women filed 145,125 complaints of abuse against their husbands, male partners, or former partners. According to an Amnesty International report, more than 600,000 women over the age of 18 were victims of gender-based abuse during 2007, but only 21 percent filed a complaint. A 2008 Government Delegate for Gender Violence report stated that 400,000 women suffered gender-related abuse. The law establishes prison sentences of six months to a year for domestic violence, threats, or violations of restraining orders, with longer sentences if serious injuries result. According to statistics from 2008, there have been a total of 208,304 gender-related trials, with 80 percent of the cases resulting in a conviction. More than 50 offices provided legal assistance to victims of domestic violence, and there were 293 shelters for battered women. A 24-hour toll-free national hotline advised battered women on finding shelter and other local assistance. As of July the hotline took calls in Spanish, German, Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Portuguese, Romanian, and Russian. According to statistics from 2007, there were 1,614 specialized security force officers to protect victims of domestic violence. As of February 2008, there were 83 specialized courts dealing exclusively with domestic violence cases as well as 90 specialized judicial units. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is prohibited. In Catalonia the law requires that a doctor examine immigrants considered to be in danger of FGM when they travel to and from their countries of origin. Parents whose children are determined to have been subjected to FGM risked losing custody. Catalonian regional police had procedures to prevent FGM through the early detection of potential victims, immediate reporting of possible cases to appropriate authorities, and, when possible, preventing the travel of potential victims. In 2008 Catalonian regional police prevented the genital mutilation of 104 girls. There is no law prohibiting the act of prostitution, but forcing others into prostitution and organizing prostitution rings are crimes; it is illegal to profit from the prostitution of another person. Prostitution was reported to be a problem despite continued efforts by local governments, notably those of Madrid and Barcelona, to discourage it. Efforts to combat prostitution included installation of video cameras in heavily trafficked areas, advertising campaigns discouraging prostitution, restrictions on prostitution near schools, local regulations establishing municipal license requirements, and fines for clients of prostitution services in the streets. There was no evidence that police or other security forces participated in or tolerated prostitution, nor was there evidence that police or security forces targeted persons in prostitution for abuse. The law prohibits sexual harassment in the workplace; however, harassment was reported to be a problem. According to the National Institute of Statistics, more than 9 percent of women experienced some form of sexual harassment during 2007. Couples and individuals decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and enjoy the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Obstetric and postpartum care is provided under the national health plan. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization in 2005, there were approximately four maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country. Contraception is easily accessed, including emergency contraception, which is available without a doctor's prescription. Under the law women enjoy the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. The Women's Institute worked to ensure the legal rights of women, combat economic discrimination, and integrate women into the professional workplace. Unemployment for women continued to be higher than the male average, at 18.2 percent compared to 17.8 percent. Discriminatory wage differentials continued to exist, and women held fewer senior management positions than men. According to the National Statistics Institute, as of November 2008 women in the country earned 26.3 percent less than men. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parent (jus sanguinis). In rare cases where a child born within the country does not acquire his or her parents' nationality, the country will grant nationality. There were reports of child abuse. In 2007 the director of the Reina Sofia Center (RSC) for the Study of Violence stated that 8 percent of children suffered psychological or physical mistreatment but that only a small fraction of these cases were reported to the authorities. From 2004 to 2007, 48 children died as a result of child abuse, and at least six children died from abuse in 2008. A report by the RSC published in April 2008 indicated that an average of 12 children died per year from abuse. Since 2007 the government has run a public awareness campaign on child abuse featuring billboards and radio and television advertisements. In February the national ombudsman issued a report on the mistreatment of children in protection centers for migrant children. The ombudsman asserted that many of these centers violated children's rights and reported incidents of tying up children and prohibiting attendance at school or recreation. The report indicated that many institutions practiced isolation measures and that 75 percent of the institutions administered drugs to minors to alleviate agitation. Some centers regularly searched children's rooms, and there were reports of children being forced to undress for authorities, both without sufficient justification. Children in detention centers complained that they were not allowed sufficient visits from family members and that calls they received were not private. After visiting 27 of the 58 centers in the country, the ombudsman pointed to a lack of staff training and insufficient salary as key factors contributing to the alleged mistreatment. Trafficking of teenage girls for commercial sexual exploitation was a problem. The minimum age for consensual sex in Spain is 13. If deceit is used in gaining the consent of a minor under 16 years, an individual can be charged, upon parental complaint. The law specifically provides that an individual who, by use of deceit, commits sexual abuse with a person over 13 years and under 16 will be punished with imprisonment for one to two years or an equivalent fine. Unconsenting sexual abuse is defined as sexual acts committed against persons under 13 years, unconscious persons, or mentally ill persons. The law prohibits child pornography. Article 189(1)(a) of the penal code criminalizes using a minor ``to prepare any type of pornography material''; Article 189(1)(b) criminalizes producing, selling, distributing, displaying, or facilitating the production, sale, dissemination, or exhibition, of ``any type'' of child pornography by ``any means.'' Knowingly possessing child pornography is also penalized, carrying a potential prison sentence of up to one year. Penalties for the production, sale, or distribution of pornography in which a child under 18 years of age has been involved is imprisonment from one to four years, or up to eight years' imprisonment if the child is under 13. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked within, to, and through the country. In March a report by the UN office on Drugs and Crime identified Spain as both a destination of trafficked women for sexual exploitation and a gateway for women to be trafficked elsewhere in Europe. There were also reports of trafficking of both men and women for the purpose of forced labor (primarily in agriculture, construction, and domestic employment). There was an increase in the number of minors trafficked into the country for forced begging. Trafficked women were usually 18 to 24 years of age, but some girls were reportedly trafficked as young as 16. Women were trafficked primarily from Latin America (Colombia, Brazil, and Honduras), Eastern Europe (Romania and Russia), and sub- Saharan Africa (Nigeria). Persons were also trafficked from China for labor exploitation. Traffickers were generally organized criminals based in the source countries. Methods used by traffickers to maintain control of their victims included physical abuse, forced use of drugs, withholding of travel documents, and threats to the victim's family. In the case of women from Eastern Europe, severe violence and threats were the methods most often employed by traffickers. Traffickers lured some victims from other regions with false promises of employment in service industries and agriculture but forced them into prostitution upon their arrival. NGOs reported an increase in cases in which traffickers allowed their victims to keep a portion of the money they earned through prostitution to reduce their incentive to escape the trafficking network. The law prohibits trafficking in persons for labor and sexual exploitation. The prescribed penalties for sex trafficking are five to 15 years' imprisonment, commensurate with the prescribed penalties for rape. The penalty for labor trafficking is four to 12 years in prison. The law also prohibits the exploitation of prostitutes through coercion or fraud and of workers in general, with penalties ranging from five to 10 years' imprisonment. In 2007 the government passed numerous acts of legislation that increased the penalties for trafficking by two to six years if the offender is found to be a part of a criminal organization and that gives courts authority to prosecute trafficking cases that occurred outside the country. On May 14, the EU Court of Justice criticized the country for not having adapted its national legal framework to comply with EU norms regarding the issuance of temporary residency permits to foreign citizens who cooperate in combating trafficking in persons. In May police arrested 23 ringleaders of a network that trafficked Nigerian women into the country under threat of voodoo curses. On June 16, more than 750 Catalonian police participated in a large-scale raid to search 72 alleged sweatshops controlled by Chinese organized crime for exploited labor. Authorities arrested 75 persons for allegedly exploiting 450 Chinese workers. On July 14, the government convened its first meeting of the Social Forum against The Trafficking of Human Being for Purposes of Sexual Exploitation. The forum, whose creation was called for in the government's 2008 National Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons for the Purposes of Sexual Exploitation, comprised of representatives of 13 NGOs and 10 national ministries, as well as representatives from the regional and municipal governments. At the forum, Equality Minister Bibiana Aido announced that the country's security forces had identified 1,618 trafficking victims during 2008. On July 28, the national police arrested nine individuals in Alicante for their alleged role in a network that sexually exploited Romanian women. According to press reports, 53 trafficking victims-- some of whom were underage--were found in the raid. On August 19, the national police, together with German authorities, conducted a raid that resulted in the arrest of 53 persons and the execution of 20 search warrants. Those detained allegedly belonged to a network that created false documents used to illegally traffic Nigerian women into Germany for sexual exploitation, under threat of voodoo. The Ministry of Interior coordinates antitrafficking efforts and works closely with the Office of the President, Ministry of Labor and Social Services, Ministry of Justice, and Ministry of Education. The Immigration Networks and Falsified Documents Unit (UCRIF), a special unit of the national police, covers trafficking in persons. The UCRIF intelligence unit analyzed statistical data and trends, and it coordinated efforts and shared data with the Guardia Civil and Interpol. Regional national police officers conducted quarterly reviews to set goals in combating trafficking and to assess progress in meeting previous goals. The law permits trafficking victims to remain in the country if they agree to testify against their perpetrators. Victims are given a 30-day ``reflection period'' to recover in a safe environment before being required to decide whether to cooperate with the investigation and prosecution of their traffickers. After legal proceedings conclude, victims have the option of remaining in the country or returning to their country of origin. Representatives of the government's violence education programs for female victims and an NGO partner reported that 89 percent of the victims they assisted filed criminal charges. The government worked with and funded NGOs that provided assistance to trafficking victims. In addition, regional and local governments provided assistance either directly or through NGOs. Victims received medical assistance, including emergency care, through the national health care system. There was no evidence that government officials participated in, facilitated, or condoned trafficking. The government had several programs to prevent trafficking, including a toll-free hotline that offered information to trafficking victims and potential victims. Local governments continued demand-reduction campaigns. On February 12, the Spanish Network Against Trafficking in Persons, with participation from the government, organized a conference in Madrid that unveiled a basic guide to help identify and protect trafficking victims. The event also sought to raise awareness among the public of trafficking in persons. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at http://www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services, and the government effectively enforced these provisions. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced these provisions; however, levels of assistance and accessibility differed between regions. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. In April 2008 the National Assembly approved a law that establishes fines for discrimination against persons with disabilities of up to one million euros ($1.5 million). In March the government approved a strategic plan to promote the employment of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There were instances of societal violence and discrimination against members of racial and ethnic minorities, and the government undertook efforts to combat the problem. The Ministry of Interior reported that there were 163 racist and xenophobic incidents recorded in 2008. The European Network Against Racism estimated that there were approximately 4,000 racially motivated crimes in the country annually. Groups continued to call for official government tracking and publication of information on racially motivated crimes and for the justice system to adequately address the racial component of crimes. In December 2008 the government adopted legislation creating a ``Human Rights Plan of Action,'' committing itself to 172 measures, many related to the abolition of racism and intolerance. Specific measures call for the adoption and implementation of a strategy to fight racism and xenophobia, educational programs for media to combat hostile or discriminatory perceptions and stereotypes, and collaboration with public and private media on sensitization to and promotion of human rights. The government has completed several of the measures. In September congress reformed the Asylum Law to provide further protection for refugees. In November congress approved changes to the Law of Foreigners' Rights and Liberties, guaranteeing the right of reunion, association, education, union membership, and free judicial assistance. In September 2008 a Spanish Roma killed a Senegalese citizen in Roquetas de Mar, Almeria. The killing set off a seven-hour neighborhood riot that resulted in the burning of two apartment buildings and attacks against members of the security forces that injured three officers. Four sub-Saharan Africans were arrested for their involvement. Later in the month, a group of sub-Saharans attacked an ambulance and set fire to street containers in the same neighborhood. Four other arrests were made and the national ombudsman opened an investigation into events. The association ``Almer!a Acoge'' denied that the death was racially motivated. In April 2008 several train security guards allegedly attacked a Maghreb man in Barcelona. According to one witness, nine or 10 guards kicked the man, who subsequently filed an official complaint. The witness provided testimony before a judge, but no further action was taken by year's end. The Romani population continued to face discrimination. According to the domestic NGO Fundacion Secretariado Gitano (FSG), Roma continued to face discrimination in access to employment, housing, and education. The Romani community, which the FSG estimated to have a population of 600,000, experienced substantially higher rates of unemployment, poverty, and illiteracy than the general population. In 2008 the FSG received 90 complaints of social discrimination from the Roma population. In April the president of the Asociaci"n Nacional Presencia Gitana reported that 70 percent of Roma over the age of 16 were illiterate and that only 30 percent of Roma children regularly attended school. In October the EU Directorate for Health and Consumer Affairs reported that 12.6 percent of Roma in the country suffered some kind of chronic disease. The study further stated that life expectancy was much lower for the Roma community compared with the general European population. The percentage of Roma age 75 or older was 25.7 percent, while 51 percent of the remaining EU population fell into this category. Acceder, a program aimed at expanding social inclusion through labor market integration, promoted equal opportunity for the Roma population. The program promoted labor-contract employment as an alternative to self-employment and as a vehicle for building social inclusion. Approximately 71 percent of the 44,591 persons served at the 48 employment centers since 2000 were Roma and 55 percent were women. More than 32,351 work contracts had been signed. In April 2008 the Council of Europe's Commission against Racism and Intolerance adopted a resolution which stated that Roma, and in particular Romani women, still faced particular difficulties and discrimination in their access to employment, housing and social services and, reportedly, in the treatment they received within the criminal justice system. The resolution also noted continued difficulties in ensuring equal access to education for Roma, with Romani students exhibiting higher levels of absenteeism, drop-out rates, and poor performance than non-Romani children, especially at the secondary school level. In 2008 a Romani association in Madrid (Hierbabuena) accused the PSOE of discriminating against Roma when the government fired a high- level Romani advisor to the Department of Ethnic Minorities within the Women's Institute. The advisor was terminated after filing a harassment suit, dismissed in June, against the PSOE's secretary for social movement. In July 2008 the UN special rapporteur against racism asserted before the Catalonian parliament that political parties in the country attempted to exploit racism to gain electoral advantage. After visiting Sikh, Roma, evangelical Christian, and Muslim communities in Catalonia, the special rapporteur noted that these communities were excluded from mainstream society and experienced difficulty practicing their religions due to the small size of their places of worship. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community was widely accepted throughout the country. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender organizations were numerous, and there were no reported impediments to their operation. From June 27 through July 5, Madrid celebrated Gay Pride, culminating in a July 4 parade in which more than one million persons participated in a secure celebration. The parade was authorized by authorities, and police provided sufficient protection to marchers. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of major societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/ AIDS. The controversy regarding official language policies continued, with complaints that current policies offend the right to an education in the ``mother tongue,'' or Castilian Spanish. In 2007 the ombudsman received approximately 100 complaints regarding Catalonia's linguistic policies, and in March 2008 the NGO Platform in Defense of the Freedom of Choice in Language Election filed a formal complaint against a school in the Basque Country. The school had refused to offer all classes in Spanish. In April, 39 doctors at the sole hospital on Ibiza (one of the Balearic Islands) announced their decision to leave their jobs due to a new requirement that doctors be tested for fluency in Catalan. The decree, approved by the Balearic government on March 27, requires that doctors working in public service speak Catalan and provides a window of three years for them to learn it. The doctors' union asserted that the requirement was not for public benefit but rather the result of a ``political obsession.'' In response to the decree, 2,500 persons participated in a demonstration protesting the Catalan language requirement. According to security forces, 4,000 persons participated in a demonstration in Barcelona in September 2008 to protest the government's linguistic policies and to defend the right to have school classes taught in Castilian. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows workers, including foreign and migrant workers, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers did so in practice. However, military personnel and national police forces do not have the right to join unions, while judges, magistrates, and prosecutors are not free to join the union of their choice. Approximately 15 percent of the workforce was unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. A strike in nonessential services was legal if the union gave five days' notice. Any striking union must respect minimum service requirements negotiated with the respective employer. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, including for all workers in the public sector except military personnel, and it was freely practiced. Public sector collective bargaining includes salaries and employment levels, but the government retained the right to set these if negotiations failed. Collective bargaining agreements were widespread in both the public and private sectors; in the latter they covered 85 to 90 percent of workers. The law prohibits discrimination by employers against trade union members and organizers; however, unions contended that employers practiced discrimination in many cases by refusing to renew the temporary contracts of workers engaging in union organizing. An estimated 10 percent of those covered by collective bargaining agreements were actually union members. The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) noted that 63 percent of temporary workers were immigrants. The ITUC further stated that although in theory workers on fixed contracts were covered by collective bargaining agreements, in practice more and more workers were individually negotiating directly with employers and managers and undermining the collective bargaining process. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the three special economic zones in the Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women were trafficked to the country for commercial sexual exploitation and that children were trafficked for forced begging. Men were also trafficked for forced labor, mainly in agriculture and construction. Migrant women and children from Romania and Bulgaria remained particularly vulnerable to labor exploitation. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. While child labor was generally not a problem, there were reports that children were trafficked for sexual exploitation and forced begging. The statutory minimum age for the employment of children is 16. The law also prohibits the employment of persons under the age of 18 at night, for overtime work, or in sectors considered hazardous. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has primary responsibility for enforcement of the minimum age law and enforced it effectively in major industries and the service sector. The ministry had difficulty enforcing the law on small farms and in family-owned businesses, where some child labor persisted. Laws prohibiting child labor were enforced effectively in the special economic zones. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 624 euros ($896) per month generally did not provide a decent standard of living for worker and family. In December 2008 the government increased the minimum wage by 24 euros as part of the plan to reach a target minimum wage of 800 euros by 2012. The government reviews the minimum wage at least annually (and as often as quarterly if needed), based upon the consumer price index and consultation with the business community. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs effectively enforced the minimum wage. The law provides for a 40-hour workweek, with an unbroken rest period of 36 hours after each 40 hours worked. By law overtime is restricted to 80 hours per year unless collective bargaining establishes a different level. Premium pay is required for overtime, up to a maximum of 80 hours per year. The National Institute of Safety and Health in the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has technical responsibility for developing labor standards, and the Inspectorate of Labor has responsibility for enforcing the law through inspections and judicial action when infractions are found. Unions criticized the government for devoting insufficient resources to inspection and enforcement. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endanger health or safety without jeopardy to their employment, and authorities effectively enforced this right; however, employees with short-term labor contracts generally did not understand that they had such legal protections. __________ SWEDEN The Kingdom of Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a multiparty parliamentary form of government. The population is approximately 9.3 million. Legislative authority rests in the unicameral Riksdag (parliament). In national elections in 2006, voters elected a center-right coalition government led by the Moderate Party. The elections were free and fair. The king is the largely symbolic head of state. The prime minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Reported human rights problems included isolated incidents of excessive force by police, prison overcrowding and lengthy pretrial detention, government surveillance and interference, incidents of anti- Semitic and anti-Islamic discrimination and civil disturbances, abuse of women and children, and trafficking in persons. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, there were isolated reports that police used excessive force. In August 2008, two police officers were reported for assault. The Karlstad police prosecutors unit closed the investigation for lack of evidence. After a number of incidents during the year in which police made inappropriate statements and racial comments, the national police instituted a program to evaluate police officers' attitudes through their careers. As a preliminary step, the program began to monitor the values and attitudes of the 300 students who started their police education in September. The national prosecutor's office for police cases received 4,828 reports of misconduct during the year. The reports covered all police employees, officers and civilians, and involved incidents that occurred on active service and outside of work. The majority of the incidents took place while the police employee was not on duty, but 15 percent of the reported cases were work-related accusations that officers had used more violence than the situation required. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards, although overcrowding and lengthy pretrial detention were problems. During the year two persons committed suicide in prison. On December 14, a court found three employees at Mariestad detention center guilty of official misconduct for failing in February 2008 to immediately cut down a man who had hung himself in his cell. The man died. The court sentenced the employees to pay fines proportional to their daily income. Restrictive conditions for prisoners held in pretrial custody remained a problem. According to the Swedish Prison and Probation Service, approximately 40 percent of pretrial detainees were subject to extended isolation or to restrictions on mail delivery or exercise. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. In June a delegation from the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) conducted a 10-day visit to monitor conditions in the country's police establishments, prisons, the Swedish Migration Board, and psychiatric and juvenile establishments. In its preliminary report on the visit, the delegation reported receiving a few allegations of physical mistreatment of detainees by police officers at the time of their apprehension. The delegation expressed concern over prisoners held in isolation for prolonged periods for their behavior, noting that healthcare staff at the prisons visited expressed concerns over the deleterious mental-health consequences of prolonged isolation. The delegation also noted the ``quasi-systematic'' imposition of restrictions on pretrial detainees, which led to periods of six to 18 months in isolation. The CPT's report from the June visit, among other things, recommended that detainees be subject to reduced time in isolation and not face more restrictions than necessary in accordance with a court order. Detention conditions should include time outdoors in an exercise yard or under weather shelters, if the detention lasted more than 24 hours; nighttime toilet access when not included in the detention cell; and better information to foreign national prisoners about their legal status and prison regulations in a language they understand. The report also recommended that the government create a separate facility for noncriminal acts to hold persons whose applications for asylum have been denied and who are to be deported. The justice ombudsman, who worked independently from the government, performed approximately 10 inspections during the year. The national Red Cross and church associations may also visit prisoners, but not monitor or inspect the prisons. Construction of new detention and prison cells continued during the year and helped mitigate overcrowding. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police and the national criminal police are responsible in practice for law enforcement and general order within the country. The Security Service is responsible for national security related to terrorism, extremism, and espionage. The armed forces are responsible for external security. The Ministry for Justice provides the funding and the letters of instruction for police activities, but it does not control how they perform their work. According to the constitution, all branches of the police are independent authorities. The chancellor of justice, who is a nonpolitical civil servant appointed by the government, can act as the government's ombudsman in the supervision of the authorities and the civil servants, and take action in cases where the chancellor suspects abuse. In addition, the security and integrity commission can review the work of the Security Service upon an individual's request and initiate its own investigations if the commission suspects that the Security Service has collected and used personal data wrongfully. On November 11, the chancellor of justice decided that the Security Service should pay a man 30,000 kronor (approximately $4,180) and a woman 20,000 kronor (approximately $2,780) on the basis of a verdict from the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in 2006. Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the national police and the Security Service, and government authorities had effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law requires warrants issued by duly authorized officials for arrests, and the government generally respected this requirement in practice. Persons can be and are arrested without a warrant if they are caught committing a crime or if they are suspected of having committed a crime that is being investigated. A person who is believed to be drunk or under the influence of drugs and intends to drive any vehicle may be arrested without a warrant. Police must file charges within six hours against persons detained for disturbing the public order or considered dangerous and within 12 hours against those detained on other grounds. Police may hold a person for questioning for six hours or up to a maximum of 12 hours if necessary for the investigation. After questioning, the level of suspicion determines whether the individual will be arrested or released. A court order is not needed to hold a person for as long as 12 hours. If a suspect is arrested, the prosecutor has 24 hours (or three days in exceptional circumstances) to request continued detention. An arrested suspect must be arraigned within 48 hours, and initial prosecution must begin within two weeks, unless extenuating circumstances exist. Authorities generally respected these requirements. There is no system of bail; however, courts routinely released defendants pending trial unless they are considered dangerous or there is a risk that the suspect will leave the country. Detainees may retain a lawyer of their choice; in criminal cases, the government is obligated to provide an attorney, regardless of the defendant's financial situation. Detainees are afforded prompt access to lawyers and to family members. A suspect has a right to legal representation when the prosecutor requests his detention beyond 24 hours (or three days in exceptional circumstances). Prompt access to family members can be influenced by the type of crime that the suspect is accused of committing. Sometimes a suspect is not allowed any contact with family members if it could jeopardize the preinvestigation. Following its June visit to the country, the CPT delegation noted that, despite entry into force in 2008 of legal provisions obliging police to inform family members of a person's detention, it appeared that the right of notification of custody was often delayed ``in the interests of the investigation'' until a person has been remanded to custody by a court. The delegation also expressed concern in its preliminary observations over the situation of juveniles in police custody, ``who apparently may be questioned without the presence of their parents or social welfare representatives.'' e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have the right of appeal. Trials are generally public. Juries are used only in cases involving freedom of the press or freedom of speech. In other cases, judges or court-appointed civilian representatives make determinations of guilt or innocence. Cases of a sensitive nature, including those involving children, child molestation, rape, and national security, can be closed to the public. The court system distinguishes between civil and criminal cases. Defendants have the right to be present at their trials and to consult an attorney in a timely manner. In criminal cases, the government is obligated to provide a defense attorney. A ``free evidence'' system allows parties to present in court any evidence, regardless of how it was acquired. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found a violation by the country of Article 6 (length of proceedings) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The court ordered the government to pay the applicant 1,500 euros ($2,150) for nonpecuniary damages and 2,500 euros ($3,580) for court costs. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. There is no specific court for human rights violations, and human rights cases are tried in the general court system. Citizens can appeal to the ECHR in matters related to the state. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and law prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Human rights organizations, including Civil Rights Defenders (formerly called the Swedish Helsinki Committee for Human Rights), expressed concern over the growing number of government proposals to permit greater surveillance by police. Human rights groups asserted that allowing additional surveillance methods, such as wiretapping, would conflict with protection of the individual's right to privacy. In 2008 courts issued 990 permits for wiretapping and denied eight. In January a law came into effect that gives the National Defense Radio Establishment (FRA) the authority to monitor international cable traffic with the prior approval of a special court. Under this law, only government ministries and the armed forces are allowed to commission surveillance from the FRA. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The law criminalizes expression considered to be hate speech and prohibits threats or expressions of contempt for a group or member of a group based on race, color, national or ethnic origin, religious belief, or sexual orientation. Hate speech may be punished by penalties ranging from fines to a maximum of four years in prison. On August 17, an article in the country's largest tabloid newspaper, Aftonbladet, cited a Palestinian source alleging that Israeli troops harvested organs from Palestinian prisoners for sale on international markets. The Israeli government asked the government to condemn the article. However, the country's officials stated they were bound by the constitution and unable to make such statements, which would violate the freedom of press. After the Swedish ambassador to Israel issued an apologetic statement in response to the article and posted it on the embassy's Web page, a member of parliament filed a complaint with the parliament's Committee on the Constitution that the ambassador's apology constituted ``interference'' with the freedom of press. Separately, a private citizen filed a complaint with the chancellor of justice against Aftonbladet for inciting racial agitation. In September the chancellor ruled the article did not involve racial agitation, and no further investigation was conducted. On October 19, Aftonbladet published an opinion piece by Jimmie Akesson, the leader of the far-right Sweden Democrats Party, in which he asserted that the spread of Islam represented the country's ``greatest external threat since World War II.'' The Center against Racism reported the article to the chancellor of justice. On October 23, the chancellor of justice decided not to start a preinvestigation against the Sweden Democrats and Akesson. In 2008 the ECHR found a violation by the country of Article 10 (freedom to receive information) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The case involved a family of Iraqi origin that was evicted from their apartment for failing to remove a satellite dish needed to receive broadcasts in Arabic and Farsi from their country of origin. The court held that the family's eviction had been disproportionate to the state's aim and that the interference with the applicant's right to freedom of information constituted a violation of the European convention. The court ordered the government to pay the complainants 6,500 euros (approximately $9,300) in pecuniary damages, 5,000 euros (approximately $7,150) in nonpecuniary damages, and 10,000 euros (approximately $14,300) for costs and expenses. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 88 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The Commission for State Grants to Religious Communities, a government body under the authority of the Ministry of Culture, provides financial aid to religious groups. In reviewing applications from religious groups, the only criteria the commission considers are the number of members in the group and the length of time since the group's establishment. In 2008, the most recent period for which data was available, approximately 48,476,000 kronor (approximately $6.8 million) was distributed to 22 registered religious groups, including 39 subgroups. The government promoted interfaith understanding and met annually with representatives of various religious groups. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The Jewish community estimated that there were 20,000 Jews in the country. During the year the Jewish community reported an increase in anti-Semitism in connection with the conflict in the Gaza Strip, and police raised their security preparedness level. Debates regarding what constitutes expression of anti-Israeli sentiment as opposed to anti-Semitism were featured prominently in the press. On January 2 and January 5, arson severely damaged a synagogue in Helsingborg. On January 5, vandals attempted to set fire to the funeral chapel at the Jewish cemetery in Malmo. In June the National Council for Crime Prevention presented its annual study on hate crimes for 2008, including anti-Semitic, Islamophobic, and other religion-related hate crimes. During 2008 there were approximately 600 reports of hate crimes involving religion, 45 percent of which were Islamophobic, 26 percent anti-Semitic, and 28 percent were related to other religious groups. In 2008 there were 159 reports of anti-Semitic crimes, an increase of 41 from 2007, and 272 reports of Islamophobic crimes, an increase of 66 from 2007. Of the hate crimes involving religion in 2008, 12 percent reportedly had a white-supremacist motive. The council's report stated that illegal threats and ``agitation against an ethnic group'' were the most common offenses related to religion. The most frequent anti-Semitic crimes were ``agitation against an ethnic group,'' with 37 reported incidents in 2008, and 80 reported cases of ``unlawful threat or molestation.'' Half of the Islamophobic crimes, or 138 cases, included ``molestation or unlawful threat.'' Nazi symbols, such as Hitler salutes and swastikas, were associated with 32 percent of reported anti-Semitic cases. According to the report, one-third of anti-Semitic crimes and 7 percent of Islamophobic crimes were ideologically motivated. Religious hate crimes more frequently occurred in school or at work. The victim rarely knew the perpetrator, and the majority of both suspects and victims were men. By March police completed investigation of 61 percent of the Islamophobic cases and 75 percent of anti-Semitic cases from 2007. During the year they investigated 123 such cases, of which 19 resulted in prosecution and 186 were dropped for lack of evidence or failure to meet the standards of a hate crime. The Stockholm police have a hate-crime hotline to receive complaints. In April a unit to train police officers to detect hate crimes and raise public awareness of them was expanded from Stockholm city to the entire country. Representatives from the unit visited high schools to raise awareness of hate crimes and encourage more victims to report abuses. Information for victims of hate crimes was available in several languages, and interpreters were provided to facilitate reporting. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution and law prohibit forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. During the year the UNHCR continued to criticize the government's lengthy turnaround times for asylum applications. In August, to provide transparency, the Migration Board invited a UNHCR official to follow and report on approximately 200 asylum cases. The government deported asylum seekers who arrived from other EU countries or from countries with which it maintained reciprocal return agreements. In most instances the persons who were deported had passed through, or had asylum determinations pending, in other EU countries. The government authorized financial repatriation support for asylum seekers who had been denied residence in the country in the amount of 30,000 kronor ($4,180) per adult and 15,000 kronor ($2,090) per child, with a maximum of 75,000 kronor ($10,400). During the first half of the year, the government provided repatriation support to 1,158 persons, most of them of Iraqi origin. During the year the government forcibly repatriated 471 Iraqis. Members of parliament, human rights organizations, and the Iraqi migration minister criticized the migration minister in connection with the forced repatriations. The Iraqi minister claimed the forced returns violated the February 2008 repatriation agreement between the two countries. In practice, the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Asylum seekers can appeal rulings of the Migration Board to two special migration appeals courts. In September 2008 the Migration Board denied asylum to Adil Hakimjan, an ethnic Uighur from China and a detainee in Guantanamo, despite a direct appeal from the European Parliament. Hakimjan asserted that he could not return to China because his life would be threatened there. He appealed the board's decision to the Migration Court, which in May reversed the decision and granted Hakimjan permanent residency in the country. The UN Committee for the Prevention of Torture received complaints against the government during the year; most of them concerned repatriation of refugees. During the first half of the year, the migration board provided temporary protection to 38 persons who did not qualify as refugees by allowing them to remain in the country. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). According to UNHCR data, there were 7,592 stateless persons in the country at the end of September. The large number related to the influx of immigrants and the birth of children to stateless parents, who remained stateless until one parent has acquired citizenship. The majority of the stateless population came from the Middle East (the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq) and Somalia. Once stateless persons are granted permanent residence, they can obtain citizenship through the same naturalization process as other permanent residents. The timeframe for gaining citizenship is generally four to eight years, depending on the individual's grounds for residency, ability to establish identity, and lack of a criminal record. There is no legal discrimination against stateless persons in employment, education, housing, health services, marriage or birth registration, access to courts and judicial procedures, or owning land or property. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In the 2006 parliamentary elections, citizens voted out the Social Democratic Party, which had dominated the political system for most of the previous 70 years. The new government was a center-right coalition led by the Moderate Party. On June 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. Political parties operated without restrictions or outside interference. There were 165 women in the 349-seat parliament and 10 women in the 22-member cabinet. No official statistics on minority representation in government were available because the law prohibits the government from holding information about the racial or ethnic background of its citizens. However, media reports stated that there was one ethnic minority member in the cabinet, and 6.5 percent of parliament members were born in other countries. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. The prosecutor's office has a special unit working on cases involving corruption. The unit initiated 49 investigations during the year, resulting in 23 prosecutions. Public officials and political parties are subject to financial disclosure laws. The constitution and law provide for public access to government information, and the government generally granted access in practice to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. The public has the right of access to government documents unless they are subject to secrecy laws, according to which information may be withheld if its release poses a threat to national security or to individual or corporate privacy. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. At the national level, the country has seven ombudsmen: four justice ombudsmen, the chancellor of justice, the children's ombudsman, and the discrimination ombudsman with responsibility for ethnicity, gender, transsexual identity, religion, age, sexual orientation, and disabilities. There are normally ombudsmen down to the municipal level as well. Government officials often were cooperative and responsive to their views. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, age, disability, language, social status, or sexual orientation. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the government enforced the law effectively. The law stipulates more severe penalties for repeated crimes and for cases in which the perpetrator had a close relationship to the victim. The National Council for Crime Prevention (NCCP) reported 2,931 rapes of persons over the age of 14 during the year, compared with 3,880 in 2008. The NCCP reported 26,091 cases of assault against women during the year. During the same period, approximately 95 homicides of women and girls were reported; most were committed by men closely related to the victim. Authorities apprehended and prosecuted abusers in most cases. The law provides victims with protection from contact with their abusers. When necessary, authorities helped victims protect their identities or to obtain new identities and homes. According to official statistics, approximately 1,000 persons--mostly women--received such services. Both national and local governments helped fund volunteer groups that provided shelter and other assistance for abused women, and both private and public organizations ran shelters and operated hotlines. Authorities estimated that since 2002, 1,500 to 2,000 women had been subject to honor-related violence (patriarchal violence often linked to cultural and religious convictions about female chastity and marriage). Honor-related violence exclusively involved immigrants from Muslim countries; the police concentrated on educating police officers and prosecutors to increase awareness of the problem and to improve its detection and prevention. A survey by Stockholm University of 2,300 15- year-old students from 36 schools revealed that 11 percent of the participants fulfilled the researchers' definition of leading a life that could be considered ``honor controlled.'' Of the girls, 16 percent responded they were expected to follow someone else's decision when choosing a future husband. A parent had also forbidden approximately 10 percent of the students to attend classes in mandatory subjects, such as sports and sex education. On December 29, the Ministry for Integration and Gender Equality announced that it had granted the county administration boards 36 million kronor ($5 million) for their continued work against honor-related oppression. A 19-year-old female citizen of Somali origin, who was sent back to her country of origin by her mother for female circumcision in 2001, obtained redress of 400,000 kronor (approximately $55,700) from the crime victim compensation and support authority. Selling sexual services is legal, but the purchase of sexual services and procurement are illegal. In recent years, the government has sought to curb prostitution by focusing on the demand rather than the supply and by arresting clients rather than prostitutes. There were 349 cases of individuals buying sexual services reported during the year, compared with 187 in 2008. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs continued to encourage citizens to report suspicions of sex tourism to the country's diplomatic missions abroad. A police criminal investigator was stationed in Bangkok to cover Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and the Philippines and to provide liaison between police in those countries and Nordic authorities. The law prohibits sexual harassment, and the government generally enforced this law in practice. Employers who do not investigate and intervene against harassment at work may be liable for damages to the victim. There are no criminal penalties for this crime. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There was easy access to contraception and skilled attendance during childbirth. Women were diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, equally with men. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system. Some sectors of the labor market, including the financial sector and high-ranking positions in both in the public and private sectors, still showed significant gender disparities in terms of salaries, especially in male-dominated occupations. Women's salaries averaged 86.5 percent of men's, adjusting for age, education, and occupational differences. The discrimination ombudsman investigated complaints of gender discrimination in the labor market. Complaints could also be filed with the courts or with the employer. Labor unions generally mediated in cases filed with the employer. During the year the discrimination ombudsman's office registered 290 cases. Women filed approximately 75 percent of the cases; 25 percent of the cases concerned salaries. There were 46 discrimination complaints related to pregnancy in 2008, the last year for which data was available. During the year the government began implementing a 235 million kronor ($33 million) strategy for promoting gender equality in the labor market and business. The strategy coordinated and developed gender-equality measures in the workplace and business and involved education and social policy. In February the government appointed a committee to promote gender equality in higher education. With a budget of 60 million ($8.4 million) until the end of 2010, the committee focused on combating gender-based subject choices and reversing the trend toward fewer male students in higher education. It also addressed gender differences in terms of study rates, dropout rates, propensity to complete a degree, career opportunities in research, and representation at executive levels in higher education. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents. Children born in the country are registered in the tax authority's population register. Child abuse was a problem. The national child protection council reported 8,849 cases of abuse of children under the age of 15 during the year, compared with 5,954 in 2008. Police reported 1,911 cases of child rape and 408 cases of sexual abuse of children during the year, compared with 944 reported cases of rape and 955 reported cases of child sexual abuse in 2008. The law prohibits parents or other caretakers from abusing children mentally or physically. Parents, teachers, and other adults are subject to prosecution if they physically punish a child, including slapping or spanking. Children have the right to report such abuses to police. The usual sentence for such an offense is a fine combined with counseling and monitoring by social workers. Authorities may remove children from their homes and place them in foster care. In July the government amended the penal code to criminalize ``contact with children for sexual purposes.'' The amendment enhances legal protections for children by criminalizing Internet contact intended to lead to sexual assault. The law covers children under 15; penalties range from fines to one year in prison. The law prohibits the repatriation of foreign children if they lack proper documents to prove their identity and national origin. The migration board turned children arriving in the country alone over to social services in their municipality of residence, where a legal guardian was appointed to assist them. However, Amnesty International estimated that 100 unaccompanied foreign minors disappeared in 2008, most likely to continue their travel to other countries. The government continued to be active in efforts to prevent child abuse through international organizations, such as the UN Children's Fund. As the presidency country of the EU, the government in July organized a conference on human rights from a children's perspective, focusing particularly on violence against children. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. Law enforcement officials and analysts estimated the number of trafficked women at 400 to 600 per year, cautioning, however, that it was not possible to obtain precise numbers. The country is a destination, and, to a lesser extent, a transit country for women trafficked from Romania, Russia, Nigeria, Albania, Tanzania, Thailand, and Estonia for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. Traffickers included members of international organized criminal networks. Police in Stockholm have also noted an increase in female traffickers and pimps. Traffickers typically recruited female victims in their countries of origin to work abroad as cleaners, babysitters, or similar positions. Once in the country, traffickers isolated and intimidated victims, and forced them to work as prostitutes in hotels, restaurants, massage parlors, or private apartments. Some were locked up and their passports stolen by their captors. Male victims were primarily trafficked for forced labor, mostly in the gardening, construction, and forestry sectors, and in some cases in forced begging and petty theft. The law prohibits the trafficking of persons for sexual purposes; provides sentences of two to 10 years' imprisonment for persons convicted of trafficking; and criminalizes attempting to traffic, conspiracy to traffic, and the failure to report such crimes. Authorities actively prosecuted trafficking cases. During the year police reported 32 cases of trafficking for sexual purposes, compared with 15 cases in 2008. Police also reported 29 cases of labor trafficking and noted a continuing increase in the number of children, mainly from Romania, who were smuggled to beg in the street and commit petty crimes. In January courts convicted four citizens of Moldova, Ukraine, and Sweden for trafficking a handicapped Ukrainian man and forcing him to beg. This was the first successful conviction of labor trafficking in the country. To prosecute traffickers, authorities continued to primarily use laws against procurement and an offense called ``placing in distress,'' which can apply in cases where traffickers lure women from other countries under false pretenses. The laws on procurement and trafficking complement each other; however, the antitrafficking law requires that prosecutors prove traffickers used ``improper means.'' Judges commonly ruled that improper means were absent in cases involving victims who consented to being trafficked. Although consent is irrelevant under the antitrafficking law, in practice, judicial interpretation of the improper means criterion made it difficult to obtain convictions. During the year, 91 cases of procurement were reported, many involving trafficking victims, compared with 51 in 2008. The country actively participated in a Nordic-Baltic task force against human trafficking. In October, on its own initiative and as the EU president, the government hosted a two-day trafficking in persons conference. The government allocated funds to domestic and international nongovernmental organizations for use in providing shelter and rehabilitation assistance to trafficking victims. The law provides that trafficking victims who cooperate with police investigations can receive temporary residence permits for at least six months and have access to the full range of social benefits. Victims who do not cooperate with police investigations are ineligible for residence permits and were promptly deported. The government provided 213 million kronor (approximately $30 million) to implement 36 measures under its 2008-10 action plan to combat prostitution and human trafficking for sexual purposes. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits employers from discriminating against persons with disabilities in hiring decisions and prohibits universities from discriminating against students with disabilities in making admissions decisions. No other specific law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities. The discrimination ombudsman is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. The law on discrimination does not cover accessibility. Regulations for new buildings require full accessibility. Similar requirements exist for some, but not all, public facilities; many buildings and some means of public transportation remained inaccessible. The number of reports of discrimination against persons with disabilities increased during the year. There were 896 reports of governmental discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services; most of the cases involved lack of access to public buildings. Difficulty in accessing apartments, restaurants, and bars generated the most frequent reports of societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. Approximately half of the cases submitted to the disability ombudsman under the Disability Act were handled by mediation procedures rather than through formal court hearings. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--More than a million persons in the country were foreign born, with the largest groups originating from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Iran. According to figures from Statistics Sweden, approximately 102,000 persons immigrated to the country during the year. During the year the media and the National Crime Prevention Council reported that individuals associated with openly Nazi organizations and the People's Front Party committed numerous discriminatory acts involving violence and harassment aimed at immigrants, minorities, Muslims, and Jews. The reports included cases of assault, hate speech, unauthorized demonstrations, illegal distribution of posters, illegal possession of weapons, and disorderly conduct. In October the chancellor of justice decided to prosecute a man for incitement to racial hatred for distributing stickers that stated ``Swedish women are being raped. What are you doing about it?'' and portrayed a rapist of foreign origin with a rope around his neck. The media also reported an increase in Nazi-related threats and harassment at schools against both teachers and students with immigrant backgrounds. Police registered reports of xenophobic crimes, some of which were related to neo-Nazi or white-power ideology. Police investigated and the district attorney prosecuted race-related crimes. Official estimates placed the number of active neo-Nazis and white supremacists at approximately 1,500, and an increase in female participants was noted. Neo-Nazi groups operated legally, but courts have held that it is illegal to wear xenophobic symbols or racist paraphernalia or to display signs and banners with inflammatory symbols at rallies, since the law prohibits incitement of hatred against ethnic groups. The discrimination ombudsman received 737 reports in 2008, the most recent year for which data was available. The government estimated the population of Roma to be 40,000 to 60,000. There is a special delegation for Romani issues consisting of representatives of Romani origin, experts on Romani problems, and representatives from Romani associations. The delegation worked to improve the situation of Roma in society and addressed such problems as social, political, and economic discrimination. During the year Roma filed a few complaints of discrimination related to housing and employment. On November 18, the court decided that a storeowner in Orebro should pay 20,000 kronor ($2,790) to four Romani women for denying them access to his clothing store. The law recognizes Sami (formerly known as Lapps), Swedish Finns, Tornedal-Finns, Roma, and Jews as national minorities. The government supported and protected minority languages by law. Indigenous People.--The approximately 20,000 Sami in the country were represented by a 31-member Sami-elected administrative authority called the Sami parliament. Sami are not represented as a group in the country's parliament but as full citizens; Sami have the right to vote in the country's elections and to participate in the government, including the country's parliament, if elected or appointed. The Sami parliament acts as an advisory body to the government and has limited decision-making powers in matters related to preserving the Sami culture, language, and schooling. The national parliament and government regulations govern the Sami body's operations. Longstanding tensions between Sami and the government over land and natural resources persisted, as did tensions between Sami and private landowners over reindeer grazing rights. Certain Sami have grazing and fishing rights, depending on their tribal history. Sami continued to press the government for exclusive access to grazing and fishing, although the Sami parliament focused more on the preservation of the Sami culture than on the exploitation of natural resources. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--During the year there were isolated incidents of societal violence and discrimination against homosexual conduct. There were reports that individuals associated with the National Socialist Front Party made threats against the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights (RFSL). In 2008, the most recent year for which data was available, the discrimination ombudsman registered 47 reported cases, the same number as in 2007, while the ombudsman's office initiated six new discrimination investigations in 2008, compared with eight in 2007. The RFSL is the leading nonprofit organization working with and for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons (LGBT). It is nonpartisan and religiously unaffiliated. Approximately 20 additional LGBT organizations were active in the country, including the Association for Christian Homosexual, Bisexual, and Transsexual (HBT) persons, United HBT students, Stockholm Pride, Amnesty International's HBT group, the Association for Gay Police Officers, the Association for HBT Doctors and Nurses, and the HBT Association for Employees in the Swedish Armed Forces. In July the annual weeklong Gay Pride Festival took place. A government working group promotes equal rights for LGBT persons. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law entitles all workers, including armed forces and the police, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. An estimated 80 percent of the 4.5 million-person workforce belonged to trade unions. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law also provides for the right to strike as well as for employers to organize and conduct lockouts; workers and employers exercised these rights in practice. Public sector employees enjoy the right to strike, subject to limitations in the collective agreements protecting the public's immediate health and security. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining, and workers exercised this right in practice. Approximately 80 percent of the workforce was covered by collective bargaining agreements. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination, and there were few reports that it occurred during the year. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's foreign trade zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Women were subjected to forced sexual exploitation. Young men and children who were 15 and younger were found in situations of forced labor, often on construction sites, and in some cases forced to beg or commit petty theft. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws and policies (including those on acceptable working conditions) to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government effectively implemented these laws and policies in practice. The law permits full-time employment from the age of 16 under the supervision of local authorities. Employees under the age of 18 may work only during the daytime and under supervision. Children as young as 13 may work part-time or in light work with parental permission. Union representatives, police, and public prosecutors effectively enforced these restrictions. Children continued to be trafficked for forced begging and petty theft. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no national minimum wage law. Wages are set by annual collective bargaining agreements. Nonunion establishments generally observed these contracts as well. Substantial benefits (for example, childcare) provided by social welfare entitlement programs assured even the lowest-paid workers and their families a decent standard of living. In August approximately 200 seasonal Thai berry pickers, who had worked weeks for an estimated 10 to 15 kronor (approximately $1.40 to $2.10) per hour but could not afford to return to Thailand, called a strike in the northern part of the country to demand better wages and working conditions. Neither employers nor government officials took action on their complaints. After days of protests, the Thai ambassador in Sweden promised that his government would help the strikers return home. By the end of the year, all the Thai workers had returned home with assistance from the Thai embassy and the city of Lulea. The legal standard workweek is 40 hours or less. Both the law and collective bargaining agreements regulate overtime and rest periods. The maximum allowable overtime per year is 200 hours. The amount of overtime compensation was normally regulated by the collective agreement; it varied by workplace and could also depend on whether the overtime occurred during the regular workweek, during a weekend, or on a bank holiday. Payment for overtime could take the form of money or time. The law requires a minimum period of 36 consecutive hours of rest, preferably on weekends, during a period of seven days. The law also provides employees with a minimum of five weeks' paid annual leave. The government effectively enforced these standards. The work environment authority, a government-appointed board, issued occupational health and safety regulations and trained union stewards and safety ombudsmen. Government inspectors monitored them. Safety ombudsmen have the authority to stop unsafe activity immediately and call in an inspector. These rules were effectively enforced. In law and practice, workers can remove themselves from situations that endangered their health or safety without jeopardizing their employment. __________ SWITZERLAND The Swiss Confederation, population 7.5 million, is a constitutional republic with a federal structure. Legislative authority is vested in a bicameral parliament (Federal Assembly) including the Council of States and the National Council. The 46 members of the Council of States are elected directly in the cantons by majority voting. The 200 members of the National Council are elected in each canton under a system of proportional representation. Free and fair elections to parliament took place in 2007. Parliament chooses the executive leadership (the Federal Council), which consisted of a coalition of five parties. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports that police at times used excessive force, occasionally with impunity. Other human rights problems were lengthy pretrial detention, instances of societal discrimination against Muslims, anti-Semitic incidents, violence against women, trafficking in persons, and discrimination against minorities. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police occasionally used excessive force. A report published on September 15 by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) referred to allegations of police misconduct involving the use of excessive force, especially in asylum detention centers and during deportation operations, as well as ``verbal excesses of a racist or discriminatory'' character. The commission noted that on occasion, when an individual sought to make a complaint against the police, they immediately filed a countercomplaint with the sole aim of deterring the complainant from pursuing the matter. At the same time, the report noted that the authorities had taken a number of measures to improve training of police officers and other measures to counter police misconduct, pointing particularly to the ombudsman of Zurich, whom it described as having achieved results in dealing with complaints against police and mediating disputes related to police behavior. Authorities investigated and prosecuted a number of cases of alleged mistreatment by police officers. Following a March 4 complaint of mistreatment in a Solothurn prison by a rejected asylum seeker from Liberia, the general prosecutor of Solothurn opened an investigation on March 9. The authorities subsequently deported the complainant in May. Authorities said it was not possible to determine when the investigation of alleged abuse in custody of the complainant would be complete. Nongovernmental organization (NGO) representatives alleged that the deportation of the complainant impeded the investigation into the alleged abuse. On December 2, the Baden District Court acquitted two police officers of the death of a schizophrenic man who died while they were trying to subdue him. The court concluded that the officers had not been trained adequately about the risks of various methods of subduing a suspect. On January 28, a court ordered a Zurich police officer to pay a fine of approximately 2,500 francs ($2,430) for sexually assaulting and harassing a woman in prostitution who had rejected him as a client in April 2007. At year's end charges against a police officer of assaulting and abusing a minor were again before the Lausanne District Court, which had acquitted him on January 16. The charges were that in 2006, police officers, after releasing a 16-year-old Eritrean boy they had taken into custody for insulting a police officer, took him to some woods where one of them sprayed his face with pepper spray and abandoned him. The attorney general appealed the not-guilty verdict. After hearing allegations from another police officer that his colleagues might have given false testimony, the appellate court returned the case for district-level review. On May 4, a Geneva court sentenced a police officer to a suspended prison sentence of 150 days for having beaten a handcuffed suspect in 2006. In January a law regulating the use of force by federal and cantonal police performing duties on behalf of the federal government entered into force. The government announced that the new law was designed to ensure the appropriate use of force and the greatest possible protection of the integrity of the affected persons. The law defined the types of weapons and auxiliary measures police could use in the course of police functions, and its implementing regulations further defined the circumstances in which they could be employed. For example, the new regulation allowed for the use of tasers in some circumstances but prohibited their use in others, including in conjunction with deportation of persons via aircraft. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers. During the year, 6,084 persons were in prison or detention (31 percent remanded to custody and 59 percent convicts). Of the total, 371 were women (6.1 percent) and 55 were juveniles (0.9 percent). The occupation rate of detention facilities was 91 percent, 5 percent higher than in 2008; however, prison overcrowding was a problem in some major urban areas such as Zurich, Bern, and Geneva. Geneva's Champ-Dollon prison was the country's most crowded; designed for a maximum of 270 occupants, it housed over 500 during the year. On February 23, the inmates of the Waulwilermoos prison wrote to the cantonal government of Lucerne alleging mistreatment and substandard medical care by the prison staff. Cantonal authorities subsequently reported that an investigation of the allegations, undertaken together with the prison supervisory commission, found no major problems but concluded that certain aspects of the prison's medical care delivery needed improvement. According to statistics released during the year by the Federal Department of Justice, the number of minors in preventive detention increased by 20 percent between 2005 and 2008. Of the minors in preventive detention, 998 were males between the ages 15 to 18 years, and 165 were females of the same ages. There were also 48 minors under 15. The penal code for young offenders requires minimizing juvenile detention prior to conviction. It also requires that juvenile offenders be held in reform schools or separate wings of prisons where they can be given educational support; however, a study by the justice ministry published in 2007 found that during investigative detention, juveniles often were held with adults and kept in prisons rather than reform schools. Authorities began construction of a new prison for juveniles. On October 20, the Federal Council appointed an independent 12- person National Commission for the Prevention of Torture with a mandate to undertake regular visits and inspections of conditions in prisons and detention facilities. Visits were scheduled to begin in 2010. The government permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights groups, the media, and the International Committee of the Red Cross. It was not known whether such visits took place during the year. In Fribourg construction began to expand the prison of Bellechasse. In Geneva, whose prisons were the most crowded, the cantonal government allocated funds for a project to build a new prison that would hold a maximum of 500 detainees. Vaud Canton began construction of a new juvenile prison center in Palezieux, designed to accommodate juvenile offenders from the French-speaking part of the country. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over police forces, which the cantons primarily organize and administer with federal coordination. The Federal Office of Police, in addition to performing coordination and analytical functions, can pursue its own investigations under the supervision of the attorney general in cases of organized crime, money laundering, and corruption. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption; however, in past years there have been some allegations of impunity. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--By law criminal suspects must be apprehended on the basis of warrants issued by a duly authorized official unless police must respond to a specific and immediate danger. In most cases authorities may not hold a suspect longer than 24 hours before presenting him to a prosecutor or investigating magistrate, who must either bring formal charges or order the detainee's release; however, asylum seekers and other foreigners without valid documents may be detained up to 96 hours without an arrest warrant. There was a functioning bail system, and courts grant release on personal recognizance or bail unless the magistrate believes the person charged is dangerous or a flight risk. A suspect may be denied legal counsel at the time of detention and initial questioning but has the right to choose and contact an attorney before charges are brought. The state provides free legal assistance for indigents charged with crimes for which imprisonment would be a possible punishment. Access to family members may be restricted to prevent tampering with evidence, but law enforcement authorities are required to inform close relatives promptly of the detention. In some cases lengthy pretrial detention was a problem. During the year approximately one third of all prisoners were in pretrial detention, and the average length of such detention was approximately 50 days. All cases of prolonged pretrial detention are subject to review by higher judicial authorities. The country's highest court has ruled that pretrial detention must not exceed the length of the expected sentence for the crime with which a suspect is charged. In 2008 the European Court for Human Rights (ECHR) issued a judgment that found one violation by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. The case involved an individual whose pretrial detention was extended more than two months beyond the end of the period for which his arrest warrant was valid. The court did not take issue with validity of the applicant's detention by authorities before or after this period or with his subsequent sentencing to six years' imprisonment for fraud and forgery. The court awarded the applicant 5,000 euros ($7,150) for nonpecuniary damages and 4,000 euros ($5,720) for costs and expenses. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and the judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Trials are public. Juries are used only in the most serious cases, including murder. Defendants have the right to be present and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, and an attorney is provided at public expense if defendants face serious criminal charges. Defendants have the right to confront or question witnesses and to present witnesses and evidence. They have the right to appeal, ultimately to the highest court, the Federal Tribunal. Authorities generally respected these rights in practice and extended them to all citizens. The military penal code requires that war crimes and violations of the Geneva Conventions be prosecuted only when defendants have close ties with the country. Normal civilian rules of evidence and procedure apply in military trials. The military penal code allows the appeal of any case, ultimately to the Military Supreme Court. Any licensed attorney may serve as a military defense counsel, but in most cases, defendants used attorneys assigned by the courts. Under military law the government pays for defense costs. Civilians charged with revealing military secrets, such as classified military documents or classified military locations and installations, may be tried in military courts. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Citizens have access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Persons who have exhausted domestic courts may also apply to the ECHR. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An Independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press The law penalizes public incitement to racial hatred or discrimination, spreading racist ideology, and denying crimes against humanity. There was at least one conviction during the year under this law. In June a district court found the president of the Bern Canton chapter of the Swiss Freedom Party guilty of racial discrimination for a February 2008 Internet blog posting in which he referred to asylum- seekers as ``primates.'' The court sentenced the individual to a suspended fine. A number of NGOs, politicians, and UN human rights experts raised concerns over a controversial poster campaign by supporters of the initiative to ban minarets. The poster depicted a woman in a burka and a Swiss flag with minarets reminiscent of missiles jutting out of it. Then-interior minister Pascal Couchepin acknowledged that the poster campaign was unnecessarily aggressive but stated that this was not sufficient reason to ban it. A number of cities outlawed the posters; others allowed them on grounds that laws governing freedom of expression protected them. On February 3, the Cantonal Justice Department of Graubuenden apologized to a shopkeeper of Davos who was forced by police to remove Tibetan literature and the Tibetan flag from her shopwindow during the visit of Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao to the World Economic Forum in 2008. It is a crime to publish information based on leaked ``secret official discussions.'' On September 17, the Zurich District Court acquitted two former employees of the Zurich Department of Social Affairs of this crime. The court acknowledged that the two employees had violated official secrecy by giving insider information to the press but determined, based on an earlier Federal Court ruling and an exception clause in the law, that this had been the only way to draw attention to a series of cases involving welfare abuse. On June 24, a court in Zurich fined two reporters for violating the law concerning leaked official discussions when they published secret information on an investigation related to the resignation of a former federal prosecutor. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored email or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by email. Internet access was widely available. According to statistics compiled by the International Telecommunications Union, 77 percent of the population used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--Authorities generally did not restrict academic freedom or cultural events. However, on September 29, authorities imposed a visa ban on the controversial ultranationalist Croatian singer Marko Perkovic, aka ``Thompson.'' Taking into account some of Perkovic's lyrics and behavior that many considered offensive at previous concerts, the Federal Office of Police reportedly was concerned that there would be violations of the country's antiracism law during a concert the singer planned to give in Kriens, Lucerne Canton. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. There is no official state church; however, most cantons provided financial support from tax revenues to at least one of three traditional denominations, Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, or Protestant. Each of the 26 cantons has its own regulations regarding the relationship between church and state. Foreign missionaries must obtain religious worker visas to work in the country. Such visas generally were granted. Islamic organizations have complained that authorities in many cantons and municipalities discriminated against Muslims by refusing zoning approval to build mosques, minarets, or Islamic cemeteries. Plans by some Islamic associations to build minarets next to their houses of worship in Wangen (Canton of Solothurn), Langenthal (Canton of Bern), and Wil (Canton of Sankt Gallen) provoked fierce political debates beyond the communities concerned. Despite opposition the minaret in Wangen was built and inaugurated on June 27. The minarets were symbolic; none of them was designed for use by a muezzin or as a source for broadcasting a call to prayer. In a November 29 referendum, 57.5 percent of the voters approved a constitutional amendment banning the construction of minarets throughout the country. This followed several years of unsuccessful efforts by leaders in the Swiss People's Party and the Federal Democratic Union to hold similar referenda on a canton-by-canton basis, efforts the cantonal parliaments regularly rejected as unconstitutional. The binding referendum passed despite opposition to it by majorities in both parliament and the Federal Council and public statements by many of the country's leaders describing such a ban as contradicting basic values in the country's constitution and violating its international obligations; it resulted in an addition to the constitution: ``The building of minarets is prohibited.'' This addition had no effect on the four existing minarets or on building, or worshipping in, mosques. The country's laws penalize public incitement to racial hatred or discrimination, spreading racist ideology, and denying crimes against humanity. The law does not name anti-Semitism, Holocaust denial, or other specific offenses; however, convictions under this legislation have included anti-Semitism and Holocaust denial. In advance of the referendum on the banning of minarets, and with reference to the law against incitement to racial hatred or discrimination, some cantons prohibited the display of a poster supporting the ban that depicted a woman in a burka together with a Swiss flag that had minarets reminiscent of missiles jutting out of it. Other localities permitted them, arguing that they were protected by laws governing freedom of expression. The Department of the Interior's Federal Service for the Combating of Racism sponsored a variety of educational and awareness-building projects to combat racism, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were isolated reports of societal abuse and discrimination, but the extent to which these instances were based on religious belief and practice or on ethnicity and culture was difficult to determine. Some observers remained concerned about the climate for members of religious minorities, particularly Muslims and Jews. According to the 2000 census, the most recent official data available, there were 17,914 members of the Jewish community, constituting 0.24 percent of the population. The Geneva-based Intercommunity Center for Coordination against anti-Semitism and Defamation (CICAD) recorded 96 anti-Semitic incidents in the western, French-speaking, part of the country in 2008 compared with 38 in 2007. They ranged from verbal and written assaults to offensive graffiti and acts of vandalism against Jewish property. The Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities assessed that incidents increased in the German- speaking part of the country as well. On the night of January 11, unknown persons destroyed the front window of a Jewish study center in Geneva. According to the CICAD secretary general, this was clearly an anti-Semitic act. Police continued investigating the incident at year's end. On March 2, according to CICAD, pro-Palestinian demonstrators targeted a Jewish fundraising event at the Kempinski Hotel in Geneva. They threw stones, gave Nazi salutes, and assaulted participants. Police apprehended the stone throwers. However, a spokesman for the police reportedly described the incident as a ``nonevent'' in which no more than three stones were thrown against the police officers. At year's end no additional information was available regarding the status of the police investigation into a 2007 incident in which a 23- year-old Muslim man entered the Islamic Center in Crissier near Lausanne and fired several shots, seriously injuring a 43-year-old worshiper. The law penalizes public incitement to racial hatred or discrimination, spreading racist ideology, and denying crimes against humanity, and there have been convictions under this legislation for anti-Semitism and historical revisionism, including Holocaust denial, in earlier years. Proponents of the November 29 initiative to ban minarets contended that the construction of minarets symbolized a religious and political claim to power that called into question the country's secular legal system. However, many non-Muslim religious organizations called for the initiative's defeat and expressed regret over its ultimate passage. The Federal Council made its opposition to the banning of minarets clear throughout the year, issuing public statements describing the initiative as an infringement on ``guaranteed international human rights'' and contradicting ``core values'' of the Federal Constitution. A number of NGOs, politicians, and UN human rights experts raised concerns over a controversial poster campaign by supporters of the anti-minaret initiative. The poster depicted a woman in a burka and a Swiss flag with minarets reminiscent of missiles. Then-interior minister Pascal Couchepin said that the poster campaign was unnecessarily aggressive but that this was not sufficient reason to ban it. A number of cities outlawed the posters. Religious education is part of the public school curriculum in all cantons except for Geneva and Neuchatel. Authorities may exempt children from these courses upon request of their parents. Schools normally offer classes in Catholic and Protestant doctrines; some also cover the doctrines of other religious groups active in the country. A number of cantons have supplemented or replaced traditional classes in Christian doctrine with nonconfessional teachings about religion and culture. The country is a member of the Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and to the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The Federal Office for Migration relied on a list of ``safe countries,'' and would-be refugees who originated in, or transited, these countries generally were ineligible to apply for asylum. NGOs criticized the inclusion in the ``safe countries'' list of some countries in Eastern Europe and Africa that they considered not sufficiently stable to justify automatic rejection. During the year, the government received asylum requests involving 16,005 persons. Authorities adjudicated 17,326 cases, and granted refugee status or asylum to 2,622 persons. The government required asylum applicants to present documentation verifying their identity within 48 hours of completing their applications, and authorities refused to process the applications of asylum seekers who were unable to provide a credible justification for their lack of acceptable documents or to show evidence of persecution. Authorities could detain uncooperative asylum seekers, subject to judicial review, for up to six months while adjudicating their applications. They could detain rejected applicants for up to three months to ensure their departure or up to 18 months if repatriation posed special obstacles. They could detain minors 15 to 18 years of age for up to 12 months pending repatriation; however, rejected asylum seekers generally were not detained, nor were they removed from the country. They were instructed to leave voluntarily. If they refused to return voluntarily, they could be forcibly repatriated. Amnesty International and other NGOs working with refugees continued to complain that detained asylum seekers often effectively were denied proper legal representation in deportation cases because they lacked the financial means to obtain an attorney. Authorities provided free legal assistance only in cases of serious criminal offenses. The deportation of asylum seekers is an administrative, rather than judicial, process. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol and provided it to 4,053 persons during the year; there were 22,958 individuals with temporary protection status in the country at the end of 2008. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2007 citizens chose a new Federal Assembly in free and fair elections. Political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. There were 68 women in the 246-seat Federal Assembly and three women in the seven-seat Federal Council (cabinet). The proportion of female representatives in cantonal legislatures remained 24 percent. Women held approximately one fifth of the seats in cantonal executive bodies. There was one member of an ethnic minority in the 200-seat National Council, the lower house of the Federal Assembly. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. Members of the Federal Assembly must disclose their financial interests, professional activities, supervisory board or executive body memberships, and expert or consulting activities every year. Investigating and prosecuting government corruption is a federal responsibility. A majority of cantons also require members of cantonal parliament to disclose their interests. A joint working group consisting of representatives of various federal government agencies works under the leadership of the federal Department of Foreign Affairs to combat corruption. The constitution requires the government to inform the public about its activities, and government information was available to all persons living in the country, including foreign media. A transparency law provides for public access to government documents. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and permitted visits by UN and other international representatives. In October a government delegation met with the UN Human Rights Committee to discuss the country's third report on its implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In September ECRI published its fourth monitoring cycle report on the country following an ECRI visit in 2008. In July the government presented its third periodic report on implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. There was no national ombudsman. In its concluding observations, addressing the country's implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, published in October, the UN Human Rights Committee expressed concern that authorities had not established a national institution with broad competence in the area of human rights, in accordance with the Paris Principles. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status. The government generally enforced these prohibitions effectively. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is a statutory offense, and the government effectively prosecuted those accused of such crimes. In 2008 police recorded 612 instances of rape (compared with 648 in 2007) and 429 prosecutions (compared with 571 in 2007). Violence against women was a problem. The Federal Office of Public Health published a survey in 2008 showing that 80 percent of victims of domestic violence had suffered previous assaults. Domestic violence is a statutory offense. A court may order an abusive spouse to leave the family home as a temporary measure. Stalking is also an offense. Victims of domestic violence could obtain help, counseling, and legal assistance from specialized government agencies and NGOs or from nearly a dozen hotlines sponsored privately or by local, cantonal, and national authorities. In 2007 a total of 1,132 women and 993 children spent a cumulative 60,115 nights in 17 women's shelters across the country. Although shelters experienced an average of 70 percent occupancy, in the cantons of Basel, Bern, and Zurich, half of the applicants for shelter reportedly had to be turned away, mostly due to a lack of space or adequate staff for dealing with severely traumatized individuals. The Interior Ministry's Federal Office for Equality between Women and Men has a special unit that focuses on domestic violence. Most cantonal police forces had specially trained domestic violence units. A majority of cantons also had special administrative units coordinating the activities of law enforcement agencies, prosecutors, and victim assistance groups. Forced marriage is illegal, but it reportedly occurred, mainly in less integrated immigrant families, making detection and prosecution difficult. Its extent was unknown. Most prostitution is legal; however, street prostitution is illegal except in specially designated areas in the major cities. Police estimates from 1999, the latest nationwide data available, indicated that approximately 14,000 persons were engaged in prostitution. Information from individual cantons suggested that the number has increased since then. The law prohibits sexual harassment and facilitates access to legal remedies for those who claim discrimination or harassment in the workplace; however, special legal protection against the dismissal of a claimant is only temporary. Employers failing to take reasonable measures to prevent sexual harassment are liable for damages equal to as much as six months' salary. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Health clinics and local health NGOs operated freely in disseminating information on family planning. There were no restrictions on access to contraceptives and these measures were used widely. Compulsory basic health insurance covered the cost of routine examination during pregnancy and the costs related to childbirth. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women enjoy the same rights as men under the constitution, including in family law, property law, and in the judicial system; however, independent observers claimed that some laws, as interpreted by the courts, were discriminatory. For example, the Federal Tribunal ruled that the primary wage earner in a divorce must be left with sufficient income to remain above the poverty level. Since the primary wage earner in most marriages was the man, if the household income was too low to support both parties, the wife and children could be forced to resort to public assistance. The Federal Office for Equality between Women and Men and the Federal Commission on Women worked to eliminate both direct and indirect gender discrimination. Many cantons and some large cities have equality offices to handle gender issues. Discrimination against women in the workplace is illegal, but women disproportionately held jobs with lower levels of responsibility. Women were promoted less frequently than men and were less likely to own or manage businesses. Under the constitution, women and men are entitled to equal pay for equal work; however, women's gross salaries were on average more than 19 percent lower than salaries for men. On March 2, the government initiated a nationwide campaign to promote equal pay and combat gender discrimination at the workplace. As part of the five-year project, the government, employers' organizations, and trade unions urged companies to review their salary systems. Children.--Citizenship derives from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Child abuse was a problem. In 2008 there were 3,504 reported cases of sexual assault against children compared with 4,243 in 2007. Most of the victims were girls younger than 18. Most abuse took place in the family or the immediate social environment. The production, possession, distribution, or downloading from the Internet of pornography involving children is illegal and carries heavy fines or a maximum sentence of a year in prison. On September 23, the Council of States followed the National Council in approving a motion demanding that ``child grooming,'' actions by an adult to form a relationship with a child with intent to have sexual contact, be made a punishable offense. The Council of States also approved a law making virtual depictions of child pornography illegal. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is illegal, but there were reports that the practice occurred. The UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) estimated that there were nearly 7,000 circumcised women and girls in the country as a result of immigration from areas where FGM is practiced. UNICEF continued its efforts to raise awareness of FGM. On September 29, the Federal Office of Police announced that in the previous 12 months, approximately 12 cases of suspected child sex tourism were reported on a Web site it established in 2008 to enable travel agencies and individuals to report suspicious travel. The federal police forwarded relevant information to the competent municipal, cantonal, or international police offices for further investigation. With limited exceptions, the law designates 16 as the minimum age of consensual sex. The maximum penalty for statutory rape is imprisonment for 10 years. A report issued on September 1 by the NGO Swiss Monitoring Body for the Rights of Asylum and Alien Law alleged that authorities often overlooked the needs and well-being of children when they were implementing the asylum and foreigner law. For example, the report indicated that, upon the expulsion of their parents, some children who had grown up in the country and were integrated fully into the country's life were forced to move to countries with which they had no connection. The Federal Office of Migration rejected the accusation and stated that government officials gave careful consideration to cases involving children ages 14 to 17 who were well-integrated into society. Trafficking in Persons.--The penal code prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes and provides for extraterritorial jurisdiction; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country and forced into prostitution or domestic servitude. The country was a destination and, to a lesser extent, a transit point for women and children trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Officials estimated the number of trafficking victims within the country to be a few hundred a year. Federal police assessed that potential trafficking victims numbered between 1,500 and 3,000. According to authorities, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine, Moldova, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Thailand, Cambodia, Nigeria, and Cameroon were the primary countries of origin during the year. The great majority of trafficking victims were women trafficked primarily for purposes of sexual exploitation, although trafficking for domestic servitude also occurred. Traffickers were mainly individuals and small groups related through ethnic, clan, or family ties and, occasionally, organized criminals. Trafficking of ethnic Romani minors, who reportedly were introduced from other European countries to various cities to beg and commit petty theft, was a rising concern of authorities. Trafficking in persons is punishable by a prison sentence of up to 20 years, and coercing a person into prostitution by up to 10 years. In 2007 authorities convicted 20 persons of trafficking in persons and forcing others into prostitution. The highest sentence given to a convicted trafficker was four years in prison; however, the majority of convicted traffickers received suspended sentences. The Coordination Unit against Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants, which is part of the Federal Office of Police, hired additional staff and coordinated and monitored all antitrafficking efforts, including those of a federal interagency task force. Authorities were active in international law enforcement activities and took the lead in coordinating several international trafficking investigations. The government continued its victim protection efforts during the year. The federal and cantonal governments established some systems for human trafficking identification, and 13 of the 26 cantons had their own formal procedures for victim identification and referral. NGOs suggested that centrally determined standards for how individual cantons are to provide assistance to victims would be useful. Trafficking victims had access to free and immediate medical, psychological, and legal assistance in coordination with government- and NGO-funded victim assistance centers or battered women's shelters. Special protective measures were available for juvenile trafficking victims. On January 1, the victim assistance law was amended to provide incentives to victim assistance centers that tailor programs for trafficking victims. The government reported assisting 128 trafficking victims in 2007. The government continued a pilot program, begun in April 2008, to assist victims with repatriation to their home countries. The government funded several antitrafficking information and education campaigns around the world. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs continued to provide specialized training to its consular staff and to distribute trafficking awareness information to visa applicants in local languages. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment, education, health care, and other state services and the prohibition was generally enforced. The law mandates access to public buildings and government services for persons with disabilities, and the government generally enforced these provisions in practice. The Federal Equal Opportunity Office for Persons with Disabilities promoted awareness of the law and respect for the rights of the disabled through counseling and financial support for projects to facilitate their integration in society and the labor market. The government continued a three-year pilot project to empower persons with severe disabilities to live on their own. NGOs acting on behalf of persons with disabilities appealed to the Federal Supreme Court against decisions in the cantons of Zug and Zurich to reject some citizenship applications because of the applicants' mental disabilities. Cantonal officials reportedly based their decisions on the assumption that the applicants did not have the required mental capabilities to understand the importance and consequences of naturalization or that the applicants would be dependent on social welfare. On January 23, the Federal Supreme Court ruled that a municipality in Zurich had to grant citizenship to an applicant from Angola with mental disabilities. In December 2008 on the occasion of the International Day of Disabled Persons, the Federal Statistics Office released the results of a study indicating that 64 percent of persons with disabilities participated in the labor market. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Right-wing extremists, including skinheads, who expressed hostility toward foreigners, ethnic and religious minorities, and immigrants continued to be publicly active; police estimated that their numbers remained steady at approximately 1,200. Statistics gathered by the Foundation against Racism and anti-Semitism indicated that the total number of reported incidents against foreigners or minorities was 93 in 2008, down from the 136 incidents recorded in 2007. These figures included instances of verbal and written attacks, which were much more frequent than physical assaults. Many of the violent incidents were clashes between right- and left-wing extremist groups. On July 9, the Federal Commission against Racism released a report analyzing 2008 feedback from the consulting network for victims of racism. According to the conclusions of the report, racism and xenophobia were general societal problems and occurred in all areas of life. On May 1, a local newspaper reported that police officers from Geneva had written remarks such as ``beggar'' or ``controlled for beggary'' on passports of Romanian Roma. According to Dina Bazarbachi, President of the Association for the Rights of Roma People, half of the Roma in Geneva have such remarks in their passports. The director of the cantonal Justice Department subsequently announced that the actions of the police officers were totally unacceptable and illegal, and the city of Geneva would pay for replacement passports. The extreme, xenophobic Party of Nationally Oriented Swiss (PNOS) continued to be the subject of judicial action. On January 29, the district court of Aargau Canton upheld the verdict, but lowered the fines, of five PNOS board members who had been convicted of racial discrimination in 2007. They were accused of distributing a pocket diary with anti-Semitic content and publishing on the Internet a party program that denigrated foreigners. The Jenisch are recognized by the government as a minority group under the Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of the Council of Europe (COE). While the large majority of the 30-35,000 Jenisch in the country were settled, the Roma European Rights Center reported that representatives of the several thousand who continued to pursue an itinerant lifestyle urged the government to carry out its promises to create new campsites and parking areas for them. A lack of proper camping facilities and transit areas reportedly forced many Jenisch to occupy land illegally. The federal government allocated 750,000 francs ($728,000) for measures and projects between 2007 and 2011 to improve living conditions for the Jenisch. In its September report on the country, ECRI expressed concern that, ``despite the consensus regarding the lack of sites, rather than increasing, their number has apparently even decreased in recent years.'' In September the COE's European Commission against Racism and Intolerance reported that racism was widespread in the country, despite authorities' continuing efforts to end discrimination. The Department of the Interior's Federal Service for Combating Racism sponsored a variety of educational and awareness-building projects to combat racism, xenophobia, and anti-Semitism. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination based on sexual orientation. From May 2 to June 7, Euro-Pride, Europe's largest festival for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered persons, took place in Zurich. Although some conservative religious organizations submitted a petition against the festival in 2008, the Zurich City Council did not intervene, and the festival attracted over 100,000 people celebrating the 40-year anniversary of the Pride movement. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were occasional reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law permits all workers, including foreigners, to form and join independent unions of their choice without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. Approximately 25 percent of the workforce was unionized. The government may curtail the right of federal public servants to strike, but only for reasons of national security or safeguarding foreign policy interests. Public servants in some cantons and many municipalities are prohibited from going on strike. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. However, collective bargaining agreements commit the social partners to maintaining labor peace, limiting the right to strike for the duration of the agreement, which is generally several years. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Authorities effectively enforced the laws protecting collective bargaining. Collective bargaining agreements covered approximately 50 percent of the work force. Trade union leaders criticized the absence of a legal requirement obliging employers to offer reinstatement to an employee who is found to be dismissed unjustly. The law provides that a worker found to have been illegally dismissed is entitled to maximum compensation of up to six months' wages. Trade union leaders complained that this penalty was insufficient to deter abusive dismissals of union activists. According a survey by the International Trade Union Confederation released during the year, an increasing number of employers attempted to obtain court orders barring trade unions from workplaces. The retail chain Migros sought to charge visiting trade union members in Migros shops with trespassing. There were no reports that these charges were successful. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Women were trafficked for sexual exploitation and domestic labor; there were isolated reports of trafficking in children. Trafficked women often were forced into prostitution; in many cases, they were subjected to physical and sexual violence, encouraged toward drug addiction, and incarcerated. Many victims were forced to work in salons or clubs. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were isolated reports of trafficking in children (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons.). The minimum age for fulltime employment is 15 years. Children 13 and 14 years of age may be employed in light duties for not more than nine hours per week during the school year and 15 hours at other times. The employment of youths from the ages of 15 through 18 is also restricted, and cantonal inspectorates strictly regulated these provisions. Children are not permitted to work at night, on Sundays, or in hazardous conditions. The Economics Ministry monitored the implementation of child labor laws and policies, but actual enforcement was the responsibility of the cantonal labor inspectorates; government officials inspected companies to determine whether there were violations of the child labor laws. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There was no national minimum wage, which resulted in relatively low average wages for workers and employees in the clothing, hospitality, and retail industries. A majority of the voluntary collective bargaining agreements, reached on a sector-by-sector basis, contained clauses on minimum compensation, ranging from 2,200 to 4,200 francs ($2,100 to $4,100) per month for unskilled workers and 2,800 to 5,300 francs ($2,700 to $5,100) per month for skilled employees. These wages generally provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. According to government statistics published in April, 92 percent of nearly 15,000 employers inspected, including both those participating in collective agreements and those who reached wage agreements in other ways, complied with their obligations concerning wages. The wage differences between local and foreign workers varied significantly according to their level of skills and their residence status. Skilled short-term resident foreigners earned approximately 1,235 francs ($1,198) more, and skilled resident foreigners were paid approximately 2,256 francs ($2,188) more, than citizens. The only exceptions were skilled cross-border commuters, who earned nearly as much as comparable Swiss workers. In contrast unskilled resident foreigners earned approximately 616 francs ($598) less, short-term resident foreigners approximately 1045 francs ($1,014) less, and cross- border commuters approximately 279 francs (approximately $271) less than unskilled local employees. The law sets a maximum 45-hour workweek for blue- and white-collar workers in industry, services, and retail trades, and a 50-hour workweek for all other workers. The law prescribes a rest period of 35 consecutive hours plus an additional half-day per week. Premium pay for overtime must be at least 25 percent; overtime is generally restricted to two hours per day. Annual overtime is limited by law to 170 hours for those working 45 hours a week and to 140 hours for those working 50 hours a week. The government effectively enforced these regulations. The law contains extensive provisions to protect worker health and safety. The Economics Ministry and cantonal labor inspectorates effectively enforced the law. Workers have the right to remove themselves from work situations that endanger health or safety without jeopardy to their continued employment, and the authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ TURKEY Turkey, with a population of approximately 72 million, is a constitutional republic with a multiparty parliamentary system and a president with limited powers. In a 2007 referendum a majority of voters approved the direct popular election of future presidents for a maximum of two five-year terms. Just prior to the referendum, the single-chamber parliament, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, elected Abdullah Gul as president. The country held parliamentary elections in 2007 that were considered free and fair; the Justice and Development Party (AKP) won the majority of seats and formed a one-party government under Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were reports of a number of human rights problems and abuses in the country. Security forces committed unlawful killings; the number of arrests and prosecutions in these cases was low compared with the number of incidents, and convictions remained rare. During the year human rights organizations reported cases of torture, beatings, and abuse by security forces. Prison conditions improved but remained poor, with chronic overcrowding and insufficient staff training. Law enforcement officials did not always provide detainees immediate access to attorneys as required by law. There were reports that some officials in the elected government and state bureaucracy at times made statements that some observers believed influenced the independence of the judiciary. The overly close relationship of judges and prosecutors continued to hinder the right to a fair trial. Excessively long trials were a problem. The government limited freedom of expression through the use of constitutional restrictions and numerous laws and through the application of tax fines against media conglomerates. There were limitations on Internet freedom. Courts and an independent board ordered telecommunications providers to block access to websites on numerous occasions. Some religious groups were restricted from practicing their religion openly, owning property, and training leaders. Violence against women, including honor killings and rape, remained a widespread problem. Child marriage persisted, despite laws prohibiting it. Some cases of official corruption contributed to trafficking in persons for labor and sexual exploitation. The government amended the penal code on June 26 to prohibit trials of civilians in military courts. There were also positive developments during the year with respect to freedom of expression and the use of Kurdish and other non-Turkish languages, including the following: a substantial decrease in the number of prosecutions and convictions based on article 301, which prohibits insults to the ``Turkish state''; the formal launch of a 24-hour Kurdish-language state television station on January 1; broadcasts in Armenian on state television for half an hour twice a day on April 2; new regulations on November 13 allowing for 24-hour private television stations to broadcast in languages other than Turkish; new prison regulations in November allowing prisoners to speak languages other than Turkish with their visitors; and approval in September of a university department to teach the Kurdish language among other ``living'' languages. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, security forces killed a number of persons during the year. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) Human Rights Foundation (HRF) reported that security forces caused the deaths of seven persons during demonstrations. On February 15, Sinan Aydin died after exposure to tear gas during a demonstration in Diyarbakir. On April 4, police shot and killed Mahsum Karaoglan and Mustafa Dag during a demonstration in Halfeti, Sanliurfa. On December 6, university student Aydin Erdem was shot and killed while participating in a demonstration in Diyarbakir. Investigations continued in these cases at year's end. Yahya Menekse died after being run over by an armored police vehicle during a demonstration in Cizre, Sirnak, in February 2008. There were no new developments in the case at year's end. After a July 16 hearing, the case of the death of Mehmet Deniz during a clash between demonstrators and security forces at a demonstration to mark World Women's Day in 2008 continued at year's end. The prosecutor opened a case against a police officer for causing the death. The police claimed that Deniz was killed by a stone thrown by a demonstrator. At year's end a criminal case had not been filed in the police shooting and killing of Zeki Erinc during Nevruz celebrations in 2008. The HRF reported that a criminal case could not be filed until the administrative case, which the organization noted was moving very slowly, had ended. There were continuing reports that security forces shot and killed civilians who refused to obey a warning to stop. A joint report from the Human Rights Association (HRA) and HRF stated that 46 persons died specifically for refusing to stop, an increase over the previous year. Human rights organizations continued to state that the government's failure to delineate clearly appropriate situations for the use of lethal force, in the revised Antiterror Law or other laws, contributed to cases of disproportionate use of force. On May 28, police officer Mustafa Aktas was convicted and sentenced to five years' imprisonment for the 2008 killing of Gokhan Ergun for not obeying a warning to stop. The HRF reported that there had been no investigation into the August 2008 death of driver Turan Ozdemir for refusing an order to stop. On January 21, the government began its prosecution of 60 suspects, including wardens, police officers, and a prison director, in the death of Engin Ceber, who died of a brain hemorrhage in October 2008, reportedly as a result of a beating by security forces during his detention and later by prison officials in jail. Justice Ministry inspectors submitted a report to the court in November recommending eight wardens be expelled from public service and reprimands be issued to four prison administrators and 41 wardens. Six of the suspects were placed under arrest, and the case continued at year's end. After an appeal of the Istanbul prosecutor's December 2008 decision to close the investigation of seven police officers suspected in the death of Mustafa Kurkcu in Umraniye prison in 2007 from cerebral hemorrhaging, the court reopened the case. The trial of nine police officers began on July 9. The police officers did not appear for trial at the first hearing and were brought to court by force to testify on October 20. The trial continued at year's end. As of year's end no developments were reported in the case of Ejder Demir, an ethnic Kurd whom security forces shot and killed in 2007 in the Asagi Kockiran village in eastern Van Province. An NGO delegation that visited the town after his death reported claims that soldiers shot Demir in the back without warning; government officials maintained that Demir was trying to flee when shot. After a December hearing, the case continued at year's end. On April 9, a Bakirkoy court convicted police officer Ali Mutlu for the 2007 death of Feyzullah Ete in Istanbul. Mutlu was given five years' imprisonment. The HRF reported 33 deaths of prison inmates and five deaths in detention through December 1. According to the Ministry of Justice, 116 inmates died of sickness during the year and 34 committed suicide. The Turkish General Staff reported there were no deaths of detainees or convicts in military prisons during the year. In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) found 11 violations by the country of the European Convention on Human Rights with regard to right to life or involving the deprivation of life. The case against an officer from the Beyoglu District of Istanbul for the 2007 killing of Nigerian refugee Festus Okey continued at year's end. Okey died in a police station during interrogation by the officer, who allegedly had a gun. The Beyoglu penal court was requesting information to confirm his identity from the government of Nigeria at year's end. Some human rights activists saw this as a delaying tactic by the courts. According to the security forces (military, Jandarma, and the Turkish National Police (TNP), 36 civilians were killed and 115 were injured, 77 members of the security forces were killed and 385 were injured, and 105 terrorists were killed and five were injured in armed clashes related to the struggle against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) during the year. Most of the clashes between terrorists and security forces occurred in the southeast. The numbers of civilian deaths and injuries decreased from 2008. According to the HRF land mines and unattended explosives killed nine civilians and injured 26 during the year, a decline from the previous year. On several occasions throughout the year government military aircraft attacked areas controlled by the PKK in northern Iraq. b. Disappearance.--Unlike in 2008, there were no reports of politically motivated disappearances during the year. The HRF determined that human rights activist Hasan Onay, reported missing in 2008, had fled the country to live abroad. At year's end there was no development in the 2007 case of Enver Elbat. Elbat's father reported that his son had been detained for 12 years. He alleged the police told him to look for Elbat in the mountains when he requested more information about his son's disappearance. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, members of the security forces continued to torture, beat, and abuse persons. Human rights organizations continued to report cases of torture and abuse in detention centers and prisons during the year. They alleged that torture and abuse had moved outside of detention centers and into more informal venues where it was harder to document. In a 2008 report, Amnesty International (AI) noted that investigations into human rights violations by police were flawed and that prosecutions remained insufficient. AI also noted that statements allegedly extracted under torture were admitted as evidence in court. The HRF reported that courts investigated allegations of abuse and torture by security forces during the year; however, they rarely convicted or punished offenders. Authorities typically allowed officers accused of abuse to remain on duty during their trials. In its October progress report, the European Commission reported that countercases for resisting arrest frequently initiated by security forces against persons who allege torture or abuse had a potentially deterrent effect on the filing of abuse complaints. A 2008 report by the parliamentary Human Rights Investigation Commission found that, between 2003 and 2008, 2 percent of the 2,140 personnel who were investigated due to accusations of torture or mistreatment were given disciplinary sentences. The TNP reported 11 cases of torture allegations (two were acquitted and nine were dropped by the judiciary for lack of evidence) and opened administrative and judicial investigations against 104 personnel (68 received no punishment and 36 cases continued at year's end). As of November, no cases of prosecution against alleged torture suspects resulted in conviction or firing. According to a report by the Prime Ministry's Human Rights Presidency (HRP), three torture and 54 cruel treatment cases were reported in the first six months of the year. According to the HRA there were 655 reports of torture in the first nine months of the year, an increase over the previous year. The HRF reported that, in the first eight months of year, 283 persons applied to the HRF's centers for assistance. Of these, 111 cases involved torture or abuse inflicted during the year; the rest involved alleged abuse incidents that occurred previously. A number of human rights observers claimed that only a small percentage of detainees reported torture and abuse because most feared retaliation or believed that complaining was futile. In an October 2008 report the NGO Societal and Legal Research Foundation (TOHAV) reported an increase in torture cases during 2008. Based on a study of 275 surveys from individuals who submitted credible reports of torture from 2006 through 2008, TOHAV found that 210 of the victims were ethnic Kurds, 55 ethnic Turks, and 10 ethnic Arabs. Fifteen of the victims claimed they were abused in a police car, 83 in open fields, and 76 in police stations. Only 70 of the torture allegations resulted in criminal complaints, and only five of those resulted in court cases. The Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) and domestic human rights observers reported in 2008 that security officials mainly used methods of torture and abuse that did not leave physical signs, including repeated slapping, exposing detainees to cold, stripping and blindfolding detainees, food and sleep deprivation, threatening detainees or their family members, dripping water on detainees' heads, isolation, and mock executions. Human rights activists, attorneys, and physicians who treated victims stated that, because of increased punishments for torture and abuse, police who engaged in these practices often did so outside of police detention centers to avoid detection. The CPT visited during the year but had not published a report by year's end. Human rights activists maintained that those arrested for ordinary crimes were as likely to suffer torture and mistreatment in detention as those arrested for political offenses such as speaking out against the government, although they were less likely to report abuse. According to a number of human rights groups and press reports, authorities allegedly tortured some suspects to obtain confessions, while others such as transvestites were regularly subject to abuse by police on ``moral'' grounds. At year's end the trial continued against police officer Gazi Ozuak from the Van Security Directorate on charges of torturing theft suspect Zeki Simsek in 2008. Simsek claimed that he had been tortured with nails and cigarettes during his interrogation and that the mistreatment was verified by a medical report by the Van State Hospital. While awaiting trial, Ozuak was promoted into the Ankara Antiterror Department. On May 8, the Bakirkoy penal court continued the case against seven police officers for the 2007 shooting and paralysis of Ferhat Gercek while he was selling Yuruyus, a leftist newspaper. Gercek's trial for resisting arrest, which carried a possible punishment of up to 15 years and four months' imprisonment, continued at year's end. No action had been taken at year's end in the 2008 case of Derya Bakir, who suffered fractures in both legs due to alleged cruel treatment by 20 guards while visiting her brother, held at the Ankara Sincan prison for being a member of a leftist organization. At year's end no official action had been taken against officials for the 2008 beating with sticks and kicking of three prisoners in Bolu prison, Muzaffer Akengin, Deniz Guzel, and Naif Bal. In 2008 the ECHR found 30 violations by the country of the prohibition against cruel and degrading treatment and three violations of the prohibition against torture as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. At year's end there was still no investigation into the 2007 criminal complaint filed by a Diyarbakir woman alleging that police tortured her while she was visiting her detained husband at a police station. At year's end there was still no investigation into the 2007 alleged police beating in Istanbul of Sinan Tekpetek, a leader of 52 Percent, a group that protests the country's university entrance examination system, and editor of 52 Percent Anger magazine and Ozgur Hayat (Free Life) newspaper. Tekpetek alleged that police officers sprayed him with tear gas and beat him during a traffic stop, then drove him to a field where they continued to beat him before driving away and throwing him out of the moving car. Human rights organizations documented many cases of prison guards beating inmates during the year. After an investigation the government conducted decided no charges should be filed against officials who allegedly tortured two boys ages 17 and 18 while they were imprisoned for 10 days on allegations, later withdrawn, that they had committed rape in a boys' shelter in 2007. The government conducted an investigation and decided no charges should be filed against a team of guards at Kirikkale prison who were alleged to have severely beaten and mistreated two prisoners after they were transferred to Kirikkale from Sincan prison in 2007. In November the Malatya penal court sentenced nine women each to three years and one month in prison, and one woman for four years and two months in prison in the criminal trial of 12 orphanage employees accused of abusing children at the Malatya State Orphanage in 2005. Two other women were acquitted for lack of evidence. The Malatya penal court had previously sentenced eight orphanage employees to one year in prison for ``neglecting their duties'' but postponed execution of the sentence in March 2008. The investigations began in 2005 when the media showed footage of employees beating naked orphanage children, some of whom alleged they had been forced to eat excrement. A physical examination produced evidence that 21 of 46 children had been subjected to torture, including severe beatings and hot water burns. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison facilities remained inadequate although conditions generally improved during the year. Underfunding, overcrowding, and insufficient staff training were problems. At year's end the Ministry of Justice reported the country had 367 prisons with a designed capacity of 105,726 holding a total of 114,502 inmates, 59,474 of whom were detainees awaiting trial. The Turkish General Staff reported 25 military prisons with a capacity of 5,300 held a total of 1,036 prisoners, 678 of whom were arrestees with trials in progress. According to the Turkish Medical Doctors' Association, prisons were not adequately staffed with doctors, and psychologists were available only at some of the largest prisons. Several inmates claimed they were denied appropriate medical treatment for serious illness. The HRF reported that 672 arrestees or convicts could not receive proper medical treatment during the year because they were either not sent to a doctor or taken to a doctor in handcuffs, or because third parties were present during their examinations. Foreigners who claimed asylum after being detained by security forces were held in ``guest houses for foreigners'' operated by the Foreigners' Department of the TNP. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), detained asylum seekers reported insufficient food and medical attention and overcrowded conditions. Juveniles were held in separate wards from adults. Detainees and convicts occasionally were held together. Inmates convicted for nonviolent, speech-related offenses were sometimes held in high- security prisons. The Justice Ministry reported that as of October 31, there were 2,622 children in prisons. A joint HRA/HRF report claimed that 177 of these were ethnic Kurdish children held under antiterror laws for throwing stones at police during pro-PKK protests in the southeast. The government permitted prison visits by representatives of some international organizations, such as the CPT, which conducted a periodic visit to the country on June 4-17. Domestic human rights organizations and activists reported that prison-monitoring boards composed of government officials and private individuals were ineffective. On November 17, five inmates were transferred to the Imrali prison, where PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan had been the sole prisoner for the past 10 years. Ocalan was moved to a different cell a few inches smaller than his old one but with a toilet in an adjacent corner and an extra window. He was given access to the outdoors for exercise and a prison shop. He was allowed regular contact with the other prisoners for 10 hours each week. In 2007 the Ministry of Justice issued a regulation that restricted the ability of members of parliament, except for those on the Human Rights Committee, to visit inmates who were convicted of terrorism or violations against the constitution and state. According to government sources, officials adopted the regulation to prevent possible attempts by the pro-Kurdish former Democratic Society Party (DTP) deputies to visit Abdullah Ocalan. Human rights activists called the measure undemocratic and argued that reducing parliamentarians' access to prisons would diminish oversight of continuing problems, such as torture. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, the government at times did not observe these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The TNP, under Ministry of Interior control, is responsible for security in large urban areas. The Jandarma, paramilitary forces under the joint control of the Ministry of Interior and the military, is responsible for policing rural areas. The Jandarma is also responsible for specific border sectors where smuggling is common; however, the military had overall responsibility for border control. Human rights groups reported that judicial police, established to take direction from prosecutors during investigations, continued to report to the Ministry of Interior. A civil defense force known as the village guards, concentrated in the southeast, was less professional and disciplined than other security forces. The village guards have been accused repeatedly in past years of drug trafficking, corruption, theft, rape, and other abuses. Inadequate oversight and compensation contributed to the problem, and in many cases Jandarma allegedly protected village guards from prosecution. Although security forces were generally considered effective, the village guards, Jandarma, and police special forces were viewed as most responsible for abuses. Corruption and impunity remained serious problems. During the year, the government made progress in reforming the village guard system as required by a 2007 law which, according to government officials, is intended to gradually phase out the system through retirement while providing social support for village guards. It had reduced the number of village guards to 48, 276, from 63,000 in previous years. On May 4, a group of village guards attacked a wedding ceremony in Bilge, Mardin, killing 44 persons, including seven children, and injuring 10. While the motivation for the attack was reportedly personal, the attack was conducted with weapons provided to the assailants as village guards. Government officials immediately condemned the attack. Nine gunmen were arrested and two minors were tried separately. In June the nine gunmen were indicted for murder by the Mardin penal court. Each suspect faced life imprisonment for each count of murder. Later, for security reasons, the trial was moved to the Corum penal court. The trial continued at year's end. The TNP and Jandarma received specialized training in a number of areas, including human rights and counterterrorism. A total of 14,413 TNP personnel received training on human rights. According to the government, the military emphasized human rights in training for officers and noncommissioned officers. A total of 32 hours of human rights training is given to officers, NCOs, and Jandarma cadets. In some cases NGOs were invited to provide input or training to security forces during the year. The Jandarma reported that through November complaints were filed against 155 Jandarma personnel for excessive use of force and mistreatment. Of these, administrative action was taken against one, 47 were found to be ``baseless,'' four were duplicate complaints, and 97 remained under review at year's end. A total of 118 Jandarma personnel were expelled for various reasons during the year. The TNP reported that through November 63 judicial or administrative cases were opened against TNP personnel for excessive use of force and mistreatment. Investigations were dropped in 38 cases because there was ``no need to punish'' or ``no need to reach a decision.'' Twenty-four cases continued at year's end. On September 22, the Court of Appeals upheld the acquittal of a police officer who shot and killed a demonstrator who was throwing stones at a protest in Siirt in 2005. The court held that the officer used his weapon with ``understandable fear'' during a demonstration in which protestors had surrounded his vehicle and chanted terrorist propaganda. The Court of Appeals rejected the request of the Ministry of Justice to reduce the sentences of four police officers who were each sentenced to eight years in prison in 2007 for the 1991 torture and killing of Hacettepe University student Birtan Altinbas. Arrest and Detention.--Warrants issued by a prosecutor are required for arrests unless the suspect is caught in the commission of a crime. A suspect may be detained for 24 hours, with prosecutorial discretion to extend the period to 48 hours, excluding transportation time, before being arraigned by a judge. There is a functioning bail system. After arraignment, the judge may release the accused upon receipt of an appropriate assurance such as bail, or order detention if he determines that the accused is likely to flee the jurisdiction or destroy evidence. The law provides that detainees are entitled to immediate access to an attorney and to meet and confer with an attorney at any time. The law requires that the government provide indigent detainees with a public attorney in criminal cases where the defendant faces a penalty of more than five years in prison. Private attorneys and human rights monitors reported irregular implementation of these regulations, particularly with respect to attorney access. According to a number of local bar associations, attorney access for detainees continued to vary widely across the country. Numerous bar association representatives and human rights organizations reported that in urban areas most detainees consulted with attorneys soon after being detained, while in rural areas, particularly the southeast, there was a higher number of cases where defendants did not have immediate access to an attorney. Human rights observers noted that, in most cases where a defendant could not afford an attorney, one was provided; however, in terrorism- related cases an attorney was frequently not provided until after the suspect had been detained and interrogated by security forces. Provincial bar associations continued to face difficulties providing attorneys because the government was behind on compensation payments for such work. The HRA claimed that police often intimidated detainees who asked for attorneys, for example by telling them a court would assume they were guilty if they consulted an attorney during detention. Detainees were generally allowed prompt access to family members; however, human rights organizations reported difficulties in helping families find out whether a relative had been detained because the government refused to release such information to the organizations. In 2007 parliament amended the law significantly to expand the authority of security forces to search and detain a suspect. Under the amended law, police and Jandarma may compel citizens to declare their identities without any cause. The HRA stated that the expanded authority was contrary to legal and civil rights. During the year police routinely detained demonstrators for a few hours at a time. Police detained several hundred members of the former DTP and its successor Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) on various occasions. Police continued to detain and harass members of human rights organizations, media personnel, and human rights monitors. Police continued to detain persons on suspicion of ``membership in an illegal organization'' and for ``promoting terrorist propaganda.'' Lengthy pretrial detention was generally a problem. The law provides detainees the right to request speedy arraignment and trial; however, judges have ordered that some suspects be detained indefinitely, at times for long periods, without trial but with the right to see the judge each month. Throughout the year prosecutors in Istanbul continued to arrest and indict prominent military, business, and media personalities on charges of plotting to foment unrest and topple the elected government as members of a network known as ``Ergenekon.'' Prosecutors in Istanbul submitted one indictment in 2008 that was later combined with the indictment following the 2006 shooting in the Danistay (Council of State) and two additional indictments during the year that were later combined. The indictments included allegations that the group plotted assassinations of public figures, including religious leaders, as well as planned beatings and bombings of prominent individuals. A total of 250 persons were indicted by year's end. Some opposition politicians, members of the press, and critics of the government considered many of the indictments to be politically motivated. Others claimed that the arrests had reduced the fear and pressure on journalists and human rights activists across the country by removing threats against them. Members of the government and members of the press supportive of the government claimed that criticism of the trial was intended to pressure the courts and change government policies. Critics of the government pointed out that dozens of defendants were held without charge for several months before the release of indictments, although this was a common practice in the country. In December investigators were for the first time allowed to search military facilities for evidence in the Ergenekon investigation. High- level military figures including active colonels and retired generals testified in court. During the year, the Turkish General Staff (TGS) leadership generally cooperated with the Ergenekon investigation, although individual military members publicly expressed their misgivings about the proceedings. In 2008 the ECHR found 64 violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judiciary was occasionally subject to outside influence. There were reports of judicial corruption. The law prohibits the government from issuing orders or recommendations concerning the exercise of judicial power; however, the government on occasion launched formal investigations against judges who criticized the government. The High Council of Judges and Prosecutors was widely criticized for undermining the independence of the judiciary. The Justice Minister serves as chairman of the seven-member council, and the undersecretary of the Ministry of Justice also serves on the council. The council's rules stipulate that one of these two officials must preside over meetings. The council selects judges and prosecutors for the courts and is responsible for oversight of the lower courts. The council is located in the Ministry of Justice and does not have its own budget. While the constitution provides for job security through tenure, the council controls the careers of judges and prosecutors through appointments, transfers, promotions, and reprimands. In 2008 the parliament passed an amendment to article 301 of the penal code criminalizing insults to the state. Previously, it had been a crime to insult ``Turkishness.'' The amendment provides for greater separation between the court and ideologically motivated attorneys by requiring the approval of the justice minister for charges of violating article 301 to proceed to court. However, prosecutors continued to conduct ideologically motivated investigations, such as those involving allegations of insulting the state. A separate law forbids insults to the country's founder, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, and was also used by prosecutors to conduct ideologically motivated investigations during the year. Observers reported that investigations based on both provisions decreased substantially from past years. The close connection between public prosecutors and judges gave the appearance of impropriety and unfairness in criminal cases. Prosecutors and judges study together before being assigned by the High Council. Once appointed, they are housed together, frequently share the same office space, and often work in the same courtroom for more than five years. The law provides that all judicial candidates pass a written and an oral examination administered by the Ministry of Justice and establishes a mechanism to allow private attorneys with five years' experience who are younger than 35 to enter the ministry's ranks. The Union of Turkish Bar Associations asserted that the oral examination would allow the Ministry of Justice to select candidates based on political considerations. At year's end the High Council continued to make judicial appointments from the pool of persons who had passed the exam and been trained by the ministry. According to several regional bar associations, the government devoted insufficient resources to public defense. The associations also noted that public defense attorneys underwent less rigorous training than their prosecutorial counterparts and were not required to take an examination to demonstrate a minimum level of expertise. The judicial system is composed of general law courts; specialized heavy penal courts; military courts; the Constitutional Court, the country's highest court; and three other high courts. The High Court of Appeals hears appeals for criminal cases, the Council of State hears appeals of administrative cases or cases involving government entities, and the audit court audits state institutions. Most cases were prosecuted in the general law courts, which include civil, administrative, and criminal courts. The Ministry of Justice reported that none of the regional appeals courts established by 2004 legislation to relieve the high court's caseload were operational at year's end and that the project was postponed due to delays in building new court houses and assigning judges and prosecutors. The Constitutional Court examines the constitutionality of the procedural aspects of laws, decrees, and parliamentary procedural rules, and hears cases involving the prohibition of political parties. If impeached, ministers and prime ministers can be tried in the Constitutional Court. However, the court cannot consider ``decrees with the force of law'' issued under a state of emergency, under martial law, in time of war, or in other situations as authorized by parliament. Military courts, with their own appeals system, hear cases involving military law for members of the armed forces. Military courts can also hear cases involving crimes committed by military personnel. In June the parliament enacted a law forbidding civilians from being tried in military courts and allowing military officers to be tried at civilian courts for violations of civilian laws. The opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) opened a case in the Constitutional Court in July to annul the law. The case continued at year's end. In 2008 the ECHR found 75 violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Administrative and bureaucratic barriers impeded prosecutions and contributed to the low number of convictions of security force personnel for human rights abuses. Under the law courts may not convict unless a defendant attended at least one trial session. Police defendants occasionally failed to attend hearings in order to avoid conviction; prosecuting attorneys claimed that courts failed to make serious attempts to locate such defendants, even in cases where the defendants received salary or pension checks at their home address. According to a 2008 AI report, criminal defendants faced numerous violations of their right to a fair trial during courtroom proceedings, especially in trials for violations of antiterror laws. The report also found that convictions under antiterror laws were often based on insufficient or unreliable evidence. According to a 2007 AI report, defendants in cases that were transferred from state security courts, abolished in 2004, to heavy penal courts often faced the same judges and prosecutors who presided over their cases in the state security courts. The report also found that these judges frequently failed to investigate or take into account allegations that confessions were coerced by torture or allegations of long periods of ``unofficial'' detention with no access to legal counsel. The report noted that defendants in these cases were being sentenced on the basis of evidence extracted under torture or other mistreatment. Some observers saw public comments in April by senior members of the armed forces on the Ergenekon case, and of support for the military personnel indicted and standing trial in the case, as applying pressure on the judiciary. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and the right to appeal. There is no jury system; a judge or a panel of judges decides all cases. Courtroom proceedings are public for all cases except those involving minors as defendants. Court files, which contain charging documents, case summaries, judgments, and other court pleadings, are closed to anyone other than the parties to a case. This makes it difficult to obtain information on the progress of, or results in, court cases except through formal channels. The law requires bar associations to provide free counsel to indigents who request it from the court if the potential sentence is more than five years, and bar associations across the country generally did so in practice. Defendants have the right to be present at trial and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. Defendants or their attorneys can question witnesses for the prosecution and present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government- held evidence relevant to their cases. International human rights organizations and the EU stated that the courtroom structure and rules of criminal procedure gave an unfair advantage to the prosecution. During a trial the prosecutor may call any witness desired, whereas the defense must request that the judge call a witness. Judges decide whether to ask and how to phrase defense counsel's questions but ask all of the prosecution's questions in the exact form presented. Prosecutors enter the courtroom through the same door as the judge; defense attorneys enter through a separate door. Prosecutors sit at an elevated desk that is at the same level as that of the judge; the defense sits at floor level. The law provides for the right to a speedy trial; however, at times trials lasted for years. Proceedings against security officials often were delayed because officers did not submit statements promptly or attend trials. In 2008 the ECHR found 64 violations of the European Convention on Human Rights by the country involving length of proceedings. The law prohibits the use in court of evidence obtained by torture; however, prosecutors in some instances failed to pursue torture allegations, forcing defendants to initiate a separate legal case to determine whether the exclusion of evidence was lawful. Human rights organizations reported that in such instances the primary case frequently was concluded before the secondary case was decided, effectively rendering the secondary case moot and leading to unjust convictions. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--The HRA asserted that there were several thousand political prisoners from all sides of the political spectrum and contended that the government does not distinguish them as such. The government claimed that alleged political prisoners were in fact charged with being members of, or assisting, terrorist organizations. According to the government, 2,869 convicts and 2,699 pretrial detainees were being held in prison on terrorism charges as of October 21. International humanitarian organizations were allowed access to alleged political prisoners, provided they could obtain permission from the Ministry of Justice. In practice organizations rarely received such permission. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. The law provides that all citizens have the right to file a civil case for compensation for physical or psychological harm suffered. In 2008 the ECHR found 12 violations of the right to an effective remedy as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law allows for telephone tapping with a court order. There were occasional complaints by individuals and public figures, including higher court members and politicians, that their telephones were illegally tapped. Only the Turkish Telecommunication Agency was authorized to tap telephones when presented with a court order directed against alleged drug traffickers, organized crime members, and terrorists. In November the Justice Ministry confirmed allegations that 56 judges' and prosecutors' telephones had been tapped as part of the Ergenekon investigation and asserted that all taps were carried out within the guidelines of the law. The ministry stated that 36 of those taps were terminated by November. Some observers reported that many of the judges and prosecutors whose telephones had been tapped were noted for their anti-AKP decisions, including one prosecutor who had opened an investigation against President Gul for embezzlement. In 2008 the ECHR found 11 violations of the right to respect for private and family life as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government continued to limit these freedoms in some cases. Some senior government officials made statements during the year strongly criticizing the press. The government levied a substantial tax fine against a media conglomerate during the year that some observers considered to be related to the political editorial line of the media conglomerate's print and broadcast outlets. The government, particularly the police and judiciary, limited freedom of expression through the use of constitutional restrictions and numerous laws, including articles of the penal code prohibiting insults to the government, the ``Turkish state,'' Ataturk, or the institutions and symbols of the republic. Other laws also restricted speech, such as the Antiterror Law and laws governing the press and elections. Article 301 of the constitution criminalizes insults to the Turkish state. The article requires the approval of the Justice Minister for charges of violating article 301 to proceed to court. However, prosecutors continued to conduct ideologically motivated investigations, such as those involving allegations of insulting the Turkish state or Ataturk. According to the Justice Ministry, the justice minister received 424 complaints concerning article 301 during the year and rejected 358 of them. Only four were given permission to proceed, a substantial decrease over the previous year. A total of 55 files remained under consideration at year's end. According to the HRF, 18 persons were prosecuted during the year under article 301, also a substantial decrease over the previous year. Individuals in many cases could not criticize the state or government publicly without risk of criminal suits or government investigations, and the government continued to restrict expression by individuals sympathetic to some religious, political, and Kurdish nationalist or cultural viewpoints. Active debates on human rights and government policies continued, particularly on issues relating to the country's EU membership process, the role of the military, Islam, political Islam, the consideration by Turks of Kurdish and other ethnic or religious origins as ``minorities,'' and the history of the Turkish- Armenian conflict at the end of the Ottoman Empire. However, persons who wrote or spoke out on such topics, particularly on the Armenian issue, risked investigation, although significantly less than in previous years. The TPA reported that serious restrictions on freedom of expression continued despite legal reforms related to the country's EU candidacy. A group of intellectuals began an ``I apologize to the Armenians'' campaign in 2008 regarding the tragic events of 1915. More than 30,000 signatures were gathered for the campaign. The government initiated an investigation against the organizers of the campaign in January for violating article 301. The Court of Appeals was reviewing the case at year's end. In 2008 the ECHR found 20 violations of freedom of expression as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. The TPA reported that it faced fewer problems related to publishing of books and articles on the Kurdish issue than in the previous year. The most serious problem during the year remained the large number of complaints against authors and publishers filed by ideologically motivated attorneys. According to a joint HRA/HRF report, 34 journalists were held on speech violations during the year. A total of 29 publications were temporarily banned, and 62 books were confiscated and became grounds for prosecutions during the year. On December 29, the Diyarbakir penal court sentenced eleven persons, including local mayors, to 10 months' imprisonment for using ``sayin'' (an honorific title) when referring to jailed PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan, which the court condemned as ``praising a crime and a criminal.'' In November the Izmir penal court convicted local mayoral candidates Cemal Coskun and Seyhmuz Seyhan for using the Kurdish language during their campaigns for the March 29 local elections. They were each sentenced to six months in jail, although the sentences were later converted into fines of 3,000 lira ($2,000). In September a public prosecutor launched an investigation against actress Hulya Avsar and journalist Devrim Sevimay for an interview of the actress in which she stated that it would be difficult to convince the PKK to lay down its weapons. The prosecutor claimed that this was ``inciting hatred and hostility amongst the public and humiliation of the public.'' In late October the prosecutor decided not to file charges. On October 4, the Diyarbakir High Court convicted lawyer Eren Keskin, actor Murat Batgi, and author Edip Polat of ``inciting hatred and hostility'' for using the terms ``Kurds'' and ``Kurdistan'' in a speech at the Culture and Art Festival in Diyarbakir in 2006. Each was sentenced to one year in prison. The court stated that their speeches showed ``evidence of clearly emerging and immediate danger.'' In October the Ankara prosecutor opened an investigation of suspected violations of article 301 against the National Police Academy for a workshop conducted in August on sensitivity to Kurdish issues. The investigation continued at year's end. An arrest warrant remained active for youth choir director Duygu Ozge Bayar for ``promulgating propaganda on behalf of an illegal organization'' after the choir sang a Kurdish folk song that is also the anthem of Iraq's Kurdistan Regional Government at the San Francisco International Music Festival in 2007. Bayar returned to the country after the concert but departed when the prosecution was opened. At year's end she remained out of the country. In 2007 police detained Kirikkale University student Durmus Sahin and two friends for five days after Sahin criticized Health Minister Recep Akdag during a campaign stop by refusing to shake his hand and calling him a ``traitor.'' Akdag filed a complaint with the local prosecutor, who brought charges under article 301. In October the local penal court sentenced Sahin to two months in jail. The sentence was later converted into a 1,720-lira ($1,150) fine. Throughout the year police and the judiciary increased pressure on members of the pro-Kurdish former DTP and BDP. Human rights activists claimed that more than 1,000 cases had been opened against former DTP and BDP members during the year. Most were investigated and prosecuted for speaking in the Kurdish language or for making statements critical of the government. Many were also arrested for alleged ties with the KCK, the political branch of the terrorist PKK organization, including a group of more than 40 between December 25 and 31 that included elected mayors and BDP officials. On April 21, the Diyarbakir criminal court sentenced two Kurdish politicians, Diyarbakir Mayor Osman Baydemir and former DTP leader Nejmet Atalay, to 10 months in prison for publicly spreading terrorist propaganda by referring to the PKK as ``guerillas'' instead of ``terrorists'' in a public speech. Baydemir continued to serve as mayor. Baydemir continued to face more than 100 charges and investigations for use of the Kurdish language. At year's end he faced three cases for sending Kurdish language holiday cards in 2008. The Diyarbakir penal court acquitted Baydemir in September for the 2007 cases against him for referring to the PKK as the ``armed Kurdish opposition.'' In October the Ankara prosecutor opened an investigation into the DTP's national convention for alleged support of terrorism through speeches and slogans delivered at the convention. The investigation also examined alleged ties between the DTP and PKK. The closure of the DTP in December rendered moot any outstanding cases against the party (see section 3). In October a Sanliurfa court sentenced seven DTP members to two years in prison for participating in an unauthorized rally in October 2008 to protest the prison conditions of Abdullah Ocalan. On December 24, Muharrem Erbey, president of the HRA in Diyarbakir and vice president of the national HRA, was arrested for alleged ties with the KCK, the political wing of the PKK. His house, private office, and the HRA were searched, and police confiscated all the HRA computers, books at his house, and the hard disk of his private office computer. The Diyarbakir branch of the HRA applied to the police for the return of their computers, but they had not yet been returned at year's end. The HRA claimed that Erbey was arrested for his work at the HRA and as a human rights lawyer. At year's end, Erbey was being held in the Diyarbakir prison and had not been formally charged with a crime. In July a Diyarbakir court sentenced Leyla Zana to one year and three months in prison for ``making propaganda for a terrorist organization.'' Zana stated that ``Abdullah Ocalan is the heart and brain of the Kurds,'' at a panel discussion in May 2008 at a London university. An appeal continued at year's end. During the first half of the year, the government amended prison regulations to allow prisoners to speak in Kurdish to their relatives who visited them in prison. Human rights organizations described this development as positive and stated that there were few problems with the implementation of the new rule. The country had an active print media independent of state control. Hundreds of private newspapers spanned the political spectrum. The government owned and operated the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT). According to the High Board of Radio and Television (RTUK), as of November there were 210 local, 15 regional, and 22 officially registered national television stations and 929 local, 98 regional, and 35 national radio stations. In addition, 77 television channels operated on the cable network, and RTUK granted eight television enterprises and two radio enterprises satellite licenses and broadcast permits necessary for operation. Other television and radio stations broadcast without an official license. The wide availability of satellite dishes and cable television allowed access to foreign broadcasts, including several Kurdish-language private channels. Most media were owned by large, private holding companies that had a wide range of outside business interests; the concentration of media ownership influenced the content of reporting and limited the scope of debate. Observers noted that media conglomerates increasingly used the media as a tool to build pressure against government policies. Prosecutors harassed writers, journalists, and political figures by bringing dozens of cases to court under various laws that restricted media freedom; however, judges dismissed many of these charges. Authorities ordered raids of newspaper offices, closed newspapers temporarily, issued fines, or confiscated newspapers for violating speech codes. Despite government restrictions, the media criticized government leaders and policies daily and in many cases adopted an adversarial role with respect to the government. On October 7, the Court of Appeals held that individuals could sue and demand compensation from author Orhan Pamuk for his remark, ``We killed 30,000 Kurds and one million Armenians.'' No cases had opened by year's end. The TGS did not admit media publications perceived to hold dissenting views into its media briefings. National publications could also be denied depending on their reporting. A journalist from the daily Evrensel, Sultan Ciftci, did not receive accreditation during the year to the Prime Ministry after being denied in 2008 as well. Other journalists received accreditation with no reported problems. At year's end the investigation continued into the December 2007 beating of Andreas Rombopulos, editor in chief of the Greek-language newspaper Iho, outside the newspaper's office in Istanbul by two unknown attackers. The trial of Ogun Samast, accused of killing prominent human rights activist Hrant Dink in 2007, continued at year's end. Dink, the editor in chief of the bilingual Turkish-Armenian weekly newspaper Agos, was killed outside of his office building in Istanbul. The trial began in 2007; Samast reportedly admitted shooting Dink and identified the weapon he used. The investigation resulted in the arrest and indictment of 19 additional suspects, eight of whom remained in detention. In an October 12 hearing, Dink family lawyers requested documents from the ``Ergenekon'' trial, alleging that several suspects in that case had targeted Dink as a tool to destabilize the state. In September 2008 the family of Hrant Dink filed a complaint with the Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors against the judges of the regional administration court who did not authorize a trial against the Istanbul security director, Celattin Cerrah, and the Istanbul Intelligence Branch's former director, Ahmet Ilhan Guler. Three state inspectors criticized Cerrah and Guler for not investigating warnings involving Dink that were received prior to the killing. In October 2008 the Ministry of Justice approved continuance of the case against publisher and writer Temel Demirer under article 301. Demirer had been charged for a statement he made after the 2007 killing of Dink, calling for the recognition of the tragic events of 1915 as ``genocide.'' The case continued at year's end, although Demirer was convicted and sentenced to five months' imprisonment in a separate trial for speaking about Ibrahim Kaypakkaya, a former leader of the country's communist movement. In January the state-owned TRT devoted one television and radio station to 24-hour Kurdish broadcasts without subtitles and with no time limit on news broadcasts. TRT officials indicated that there was no censorship of content on the station. On November 13, the government approved regulations to allow privately owned television and radio stations to broadcast in languages other than Turkish. Applications were approved for three dialects of Kurdish and Arabic stations. On April 2, broadcasts began in Armenian on state television for half an hour twice a day. The TPA reported that the banning and recall of books remained a concern, although there were fewer bans than in the previous year. Several publications were recalled without a final court decision during the year. Writers and publishers were still prosecuted on grounds of defamation, denigration, obscenity, separatism, antiterror, subversion, fundamentalism, and insulting religious values. Printing houses were required to submit books and periodicals to prosecutors at the time they are published. The TPA reported that publishers often avoided works with controversial content in order to stay out of court. According to the TPA, in 2008 and during the year, authorities investigated or opened court cases against 62 publications and 26 publishers. These cases resulted in four acquittals and 28 convictions; the other cases were in progress or pending at year's end. The TPA noted that publishers continued to be held liable for books whose authors were foreigners or living abroad. In June authorities opened two cases against journalist Nedim Sener on charges of ``publicizing confidential information'' and ``insulting government officials'' in connection with a book he published, Dink Murder and Intelligence Lies, which explored the circumstances of the Dink killing. At year's end Sener faced a total of 28 years' imprisonment if convicted. The case against Atilla Tuygan for translating two books dealing with Turkish-Armenian relations continued at year's end. The case was opened in 2007 after the books' publisher, Ragip Zarakolu, was acquitted, and the court ruled that Tuygan should be tried instead. In a second case, Zarakolu was convicted in June 2008 and sentenced to five months in prison for publishing The Truth Will Set Us Free, a book describing the experience of the author's grandmother during the tragic events of 1915. The court postponed the imposition of punishment, and Zarakolu and his lawyer appealed the verdict. The Court of Appeals had not ruled on the case at year's end. Authorities routinely censored media with pro-Kurdish or leftist content, particularly in the southeast, by confiscating materials or temporarily closing down the media source. On October 2, the media reported that police in Mardin confiscated Kurdish-language textbooks for a new ``living languages'' institute at the Artuklu University to check them for ``terrorist propaganda.'' The police returned the books to the university after inspection. Some members of the AKP and Prime Minister Erdogan continued to file suits against journalists and cartoonists during the year. Human rights organizations, publishing associations, and journalists alleged that those litigious tendencies created an environment of self- censorship. In June an Ankara court ordered politician Yasar Nuri Ozturk to pay 7,500 lira (approx. $5,000) to Prime Minister Erdogan for insulting him on a television program on March 1. In July an Ankara court forced CHP leader Deniz Baykal to pay 10,000 lira (approx. $6,700) in compensation to Prime Minister Erdogan for insulting him. Baykal called Erdogan a ``bully'' at a rally in Sinop on February 28. The civil case against cartoonist Mehmet Cagcag for using Prime Minister Erdogan's image in a critical photomontage was denied by the court. The court ruled that the cartoon was protected freedom of expression. On September 9, the Aydin Children's Court closed a case against a 13-year-old who had yelled, ``God will punish you!'' at Prime Minister Erdogan at a campaign rally in Aydin in March. The Aydin public prosecutor had demanded imprisonment from one to three years for the child for insulting the prime minister. Several large holding companies that owned news agencies in the country were concerned over losing business opportunities if their journalists wrote articles critical of the government. One journalist reported that his senior management discouraged the company's journalists from writing articles critical of the AKP or its members. During the year the Ministry of Finance levied a total of 5.9 billion lira (approximately $3.9 billion) in tax fines against the Dogan Media Group, one of the largest media conglomerates in the country. These fines nearly equaled the total value of the company's assets. The fines raised some observers' concerns, because the Group's editorial line had been considered critical of the government and prime minister. In its October progress report, the European Commission stated that the fines ``undermine the economic viability of the group and therefore affect the freedom of the press in practice.'' Other observers described the fine as having a chilling effect on journalists and reported that the government was using it to silence opposition. The government maintained that the fine, which observers alleged could cause the corporation to go out of business, was a legitimate exercise of the Finance Ministry's taxation authority and that it had no political motivation. On June 18, the Constitutional Court ruled that the law that prohibited editors at media organizations from disclosing the identities of public personnel fighting terrorism was unconstitutional and struck it down. During the year cases against the press under the Antiterror Law continued. The HRF reported that the law contains an overly broad definition of offenses that allows ideologically and politically motivated prosecutions. There are at least 550 cases against the pro- Kurdish daily newspaper Ozgur Gundem under the Antiterror Law. There were some convictions, but most cases remained open at year's end. Internet Freedom.--The Internet was widely available in the country. It was used in schools, libraries, private Internet cafes, and other public locations, and the government encouraged its use. There were some restrictions on Internet access. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 33 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The Internet law allows the government to ban a Web site if there is sufficient suspicion that the site is committing one of eight crimes: encouraging suicide, sexual abuse of children, facilitation of drug abuse, provision of dangerous substances for health care, obscenity, prostitution, gambling, or crimes regulated in Turkish Code 5816 (crimes against Ataturk). Upon receiving a complaint or as a result of personal observations, a prosecutor may file an application to prohibit access to the offending site or, in an urgent situation, the prosecutor or the Telecommunication Presidency (TP) may impose a ban. In either case, a judge must rule on the matter within 24 hours. Following a judicial ban order, the Internet service provider (ISP) must block access within 24 hours. If the judge does not approve the block, the prosecutor must ensure access is restored. The ISP may face a penalty ranging from six months' to two years' imprisonment for failing to comply with a judicial order. The law also allows individuals who believe a Web site violates their personal rights to request the ISP to remove the offensive content. By May 11, courts and prosecutors had issued 2,601 orders to ban Web sites in response to approximately 81,691 complaints, a significant increase over the approximately 1,475 bans ordered for 17,768 complaints in the previous year. According to the human rights Web site ``Bianet,'' the TP stopped reporting statistics in May because they were getting too high. In May 2008 an Istanbul court banned access to the YouTube Web site to block a cartoon video that lampooned the country's founding father, Ataturk. Access remained blocked at year's end. Government authorities on rare occasions accessed Internet user records to protect ``national security, public order, health, and decency'' or to prevent a crime. Police must obtain authorization from a judge or, in emergencies, the highest administrative authority before taking such action. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were generally no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events; however, there was some self-censorship on sensitive topics. The 2008 conviction of Gazi University professor Atilla Yayla under a law pertaining to the ``protection of Ataturk'' for saying in 2006 that Kemalism was ``more regressive than progressive'' remained under appeal at year's end. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly; however, the government restricted this right in practice. Significant prior notification to authorities is required for a gathering, and authorities may restrict meetings to designated sites. The HRF reported that security forces killed seven persons during demonstrations and injured 269, and there were reports that police beat, abused, detained, or harassed some demonstrators during the year. The HRF reported that security forces detained 1,414 persons and arrested and charged 369 during demonstrations during the year. The TNP reported that police detained 1,737 persons involved in the 14,310 demonstrations that took place through October 25. These detentions varied in length from several hours to several days. The approximately 180 public events around the country celebrating the Nevruz holiday (the Kurdish and Persian New Year) in March were generally peaceful. The HRF reported no incidents during Nevruz celebrations in the year, compared to numerous deaths and injuries during the previous year. The May 1 Labor Day celebrations were generally peaceful. Human rights organizations alleged that police beat some union activists, but no arrests were reported. HRF lawyers indicated during the year that the 2006 case against 54 police officers for allegedly using excessive force during a 2005 International Women's Day demonstration in Istanbul was no longer being pursued. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association; however, several restrictions on this right continued in practice. Under the law persons organizing an association do not need to notify authorities beforehand, but an association must provide notification before interacting with international organizations or receiving financial support from abroad and must provide detailed documents on such activities. Representatives of associations stated this placed an undue burden on their operations. According to the Third Sector Foundation of Turkey, an advocacy NGO, the criteria for NGOs to obtain public benefit status that entitles them to certain tax exemptions were restrictive and complicated. Applications for public benefit status must be approved by the Council of Ministers. The law does not allow applicants to appeal if their petitions are rejected. In 2008 the ECHR found five violations of the right of assembly and association under the European Convention on Human Rights. Unlike in 2008, no organizations were closed by the government or courts. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and laws provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the government imposed significant restrictions on Muslim and other religious groups. The constitution establishes the country as a secular state and provides for freedom of belief, freedom of worship, and the private dissemination of religious ideas; however, other constitutional provisions regarding the integrity and existence of the secular state restrict these rights. The government oversees Muslim religious facilities and education through its Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) under the authority of the Prime Ministry. The Diyanet regulates the operation of the country's 77,777 registered mosques and employs local and provincial imams, who are civil servants. A few groups, particularly Alevis, claimed that the Diyanet reflected mainstream Sunni Islamic beliefs to the exclusion of other beliefs; however, the government asserted that the Diyanet treated all who requested services equally. Academics estimated the Alevi population at 15 to 20 million, including ethnic Turks and Kurds. In general, Alevis follow a belief system that incorporates aspects of both Shia and Sunni Islam and draws on the traditions of other religions found in Anatolia as well. The government considers Alevism a heterodox Muslim sect; however, some Alevis and Sunnis maintain that Alevis are not Muslims. Alevi ``cem houses'' (places of gathering) have no legal status as places of worship in the state. However, Kusadasi and Tunceli municipalities ruled that Alevi cem houses could receive free water and electricity from the municipality like other recognized places of worship, but they did not have the authority to grant formal ``temple status'' to cem houses. During the year the government took steps to recognize and address the concerns of the Alevi population. The government held quarterly Alevi workshops aimed at addressing the concerns of the Alevi population. Some Alevi groups complained that these workshops did not address the needs of all Alevi groups, but only the ones close to the government. Mystical Sufi and other religious-social orders (tarikats) and lodges (tekkes and zaviyes) are officially prohibited; however, tarikats, tekkes, and zaviyes remained active and widespread. Many prominent political and social leaders continued to associate with these religious-social orders, lodges, and other Islamic societies. A separate agency, the General Directorate for Foundations (GDF), regulated a few administratively critical activities of non-Muslim religious groups and their affiliated churches, monasteries, synagogues, and religious property. The GDF recognized 161 ``minority community foundations,'' including Greek Orthodox foundations with 74 sites, Armenian Orthodox foundations with 48 sites, and Jewish foundations with 12 sites, as well as Syrian Christian, Chaldean, Bulgarian Orthodox, Georgian, Armenian Catholic, Protestant, and Maronite foundations. The GDF also regulated Muslim charitable religious foundations, including schools, hospitals, and orphanages, as well as nonreligious foundations. In 2007 the Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as the ``Association for the Support of Jehovah's Witnesses.'' However, due to their stance as conscientious objectors to military service, they continued to face difficulties. In the early part of the year, court decisions based on zoning laws against the use of two Jehovah's Witnesses places of worship (kingdom halls) were rescinded in the appeals process. However, two other kingdom halls continued to appeal court decisions restricting worship due to zoning laws. At year's end members of Jehovah's Witnesses had three applications pending with the ECHR that alleged government mistreatment pertaining to places of worship and conscientious objection to military service. Two Jehovah's Witnesses were in jail at year's end for refusing to perform mandatory military service. Religious affiliation is listed on national identity cards. A few religious groups, such as the Baha'i, are unable to state their religion on their cards because it is not included among the options, and have expressed their concerns to the government. The General Directorate of Populations allowed persons to leave the religion section of their identity cards blank or change the religious designation by written application. However, the government continued to restrict applicants' choice of religion to a strict list. Some members of the military, judiciary, and other branches of the bureaucracy continued to wage campaigns against what they labeled proponents of Islamic fundamentalism. These groups viewed religious fundamentalism as a threat to the secular state. The National Security Council categorized religious fundamentalism as a threat to public safety, and the Jandarma monitored missionary activity throughout the year. The military periodically dismissed religiously observant Muslims from military service. Such dismissals were based on behavior that military officials believed identified these individuals as Islamic fundamentalists, which they were concerned could indicate disloyalty to the secular state. There were unconfirmed reports that officials in some governmental ministries faced discrimination because they were not considered by their supervisors to be sufficiently observant of Islamic religious practices. According to the military, officers and noncommissioned officers were periodically dismissed for ignoring repeated warnings from superior officers and for maintaining ties to what the military considered to be Islamic fundamentalist organizations. The government reported that there were five military dismissals during the year that pertained to alleged Islamic fundamentalism. The government did not recognize the ecumenical status of the Greek Orthodox patriarch, acknowledging him only as the head of the country's Greek Orthodox community. As a result the government has long maintained that only citizens of the country could become patriarch, serve as members of the Greek Orthodox Holy Synod, and participate in patriarchal elections. Nevertheless, the ecumenical patriarch appointed six non-Turkish metropolitans to the Holy Synod in 2004. Members of the Greek Orthodox community asserted that these restrictions threatened the survival of the patriarchate in Istanbul, because, with a dwindling population of no more than 2,500 Greek Orthodox persons in the country, the community was becoming too small to maintain the institution. Prime Minister Erdogan has stated that the Greek Orthodox patriarch's use of the title ``ecumenical'' should not be a matter on which the state should rule. On August 15, Prime Minister Erdogan and members of his cabinet hosted a meeting for religious leaders of the Greek Orthodox, Syriac Orthodox, and Jewish communities on Buyukada, an island near Istanbul, to address minority religious rights. Religious groups generally faced administrative challenges when employing foreign religious personnel, as did other entities when employing foreigners. In December 2008 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs provided one-year visas for foreign clergy working at the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Previously, such clergy had to leave and return every three months to obtain new tourist visas. The law restricts religious services to designated places of worship. Municipal codes mandate that only the government can designate a place of worship; if a religious group has no legal standing in the country, it may not be eligible for a designated site. Non-Muslim religious services, particularly for groups that did not own property recognized by the GDF, often took place on diplomatic property or in private apartments. While police and prosecutors did not take steps to prevent or punish such gatherings, landlords were hesitant to rent to groups without confirmation that they would not be harassed by the police. Many local officials continued to impose standards on churches, such as minimum space requirements, that are not imposed on mosques. In numerous incidents the Protestant community faced the requirement of having to purchase 27,000 square feet of land in order to construct a church, no matter the size of the congregation. Protestant representatives also faced severe difficulty in receiving the legally required municipal approval to build churches in centrally located areas due to restrictive zoning laws. The Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul continued to seek to reopen the Halki seminary on the island of Heybeli in the Sea of Marmara. The seminary was closed in 1971 when the patriarchate, to avoid the seminary being administered by the state, chose not to fulfill a government requirement for all private institutions of higher learning to nationalize. Under existing restrictions, religious communities other than Sunni Muslims cannot train new clergy in the country for eventual leadership in a manner acceptable to these communities. Coreligionists from outside the country have been permitted to assume leadership positions in a few cases, but in general all religious community leaders, including patriarchs and chief rabbis, must be citizens. No law explicitly prohibits proselytizing or religious conversions; however, many prosecutors and police regarded proselytizing and religious activism with suspicion. Several practicing foreign Christians who had lived with their families in various cities for many years reported governmental harassment during the year, including denial of residence and work permits that had been granted in previous years, monitoring by the Jandarma, and threats to themselves and their families. These persons reported that they worshipped in their homes but did not proselytize by distributing Bibles, going door to door, or undertaking similar activities. Authorities continued to enforce a ban in place since 1997 on wearing headscarves at universities. Students who wore head coverings were not permitted to register for classes, although some faculty members permitted students to wear head coverings in class. Some wore wigs instead. The law establishes eight years of compulsory secular education, after which students may pursue study at general state schools or vocational high schools, which include imam hatip (Islamic preacher) high schools. Graduates of vocational schools, as well as general state schools, faced an automatic minimal reduction in their university entrance examination grades if they applied for university programs outside their field of high school specialization. This reduction made it more difficult for imam hatip graduates to enroll in university programs other than theology. Most families that enrolled their children in imam hatip schools did so to expose them to more extensive religious education, not to train them as imams. Students were permitted to enroll in summer Koran classes provided by the Diyanet after completing the fifth grade (about age 11). Individuals who have completed the eighth grade or reached 16 years of age can attend yearlong Koran courses provided by the Diyanet. Unofficial clandestine Koran courses also existed outside the Diyanet's control. The constitution establishes compulsory religious and moral instruction in primary and secondary schools. Religious minorities are exempted. However, a few religious minorities, such as Protestants and Syrian Orthodox, faced difficulties in obtaining exemptions, particularly if their identity cards did not list a religion other than Islam. The government claimed that the religion courses covered the range of world religions. However, religious minorities asserted the courses reflected Sunni Islamic doctrine. Many Alevis alleged discrimination in the government's failure to include any of their doctrines or beliefs in religion courses. After the ECHR ruled in 2007 in favor of an Alevi parent who in 2004 filed a suit claiming the mandatory religion courses violated religious freedom, the government added10 chapters of an overview of the Alevi belief system to the textbook for religious and moral instruction. Most Alevi organizations contended this addition was insufficient and lobbied instead for the abolishment of compulsory religious courses. The ``officially recognized'' minorities of Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Jewish religious groups may operate schools under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Other Muslim and non-Muslim minorities are not permitted to run schools of their own. Numerous religious groups, particularly the Greek and Armenian Orthodox communities, have lost property to the government and continued to fight ongoing government efforts to expropriate properties. Many such properties were lost because the law allows the GDF to assume direct administration of properties that fall into disuse when the size of the local non-Muslim community drops significantly. The government expropriated other properties that were held in the name of individual community members who emigrated or died without heirs. The GDF also took control of non-Muslim foundations after the size of the non-Muslim community in a particular district dropped below the level required to elect foundation board members. The law allows the 161 minority foundations recognized by the GDF to acquire property, and in 2008 the GDF approved 365 applications by non-Muslim foundations to acquire legal ownership of properties. A February 2008 amendment to the law facilitated the return of expropriated minority foundation properties; however, it does not account for properties that have been sold to third parties or expropriated when the associated foundations were taken under government control. These conditions applied to the majority of expropriated Greek Orthodox properties. The government extended a provisional article allowing foundations to apply for expropriated properties through August. The government was considering 1,200 applications at year's end. On January 29, the Department of the Treasury initiated a case against the Syriac Mor Gabriel Monastery in Midyat claiming 12 parcels of land inside and outside the monastery walls. The Midyat court decided in favor of the monastery on June 24. The department's appeal to the Supreme Court was sent back to the Midyat court for more information. On June 24, the monastery lost a court case brought against it by the Department of Forestry that claimed ownership of 68 acres of land inside the monastery walls, and 15 acres adjacent to the outer wall. In its defense the monastery presented tax records for the property dating back to 1937 as well as ownership documents dating back to 1935. An appeal filed by the monastery to the Supreme Court was sent back to the Midyat court in December for more information. In September 2008 a cadastre court upheld the results of a May 2008 cadastral regional land survey that reclaimed all but 30 percent of the monastery's land. Also in September 2008, three village muhtars (the lowest level elected official with no political affiliation and limited local authority) in Midyat filed a criminal complaint against the monastery alleging it illegally appropriated territory by building a wall. A cadastre court ruled in favor of the monastery on May 22. Official papers from the 1950s documented the provincial administrative board's approval of the monastery's borders. The monastery did not have legal status and was represented by a foundation established during the Ottoman Empire. The muhtars appealed to the Supreme Court, and the case was pending at year's end. After a December 16 ECHR decision against the government on Armenian property cases, the government paid the settlement but did not restore the properties. In July 2008 the ECHR ruled that the country had violated the Ecumenical Patriarchate's property rights to a former orphanage on Buyukada Island. However, a domestic court case continued at year's end to determine the correct foundation owner. The law has no provisions to accommodate those who conscientiously object to military service. In December, Enver Aydemir was arrested for refusing to perform military service because he stated it would conflict with his Islamic beliefs. Aydemir did not consider himself a conscientious objector. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Many Muslims, Christians, Jews and Baha'is faced societal suspicion and mistrust. Jews and Christians from most denominations freely practiced their religions and reported little discrimination in daily life. However, religious minorities asserted they were effectively blocked from careers in state institutions. Reports of attacks on persons practicing Christian faiths dropped. Authorities took measures during the year to implement a 2007 Ministry of Interior circular to governors requesting action to prevent violence against non-Muslims. Non-Muslims in Ankara, Izmir, and Trabzon reported that police took extra security measures during special religious services. On December 4, three men threatened a priest at the Diyarbakir Syriac Orthodox Mother Mary Church with death if he did not demolish the bell tower associated with the church within the week. The priest reported the situation to the police, who arrested the men six days later. The priest subsequently withdrew his complaint against them. On August 3, a Christian was held hostage at knifepoint by Yasin Karasu in Kadikoy, Istanbul, until police intervened. Karasu called the hostage a ``missionary dog'' and accused him of breaking up the country. Karasu was held in prison at year's end. In 2007 a hand grenade was thrown into the courtyard of the house of the president of the Syriac Churches Foundation in Mardin's Midyat district. Police opened an investigation after the incident, but there were no reports of an arrest or a court case by year's end. The trial of 11 individuals, including five youths, alleged to have killed three members of a Protestant church in Malatya in April 2007, including a German citizen, continued at year's end. The victims were found in the office of a company that publishes books on Christianity; police caught four suspects as they tried to leave the building, while a fifth jumped out of the window and was hospitalized. A total of 11 suspects were charged in connection with the killings, five of whom remained in custody as the investigation continued. The trial began in November 2007. Five defendants faced multiple life sentences for murder and terrorist acts, and another two were charged with assisting in the planning of the murders. On December 25, the prosecutor and plaintiffs requested that the prosecutor for the Ergenekon trial probe the links between the Malatya murders and the alleged Ergenekon plan to overthrow the government. Istanbul prosecutors stated in December that they were unable to find a connection between the two cases. In 2007 security officials thwarted a planned attack on a priest at St. Paul's Church in Antalya. The officials had been investigating a suspect for his ties to other crimes when they intercepted a telephone conversation in which he declared his intent to kill the priest. He remained under arrest at year's end for his alleged involvement in five cases of arson and was transferred to be tried in a military court for having evaded military service. However, there was no indication that authorities would file charges against him for the planned attack on the priest. Members of the Syriac community reported that Syriacs who were forced to leave their southeastern villages during PKK-related violence in the 1980s and 1990s faced fewer problems than in previous years when attempting to return to their villages. Representatives of one Syriac community claimed that the implementation of zoning laws at times resulted in the loss of 40 to 50 percent of the properties of individual Syriacs living in villages in the southeast. Previously, local villagers, particularly village guards, often occupied the homes of Syriacs who fled and refused to leave when the Syriacs attempted to return. A variety of newspapers and television shows continued to feature anti-Christian and anti-Jewish messages, and anti-Semitic literature was common in bookstores. In October the state-run television channel began broadcasting the series ``Ayrilik'' (``Separation''), in which Israeli soldiers were portrayed murdering children in the Palestinian territories. A trailer of the series was also advertised in metro stations in Istanbul. After complaints, the government worked with the producers of the series to remove the offensive content. The Jewish community numbered approximately 23,000. During the year there were continued reports of anti-Semitic language in newspapers and Web sites, as well as of continued societal antagonism and discrimination. Following Israel's military action in Gaza that began in December 2008, some newspaper columnists made anti-Semitic statements, and billboards around Istanbul carried images of bloody baby shoes and anti-Semitic statements. Some businesses in Eskisehir posted signs reading, ``Dogs are welcome, but Jews and Armenians are not allowed entry.'' For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; however, at times the government limited these rights in practice. The law provides that a citizen's freedom to leave the country could be restricted only in the case of a national emergency, civic obligations (e.g., military service), or criminal investigation or prosecution. The government maintained a heavy security presence in the southeast, including numerous roadway checkpoints. The government generally cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees (recognized as such with certain geographical limitations), returning refugees, asylum seekers awaiting resettlement to third countries, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. In September 2008 the Constitutional Court annulled the legislative arrangement authorizing the Council of Ministers to implement ``compulsory settlement'' at the suggestion of the National Security Council. The court based its decision on article 23 of the constitution, which forbids any limitation on the freedom of residence except for the purpose of preventing offenses, promoting social and economic development, ensuring sound and orderly urban growth, and protecting public property. The verdict specified that a village cannot be evacuated due to national security. During the year there were no reports of villages being evacuated for security. Conversely, there were reports of persons returning to villages near Bitlis, Sanliurfa, and Mardin. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--There are IDPs in the country from the PKK conflict, which began in 1984, continued at a high level through the 1990s, and continued during the year. The government reported that 368,360 citizens from 62,448 households migrated from the southeast during the conflict, with many others departing before the fighting. According to the TNP, 187,861 citizens returned voluntarily to their villages during the year in the southeast. Academic observers reported the number of displaced to be much higher, ranging from 953,680 to 1,301,200 persons between 1986 and 2005. They stated the reason for the large discrepancy between government and NGO figures was that the government included only persons evacuated by the security forces from settlements, and not those who were forced to flee because of general violence or for a combination of security and economic reasons. Other factors contributing to displacement that the violence in the southeast exacerbated included rural-to-urban economic migration, large-scale development projects, and natural disasters. The law to compensate IDPs allows persons who suffered material losses during the conflict with the PKK to apply for compensation. In 2007 parliament extended the duration of the law so that applicants could apply for compensation through May. NGO observers noted that the law was being implemented in a way contrary to the government's stated purpose and principles of fair and appropriate redress. Rulings by provincial commissions charged with the law's implementation were described as inadequate and hindering those IDPs who would like to return to their preconflict homes, and IDPs had no avenue of appeal. Local NGOs and regional bar associations maintained that the law included unreasonable documentation requirements and awarded levels of compensation far below standards established by the ECHR. The government denied it implemented the law unfairly. The law compensates only losses suffered after 1987, leaving out victims who suffered losses before that year. The Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV) reported that many victims who fled the region because of the deteriorating economic and security situation were unable to receive compensation because they could not demonstrate a direct link between their losses and the actions of either the PKK or security forces. Human Rights Watch(HRW) also noted that the government refused to compensate those villagers in the southeast region displaced prior to 1987. There was no information at year's end on the status of the administrative complaint filed in August 2007 with the Siirt governorship after Jandarma and village guards forced a group of villagers to leave their homes following the military's declaration of a ``special security zone'' in the area. The villagers and their belongings were forcibly removed, and their access to crops and services in the village was blocked. There were some reports from residents that the situation generally improved during the year. Voluntary and assisted resettlements were ongoing. In a few cases, persons could return to their former homes; in other cases, centralized villages were constructed. The TNP reported it had provided compensation of 349,982,716 lira (approximately $233,000,000) during the year related to losses stemming from the fight against PKK terrorists. Foreign governments and national and international human rights organizations continued to criticize the government's program for assisting the return of IDPs as secretive and inadequate. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. However, the country ratified the 1967 protocol subject to a geographic limitation and therefore accepts its obligations only with respect to refugees from Europe. An administrative regulation provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status. The government has not established a formal system or legislation for providing protection to refugees. During the year the Interior Ministry conducted a parallel refugee status determination process subsequent to the UNHCR's determinations, affirming the latter's decisions in all but three cases out of a total of approximately 6,000. The individuals in those three cases were allowed to depart the country. The government requires that refugees who have no durable solution in the country obtain exit permission before departing for resettlement in third countries. One obstacle to exit permission is the residence permit fee of 273 lira ($185) that regulations require refugees to pay every six months in the city where they have been assigned to live by the government. If the fees are not paid on time each six months, back fees must be paid in full before the refugees can depart, and a late fine is also assessed. There is no penalty for living outside of the assigned city, as long as the fees are paid there. In some cases families have been charged thousands of dollars in residence fees and late fines before being allowed to depart the country. In one case a family with eight members was asked to pay a $50,000 exit fine, calculated according to a fee schedule set by the Ministry of Interior. In most cases the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In the first nine months of the year, 214 persons of interest to the UNHCR were deported from the country and 135 had not registered with the UNHCR. This was a significant decrease from the previous year, when the number deported was 790. The UNHCR sometimes had difficulty gaining access to interview potential refugees if they had already been detained or arrested by security forces for illegal entry into the country. The government detained refugees and asylum seekers who entered the country illegally or from a country other than their country of origin. A total of 901 persons were detained in the first nine months of the year; 100 were registered with the UNHCR. Detainees could be held for months or years. Approximately 20 Iranians who entered the country from Iraq had cases pending in the ECHR at year's end. Iraqi citizens were generally able to obtain tourist visas upon arrival at airports in the country. However, some foreigners, including Iraqis, transiting the country on their way to Europe were returned to their countries of origin when immigration authorities determined they might seek asylum in Europe. Illegal migrants detained near the country's eastern border areas were more likely to be questioned about their asylum status and referred for processing than those caught while transiting or attempting to leave the country from other locations. However, access to the national procedure for temporary asylum was hindered by the lack of reception facilities for groups of interdicted migrants, potentially including asylum seekers, and a lack of interpreters to assist security officials. The law does not have a strict time limit for asylum seekers or require them to present a valid identity document. The law also provides for a waiver of residence permit fees for asylum seekers in ``humanitarian situations.'' Despite this, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported that during the year some refugees were charged fines for late registration before being authorized to travel to Istanbul in order to leave the country for their countries of resettlement. The UNHCR reported successful interventions in most cases where asylum seekers arrived lawfully in the country after transiting one or more other countries. However, UNHCR access to persons in detention who wished to apply for asylum, to ship stowaways who wished to apply for asylum, and to persons trying to seek asylum while they were at the international areas of the country's airports remained problems. The government provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees, including individuals of non-European origin. According to the Ministry of Interior, during the year the government provided temporary protection to 8,478 foreigners referred by the UNHCR for resettlement to a third country. Refugees were not authorized to work in the country and needed permission from Ministry of Interior authorities to travel to Istanbul or Ankara, including for meetings with the UNHCR or resettlement agencies. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. However, the government restricted the activities of a few political parties and leaders. Elections and Political Parties.--The 2007 parliamentary elections were held under election laws that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) found established a framework for democratic elections in line with international standards. The law requires a party receive at least 10 percent of the valid votes cast nationwide to enter parliament. Some political parties criticized the 10 percent threshold as unduly high. In its observation report following the 2007 elections, the OSCE noted that, despite a comprehensive legal framework for elections, a number of laws that created the potential for uncertainty and scope for arbitrary interpretation constrained political campaigning and freedom of expression in a broader context. The OSCE also noted the positive efforts made to enhance the participation of citizens of Kurdish origin in political life. However, the election law continues to prohibit the use of languages other than Turkish in an election campaign. In a polarized political climate leading up to the 2007 presidential and parliamentary elections, the military issued three statements emphasizing concern over what it regarded as deep threats posed by religious fundamentalism, the military's role as the ultimate defender of secularism, and the alleged weakening of secularism in the country. Human rights groups characterized these statements as attempts to exert pressure on the democratic process that were suggestive of the military's disproportional influence over politics. In an October report, the European Commission noted that the military ``continued to exercise significant political influence via formal and informal mechanisms.'' Municipal elections were held in March and were considered generally free and fair. Political parties and candidates could freely declare their candidacy and run for election. The Court of Appeals chief prosecutor could seek to close political parties for unconstitutional activities by bringing a case before the Constitutional Court. In October the European Commission noted that the closure procedures initiated in 2007 against the DTP illustrated that legal provisions on political parties ``form a system which, as a whole, is incompatible'' with the right to freedom of association and freedom of expression guaranteed in the European Convention on Human Rights. On December 11, the Constitutional Court voted unanimously to close the DTP for ``being a center of activities against the unity of the state and the nation.'' The court's decision stated that it closed the party because of DTP members' involvement in activities that ``supported the armed attacks'' of the terrorist PKK. The court also found that the DTP was in ``touch and solidarity'' with the PKK. The closure resulted in the banning of 37 DTP members from politics for five years, including two members of parliament. During the year police raided dozens of DTP offices, particularly in the southeast, and detained hundreds of DTP officials and members. Prosecutors also opened numerous investigations and trials against DTP members. Police raids on DTP offices in Diyarbakir province resulted in the detention of approximately 54 DTP members. Between December 24 and 31, more than 40 members of the DTP successor BDP, including local elected mayors, were arrested and charged with ties to the KCK. Jandarma and police regularly harassed DTP members through verbal threats, arbitrary detentions at rallies, and detention at checkpoints. Security forces also regularly harassed villagers they believed were sympathetic to DTP. Although security forces released most detainees within a short period, many faced trials, usually for supporting an illegal organization or inciting separatism. There were 49 women in the 550-seat parliament and two female ministers in the 27-member cabinet. More than 100 members of parliament and senior government officials, including at least three ministers, were of Kurdish origin. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption remained a problem. Government officials are required by law to declare their property every five years; this requirement was generally fulfilled. The Prime Ministry's Inspection Board, which advises the Corruption Investigations Committee, is responsible for investigating major corruption cases. Nearly every state agency has its own inspector corps responsible for investigating internal corruption. The parliament can establish investigative commissions to examine corruption allegations concerning cabinet ministers or the prime minister. A majority vote is needed to send these cases to the courts for further action. The law provides for public access to government information; however, the government occasionally rejected applications on national security and other grounds, and there were no opportunities to appeal. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups operated in many regions but faced government obstruction and restrictive laws regarding their operations, particularly in the southeast. Government officials were generally uncooperative and unresponsive to their views, although cooperation increased during the year. Human rights organizations and monitors as well as lawyers and doctors involved in documenting human rights violations continued to face detention, prosecution, intimidation, harassment, and formal closure orders for their legitimate activities. Human rights organizations reported that official human rights mechanisms did not function consistently and failed to address grave violations. The HRA had 29 branches nationwide and claimed a membership of approximately 10,000. The HRF, established by the HRA, operated torture rehabilitation centers in Ankara, Izmir, Istanbul, Diyarbakir, and Adana as well as a ``mobile office'' in the southeastern region. It also served as a clearinghouse for human rights information. Other domestic NGOs included the Istanbul-based Helsinki Citizens Assembly, the Ankara-based Turkish Democracy Foundation, the Turkish Medical Association, human rights centers at a number of universities, and Mazlum-Der. In December 2008 HRA Adana secretary general Ethem Acikalin stood trial in an Adana court where he faced two years in prison for propagandizing for an illegal organization. Acikalin was charged after chanting slogans during a 2007 press meeting commemorating the death of 28 inmates during a military operation in 2000. The trial continued at year's end. On August 14, police raided DTP's provincial office in Adana. Acikalin went to the DTP office as an observer joined by the HRA accountant. Police allegedly broke the accountant's arm, and charges were brought against Acikalin for resisting police. The trial had not begun by year's end. On October 7, the Adana penal court convicted and sentenced to 10 months in prison Acikalin for ``making propaganda for a terrorist organization.'' Acikalin participated in a press conference to discuss the killing of Kevser Mizrak during a police raid in Ankara in January 2008. Acikalin was convicted earlier in the year for remarks he made at a rally to protest conditions in prisons. He appealed that case, which was ongoing at year's end. On October 9, in another case, Acikalin was convicted to three years in prison for statements he made regarding children who had been tried under antiterror legislation. Numerous other court cases were outstanding against Acikalin at year's end. On June 12, a court convicted four members of HRA's Canakkale branch, including its chairman, to 18 months' imprisonment each for violating the Law on Demonstrations when they organized a ``September 1 World Peace Day'' gathering in 2007. An appeal remained pending at year's end. In 2007 the government initiated court proceedings to close the HRA's Mersin branch claiming that the local representatives and members were involved in activities incompatible with their positions and accusing them of supporting the interests of ``illegal organizations.'' The case continued at year's end. In February the Istanbul Administrative Court ordered the Istanbul district governor's office to unfreeze three AI bank accounts frozen since early 2007. The governor's office appealed the decision to the Council of State; the appeal continued, but the money was unfrozen at year's end. The case originated when the Istanbul governor's office froze without notice the accounts, which were worth approximately 75,000 lira ($62,600) and belonged to the AI branch in the country. In May 2007 the Beyoglu district governor's office issued a decision that the NGO had participated in ``unauthorized fund raising'' but did not specify the actions that had allegedly violated the law. In a June 2007 public statement, AI stated that it did not seek or accept money from governments or political parties for its work. The statement noted the organization's concern that the move was ``government harassment intended to impede legitimate fundraising activities.'' The government generally cooperated with international organizations such as the CPT, the UNHCR, and the IOM; however, some international human rights workers reported that the government purposefully harassed them or raised artificial bureaucratic obstacles to prevent their work during the year. The Prime Ministry's HRP was authorized to monitor the implementation of legislation relating to human rights and to coordinate the work of various government agencies in the field of human rights. Despite lacking a budget and sufficient resources, the HRP carried out a number of projects with the European Commission and Council of Europe. During the year the HRP promoted human rights by showing short films on topics such as freedom of expression, discrimination, children's rights, and torture. The HRP maintained a free, emergency human rights hotline called ``Alo 150'' where individuals could report information on human rights violations for transmission to the appropriate government body. There were provincial human rights councils under the HRP in all 81 provinces and their constituent subprovinces. These bodies served as a forum for human rights consultations among NGOs, professional organizations, and the government. They had the authority to investigate complaints and to refer them to the prosecutor's office. However, many councils failed to hold regular meetings or effectively to fulfill their mandates. The HRA generally refused to participate on the councils, maintaining that they lacked authority and independence. In December 2008 the Constitutional Court annulled the Ombudsman Law, citing its incompatibility with the constitution; its decision went into effect on April 4. The decision followed an application to the court by then-president Ahmet Necdet Sezer in 2006. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, religion, disability, language, or social status; however, the government did not enforce these prohibitions effectively. Women.--The law prohibits rape, including spousal rape; however, the government did not effectively enforce the law. That victims often waited days or weeks to report incidents for fear of embarrassment or reprisals hindered effective prosecution of assailants. Cases of rape were underreported. Violence against women, including spousal abuse, was a serious and widespread problem. The law prohibits violence against women, including spousal abuse, but the government did not effectively enforce it. In April the government created a program to train judicial personnel on the prevention of violence against women. From May to October, the government conducted seven seminars to train more than 90 judges and 90 prosecutors. Domestic human rights organizations reported these laws were partially but increasingly effective; more women called the police emergency hotline to report domestic violence and went to police stations to file abuse reports. In 2007 the government established a hotline to prevent the exploitation of women, children, persons with disabilities, and senior citizens. From the beginning of the year until October 31, the hotline received 80,995 calls: 5,328 were from women exposed to violence asking to be put into shelters, and 5,739 regarded negligence and exploitation of women. Women's NGOs reported that more than 150,000 women were victims of domestic violence between 2001 and 2005, the latest period for which statistics were available. The Institution for Social Services and Orphanages operated 29 women's shelters with a total capacity of 650 for female victims of domestic violence and rape. The municipalities operated 19 women's shelters with a capacity of 609. The government reported that provincial government offices, municipalities, and NGOs operated 54 shelters and that one private foundation operated a shelter. Observers noted an inadequate number of shelters in towns with populations of more than 50,000. Persons convicted of honor killings may receive life imprisonment. The TNP reported 43 honor killings and three attempted honor killings through August. Most of these were in conservative families in the southeast or among migrants from the southeast living in large cities. Because of sentence reductions for juvenile offenders, observers noted that young male relatives often were designated to perform such killings. Due to penalties for honor killings, family members pressured girls to commit suicide in order to preserve the family's honor. Government officials worked with advocacy groups to hold town hall meetings and set up rescue teams and hotlines for endangered women and girls. KA-MER, the leading women's organization in the southeast, reported 63 women from the eastern and southeastern parts of the country contacted it to report that their family had threatened them with honor killings. Of these, 17 were between 13 and 18 years old, 29 were between 19 and 30 years old, and 17 were between 31 and 44 years old. The father or husband decided the fate of the woman in the vast majority of the cases. Increased education levels correlated with a drop in the rate of such crimes. KA-MER complained that, while in the past the police had shared statistics on suicides in such situations, the police did not share that information during the year. In April, 24-year-old Leyla Gok was beaten to death in Siirt's Eruh district, apparently because of her alleged affair with a married man. The woman had returned to her family after living with her boyfriend for some time. The family reportedly did not take the body from the hospital, and the victim was buried by municipal officials. After testimonies, Gok's brother, Hayrettin, was released and her boyfriend, Sukru Batuhan, was detained in connection with the death. The case continued at year's end. In November in the Ceylanpinar district of Sanliurfa in the southeast, Aysel Cadir was shot and killed by Muslum Bakir, her husband via an unofficial religious marriage. The victim's mother claimed that the decision to kill her was made by the husband and his ``family council.'' Cadir was reportedly three months pregnant. Bakir was in custody and the case continued at year's end. In January the Van penal court sentenced five members of the same family, including an older brother, father, mother, and two uncles, to life imprisonment for the 2006 murder of 15-year-old Naile Erdas, who was killed after giving birth to a child conceived during a rape. Another uncle was sentenced to 16 years and eight months. Prostitution is legal. The law provides different penalties for the crimes of sexual harassment and sexual assault, requiring two to seven years' imprisonment for sexual assault and three months' to two years' imprisonment plus a fine for sexual harassment. Women's rights activists maintained both laws were rarely enforced. On September 16, the Bursa penal court sentenced Huseyin Uzmez, a journalist, to 15 years and nine months in prison for sexually harassing a minor 14-year-old girl and disturbing her mental health. Couples and individuals in the country have the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children, and have the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. A 2008 survey of health and demographics by the Health Ministry showed an improvement in mother and child health indicators over the previous five years, although regional disparities existed. Under the law women enjoy the same rights as men; however, societal and official discrimination were widespread. The Directorate General on the Status and Problems of Women under the State Ministry in Charge of Family Affairs is responsible for promoting equal rights and raising awareness of discrimination against women. In March the parliament established the Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men to monitor developments on gender equality, give opinions on draft laws, and propose steps to align legislation and practice with international agreements. It also examined complaints of allegations of inequality between women and men and gender-based discrimination. Women continued to face discrimination in employment and were generally underrepresented in managerial-level positions as well as in government. According to a November report by the European Commission, the levels of women's employment and their political participation nationally and regionally were low. Women generally received equal pay for equal work in professional, business, and civil service positions, although a large percentage of women employed in agriculture and in the retail, restaurant, and hotel sectors worked as unpaid family labor. The World Economic Forum reported during the year that women earned 61 percent of what their male counterparts earned for similar work. The European Commission's report in October stated that men involved in manufacturing work earned twice as much as women in the same field. According to the European Commission's report in October, a legislative amendment granted public contractors the right to paid maternity leave at the same rate as public servants. Children.--There is universal birth registration in the country, but parents were generally discouraged from giving their children non- Turkish names. However, late in the year several parents were allowed to register Kurdish names for their children. The government was committed to furthering children's welfare and worked to expand opportunities in education and health. While education through age 14 or the eighth grade was free, universal, and compulsory, only 40 percent of children received a high school diploma, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. One in 10 girls reportedly did not attend compulsory primary school. Child abuse was a problem. There were honor killings of girls by immediate family members, sometimes by juvenile male relatives. There were reports that children were trafficked for sexual exploitation. In November the Malatya penal court sentenced nine women to three years and one month each in prison, and one woman for four years and two months in the criminal trial opened against 12 orphanage employees accused of abusing children at the Malatya State Orphanage in 2005. Two other women were acquitted for lack of evidence. The Malatya penal court had previously sentenced eight orphanage employees to one year in prison for ``neglecting their duties'' but postponed execution of the sentence in March 2008. Child marriage occurred, particularly in poor, rural regions; however, women's rights activists claimed that underage marriage became less common in the country in recent years. The law defines 17 as the minimum age for marriage, although children as young as 12 were at times married in unofficial religious ceremonies. In rare instances families engaged in ``cradle arrangements,'' agreeing that their newborn children would marry at a later date, well before reaching the legal age. The minimum age of consent in the country is 15. The law provides for imprisonment of six months to two years for statutory rape; the sentence is doubled if the offender is more than five years older than the victim. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to and within the country for sexual exploitation and labor. The country was a destination point for women and children trafficked primarily for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. The TNP identified 78 trafficking victims during the year. The TNP stated that no male victims were identified or assisted during the year. Source countries for identified trafficking victims included Kazakhstan, Nigeria, Romania, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Most foreign victims were trafficked for sexual exploitation in Istanbul and Antalya, although victims were identified in cities throughout the country. Typically, small networks of foreign nationals and citizens, relying on referrals and recruitment from friends and family members in the source country, trafficked foreign victims to the country. According to local experts and researchers, most victims arrived in the country knowing they would work in the sex industry but were subsequently threatened physically or emotionally and trapped. In fewer cases others were known to have arrived in the country to work as domestic servants and were exploited in that industry or trafficked into the commercial sex industry. In some cases traffickers reportedly continued to use physical force and threats to family members to force women into prostitution. Penalties for trafficking in persons are sufficiently stringent and commensurate with prescribed penalties for other grave crimes, such as sexual assault. Under the penal code, the penalties for trafficking include eight to 12 years' imprisonment and heavy fines. During the first 10 months of the year, the TNP reported that it had captured 271 trafficking suspects. A total of 198 were arrested, 57 were released pending trial, 15 fled, and one was in jail for an unrelated crime. During the year the TNP initiated an investigation against six of its personnel for alleged involvement in trafficking. The investigations continued at year's end. During the year the media occasionally alleged that police and other government officials participated in trafficking. According to press reports, authorities carried out operations during the year and detained some individuals, including military and police officers, who were involved in employing foreign women as prostitutes. An ambassadorial-level official from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs served as national coordinator of the government's Task Force on Human Trafficking which also included representatives from the Ministries of Health, Interior, Justice, Finance, Labor, and the Prime Ministry as well as from NGOs, the IOM, and municipalities. The government actively participated in international antitrafficking investigations and met regularly with neighboring countries and regional groups promoting regional cooperation in antitrafficking law enforcement. The government has signed bilateral antitrafficking cooperation memorandums of understanding and protocols with regional source countries, including Belarus, Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Kyrgyzstan. NGOs operated three shelters for trafficking victims in the country, located in Ankara, Istanbul, and Antalya. The Antalya shelter opened in June. The shelters in Ankara and Antalya received free rent from the municipalities, and the Ministry of Health provided free medical care to victims in the shelters. The Istanbul municipality stopped funding the shelter there in June 2008, but core services were not affected. Government financial support for these protection mechanisms was inconsistent. During the year the Istanbul shelter assisted 44 victims; through December the Ankara shelter assisted 37 victims. The government encouraged victims to participate in trafficking investigations and prosecutions; however, most chose to return to their countries of origin and declined to participate in the prosecutions, most often due to fear of authorities or of retaliation by the alleged trafficker. During the year police began taping interviews with trafficked victims to use as evidence if the victim returned to their country of origin before trials commenced. The Ministry of Justice through local bar associations provided free legal services to foreign victims choosing to remain in the country and to testify against traffickers. Foreign victims identified by authorities may apply for humanitarian visas to remain in the country for up to six months and may then apply for renewal for another six months. The government had a national referral mechanism which it implemented in partnership with the IOM and the shelters and which included the voluntary and safe return of victims. The IOM assisted 75 trafficking victims during the year, two of whom were men that IOM stated were trafficked for labor in a factory. The IOM operated a toll-free hotline for trafficking victims that was answered in Russian, Romanian/Moldovan, English, and Turkish and could receive international calls. Since 2005, 165 victims have been removed from trafficking situations through the assistance of the hotline. In July the government began a new international antitrafficking public awareness campaign with Russia and Moldova that used television and radio advertisements to promote trafficking awareness and the trafficking-victim hotline. Antitrafficking training courses continued to be held in the country throughout the year. TNP officers received training in six cities. Law enforcement officers, judges, and prosecutors participated in ``train the trainers'' courses that focused on countertrafficking skills, such as victim identification and interviewing. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services; the government generally enforced the law effectively. The law does not mandate access to buildings and public transportation for persons with disabilities, and access in most cities was limited. The Presidency Administration for Disabled People under the Prime Ministry is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. According to the European Commission, mental health hospitals and rehabilitation centers did not provide sufficient medical care or treatment. In November the Initiative for Human Rights in Mental Health reported on research conducted in 12 mental health care centers between June 2007 and October 2008 with permission of the Ministry of Health and Social Services and the Child Protection Agency. The report cited a need to increase the number of professional care staff, to improve hygienic conditions, to vary treatment beyond only antipsychotic drugs and antidepressants, and to allow for greater freedom of movement. In November 2008 a clandestinely filmed documentary on the state of public facilities for children in the country was broadcast in the United Kingdom. Earlier in the year, Duchess of York Sarah Ferguson used a disguise to enter and film two care centers for children with mental and physical disabilities for use in the documentary. The expose showed children tied to their beds with fabric and poor caretaking conditions at Saray Rehabilitation Center in Ankara and Zeytinburnu Center for the Care of Disabled Children in Istanbul. Prosecutors opened an investigation into Ferguson's activities, accusing her of breaking privacy laws when she clandestinely filmed the children. Press reports in September indicated that the government requested the United Kingdom to extradite Ferguson to the country to stand trial. There was no movement on the case by year's end. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law provides a single nationality designation for all citizens and does not recognize national, racial, or ethnic minorities. Citizens of Kurdish origin constituted a large ethnic and linguistic group. Millions of the country's citizens identified themselves as Kurds and spoke Kurdish. Kurds who publicly or politically asserted their Kurdish identity or publicly espoused using Kurdish in the public domain risked censure, harassment, or prosecution. In March 2008 the NGO Minority Rights Group International reported that millions of persons who belonged to ethnic, linguistic, and religious minorities faced systematic repression and that many minorities remained unrecognized. The report noted that the law is interpreted to protect only three religious minorities--Armenian Orthodox Christians, Jews, and Greek Orthodox Christians--and not other ethnic and religious minorities, such as Alevis, Yezidis, Assyrians, Kurds, Jafaris, Circassians, Laz, and Roma. The report stated that these ``excluded minorities'' were prohibited from fully exercising their linguistic, religious, and cultural rights and faced intense pressure to assimilate. In January the government initiated regular, 24-hour Kurdish broadcasts on ``Shesh TV'' after a brief pilot period the month prior and lifted restrictions on use of Kurdish by inmates in prison. In November, RTUK began allowing private television stations to broadcast in languages other than Turkish. Roma continued to face persistent discrimination and problems with access to education, health care, and housing. The government took no apparent steps during the year to assist the Romani community. The European Roma Rights Center, the Helsinki Citizens Assembly, and the Edirne Roma Culture Research and Solidarity Association conducted a program to train the Romani community on civil society organization and activism. Literacy courses for Romani women offered by the Roma Culture and Solidarity Association of Izmir continued. Associations celebrated International Roma Day in Ankara. The Roma living in the Sulukule neighborhood of Istanbul faced the destruction of their homes and were relocated outside of the city due to an urban renewal project sponsored by the municipality. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--While the law does not explicitly discriminate against homosexuals, organizations working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals claimed that references in the law relating to ``the morals of society'' and ``unnatural sexual behavior'' were sometimes used as a basis for abuse by police and discrimination by employers. The law also states that ``no association may be founded for purposes against law and morality.'' This article was applied in attempts to shut down or limit the activities of NGOs working on LGBT matters. On October 16, the Diyanet released a decision declaring that homosexuality is ``a behavior disorder and has been spreading in a scary way within society ... homosexuality cannot be accepted.'' The decision went on to state that homosexuality ``is against human nature, and it should be corrected without targeting homosexuals.'' On June 28, a LGBT pride parade and celebration occurred in Istanbul. Police provided protection to the celebrations, and no incidents of violence were reported. The event had heavy participation and coverage by European observers. According to NGOs, LGBT events with foreign participation generally occurred without incident while those without foreigners had much higher levels of police interference. Openly gay men were not allowed to perform military service for ``health reasons'' due to their sexual orientation; those requesting military exemption for reasons of sexual orientation must undergo an invasive burden of proof. LGBT groups complained that gay men were required to show photos of themselves in overt sexual positions and to undergo thorough medical evaluations to prove their homosexuality to military officials. There were active LGBT organizations in at least five cities in the country: Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Eskisehir, and Diyarbakir. Other unofficial groups existed in smaller cities. All groups complained of harassment by police and government authorities. Most had problems registering as an official organization or maintaining their registration once granted. In May protesters stoned an Ankara-based group during a press conference on LGBT matters. When the police arrived, instead of protecting the group, they told the group members that they ``should have known better'' and demanded that they end their press conference and leave. None of the stone throwers was arrested. On October 16, the Izmir prosecutor filed a case at the behest of the Izmir governor to close Black Pink Triangle (BPT), an LGBT rights organization in Izmir, on charges of forming an organization that was ``contrary to public morality.'' BPT claimed that their charter was identical to the charters of similar organizations in Ankara and Istanbul. The trial had not begun by year's end. In 2007 Bilgi University students established the country's first gay and lesbian university club. Approximately 15 parents lodged complaints with the university's administration, and the Turkish Higher Education Council opened an inquiry into the university. Bilgi's dean of students, Halit Kakinc, responded that closing the club would violate human rights. The club was operating normally at the end of the year. LGBT groups claimed that transgender individuals were significantly persecuted during the year. Although police arrested many for unauthorized prostitution, NGOs claimed that during the year there was a significant rise in prosecutions for ``offending public morals.'' One group reported that many transgender individuals were fined for frequenting stores or walking on city streets, officially for ``disturbing the environment'' or ``disrupting traffic.'' Police claimed they were acting on complaints they had received. Transgender individuals filed a case in Istanbul court against the police in October for harassment, but there was no movement on the case by year's end. The HRF and LGBT organizations reported that the former police chief in Izmir had instituted a ``point system'' whereby officers were rewarded for fining transgender individuals. After the same police chief took command in Istanbul, there was reportedly a large increase in the number of detentions and fines for ``offending public morals.'' Similar cases were reported in Ankara and other municipalities as well. Many observers noted that this practice had contributed to an increase in the levels of abuse of transgender individuals by security forces. There was no government response to these allegations by year's end. On March 10, prominent transgender rights activist Ebru Soykan was stabbed numerous times and killed in her home in Istanbul. Police arrested Birol Can Korkmaz for the murder. Soykan had made numerous complaints to the police and the prosecutor that Korkmaz had beaten her on several occasions and asked for protection. The criminal case was ongoing at year's end. On May 20, Halil Ibrahim Dincdag, a soccer referee, lost his job because of his self-identification as gay. He had been hired and had a long career as a referee despite his not having done his military service. According to the national soccer league's regulations, anyone who fails to complete his military service for health reasons is unfit to perform as a referee. Since Dincdag was precluded from military service for being gay, he was declared unfit to act as a referee and was fired. On August 9, the trial began for Yahya Yildiz, accused of killing his son, Ahmet Yildiz, in July 2008 in Istanbul. The case has been described as a gay ``honor killing''; Yildiz allegedly killed his son because he had a boyfriend. Ahmet Yildiz had represented the country in an international gay gathering in San Francisco in 2007. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--NGOs complained that the National AIDS Commission did not have adequate funding or staffing to deal with HIV/AIDS during the year. The EU reported in 2007 an estimated 2,500 persons with HIV/AIDS in the country. The Positive Life Association (PLA) reported a rapid increase of new cases of HIV/AIDS in the country, much higher than the worldwide average, although statistics were unavailable. The Court of Appeals confirmed a labor court decision in December that a worker had been fired wrongly for testing positive for HIV. The PLA complained that the media and medical professionals did not respect the privacy of individuals with HIV/AIDS and often reported their names in the media. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides most but not all workers with the right to associate and to form unions subject to diverse restrictions; most workers exercised this right in practice. The government maintained a number of restrictions on the right of association. Certain public sector employees are excluded from organizing. A minimum of seven persons may establish unions without prior permission. There are no restrictions on membership or participation of individuals or unions in regional, national, or international labor organizations, but such participation must be reported to the government. Labor law prohibits union leaders from becoming officers of or otherwise performing duties for political parties, from working for or being involved in the operation of any profit-making enterprise, and from displaying any political party logos or symbols in any union or confederation publications. Unions are required to notify government officials prior to holding meetings or rallies (which must be held in officially designated areas) and to allow government representatives to attend their conventions and to record the proceedings; these requirements were usually enforced. Although official government statistics issued in July indicated that 60 percent of the labor force was unionized, union officials noted that figure included retirees and others no longer on the active list of unionized employees. Most labor experts in the country estimated that approximately 20 percent of the wage and salary workers in the labor force were unionized. The law provides for the right to strike; however, the law requires a union to take a series of steps, including negotiations and nonbinding mediation, before calling a strike. The law prohibits unions from engaging in secondary (solidarity), political, or general (involving multiple unions over a large geographical area) strikes or in work slowdowns. The law prohibits strikes by civil servants; public workers engaged in safeguarding life and property; and workers in the coal mining and petroleum industries, sanitation services, national defense, banking, and education. In these sectors labor disputes were resolved through binding arbitration. However, many workers in these sectors conducted strikes in violation of these restrictions with general impunity. The majority of strikes during the year were illegal according to law; while some illegal strikers were dismissed, in most cases employers did not retaliate. The Ministry of Labor reported that through September 30, there were 13 strikes involving 34 workplaces. On December 15, workers from the former TEKEL state monopoly for tobacco and alcohol held a peaceful demonstration in Ankara to protest the change in labor conditions after privatization of the industry. Ali Can Aykel, a member of the Mus branch of the Tekgida-Is union, was allegedly beaten so severely by police that he faced paralysis and was taken to the hospital. At year's end no investigation had begun into the incident. At a May Day union demonstration in Istanbul the police used force against protesters. The peaceful demonstration was to commemorate the 1977 killing of 37 workers in Istanbul. Although the KESK, DISK, and Turk-Is labor confederations had requested to hold the demonstration in Taksim Square, where the 1977 attack had occurred, the government denied the request. The demonstrators gathered there anyway, and the police used tear gas to disperse the crowd. Subsequently, the DISK headquarters, where several protesters had gathered, was blocked and inundated with tear gas. There were additional reports of mistreatment by the police following the arrest of union leaders. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law and diverse government restrictions and interference limited the ability of unions to conduct their activities, including collective bargaining. Industrial workers and some public sector employees, excluding white- collar civil servants and state security personnel, have the right to bargain collectively, and approximately 1.3 million workers, or 5.4 percent of the workforce, were under collective bargaining agreements. The law requires that, in order to become a bargaining agent, a union must represent 50 percent plus one of the employees at a given work site and 10 percent of all the workers in that particular industry. This requirement favored established unions. The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) claimed that the law resulted in workers in many sectors not being covered by collective agreements. On November 25, 2.5 million civil servants held a nationwide strike to demand the right to strike. The unions sought to compel the government to enforce the November 2008 ECHR decision declaring that civil servants have the right to strike. The government maintained its position that the strike was illegal and initiated investigations and temporary suspensions for some of the protestors. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination; however, such discrimination occurred occasionally in practice. If a court ruled that a worker was unfairly dismissed and should either be reinstated or compensated, the employer generally paid compensation to the employee along with a fine. ITUC reported that private sector employers sometimes ignored the law and dismissed workers in order to discourage union activity. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in the country's 21 free trade and export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women, men, and minors were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation (see section 6). Internal trafficking of citizens for both legal and illegal prostitution was also reported. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, the government did not effectively implement them. There were four child victims documented in 2008, with the number of Uzbek and Turkmen victims increasing. The use of child labor was particularly notable in agriculture, carpentry, the shoemaking and leather goods industry, the auto repair industry, small-scale manufacturing, and street sales. Some parents forced their children to work on the streets selling tissues or food, shining shoes, or begging. The law prohibits the employment of children younger than 15 and prohibits children under 16 from working more than eight hours a day. At age 15 children may engage in light work, provided they remain in school. The law provides that no person shall be required to perform work unsuitable for their age, gender, or capabilities, and the government prohibits children from working at night or in areas such as underground mining. The law prohibits school-age children from working more than two hours per day or 10 hours per week. The Ministry of Labor and Social Security effectively enforced these restrictions in workplaces that were covered by the labor law, which included medium- and large-scale industrial and service sector enterprises. A number of sectors are not covered by the law, including agricultural enterprises employing 50 or fewer workers, maritime and air transportation, family handicraft businesses, and small shops employing up to three persons. Nonetheless, child labor was widespread. In a child labor survey conducted in the last quarter of 2006 and released in April 2007, the State Statistical Institute reported that the number of child laborers between the ages of six and 17 was 960,000. These figures represented a decrease over previous years. The study found that 84.7 percent of children ages six to 17 attended school and that the 31.5 percent of children in that age group who were employed were also attending school at least part-time. An informal system provided work for young boys at low wages, for example, in auto repair shops. Girls were rarely seen working in public, but many were kept out of school to work in handicrafts, particularly in rural areas. According to the 2006 child labor survey, 40.9 percent of child labor occurred in the agricultural sector, with 52.4 percent of employed children working in rural areas, compared with 47.7 percent working in urban areas. Many children worked in areas not covered by labor laws, such as agricultural workplaces with fewer than 50 workers or the informal economy. To combat this problem, the Ministry of National Education conducted a program in cooperation with the UN Children's Fund designed to provide primary education for at- risk girls. By year's end the program resulted in the primary-school enrollment of nearly 74,500 additional girls and 52,800 additional boys. Small enterprises preferred child labor because it was cheaper and provided practical training for the children, who subsequently had preference for future employment in the enterprise. If children employed in these businesses were registered with a Ministry of National Education training center, they were required to go to the center once a week for training, and the centers were obligated by law to inspect their workplaces. According to data provided by the ministry, there were 311 centers located in 81 cities; these centers provided apprenticeship training in 133 occupations. The government identified the worst forms of child labor as working in the streets, in industrial sectors where their health and safety were at risk, and as agricultural migrant workers. There were reports that children were trafficked for sexual exploitation. According to the U.S. Department of Labor's 2008 report on the worst forms of child labor, approximately 50,000 children worked on streets in 10 provinces. The government's Social Services and Child Protection Institution operated 37 centers to assist such children. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 693 lira ($465) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. All workers covered by the labor law are also covered by the law establishing a national minimum wage. This law was effectively enforced by the Ministry of Labor Inspection Board. The Turk-Is labor confederation reported that the minimum wage was insufficient, determining that a monthly minimum of 2,588 lira ($1,725) per household was needed to stay out of poverty and to meet a family's minimum basic needs. The law establishes a 45-hour workweek with a weekly rest day and limits overtime to three hours per day for up to 270 hours a year. Premium pay for overtime is mandated, but the law allows for employers and employees to agree to a flextime schedule. The Labor Inspectorate of the Ministry of Labor effectively enforced wage and hour provisions in the unionized industrial, service, and government sectors, which covered approximately 12 percent of workers. Workers in other sectors had difficulty receiving overtime pay, although by law they were entitled to it. The law mandates occupational health and safety regulations; however, in practice the Ministry of Labor Inspection Board did not carry out effective inspection and enforcement programs. In December an explosion killed 10 workers at a privately owned mine near Mustafakemalpasa, in Bursa province. Following the incident, the government closed down the mine. Mining accidents reportedly occurred often due to safety violations, outdated equipment, and inadequate safety inspections. Workers have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered health or safety without jeopardy to their employment, although reports of them doing so were rare. Authorities effectively enforced this right. __________ UKRAINE Ukraine, with a population of 46 million, is a multiparty, democratic republic with a parliamentary-presidential system of government. Executive authority is shared by a directly elected president and a unicameral Verkhovna Rada (parliament), which selects a prime minister as head of government. Elections in 2007 for the 450- seat parliament were considered free and fair. A presidential election is scheduled for January 2010. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Human rights problems included reports of serious police abuse, beatings, and torture of detainees and prisoners; harsh conditions in prisons and detention facilities; arbitrary and lengthy pretrial detention; an inefficient and corrupt judicial system; and incidents of anti-Semitism. Corruption in the government and society was widespread. There was violence and discrimination against women, children, Roma, Crimean Tatars, and persons of non-Slavic appearance. Trafficking in persons continued to be a serious problem, and there were reports of police harassment of the gay community. Workers continued to face limitations to form and join unions, and to bargain collectively. During the year the government established the Office of the Governmental Commissioner for Anticorruption Policy, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Prosecutor General's Office introduced a new system to improve the recording of hate-motivated crimes. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, the media reported that one person in Cherkasy Oblast was killed while in custody. As of October 1, the Ministry of Internal Affairs reported that five criminal investigations of police personnel had been initiated on suspicion of, or charges of, unlawful killing. No further information about the investigations was available. There were few developments in the government's ongoing investigation of the 2004 dioxin poisoning of then opposition presidential candidate Viktor Yushchenko. On March 31, parliament established a one-year, ad hoc commission to investigate the poisoning. In 2008 President Yushchenko stated that he knew who organized the poisoning and that the government had requested extradition of the suspect from Russia. Russia's prosecutor general denied that the request was made. On July 8, the head of the parliamentary commission, Volodymyr Sivkovych, announced that the commission found no proof that Yushchenko was intentionally poisoned and attributed the lack of progress in the investigation to inactivity by the Prosecutor General's Office (PGO) and investigators. On April 23, Hazeta po-Ukrayinsky reported that the body of Oleh Parkhomenko, a 34-year-old Cherkasy oblast resident who had been in administrative detention, was found near a road outside the town of Monastyrshche. Parkhomenko's body was covered with bruises, and his legs, ribs, and nose were broken. His relatives claimed he was tortured by district police. Forensic experts could not establish the cause of his death; police declined to explain why his body was found on the road and denied torturing him. Parkhomenko's coworker, Ihor Melnyk, who was also detained by police, told journalists that he too was tortured by police who tried to force him to confess to stealing two tractors. He alleged that police promised that he would be released in two years if he pleaded guilty and threatened additional charges if he refused to confess. On June 16, Valeriy Oliynyk of Kirovohrad Oblast died under suspicious circumstances following an incident involving a member of parliament, the oblast district prosecutor, and the local chief of police. According to reports the three men pursued Oliynyk into a wooded area were they assaulted him, broke his leg, and shot him multiple times. The Prosecutor General's Office opened a criminal case into the death. On July 3, parliament stripped Viktor Lozynskiy of his mandate; he remained missing. Authorities arrested and dismissed the district prosecutor and the police chief. On June 24, Human Rights Ombudsman Nina Karpachova reported in an address to parliament that a court in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast sentenced its chief of investigations to nine years in prison, and his subordinate police officers to eight years for the beating death in 2007 of detainee Petro Khudak. On July 21, authorities arrested a former senior Ministry of Internal Affairs official in connection with the high-profile murder in 2000 of investigative journalist Georgiy Gongadze. Prosecutors alleged that Oleksiy Pukach, who headed the ministry's surveillance department at the time of the killing, led a group of police officers in the abduction and murder of Gongadze, whose headless corpse was found in a forest outside of the capital, Kyiv. In 2008 three police officers were convicted and sentenced to long jail terms for the killing. Pukach was first detained in 2003 on suspicion of involvement with the murder. He was subsequently released and was missing until his arrest. Members of Gongadze's family and journalists who investigated the case continued to maintain that Pukach acted on orders from senior government officials in the presidential administration who wanted to silence Gongadze. The case was ongoing at year's end. On December 16, a court in Sumy Oblast found six police officers guilty of the October 2008 death of Serhiy Kuntsevsky who died in custody after police raped and beat him to extract a confession. Two senior officers, who were personally involved in torturing the suspect, were sentenced to eight years in prison; two others received four-year prison sentences, and the remaining two received suspended sentences of 42 months and three years. Three other officers were acquitted, but prosecutors appealed the ruling. There were no reported developments in several cases from previous years, including that of a Roma man who died in the Vinnytsia penal colony in July 2008 after he was allegedly beaten by facility personnel; of the police officer from Sumy Oblast who allegedly shot and killed a suspect from Trostyanets during interrogation in 2007; and of personnel at the Lukianivka pretrial detention facility charged with negligence that resulted in two deaths in 2007. There was at least one report of a death of soldiers from hazing or other mistreatment. On November 18, the LIGA news service reported that the Odesa garrison procuracy launched a criminal case against a captain who allegedly shot and killed 18-year-old Anton Morozov in Chornomorske village. The government ordered the Defense Ministry to investigate this and similar incidents. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and the law prohibit such practices; however, there were reports that police continued to abuse and torture persons in custody. On February 9, a report of the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention cited multiple concerns that arose from a monitoring visit in October 2008 to 21 facilities in eight cities. Among them were ``numerous, consistent and often credible allegations received from various sources...of confessions obtained under torture from detainees of the militsia, the Ukrainian police force.'' According to the Ukrainian Helsinki Human Rights Union (UHHRU) and other local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), an estimated one- third of criminal suspects were routinely mistreated or beaten by law enforcement officers to extract confessions and information. On December 3, the chief of the Ministry of Internal Affairs human rights monitoring department, Oleh Martynenko, stated that 2 percent of citizen complaints about police mistreatment resulted in criminal investigations. Police officers were often not adequately trained or equipped to gather evidence through investigations and depended on confessions to solve cases. The law does not clearly prohibit confessions or other statements made under duress from being introduced as evidence in court proceedings. Efforts to check these practices were made more difficult by an ineffective system for investigating allegations of abuse and by detainees' lack of access to defense lawyers and doctors. Another concern noted by the UN working group was the low acquittal rate by the Prosecutor General's Office when presented with well- founded accusations that incriminating evidence had been gathered by using methods that violated proper criminal procedures, including by torture. Of 100,000 such complaints, the prosecutor general considered 30 to be violations. According to the working group, ``impunity for perpetrators of ill-treatment largely prevails.'' During the year the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) issued nine decisions against the country for violation of Article 3 (inhuman or degrading treatment) of the European Convention of Human Rights. This compared with four violations in 2008 and six in 2007. The media reported several instances of police abuse. For example, on January 17, the 1+1 television channel reported that police in the Ordzhonikidzevskiy district in Kharkiv tortured two women to obtain confessions. One of the victims, Svitlana Pomelyaika, worked at a local tile factory. Police detained her and a coworker on suspicion of theft. According to the victims, police took them to different rooms, where they were kicked and hooded with plastic bags; pliers were used to squeeze their nipples. When they refused to sign confessions, they were forced to write that they had no complaints against police before being released. Both women were hospitalized, and their injuries were documented. According to Kharkiv oblast police chief Viktor Razvadovskiy, two officers were dismissed after an investigation found pliers and other implements of torture in police offices. The Kharkiv district prosecutor launched a criminal case against the officers on charges of abuse of official duties. The case continued at year's end. In August Radio Svoboda (Radio Liberty) reported that a newly appointed chief of the State Penal Department dismissed the administrators of the Vinnytsia pretrial detention facility for humiliating and using force unlawfully against prisoners. On August 21, human rights activists posted video testimony on the Internet of an inmate who showed beating marks on his body and accused the facility's chief of abusing him because he demanded that refrigerators be placed in each cell. On September 9, the newspaper Fakty reported that Interior Minister Yuriy Lutsenko dismissed the deputy chief of criminal investigations in Odesa's Kominternivskiy district and reprimanded and demoted 15 police officers on charges of discrediting the police and neglect of duties. The chief of the district police also received a professional incompetence warning. The officers reportedly tortured a 39-year-old theft suspect by beating him with a crowbar and shocking him with electricity. No developments were reported in the following 2008 cases: the investigation of Volodymyr Hetmanenko's torture case from Crimea; the investigation of three police officers from Sumy Oblast who allegedly forced victims to carry illegal drugs and then arrested them for possession; the investigation of 20 police officers at the Simferopol railway station who allegedly detained, robbed, and extorted money from passengers; and an incident involving the violent beating of inmates at the Stryzhavska correctional colony in Vinnytsia Oblast in June. During the year authorities prosecuted police officers who abused persons in detention. According to the prosecutor's general office, during the first nine months of the year, courts heard 20 cases of police torture or inhuman and degrading treatment and issued 30 guilty verdicts. Six officers received prison sentences, one was sentenced to a correctional institution, 22 received probation, and one was fined. As Of October 1, three police officers were convicted of torture, according to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Authorities also initiated nine criminal investigations of law-enforcement personnel suspected of inflicting bodily injuries and four investigations of suspected torture and physical violence. According to the PGO, 28 law- enforcement personnel were convicted of torture or inhuman treatment during the first nine months of the year. In addition, 93 cases of alleged police torture or inhuman and degrading treatment were initiated, and 14 criminal cases with recommended guilty verdicts against 31 police officers were forwarded to the courts. There was no information available on whether the parents of Sumy Oblast resident Oleksandr Voskoboinikov filed an appeal following their son's murder conviction in August 2008. They claimed that he and codefendant Oleksandr Sapon were tortured into confessing to the fatal stabbing of a swimming coach in 2006. The court case of Yuriy Moseyenkov continued. The State Penitentiary Directorate (SPD) confirmed that he was wrongfully confined for 20 months beginning in 2005 on suspicion of murder. The officials involved in the wrongful detention were disciplined. There were reports of military hazing violence against conscripts in the armed forces. On August 7, the UNIAN press service reported that the Zhytomyr garrison prosecutor launched a criminal case concerning the beating in June of a soldier. According to the State Judicial Administration (SJA), 49 hazing- related guilty verdicts were issued in the first six months of the year. The PGO confirmed that in the first nine months of the year, 133 servicemen were convicted of hazing out of 158 hazing-related criminal cases forwarded to courts. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally did not meet international standards. Overcrowding, abuse, inadequate sanitation, light, food, water, and medical care were persistent problems. The government permitted monitoring visits by independent human rights observers, and such visits occurred during the year. Conditions remained poor in state prisons despite some improvements due to reforms in the penal system and a reduction in the prison population due to more humane sentencing. Human rights groups continued to call for full civilian oversight of the SPD by subordinating it to the Ministry of Justice. According to the UHHRU, the absence of rigorous and impartial public oversight in SPD-controlled facilities allowed for abuse of prisoners and poor conditions. On July 28, the human rights ombudsman reported that she had received a report from the PGO confirming poor detention conditions in 16 police facilities in cities around the country, including Donetsk, Kyiv, Kirovohrad, and Sevastopol. They were located in old buildings that lacked ventilation, sufficient water supply, adequate lighting, and proper sewage and sanitary systems. These facilities frequently violated regulations limiting the length of detention and did not guard against the spread of tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. According to the SPD, an estimated 659 persons in custody had HIV- associated tuberculosis (TB). In TB hospitals controlled by the prison department, 42 percent of patients were terminally ill with TB, and 44 percent were terminally ill with AIDs. The SPD acknowledged that TB was one of the major communicable diseases in its facilities because of poor conditions and inadequate medical resources for examining and treating TB-infected persons in pretrial detention facilities. As of October 2008 according to the latest available statistics from the SPD, 146,827 persons were detained in 184 facilities under its control. In 2007, 729 individuals died in custody, including pretrial detention facilities. Illness caused 673 of the deaths, while 54 resulted from suicide; two were homicides. In 2008 the PGO reported that 397 prisoners died in the first six months of the year in SPD- controlled prisons. Suicides accounted for 21 of the deaths. As of January 1, according to the annual report by the UHHRU, 145,715 persons were detained in SDP-controlled facilities, including 109,961 persons in 136 penal facilities and 34,148 persons in pretrial detention facilities. As of October 1, authorities held almost 122,000 persons in 483 police-controlled temporary holding facilities. The Ministry of Internal Affairs confirmed 14 suicide attempts in police-controlled special facilities. There were six deaths; three were alcohol-related and three were due to illness. Conditions in police temporary holding facilities and pretrial detention facilities were harsher than in low- and medium- security prisons. The former were often overcrowded and lacked adequate sanitation and medical facilities. As of September 1, according to the Prosecutor General's Office, more than 200 individuals serving life sentences were held in pretrial detention facilities. In contrast to the previous year, there were occasional media reports of self-inflicted injuries and violent incidents in prisons and detention centers to protest poor conditions. For example, on January 26, according to informed experts, six inmates at a correctional colony in Alchevsk in Luhansk Oblast cut their veins to protest abuse by the facility administration. On July 7, television Channel 5 reported that more than 100 prisoners refused food and 20 cut their veins to protest abuse by penal facility officials in Khmelnytskiy Oblast. Overcrowding and poor conditions in prisons and detention centers exacerbated the problem of TB. Authorities stated that mandatory screening of all new inmates for TB reduced infection rates; human rights organizations said the presence of x-ray machines in several prison facilities was a positive development. The government allowed independent monitoring of prison conditions and detention centers. On September 9, a delegation of the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) carried out a two-week visit to the country. It was the CPT's fifth visit. Mobile monitoring groups consisting of Ministry of Internal Affairs personnel and human rights NGOs continued to visit police temporary holding facilities. The NGOs called for the establishment of similar mobile monitoring for prisons run by the SPD. However, human rights activists asserted that regional police did not always cooperate with Ministry of Internal Affairs mobile monitoring groups and civic advisory councils. For example, on October 2, Kharkiv Human Rights Group (KHRG) Chairman Yevhen Zakharov reported at a hearing on human rights that police chiefs in Dnipropetrovsk and Sumy Oblasts ordered collection of personal data on members of regional civic advisory councils in an attempt to force them to disband. Prisoners and detainees were permitted to file complaints with the ombudsman about conditions in custody, but human rights organizations noted that prison officials continued to censor or discourage complaints. By law the prosecutor and ombudsman were obliged to disclose the names of inmates who filed complaints to the bodies against which they were filed, such as the SPD, which subjected the petitioners to possible reprisals from prison administrators. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution and the law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention; however, in practice problems remained. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of Internal Affairs is responsible for maintaining internal security and order; it oversees the police (militsia) and its own armed troops. The Security Service of Ukraine (SBU), which is responsible for internal intelligence and protecting state security, reports directly to the president. The State Tax Administration, which exercises law enforcement powers through the tax police, is accountable to both the president and the cabinet. The law provides for civilian control of the army and law- enforcement agencies and authorizes members of parliament to conduct investigations and public hearings into national security and defense issues. The human rights ombudsman is also authorized to initiate investigations into the relevant activities of security forces. Police corruption remained a problem. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, 39,204 law-enforcement officers (approximately 16 percent of the 250,000-member force) were subjected to administrative disciplinary actions in the first nine months of the year. Of these, criminal investigations were begun against 115 officers on bribery charges. The PGO confirmed that in the first nine months of the year, 310 police personnel and 13 prosecutors were found criminally liable for corruption. On February 9, the newspaper Fakty reported that SBU's antiorganized crime officers detained the deputy chief of investigations for the Kyiv metro police for taking a bribe of 25,000 hryvnias (approximately $3,100) to drop criminal charges against suspects. The Kyiv prosecutor's office launched a criminal case on the grounds of fraud and abuse of office and the official was suspended from his post. On February 11, the Web site proUA.com reported that the SBU's Main Directorate for Combating Corruption detained the deputy head of one of Kyiv's Ministry of Internal Affairs divisions when he accepted a 25,000 hryvnia bribe (approximately $3,100) from a woman in exchange for closing criminal proceedings against her relative. On October 1, UNIAN reported that the Ministry of Internal Affairs internal security service detained three Donetsk oblast police officers, a special investigator and two officers of the economic crime office, for demanding a bribe of 3.1 million hryvnia ($400,000), of which they received 80,000 hryvnia ($10,000), for dropping criminal charges against a local resident. There was no further information about the following 2008 corruption investigations: the head of Kyiv's main criminal investigation unit and a chief investigator of a Kyiv district police office for accepting bribes in return for not pressing charges; a criminal case against a police investigator in Donetsk Oblast for taking a 70,000 hryvnia (8,700 dollar) bribe for dropping charges against a suspected rapist; and a criminal investigation involving two Kirovohrad police officers who was accused of demanding a bribe from a parent to release a child detained on suspicion of theft. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--By law authorities may detain a suspect for three days without a warrant, after which an arrest order must be issued. The courts may extend detention without an arrest warrant for an additional 10 days and thereafter grant extensions for a maximum of 18 months. The law permits citizens to contest an arrest in court or appeal it to the prosecutor. The law requires that detained persons be informed of their rights and that officials notify family members immediately concerning an arrest; however, in practice police did not follow the procedures required by law. Lengthy pretrial detention was a serious a problem. Individuals often remained in pretrial detention for months or, in some cases, years. There were unsanctioned arrests, and investigative police at times failed to keep records or register detained suspects. According to domestic human rights organizations, the investigation process took four to five months on average. Human rights organizations reported that police continued to use detention arbitrarily (in this case split infinitive can be avoided without awkward language) to extract evidence that could be used against detainees. Courts often extended detention to 10 days or more to allow police more time to obtain confessions. On October 2, in a speech at a conference on police violence sponsored by the KHRG, Denys Kobzin, director of the Kharkiv Institute of Sociological research, reported that approximately 40 percent of detainees were held longer than the legally allowed three days. The February report by the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention noted the following problems: the continued practice of detaining until trial persons suspected of minor crimes; a perceived lack of independent and effective control over the detention process by the judiciary; and unlawful restrictions on pretrial detainees, such as denying them contact with their families before court trials. The law stipulates that a defense attorney must be provided without charge to indigent detainees from either the time of detention or the filing of charges. However, in practice this often did not occur. There were insufficient defense attorneys to protect suspects from unlawful and lengthy detention. Attorneys often refused to defend indigents for the low payment the government provided. Reports continued that police arbitrarily detained persons, particularly persons of non-Slavic appearance, for extensive document checks and vehicle inspections (see section 6). The law provides for bail, but it was rarely used. Many defendants could not pay imposed bail amounts. Courts sometimes imposed travel restrictions as an alternative to pretrial confinement. However, they generally opted to place individuals in detention. Amnesty.--During the year President Yushchenko pardoned 573 persons. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary; however, in practice the judiciary remained subject to political pressure, suffered from corruption and inefficiency, and lacked public confidence. The right to a fair trial was limited by lengthy court proceedings, particularly in administrative courts, and by political pressure on judges, inadequate court funding, a shortage of qualified legal assistance for defendants, and the inability of courts to enforce their rulings. Judges also continued to complain about pressure from high- ranking politicians seeking improper resolution of cases. During the year the ECHR issued 69 judgments that found the country in violation of Article 6 (right to a fair trial) of the European Convention on Human Rights. This compared with 61 judgments issued during 2008 and 66 judgments in 2007. In addition, the ECHR issued judgments that found 35 violations regarding length of proceedings and 27 violations regarding the right to liberty and personal security. This compared with 32 and 14 judgments, respectively, in 2008, and 34 and three in 2007. On October 15, in its ruling in the case of Yuriy Nikolayevich Ivanov v. Ukraine, the ECHR for the first time openly criticized the country's local court system ``for nonenforcement or delayed enforcement of domestic judgments.'' All courts, except for the Supreme Court, were funded through the SJA, which was also responsible for staffing. The Ministries of Justice and Education were responsible for training judges. The judiciary's lack of adequate staff and funds contributed to inefficiency and corruption and increased its dependence on the executive branch. On December 22, the Constitutional Court ruled that the president's right to appoint and dismiss the head of the SJA is unconstitutional. The court stated that because the SJA oversees a state body and is not a cabinet-level agency the responsibility of appointing and dismissing the head of the SJA falls to the prime minister with the concurrence of the cabinet. In March Supreme Court Chairman Vasyl Onopenko said in a speech at a conference of economic court judges that the state budget permits the expenditure of less than five hryvnia ($1) for the review of each case. In July the judicial association, Foundation for Justice released an appeal to the government expressing concern about the lack of adequate funding for courts. According to the association, the year's budget allocated approximately 21 percent of the funds actually needed for court expenses. While the law provides for judicial independence, in some cases it also gives the president considerable power over the judiciary. The president has the authority, with the agreement of the Ministry of Justice and the chair of the Supreme Court or of a corresponding higher specialized court, to establish and abolish courts of general jurisdiction. The president determines the number of judges in the court system, appoints and removes chairpersons and deputy chairpersons of courts, and establishes appellate commercial and appellate administrative courts. The country has a multitiered court system consisting of the Constitutional Court, courts of general jurisdiction, and local (raion) courts. Courts of general jurisdiction deal with civil, economic, administrative, and criminal forms of justice. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. It has civil, criminal, commercial, and administrative chambers and a military panel of judges. The Constitutional Court consists of 18 members, six each appointed by the president, parliament, and the Congress of Judges for nine-year terms. The Constitutional Court determines the constitutionality of legislation and other parliamentary legal acts, presidential edicts, cabinet acts, and legal acts of the Crimean Autonomous Republic. It also issues opinions concerning the constitutionality of international treaties and agreements. Trial Procedures.--The constitution includes provisions for a fair trial, including the right of suspects or witnesses to refuse to testify against themselves or their relatives; however, these rights were limited by the absence of implementing legislation, which left a largely Soviet-era criminal justice system in place. Defendants are presumed innocent; however high conviction rates called that assumption into question. The constitution provides for juries, but a jury system has not been implemented. Most cases are decided by judges who sit singly, although trials on charges carrying a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, the highest penalty in the criminal justice system, were heard by two judges and three public assessors who have some legal training. By law a trial must begin no later than three weeks after criminal charges are filed with the court; however, this requirement was rarely met by the overburdened court system. Months could pass before a defendant was brought to trial. Complicated cases could take years to go to trial. The law specifies that a defendant may consult a lawyer in private; however, human rights groups reported that officials occasionally denied this attorney-client privilege. The law also requires free legal counsel for all defendants, but free counsel was often unavailable. On October 6, the Constitutional Court ruled that any individual summoned as a witness in a criminal case anywhere in the country is entitled to legal aid. To protect defendants, investigative files must contain signed documents attesting that defendants were informed of the charges against them, of their right to an attorney at public expense, and of their right not to give evidence against themselves or their relatives. Appeals courts may dismiss convictions or order new trials if these signed documents are missing; however, officials sometimes verbally and physically abused defendants to obtain their signatures. By law trials are held in public, and defendants have the right to confront witnesses. However, courtroom space was often limited, and media personnel were at times not able to attend and report on court proceedings. The law permits the names and addresses of victims and witnesses to be kept confidential if they were at risk of being intimidated into withdrawing or changing their testimony. The law requires that a special police unit protect judges, witnesses, defendants, and their relatives, but human rights organizations claimed that this system continued to be ineffective. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The constitution and laws give citizens the right to challenge any decisions, actions, or omissions of national and local government officials that violate their human rights. However, the right of redress was limited by an inefficient and corrupt judicial system. Potential victims may also file a collective legal challenge to legislation that they believe may violate basic rights and freedoms. Citizens may appeal to the human rights ombudsman and may take cases to international bodies, such as the ECHR. Property Restitution.--Restitution of property taken from religious groups during the Soviet era continued at a slow pace, partly as a consequence of the country's economic situation. In addition, intracommunal competition for particular properties complicated restitution claims for the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim communities. During the year the State Committee on Nationalities and Religion (SCNR) did not report on developments regarding property restitution. Previously, the SCNR stated that the majority of (most?) buildings and objects had already been returned to religious organizations. The remaining properties for which restitution was sought were occupied by state institutions, were historic landmarks, or had been transferred to private ownership. The SCNR stated that there was a lack of government funding to assist in relocating organizations occupying these buildings. The SCNR also noted that restitution claims frequently fell under the jurisdiction of local governments. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions; however, in practice authorities generally did not respect these prohibitions. By law the SBU may not conduct surveillance and searches without a court-issued warrant. The Prosecutor General's Office has the constitutional responsibility to ensure that all law enforcement agencies observe the law. Citizens have the legal right to examine any dossier concerning them in the possession of the SBU and the legal right to recover losses resulting from an investigation. However, authorities generally did not respect these rights in practice because implementing legislation had not been enacted. According to the NGO UHHRU and former SBU chief Ihor Smeshko, there was no effective independent oversight of monitoring activity by security agencies. Most citizens were not aware of violations of their privacy rights by law enforcement agencies. There were several media reports of allegations of privacy interference and illegal surveillance by government authorities. For example, on April 28, the weekly newspaper Dzerkalo Tyznia reported that appeal courts reviewed 25,086 requests by law enforcement agencies (mostly by the SBU, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and tax police) for permission to intercept information, seize correspondence, or use other technical means to obtain information, all of which the newspaper described as related to restrictions of the constitutional rights of citizens. SBU chief Valentyn Nalyvaichenko disclosed that his agency began monitoring Deputy Prosecutor General Kuzmin's telephone conversations in January 2008, even though there was no reason to suspect him of violating secrecy regulations. On May 15, the SBU forwarded documents to the Prosecutor General's Office related to the illegal surveillance of Kuzmin and a criminal case was opened against the responsible SBU officers. There were no reports available concerning the 2008 investigation into the illegal surveillance of Mykolayiv mayor Volodymyr Chaika or the 2007 criminal investigation into the posting on the Internet of a transcript of a 2006 telephone conversation between then speaker of parliament Oleksandr Moroz and the British ambassador. During the year the ECHR issued four judgments that found violations by the country of the right to respect for family and private life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, compared with one in 2008. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution and laws provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. There were no reports that central authorities attempted to direct media content; however, there were reports of intimidation of journalists by national and local officials. Individuals could criticize the government publicly and privately, and independent and international media were active and expressed a wide variety of opinions. According to the Ukrainian Association of Press Publications, approximately 4,200 print publications were regularly published in the country. Among them were 2,400 newspapers (including 52 dailies) and 1,700 magazines, with 1,550 having primarily nationwide distribution. In June parliament adopted a resolution prohibiting government agencies from carrying out inspections of mass media ahead of the 2010 presidential election campaign, which began in October. The measure aimed to safeguard freedom of expression by eliminating legal, administrative, and economic obstacles for media reporting on the campaign. The law on presidential elections, however, imposed restrictions on media coverage of election campaigns. The independent media journal Telekrytyka, KHRG chairman Yevhen Zakharov, and media law expert Kostyantyn Yakubenko all criticized the legislation for stifling independent analysis of candidates' campaign platforms and views. For example, the media are technically allowed only to broadcast information provided by candidates. Other limitations include: a ban on ``campaigning'' by foreign media and by noncitizens (although campaigning is not defined), and the prohibition of publishing results of public opinion polling on political parties and presidential candidates beginning 15 days prior to election day. On September 15, a national commission on freedom of speech and information urged politicians to abstain from attempting to manipulate the media and journalists during the presidential campaign. However, media experts expressed concern that politicians and media owners would nevertheless increase pressure on all media throughout the three-month campaign. In October Oleksandr Chernenko, the chairman of an NGO, the Committee of Voters of Ukraine, expressed concern about signs of a possible return of direct censorship. He asserted that editors and top managers of certain media outlets were forced to attend meetings at campaign headquarters and that some national and regional media were warned not to criticize particular politicians. On September 22, a district court in Kyiv initially ruled in favor of Prime Minister Yuliya Tymoshenko's political party in a case involving a video clip critical of her that was sent to all major television channels. In its decision, the court said it was prohibiting dissemination of what it called ``dishonest advertisements'' about the performance of the country's premier. The UHHRU appealed the court's decision and stressed that the prime minister, as a public figure, could be the subject of criticism in the press. On October 7, the court reversed its earlier ruling. There were additional reports of intimidation and other types of harassment of journalists, including by national and local officials. According to national NGO media watchdog Institute for Mass Information (IMI), at least 31 journalists and publications were subjected to physical attacks or intimidation during the first 11 months of the year, compared with 27 incidents reported in 2008. In October IMI reported a spike in violent incidents, including police violence and five shootings. The shootings targeted the offices of Volyn newpaper Viche, the Lviv-based Expres newspaper, and the Nova Zorya publishing house in Ivano-Frankivsk. Targeted individuals included Kyrylo Danilov, Director of Pryvat TV Dnipro in Dnipropetrovsk, and photo correspondent Ruslan Lyubchenko of the magazine Conflicts and Law in Kyiv. As in the previous year, most cases occurred at the local level and were often attributed to individual politicians, businessmen, or organized criminal groups. For example, on February 16, a car owned by Valeriy Vorotynyk, local journalist and owner of Antenna media group, exploded in Cherkasy immediately after Vorotynyk announced a protest against the closure of five local schools. There were no injuries. On May 25, reporter Oleksandr Ilnytskiy of Vinnychchyna TV and Radio Company sustained head injuries resulting from an assault by a municipal official after he recorded an argument between the official and a circus administrator who accused local authorities of corruption. On September 1, Communist member of parliament Oleksandr Tkachenko seized a microphone from STB TV's parliamentary correspondent Olha Chervakova and threw it to the ground after she asked him to clarify his remarks about banning journalists from the parliament cafeteria. The parliamentary committee on freedom of speech called upon Tkachenko to apologize. There was no progress in the investigation into the June 2008 harassment of Ostriv newspaper journalist Ihor Nezhurko. There were no reported developments in cases of violence against journalists in previous years, including the February 2007 attack on the news director of Dnipropetrovsk's Channel 9, Anatoliy Shynkarenko; the March 2007 attack on an independent investigative journalist in Kherson Oblast, Serhiy Tsyhipa; the September 2007 burning of the automobile of Serhiy Harmash, chief editor of the Donetsk-based Internet publication Ostriv; or the 2006 death of Norik Shirin, founder and publisher of the Holos Molodi newspaper. Private media outlets operated free of direct state control or interference; however, both independent and state-owned media at times demonstrated a tendency toward self-censorship on matters that the government deemed sensitive. Although private newspapers operated on a commercial basis, they often depended on their owners (political patrons or oligarchs who were connected to politicians) for revenue and did not enjoy editorial independence. According to media monitoring by IMI and their regional partners the practice of prepaid publications, veiled advertisements, and positive coverage presented as news (known as ``dzhynsa''), continued in the electronic and print media. The price for such coverage ranged from 24,000 hryvnia ($3,000) to as much as 40,000 hryvnia ($5,000) for participation in a television talk show. Print stories cost from 800 hryvnia ($100) to 40,000 hryvnia ($5,000.) IMI also emphasized that political parties frequently ordered the placement of stories in regional print media while law enforcement agencies did not investigate this breach of law. Some journalists maintained that low salaries encouraged some reporters to supplement their incomes with undocumented payments from ``benefactors'' seeking to influence news reporting. On April 30, the European Federation of Journalists released a statement condemning the firing of Serhiy Huz, vice president and leading activist of the Independent Media Trade Union. He was dismissed from the Ukrainskiy Tyzhden magazine ``for attempting to improve the working conditions of his colleagues'' through negotiations for a collective agreement to regulate salary and editorial rights. According to the federation, a number of journalists left the magazine in January to protest the dismissal of the editor in chief over disputes about increased interference in the editorial line of the magazine. The continued dependence of some media outlets on government resources may have inhibited investigative and critical reporting. Inadequate media access to government-held information was a problem, particularly in the regions. IMI, the UHHRU, and the Committee for Monitoring Freedom of Press in Crimea asserted that most government agencies regularly denied requests by journalists and NGOs for basic public interest information. For example, on April 8, Crimean Health Minister Serhiy Donych refused to answer questions from Kateryna Zuyeva, a news reporter from the Chornomorska TV and Radio Company, about the outcome of a meeting by the special commission on the children's TB hospital in Simferopol. Journalists were not allowed to attend the event. In some instances, media representatives had problems gaining access to court hearings and other governmental meetings. On January 27, IMI reported that Serhiy Nestorenko, a judge of Kremenchuk's Avtozavodskiy district court in Poltava Oblast, pushed the chairman of the local office of the independent media trade union and human rights activist Mykola Feldman out of the courtroom during a hearing. Feldman alleged that the same judge threatened to open a criminal case against an attorney for inviting him to the hearing. On March 16, according to the UHHRU, Chernihiv Vice Mayor Stanislav Vikhrov prohibited Valeriy Lytovhcnenko and Andriy Cherednyak, correspondents from the Ukraina Moloda and Za Chernihiv newspapers, from attending a meeting of the city council's executive committee. Vikhrov argued that Lytovchenko was not an employee of Ukrayina Moloda, that the newspaper should have applied for permission in writing in advance, and that the meeting was closed to the general public. However, representatives of municipally owned media were allowed to attend without prior approval, and the council's Web site had announced transportation and budgetary issues as the meeting's discussion topics. Government licensing provisions require that national media outlets broadcast at least 75 percent of their programs in Ukrainian, a policy that many citizens whose first language was not Ukrainian regarded as discriminatory. Libel is considered a civil offense, and the law limits the amount of damages that may be claimed in libel lawsuits; the press can publish inoffensive, nonfactual judgments, including criticism, without penalty. On February 27, the Supreme Court adopted a resolution on judicial practice in defamation cases, reiterating that public officials enjoy less protection from criticism than average individuals, emphasizing the importance of distinguishing between factual information and value judgments, and encouraging courts to refer to European Court of Human Rights' practices. On December 1, the president vetoed amendments to the civil code that would have allowed officials to demand high sums for damages in defamation lawsuits. Media rights groups had recommended the veto on grounds that the amendments would have placed undue pressure on journalists and media. However, media watchdog groups continued to express concern over the extremely high monetary damages that were demanded, and sometimes awarded, for alleged libel. Government entities and public figures, in particular, continued to use the threat of civil suits based on alleged damage to a ``person's honor and integrity'' to influence or intimidate the press. For example, the National Union of Journalists' list of press enemies cited eight libel lawsuits filed since early April against Kanal 33 newspaper by ex-Vinnytsia governor Hryhoriy Kaletnik and his son. The newspaper published a series of articles alleging the former official's involvement in illegal smuggling when he served in the State Customs Service. The Kaletniks demanded 710,000 hryvnias ($89,000) in damages. On April 16, IMI reported that the court of appeal in Kyiv reduced the amount of moral damages awarded by a lower court from 300,000 hryvnias ($37,400) to 157,000 hryvnias ($19,600). Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet; however, law enforcement bodies engaged in Internet monitoring. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 11 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. On February 18, the Cabinet of Ministers adopted a decree to designate the SBU as the lead government agency responsible for drafting a bill on the registration of online media. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom. However, human rights organizations and artists criticized the National Expert Commission on Public Morals and its chairman, Vasyl Kostytskiy, for prohibiting a number of foreign movies and cartoons, as well as Ukrainian books, songs, and programs. For example, on the commission's recommendation, the National Television and Broadcasting Council prohibited further airing of the foreign cartoon series ``The Simpsons.'' It also prohibited screening of Sacha Baron Cohen's film Bruno and the publication of a novel, The Woman of His Dreams, by the Ukrainian winner of the Shevchenko prize, Oles Ulianenko. The commission stated that all were obscene, pornographic, and antisocial. The commission also banned two books that it said incited xenophobia or interethnic hatred or contained anti-Semitic statements: The Secret History of Ukraine by Aleksandr Shyrokorad and Life, History and Reality, by Vladimir Putyatin. On June 26, the president signed into law amendments to the criminal code that made it a criminal offense to electronically or physically store literature, images, or other objects of ``a pornographic nature'' intended for sale or distribution. The law, however, does not clearly define what constitutes ``a pornographic nature.'' According to the executive director of the UHHRU, Volodymyr Yavorskiy, the new law limits freedom of expression and could facilitate blackmail and corrupt practices by police who may target selected individuals. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly, but in some instances regional governments infringed on these rights. Since there is no national law governing freedom of assembly, the code of administrative justice and case law prevailed. Local authorities sometimes invoked a Soviet-era decree on freedom of assembly that was more restrictive than the constitution. The constitution requires that organizers inform authorities of a planned demonstration in advance. The Soviet-era decree that local governments sometimes used to define ``advance notice,'' stipulates that organizations must apply for permission at least 10 days before an event or demonstration. In most cases permits were granted, and in practice unlicensed demonstrations were common and generally occurred without police interference, fines, or detention, although there were several exceptions. In the first nine months of the year, according to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, police identified 99 persons who violated the law on organizing and holding public gatherings. However, the prosecutor general's office confirmed that it did not launch any criminal investigations into organizers of unsanctioned rallies or other protest events. On July 16, according to Majdan Web site, the court of appeal in Odesa Oblast upheld a lower court ruling that found an Odesa City Council member guilty of breaching the decree on advance notice. Mykhailo Shmushkovych acknowledged that he had organized a May demonstration by local residents against the city council to protest suspension of city funding for a municipal housing project. Shmushkovych requested permission for the event three days prior to the demonstration but was warned by the council's department of internal policy that his request was a breach of the decree. An attorney with the UHHRU who assisted Shmushkovych with his case described the ruling as unprecedented. The Republic Institute, a local monitoring group, said it had noticed an increase in the number of violations of freedom of peaceful assembly in the previous two years and expressed concern that law enforcement bodies were often biased against some groups. For example, the institute noted a new trend toward involving paramilitary organizations, such as the unregistered NGO of security service veterans, Shchyt (Shield), in matters involving maintenance or order. In March Shchyt broke up a peaceful protest on Independence Square in Kyiv and volunteered to ``counter anarchy, corruption, and privately funded political activities to bring order to the country.'' As in 2008, local authorities prohibited progay events by LiGa, a Mykolayiv-based association of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. In May LiGA ignored a city prohibition to organize a photo exhibition to observe the International Day Against Homophobia. In June local authorities warned LiGA in writing that it could be disbanded because of the breach of law. There were no further developments in a case involving a March 2008 administrative appeal by the Luhansk branch of the Committee of Voters of Ukraine (CVU) against the Severodonetsk city council's decision to require organizers of sporting, musical, religious, and civic-political events in the Ice Palace of Sports to receive permission from the city council and to prohibit all other types of events from the venue. Freedom of Association.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of association; while the government generally respected this right in practice, some restrictions remained. Registration requirements for organizations were extensive, but there were no reports that the government used them year to disband existing legitimate organizations or to prevent new ones from being formed. The law places restrictions on organizations that advocate violence or racial and religious hatred or that threaten public order or health. On January 19, SBU spokesperson Maryna Ostapenko confirmed that the security service completed its pretrial investigation in the criminal case against a separatist organization, the Popular Front Sevastopol- Crimea-Russia, and forwarded it to the court. There were no reported developments in the SBU's 2008 criminal investigation of another separatist group, the Association Sejm of Pidkarpattia Rusyns. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally protected this right; however, some minority and nontraditional religions experienced difficulties in registration and in buying and leasing property. There is no formal state religion, but local authorities at times favored the religious majority in their particular regions. The law requires that a religious group register its articles and statutes, either as a local or as a national organization, and have at least 10 adult members in order to obtain the status of a ``juridical entity.'' Registration is necessary to conduct many business activities, including publishing, banking, and property transactions. The SCNR administers the registration process. Representatives from several denominations expressed satisfaction with the committee's work. During the year the Jewish community reiterated complaints that the Krakivsky market in Lviv was located on the grounds of an ancient Jewish cemetery and that periodic digging to erect kiosks disturbed the sanctity of the site. The city had offered to construct a memorial park on the remaining undeveloped part of the cemetery but maintained that it could not relocate the market because some of the buildings were private property. The representative in Crimea of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church complained that the Yalta Municipal Council refused to finalize the allocation of a land plot for the construction of what would be the only Greek Catholic church in the city. They also mentioned reluctance of municipal governments in Kyiv, Kyiv Oblast, Zhytomyr, Simferopol, and Yevpatoriya to allocate land for church construction. Restitution of communal property confiscated during the Soviet era remained a problem (see section 1.e.). The law restricts the activities of foreign-based religious organizations and narrowly defines the permissible activities of the clergy, preachers, teachers, and other noncitizen representatives of foreign-based religious organizations; however, there were no reports that the government used the law during the year to limit the activity of such religious organizations. The government promoted interfaith understanding by frequently consulting the All-Ukraine Council of Churches and Religious Organizations, whose membership represented the faiths of more than 90 percent of the religiously active population. The council met every two or three months to discuss interfaith concerns. Regional administrations and local religious leaders in most regions have formed regional councils of churches and religious organizations. On January 15, the parliament adopted legislative amendments that give registered religious organizations the right to permanently use state-owned and communally owned land plots. On March 25, the Cabinet of Ministers reduced rental rates for religious organizations using state-owned property to 45 percent of rental fees charged to commercial entities. On August 5, the Cabinet of Ministers issued a resolution facilitating registration procedures for foreign religious workers visiting the country. On September 3, the cabinet adopted a resolution reducing natural gas tariffs for religious organizations to the same level as housing sector tariffs. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of societal problems and discrimination based on religious belief and practice. Conflicts between local representatives of contending religious organizations continued to affect broader communal ties among religions in society. On October 2, senior representatives of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP) and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate (UOC-KP) initiated a dialogue to seek resolution of long-standing disputes. Both sides described the meeting as encouraging and voiced cautious optimism about the prospects for further talks. Tensions continued among the OUC-MP, UOC-KP, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC) when congregations attempted to change jurisdictions between the factions. For example, the UOC-MP, UOC-KP, and the local government did not resolve differences over the use of Holy Trinity Church in a village in Ternopil Oblast after the congregation split. In another example in Odesa, the UOC-KP and UAOC were unable to settle a dispute over the ownership of St. George Church that resulted when an archpriest in charge of the parish changed affiliation from the UOC-KP to the UAOC. Vandalism of religious sites and monuments continued to be a problem. On June 17, Interior Minister Yuriy Lutsenko directed police to conduct more thorough investigations into cases of cemetery vandalism. During the first six months of the year, he said police had recorded 619 incidents of cemetery vandalism. In August a construction company demolished a chapel used by the German Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in Kherson. The company refused to implement a court ruling declaring the church a legitimate user of the land. In Crimea the construction of a mosque in central Simferopol remained on hold. In February 2008 the city council annulled an earlier decision to allocate a plot of land to build the mosque and designated a less desirable location. The country made some progress in relations with its Jewish communities; however, members of marginal populist and nationalist parties and organizations continued to make occasional extremist, intolerant, and anti-Semitic statements. An estimated 103,600 Jews lived in the country, comprising approximately 0.2 percent of the population, according to government census data and international Jewish groups. However, local Jewish leaders estimated the number of persons with an ethnic Jewish heritage to be as high as 370,000. There were a number of acts of anti-Semitism, some involving vandalism of Jewish property. According to Viacheslav Likhachev, a human rights monitor and authority on anti-Semitism in the country, there were 17 incidents of vandalism during the first 11 months of the year. This compared with 13 such incidents in 2008 and 20 in 2007. The trend toward a decrease in attacks against Jews continued. According to a report published by the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress and edited by Likhachev, ``Anti-Semitism in Australia and Eurasia 2008/ 2009,'' there was one anti-Semitic attack in the first 11 months of the year, as compared with five in 2008 and eight in 2007. In February an improvised explosive device was found in a synagogue in Lutsk. Investigators determined that it contained explosives but was not wired to detonate. The Jewish community called for a full investigation. The local government responded by constructing a fence around the building and giving ownership of the building to the Jewish community. On August 10, the prosecutor's office in Zakarpattia charged the mayor of Uzhhorod, Serhiy Ratushniak, with inciting ethnic hatred, hooliganism, and abuse of office after he allegedly used anti-Semitic rhetoric and attacked a campaign worker for a rival presidential candidate. Ratushniak, who was running as a marginal candidate in 2010 presidential elections, was known for making racist and intolerant comments. He had no strong following as a presidential candidate and had no party affiliation. Jewish leaders protested his registration as a candidate and welcomed politicians who criticized Ratushniak's statements. In late August unidentified attackers painted swastikas on the walls of Jewish Charity Center in Melitopol. Local police did not find offenders and described the incident as hooliganism. On September 13, Nazi symbols were painted on the front door of the Kyiv office of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. On October 26, unidentified vandals splashed paint on the monument marking the birthplace of prominent Rabbi Menachem Schneerson in Mykolayiv. In November the prosecutor's office in Odesa opened a criminal case into alleged publication of anti-Semitic articles by ZUBR (For Ukraine, Belorussia and Russia), a marginal radical organization. Members of the Odesa Jewish community had called on the prosecutor's office to investigate the group, which had published the materials in its newspaper, ZaZUBRina, and on its Web site. Hate speech against Jews was combined with hate speech against other groups in several incidents. Anti-Semitic articles continued to appear in small publications, though their number and circulation continued to decline. According to the Association of Jewish Organization and Communities of Ukraine (VAAD), 13 anti-Semitic materials were published in the national print media between January and March. This compared with 17 published in the same period of 2008, 172 in 2007, and 189 in the first quarter of 2006. VAAD attributed the decrease in anti-Semitic publications to the curtailment of activity by the Academy of Personnel Management, known by its Ukrainian acronym MAUP. Founded in 1989, MAUP is an accredited, private institution of higher learning with regional branches around the country. However, anti-Semites used it as a vehicle to promote virulent anti-Jewish propaganda and right-wing extremism. In previous years MAUP accounted for nearly 90 percent of all published anti- Semitic material. At year's end MAUP's lawsuit against a 2007 order by the mayor of Kyiv to remove a bookstand near the memorial to victims of Babyn Yar remained pending. MAUP said the order abridged its right to freedom of speech. On January 15, the Prymorskiy court in Odesa handed down an 18- month suspended sentence to Ihor Volin-Danilov, editor of the Nashe Dyelo (Our Business) newspaper, who admitted to inciting racial hatred by publishing an anti-Semitic article. In March 2008 the Supreme Court dismissed MAUP's lawsuit against the Jewish Confederation of Ukraine and its publication, The Jewish Observer, over articles criticizing MAUP's anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist activities. On July 26, a district court in Crimea convicted a man of hooliganism in the 2007 beating of Benjamin Wolf, the chief rabbi of Sevastopol. The assailant was also ordered to pay the rabbi 5,000 hryvnia (approximately $620). Local Jewish leaders protested the ruling on the grounds that the man should have been charged with inciting ethnic and religious discord because he was motivated by the rabbi's appearance. Jewish community leaders in Kherson again complained that Serhiy Kyrychenko, a member of the city council, continued to spread anti- Semitic propaganda. In 2008 Kyrychenko made frequent appearances on a local radio show VIK, accusing Jews of robbing the Ukrainian people, plotting to enslave them, and planning to exterminate Slavs. On August 17, the Kherson prosecutor's office began a criminal investigation into the broadcasts and numerous anti-Semitic publications in the local VIK newspaper. Senior government officials and politicians from various political parties continued efforts to combat anti-Semitism by speaking out against extremism and social intolerance. In September, while attending the UN General Assembly, President Yushchenko met with representatives of foreign Jewish groups for discussions on the country's efforts to develop a multinational society, free of anti-Semitism and xenophobia. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution and the law for freedom of movement in the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations to provide protection to asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Citizens who wished to travel abroad were able to do so freely. Exit visas were not required. The government could deny passports to individuals in possession of state secrets, but denials were rare and could be appealed. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The constitution provides for asylum, but there were no implementing laws. The law allows refugees residing in the country during three years to apply for citizenship. At year's end the State Migration Service, which was established by a cabinet decree in June, was still not functioning due to ongoing policy disagreements between the president and prime minister and conflicting decrees and court rulings. As a result, the State Committee on Nationalities and Religions (SCNR) continued to retain authority with regard to citizenship, immigration, asylum, and refugee procedures, while the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Guard Service (SBGS) were active in combating illegal migration. Administrative courts responsible for reviewing appeals of denied asylum applications were overwhelmed by a backlog of cases. Refugee rights organizations expressed concern that the Kyiv Administrative Court of Appeal postponed its review of deportation appeals until 2012; during the year it reviewed cases from 2007. A shortage of bilingual interpreters added to the problem of timely processing. The government provided some protection against refoulement, the expulsion or return of refugees to a country where there is reason to believe their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group and political opinion. However, there were notable exceptions during the year. On August 25, new regulations initiated by the SBGS took effect that require foreign nationals transiting the country to Western Europe and stateless persons to have in their possession no less than ``70 subsistence levels'' (12,620 hryvnia or $1,570) to sustain their stay in the country. On September 2, the UNHCR stated that this change ``should not affect access to the asylum procedure and undermine the nonrefoulement principle.'' In particular, the UNHCR raised concern about the fate of six Congolese nationals detained at the Kyiv international airport awaiting return to their country. The refugee agency urged authorities to refrain from deporting them until their protection needs were assessed. Nevertheless, the NGO Social Action and Amnesty International reported that all six were sent back. Human rights groups noted that the current law on refugees does not provide protection for war refugees, victims of indiscriminate violence, or failed asylum seekers who could face the threat of torture or loss of life or freedom if deported. According to informed observers, several allegedly failed Chechen asylum seekers were kept in pretrial detention facilities in Chernihiv and Ternopil oblasts, and in Uzhgorod, awaiting extradition to Russia. According to the UNHCR and local human rights groups, the complicated and burdensome registration system often left asylum seekers without documents during the protracted review of their cases and the appeal process. This left the individuals vulnerable to frequent police stops, detention, and fines. Refugees and asylum seekers, who frequently came from Africa and Asia, were victims of a growing number of xenophobic attacks. Asylum seekers in detention centers were sometimes unable to apply for refugee status within prescribed time limits and had limited access to legal and other assistance. The problem was further complicated by the lack of access to qualified interpreters to complete registration documents. As of October the SCNR confirmed that there were 2,315 official refugees, including 1,235 Afghans, 263 Africans, 43 Chechens, 15 Uzbeks, 20 stateless persons, and 13 Belarusians. On February 19, a coalition of refugee rights organizations and the Ukrainian Council on Refugees noted at a press conference that, in the previous five years, only 3 percent of asylum seekers were granted refugee status in the country. They also asserted that government authorities only recognized as refugees persons who fled personal persecution and often refused to grant refugee status to nationals of countries that suffered from humanitarian disasters or armed conflicts. During first nine months of the year, the Ministry of Intrnal Affairs confirmed that of 773 applications it received, 102 individuals were granted refugee status. According to SCNR, as of October 1, 108 persons out of 903 applicants received refugee status. On March 10, UNIAN reported allegations by the Vinnytsia Human Rights Group that local police had been mistreating Somali refugees since November 2008. This included racially motivated assaults and humiliation, lengthy detentions without proper registration, and demanding money. The group requested that the Prosecutor General's Office investigate three specific complaints of abuse. Refugees received minimal material assistance. There were no Ukrainian language classes for refugees and asylum seekers and no procedures to facilitate their employment. The country remained a destination and transit country for migrants. According to the SBGS, the number of irregular migrants identified in the first nine months of the year was 19,063, a 19 percent drop compared with the same period in 2008. Of that number, 16,402 were not allowed into the country, and 1,841 were apprehended when illegally crossing the border. The SBGS noted that CIS nationals constituted the majority of irregular migrants apprehended during the year. According to the SBGS, 50 Chechens, nine Uzbeks, and nine Belarusians were also apprehended in the first nine months of the year. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, 751 detained irregular migrants were held in two new facilities in Chernihiv and Volyn oblasts, compared with 400 in 2008. According to the SCNR, two temporary holding facilities for refugees, in Odesa and Zakarpattia oblast, were not sufficient for providing temporary housing to refugees. On July 22, the Cabinet of Ministers adopted an action plan for the integration of refugees through 2012, including education and employment assistance. There are no legal provisions for voluntary return. However, the local office of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), in cooperation with the SBGS and the Ministry of Internal Affairs, continued to operate a Program on Assisted Voluntary Return to help stranded migrants and failed asylum seekers to return to their countries of origin. Five local NGOs in the Mukachevo, Chernihiv, Odesa, Kharkiv, and Volyn oblasts participated in the voluntary return program. Since 2007, 210 migrants have safely returned home. Stateless Persons.--According to the law, citizenship is derived by birth, territorial origin, naturalization, restored citizenship, and adoption. Dual citizenship is not allowed. According to UNHCR statistics, there were 56,350 stateless persons in the country at the end of 2008. According to the SCNR, there were 20 stateless persons as of October 1. In 2007 the European Council on Refugees and Exiles and local NGOs reported that there were approximately 3,000 stateless persons in the country who fled conflicts in Georgia in the early 1990s. In addition there were an estimated 6,000 formerly deported Crimean Tatars who returned to Crimea but have not registered as citizens, as well as lesser numbers from Abkhazia and Georgia. Stateless persons also included an unknown number of persons who either lived in the country for decades but failed to clarify their citizenship status after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 or who arrived in the country as students or visitors both before and after 1991. Many did not obtain residency documents or take other steps to register according to the regulations of their country of origin. On March 19, parliament adopted amendments to the immigration law to allow foreign nationals and stateless persons who fled the war in Abkhazia to apply for citizenship. This included individuals with a temporary residence permit who subsequently had resided in the country for no less than five years, as well as children who arrived in the country with their parents before the age of 18 and applied for a permanent residence permit. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution and the law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The May 2008 mayoral elections in the capital and the September 2007 preterm parliamentary elections were both assessed by international and local observers to be free and fair. In the mayor's race, seven political parties and blocs won seats to the Kyiv city council. In the parliamentary election, five of the 20 parties and campaign blocs running passed the 3 percent threshold to win seats. Presidential elections were scheduled for January 17, 2010, with a runoff three weeks later between the two candidates who receive the largest percentage of the vote. At year's end, 18 candidates were registered to run in the election. On August 18, parliament overturned a presidential veto of amendments to the law on presidential elections. Among other other provisions, the new law shortened the official campaign period from 120 to 90 days, and required candidates to pay a 500,000 hryvnia (approximately $62,300) deposit to participate in the campaign. On September 18, the NGO CVU issued a report asserting that the amendments posed a threat to transparent and democratic elections. Among the problems, the CVU noted that election authorities allowed voters to register on election day, limited civil society oversight and NGO election monitoring, and adopted procedures that limit the ability of candidates to challenge possible election fraud. The CVU also expressed concern about the practice of ``dzhynsa,'' or prepaid media coverage for individual candidates, a lack of transparency of campaign funding, and problems with voters' registries, which were believed to have an error rate of between 10 and 30 percent. On October 19, the Constitutional Court ruled that several amended provisions in the election law were unconstitutional, including the requirement that all members of district and local election commissions live within their respective district or precinct, and a provision that citizens residing abroad must be listed in the consular registry in order to vote. In November the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) deployed 60 long-term election observers in the country. In December the European Network of Election Monitoring Organizations deployed 50 long-term observers. On election day itself, approximately 3,100 international observers were scheduled to monitor voting around the country. According to the OSCE/ODIHR third interim observation report, the Ministry of Internal Affairs registered 107 election-related violations between October 19 and December 31. Of that number, 48 were for hooliganism, 17 for campaign material published in violation of the law, five for arson, seven for bribing voters, three for loss or theft of an official election stamp, and 12 for vandalism. Individuals and parties could, and did, freely declare their candidacy and stand for election. To register at the national level, political parties had to maintain offices in one-half of the regions and could not receive financial support from the government or any foreign patron. The Supreme Court reserved the right to prohibit any political party upon the recommendation of the Ministry of Justice or the prosecutor general. No legitimate parties were prohibited during the year. There were 36 female members of the 450-seat parliament, and women held the posts of prime minister, minister of labor and social policy, secretary of the National Security and Defense Council, head of the state treasury, the human rights ombudsman, among other senior government posts. The 18-member constitutional court included two female justices. The exact number of minorities in parliament and the cabinet was not available due to privacy laws. Crimean Tatar leaders continued to call for changes in the electoral law that would give them greater representation in the Crimean and national parliaments. The law does not allow the creation of regional political parties, so Crimean Tatars had to join national political parties or blocs. Only one Crimean Tatar was a member of the national parliament. According to the deputy leader of the Crimean Tatar Mejlis (governing body), Refat Chubarov, Crimean Tatars, who make up 13 percent of the population of Crimea, occupied eight seats in the 100- member Crimean Mejlis, and had approximately 1,000 members in city, district, and rural councils in Crimea. The Mejlis was not legally recognized by national authorities. Eight of the 25 senior officials in the Crimean government were Crimean Tatars, including one deputy prime minister and the minister for labor and social policy, the chairman of the Crimean government Committee on Interethnic Relations and Deported Peoples, and the chairman of the Crimean government Information Committee. Two of the 14 heads of raion (county level) administrations were also Crimean Tatars. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, corruption is ineffectively prosecuted and such penalties were rarely imposed. Corruption continued to be a widespread problem in the government and society. Studies, including the World Bank's worldwide governance indicators, found that corruption increased during the year. Officials and high-ranking officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Corruption remained a pervasive problem in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government. On April 24, the Cabinet of Ministers appointed a new government commissioner for anticorruption policy. This office is responsible for developing policy recommendations, coordinating anticorruption efforts by central and local government agencies, enterprises, and NGOs, and cooperating with the Council of Europe's Group of States against Corruption and other international organizations. The commissioner may refer cases to anticorruption units in the SBU, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and to the Prosecutor General's Office. In August the commissioner submitted a two-year action plan to the cabinet to implement a national anticorruption strategy. On December 9, the Cabinet of Ministers adopted 14 anticorruption measures, including an anticorruption strategy, a methodology for anticorruption examination of draft normative-legal acts, and a procedure for collecting and publicizing information about legal entities prosecuted on corruption charges. The Prosecutor General's Office is responsible for investigating corruption by high-level officials and for prosecuting all corruption offenses. However, the office remains nontransparent and relatively ineffective in investigating and prosecuting corruption cases. As of October 1, the Ministry of Internal Affairs confirmed that 533 criminal cases were launched against 488 law enforcement personnel. Of that number, 72 involved abuse of office and power, 115 involved excessive use of power or office, and 115 involved bribes. The Ministry and the State Judicial Administration jointly operated a special hotline to take reports on judicial corruption. The SBU also operated a hotline in 13 oblasts. The SBU reported that it launched 296 criminal cases on charges of bribery during the first nine months of the year and that 1,138 civil servants and other persons ``responsible to perform state functions'' were charged with corruption. According to the PGO, in the first nine months of the year, 1,188 appointed and elected officials and civil servants at all levels of government were charged with offenses related to corruption and bribery. As in previous years, the number of officials successfully prosecuted for corruption offenses remained lower than the number charged. The Prosecutor General's Office confirmed that, in the first nine months of the year, prosecutors launched 30 corruption cases against 28 judges and forwarded 18 corruption cases against lower-rank judges to court. Seven judges were convicted of bribery, embezzlement of state funds, and negligence in office. According to the High Council of Justice, no disciplinary charges were brought against judges, and one low court judge was dismissed for violation of oath as of November. During the first nine months of the year, military prosecutors opened 104 criminal cases for corruption, of which 13 involved law enforcement personnel and 91 involved other officials. In June a survey by the PACE project (Promoting Active Citizen Engagement in Combating Corruption in Ukraine) found that almost 63 percent of respondents said they were involved in corrupt transactions with government officials in the previous 12 months. The survey also found increased public support for more active anticorruption programs and increasing criminal charges for corrupt government employees. On February 6, the SBU filed corruption charges against Industrial Policy minister Viktor Novytskiy in the appellate court in Kyiv. According to the SBU, Novytskiy attempted to interfere with the work of courts by pressuring a court to issue an illegal ruling. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the largest bribery cases during the first nine months of the year involved land transactions totaling more than 17 million hryvnia ($2.1 million). For example, the chairman of a village council in Mykolayiv Oblast, Berezanskiy district, demanded 8.5 million hryvnia (approximately $1.1 million) in bribes, while the chairman of a village council in Crimea asked for 8 million hryvnia ($1.0 million), and the chairman of the Baryshivka district administration in Kyiv Oblast asked for nearly 4.6 million hryvnia (approximately $570,000) for their cooperation. The first and the third cases were forwarded to court; the second was under investigation at year's end. On December 4, Interior Minister Lutsenko said he regretted the release from custody of the chairman of the Partenit rural council in Crimea who was caught taking a record bribe of 41.3 million hryvnia ($5,200,000) in July 2008 in connection with a land deal. Lutsenko said that of approximately 1,700 officials arrested for bribery each year since he took office in December 2007, no more than 30 to 50, of which half were police, received prison sentences because of lengthy investigations and court proceedings or corruption. There were no developments in a number of 2008 investigations, including corruption allegations against former transportation minister Mykola Rud'kovskiy and Oleksiy Ivchenko, the former chairman of Naftohaz, the country's national oil and gas company, for alleged corruption in 2005-06. There was widespread corruption in the judiciary. In August a PACE project survey on corruption within the judicial system reported that 41 percent of lawyers and prosecutors believed that corruption was common at all stages of court proceedings and that it was particularly noticeable in pretrial investigations. Judges are immune from prosecution and may not be detained or arrested without the consent of parliament. On March 9, the head of the Lviv Administrative Court of Appeals, Ihor Zvarych, was arrested on charges of abuse of office, bribe taking, and fraud. He was stripped of his immunity in December 2008 after an investigation by the Prosecutor General's Office of a case involving a bribe of approximately 803,000 hryvnia ($100,000) and the discovery of approximately eight million hryvnia ($1 million) at his home. In December the Supreme Court extended his detention until March 2010. On April 2, according to the SBU, the Prosecutor General's Office opened a criminal case against a judge from Lviv Administrative Court of Appeals, Vyacheslav Lyubashevskiy, who demanded a bribe of approximately 160,000 hryvnia ($20,000) in October 2008 from two local businessmen to dismiss a tax fine. There were no reported developments in a number of other 2008 and 2007 cases, including the May 2008 investigation against the head of a district court in Chernihiv Oblast for allegedly accepting a bribe to reduce a sentence; the intended appeal by the prosecutors against a Kyiv Pechersk district court decision not to launch a criminal case against a senior Ministry of Internal Affairs official who took a bribe in the amount of 960,000 hryvnias (approximately $120,000); the arrest warrant ordered by parliament in 2007 for Judge Oleh Pampura on charges of demanding a bribe to reduce a court sentence; and the 2007 arrest of a former judge of the Kalynivskiy District Court in Donetsk Oblast, Vadym Sydorenko, for accepting a bribe in 1999. The constitution and the law authorize public access to government information unless it pertains to national security. Government bodies are required to respond to requests within 10 days and to provide the information within 30 days. Denials can be appealed to a higher level at the agency concerned and then to a court. However, access to official information remained difficult. Government officials often did not understand the law and at times created bureaucratic procedures to withhold information. On April 18, the NGO Majdan Alliance reported that, similar to the previous government, the prime minister's office created a number of classified documents stamped ``for official use'' without revealing their titles. On September 7, Oleksandr Severyn from Majdan Alliance filed a lawsuit with the Kyiv district administrative court against parliament for refusing to provide a copy of its budget. On November 24, the president signed a decree to declassify a number of official documents. On December 29, according to media reports, the justice minister ordered that 628 decrees and 190 injunctions by the president previously stamped ``for official use'' be published in the Official Newsletter of Ukraine. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases; however, government officials were not uniformly cooperative and at times resisted taking the recommendations of NGOs into account. Domestic NGOs freely criticized the government's human rights performance. For example, on June 25, during a press conference Yevhen Zakharov of Kharkiv Human Rights Group (KGHR) and Arkadiy Bushchenko and Volodymyr Yavorskiy of the UHHRU criticized the government for not addressing human rights problems in a systemic way and alleged that leading political forces treated human rights as secondary. They excluded the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of Justice, and the National Commission on Strengthening Democracy and Asserting the Rule of Law, which they said had made some improvements. The UHHRU has made similar criticisms in its annual reports on human rights in the country. The SBU continued to work with its advisory council, consisting of political leaders, NGO activists, and independent experts, to provide civilian oversight and increase the transparency of SBU activities. In April the SBU held a second annual conference on promoting democratic values and human rights within the SBU. Participants included government officials, diplomats, and representatives of human rights NGOs. Major independent, nonpartisan, human rights NGOs and civil society groups included CVU, KGHR, UHHRU, Amnesty International Ukraine, Donetsk Memorial, the Institute for Mass Information, the Chirikli Roma Women's Fund, the Ukrainian Union of Psychiatrists, La Strada-Ukraine, the VAAD, the Diversity Initiative network, and VGHR. The government generally cooperated with international governmental organizations, including the UN, the OSCE, and the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. Citizens may apply to the ECHR for the redress of grievances involving an alleged infringement of rights under the European Convention on Human Rights. During the first 10 months of year, the ECHR issued 70 rulings in cases involving the country, according to the government's ECHR commissioner, Yuriy Zaitsev. The government enforced 59 of the rulings involving prohibition of torture, the right to liberty and security of person, the right to a fair trial, the right to respect for private and family life, and the right to an effective remedy. However, in two cases the UHHRU accused the Supreme Court of contempt of ECHR rulings concerning the right to a fair trial and the right to freedom from torture. In the first case, (Yaremenko v. Ukraine) the Court refused to revoke a conviction, despite the ECHR's doubts regarding fairness of the judicial examination, and in the second (Lutsenko v. Ukraine) it refused to reconsider the verdict. On August 31, in a published viewpoint, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights Thomas Hammarberg listed the country among member states failing to enforce ECHR decisions. ``This must be seen as a refusal to accept the rule of law and is a serious human rights problem,'' he said. In response, Justice Minister Mykola Onishchuk urged the Supreme Court to report on cases involving failure to implement court rulings. The ECHR announced that it handed down 126 judgments against Ukraine and that 10,000 applications were pending before the court this year. Most court judgments involved violations of the right to a fair trial, violation of property rights, and unduly lengthy proceedings. In June the Ministry of Internal Affairs adopted new regulations for its civic advisory council, declaring that its meetings should be open to the public and that outcomes should be publicized. The ministry continued to cooperate with mobile monitoring groups, which conducted 312 site visits to prisons and detention centers in the first nine months of the year. On October 2, the ministry held its first public hearing to discuss human rights in police work. In the first nine months of the year, the Ministry of Internal Affairs human rights monitoring department reviewed 2,060 appeals and complaints, carried out 1,304 official inspections, and met with more than 2,800 citizens. This compared with 374 inspections and 1,790 citizens meetings during the first six months of 2008. A majority of the complaints related to police offices that refused to release information, not providing copies of regulations on refusal to launch a criminal investigation, and not sharing documents on the outcome of official investigations. Following official inspections, disciplinary sanctions were brought against 430 police personnel, and 284 case materials were forwarded to prosecutors. The constitution provides for a human rights ombudsman, officially designated as the parliamentary commissioner on human rights. On June 24, Commissioner Nina Karpachova presented a constitutionally mandated report to parliament on the human rights situation in the country from 2006 to 2007. The report is required annually, but has only been produced five times since the office was established in 1998. Human rights groups criticized the report for being outdated and the ombudsman for poor cooperation with human rights organizations and for not opening regional offices. They also expressed concern that government bodies failed to provide proper responses to the ombudsman's requests. Nevertheless, they also noted that the ombudsman office had become more transparent by increasing media coverage of its activities and by updating information on its Web site on a more regular basis. In the first 11 months of the year, 73,133 persons filed complaints with the ombudsman's office. According to the office, more than 50 percent of the complaints related to civil rights, in particular the right to a fair trial, abuse by law enforcement personnel, and timely implementation of court rulings. The remainder involved social rights and economic rights, individual rights (including right to life, respect for personal integrity, and prohibition of torture in detention), and political rights. A parliamentary committee on human rights, national minorities, and interethnic relations continued to operate during the year, but its activities were not publicized. The committee has subcommittees to work on issues such as interethnic relations, gender policy, indigenous peoples, national minorities and ethnic groups, deported persons, victims of political repression, ethnic policy, prevention of domestic conflict, refugees and migration. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, language, social status, or other circumstances; however, both governmental and societal discrimination persisted, and the government did not effectively enforce the prohibitions. Women.--The law prohibits rape but does not explicitly address spousal rape. A law against ``forced sex with a materially dependent person'' may allow prosecution for spousal rape. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, during the first nine months of the year, police recorded 598 incidents of rape or attempted rape, a decrease of 8.6 percent compared with the same period in 2008. Domestic violence against women remained a serious problem. Spousal abuse is illegal but was common. Advocacy groups asserted that the percentage of women subjected to physical violence or psychological abuse at home remained high. According to Donetsk Regional League of Business and Professional Women, each year domestic violence resulted in 100,000 days of care at in-patient hospital facilities, 30,000 trauma unit cases, and 40,000 doctor visits; up to 40 percent of calls to police offices involved complaints about domestic violence. On January 1, a new law took effect that permitted administrative arrest of up to five days for domestic violence-related offenses. According to the UHHRU and La Strada-Ukraine, national authorities, particularly the Ministry for Family, Youth and Sports, devoted more attention to domestic violence than in previous years. For example, in late July social advertisements against domestic violence, with hotline numbers for victims, were established in eight major cities. The ads were part of a national campaign to combat domestic violence against women entitled ``stop violence!'' On July 30, Yuriy Pavlenko, the minister for family, youth and sports, announced other measures to prevent and combat domestic violence. This included a program for dealing with offenders and raising public awareness of the issue by including information on domestic violence in syllabi of all educational institutions for judicial, law enforcement personnel, medical staff, social workers, and teachers. During the first nine months of the year, the ministry and its regional offices recorded 50,912 domestic violence complaints, including 40,447 allegations of violence against women, and 10,465 reported incidents of violence against men. Of these, 17,203 complaints involved physical assaults, 12,840 involved psychological pressure, 2,551 dealt with economic violence, and 37 involved sexual harassment. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry for Family, Youth and Sports, as of November 1, there were 91,683 persons under police supervision domestic violence, compared with 85,085 in 2008. Police cited 54,900 individuals for domestic violence in the first nine months of the year, issued 66,500 warnings and 4,800 injunctions for protection related to domestic violence, and sent 57,200 notices to the state agencies for prevention of domestic violence. Administrative charges were brought against 85,700 individuals, of which 84,500 were for domestic violence and 1,200 for disobeying injunctions of protection. According to the Ministry for Family, Youth and Sports there were 22 centers for social-psychological assistance in 19 oblasts, Crimea, and the cities of Kyiv and Sevastopol, which had capacity for 390 persons. The centers received funding from oblast (region) and raion (district) budgets. NGOs operated additional centers for domestic violence victims in Vinnytsia, Donetsk, Zhytomyr, Odesa, Chernihiv, Poltava, Sumy and Khmelnytskiy oblasts. The law requires the government to operate a shelter in every major city, but in practice it did not, in part due to the lack of municipal funding. According to women's advocacy groups, private and municipally funded shelters were not always accessible. Some did not function throughout the year, and shelters in Kyiv did not admit women who were not registered as Kyiv residents. Government centers offered only limited legal and psychological assistance to victims of domestic violence. At year's end the fate of the Kyiv Women's Center remained uncertain. In 2008 authorities ordered the center to vacate its offices, which the city had provided since 1998. Women's advocacy groups organized numerous protests against the city's plans to sell or rent the property to another organization. Prostitution is not a criminal offense, although it can be punished as an administrative offense with a fine up to 255 hryvnia (approximately $32). However, pimping and the organization and operation of a prostitution business is a crime that carries a term of three to 15 years' imprisonment. Sex tourism remained a problem. The law on equal rights and opportunities qualifies sexual harassment as discrimination; however, women's rights groups asserted that it does not contain an effective mechanism to protect against sexual harassment. Women's groups reported that there was continuing, widespread sexual harassment in the workplace, including coerced sex. A study carried out by La Strada and Kyiv International Institute of Sociology during 2008-09 suggested that the level of public awareness of the issue remained low: 43 percent of respondents said that sexual harassment was a relevant issue in the country, while 6 percent said this type of discrimination was relevant for them at work. Approximately one-third of respondents said that only prostitutes were victims of sexual harassment. While the law prohibits forced sex with a ``materially dependent person,'' which includes employees, legal experts regarded the safeguards against harassment as inadequate. La Strada-Ukraine operated a national hotline for victims of violence and sexual harassment. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics and local health NGOs were permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health. There are no restrictions on the right to access contraceptives. Quality prenatal and postnatal care remained inaccessible to many women because state-funded clinics were underfunded and lacked quality equipment, and services in private clinics were expensive. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization in 2000, there were approximately 38 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in the country. Some of the reproductive health concerns affecting the system included rapidly growing rates of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS; poor quality sexual and reproductive health services in state-funded hospitals; low awareness of modern contraceptives; and the expense of high-priced medical services in private clinics that made them inaccessible to large groups of local residents. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, but local health NGOs and clinics reported that women were more likely than men to seek treatment and refer their partners. Under the law women enjoyed the same rights as men, including equal pay for equal work, a principle that generally was observed. However, industries dominated by female workers had the lowest relative wages. The labor code sets the retirement age for women at 55 and for men at 60. Women received lower salaries and had limited opportunities for advancement. Children.--Citizenship is acquired by birthplace (jus soli) or by parentage (jus sanguinis). A child born on the territory of the country in a family of stateless persons residing permanently in the country is a citizen. The law requires that parents register a child within a month of birth. According to the Ministry of Justice, in 2008 almost 12,000 parents (mainly from the Kyiv, Odesa, and Dnipropetrovsk regions) did not register their children's birth. This number amounted to approximately 2.5 percent of the total number of children whose births were registered. While education was free, universal, and compulsory until age 15, the public education system continued to suffer from chronic underfunding, and children from poor families continued to drop out of school before turning 15. According to the Ministry of Family, Youth and Sports, the number of children in orphanage facilities decreased from 23,700 in 2005 to 17,700 in 2008. Over the past three years almost every third child orphan was placed in foster care. Forty-three children were adopted from orphanages in the first six months of the year. More than 20,000 children did not attend school, according to a recent report written by a coalition of 14 children's rights NGOs. The Alternative Report on Implementation of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which covered 2002-08, was presented to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child during the year. Many children were employed in agriculture and illegal coalmines or, in some cases, forced by their parents to beg in the streets. NGOs reported that a lack of schooling remained a significant problem among the rural population and within the Romani community. In some cases rural schools were closed due to the small number of school-age children, forcing children to travel long distances, often at personal expense, to attend schools in other villages. Children continued to be victims of violence and abuse. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in the first nine months of the year 8,362 minors were victims of crime, including 47 of intentionally inflicted bodily injury. The PGO confirmed that in the first nine months of the year, 598 crimes involving child rape and attempted rape were recorded, which was a reduction from 2008; 110 minors were raped, compared with 140 during the same period in 2008. On January 15, parliament adopted amendments to the criminal and criminal procedural codes that established criminal liability of up to three years in custody for forcing children into begging. In April the chief of the Lviv Oblast Administration Office on Child Affairs, Volodymyr Lys, told a German broadcaster that criminalizing the exploitation of child labor helped reduce the number of child beggars. He stated that, during the first three months of the year, law enforcement personnel opened 10 criminal cases in Lviv on charges of forcing children into begging. Commercial sexual exploitation of children remained a serious problem. Domestic and foreign law enforcement officials reported that a significant portion of Internet child pornography continued to originate from the country. According to Olha Shved, a local representative of the international organization End Child Prostitution, Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes, conviction rates of child pornographers were poor. For example, despite some progress in combating cybercrime and uncovering 14 Internet rings in 2008, all of the cases were unsuccessful in courts because judges did not treat them seriously and because of weak laws that resulted from pressure by domestic Internet providers. Under the law the penalty for statutory rape is to 8 to 12 years in custody. Molestation of children under 16 is punishable with arrest for up to six months or three years in an open detention facility. There were no reports on developments in cases from 2008 and 2007, including the criminal case against the administrators of a pornographic Web site arrested in 2008 after the Ministry of Internal Affairs broke up an Internet child pornography ring; the 2008 investigation against a man in Lviv Oblast suspected of counterfeiting children's travel documents to traffick them out of the country; and the 2007 Europol operation that uncovered a worldwide child sex offender network, including pornographic material produced in a studio in Ukraine. According to independent children's rights experts, there were an estimated 130,000 homeless children in the country. However, according to the Ministry for Family, Youth and Sports, the number of street children dropped from 42,000 in 2005 to 21,700 during the year as a result of government efforts to remove children from public areas. The ministry reported that as of September there were 90 shelters for children, of which two were private, and four centers for social- psychological rehabilitation of children. Trafficking In Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked from, to, and within the country. Ukraine remained a country of origin for internationally trafficked men, women, and children. The main destinations were Russia, Poland, Turkey, Italy, the Czech Republic, Portugal, and Spain. The country was also a transit point for traffickers and victims from Central Asia, Russia, and Moldova, usually to destinations further west or to the Middle East. The scope of trafficking was difficult to quantify with reliable estimates, but observers believed it remained widespread. According to the IOM and the Ministry for Family, Youth and Sports, there were 536 victims of human trafficking in the first nine months of the year; 40 of them were minors. However, the Ministry of Internal Affairs reported that there were 359 victims during the year (226 women, 51 children, and 82 men). Among the victims identified and who received assistance, 85 percent were women and 15 percent were men. According to the IOM, one individual from Uzbekistan was trafficked into the country, and 11 individuals were trafficked through the country-six destined to the United Arab Emirates, four to Turkey, and one to Cyprus. The IOM also noted a 2 percent increase in the number of cases of internal trafficking in the first nine months of the year, compared with the same period in 2008. The main trafficking victims were women up to 30 years of age for sexual exploitation, older women for labor exploitation, men of all ages for labor exploitation, and children under the age of 16 for sexual and labor exploitation. According to local NGOs, orphaned children were also at high risk as trafficking victims. According to the IOM, 58 percent of individuals were victims of sexual exploitation, 37 percent were victims of labor exploitation, 3 percent were victims of mixed type exploitation (labor and sexual), and 2 percent were forced into begging. The IOM noted that compared with 2008 the number of cases of labor exploitation decreased and of mixed type increased. Victims were usually trafficked into severe conditions that included beatings, limited and poor quality food, no medical assistance, and long hours of work. Estimates of the number of Ukrainian trafficking victims varied. A survey conducted by the IOM and released in 2006 stated that, since 1991, approximately 117,000 persons had been forced into exploitative situations in Europe, the Middle East, and Russia. Employment, travel, marriage, and modeling agencies, as well as individuals, were involved in recruitment of victims. Most traffickers were members of organized crime groups and had foreign partners. In some cases they bribed corrupt officials to facilitate the movement of victims abroad. Sometimes previously trafficked women served as ``success stories'' to recruit potential victims, flaunting money they had ostensibly earned abroad. Traffickers continued to recruit by means of newspaper, television, and radio advertisements promising high-salaried jobs abroad, modelling contracts, marriage proposals, or overseas trips through travel agencies. Traffickers often presented themselves as friends of other friends and deceived the relatives of potential victims. They often paid for the processing of victims' passports and travel, thus placing the victims into debt bondage. In some cases traffickers kidnapped their victims. The law provides penalties of three to eight years' imprisonment for trafficking in persons for sexual and labor exploitation and other purposes. Traffickers of minors between the age of 14 and 18 and of groups of victims may be sentenced to five to 12 years in prison. Traffickers of minors under the age of 14 and members of organized trafficking groups may receive eight to 15 years in prison. However, these minimum sentences were often circumvented by provisions that allow a court to impose a lesser sentence. During the first 11 months of the year, the Ministry of Interior identified 279 trafficking in persons crimes, stopped the activities of 10 organized crime rings, and brought criminal charges against 180 persons. In addition 353 trafficking victims were repatriated to the country, including 45 minors. During the first half of the year, courts ruled on 34 trafficking cases, reaching guilty verdicts in 28 cases and convicting 49 defendants. Of that number, 18 convicted defendants appealed the ruling, and all received suspended sentences. In addition the courts heard but did not rule in 90 additional cases during the same period. The percentage of persons sentenced to prison rather than probation during the first six months of the year increased to 42 percent in comparison with the same period in 2008. Corruption in the judiciary and police continued to impede the government's ability to combat trafficking. NGOs asserted that police and border guards took bribes to ignore trafficking and that judges took bribes in return for lighter sentences. The low number of prosecutions of officials for trafficking-related corruption raised questions about the government's willingness to address the problem of official complicity in human trafficking. Antitrafficking experts noted that prosecutors were often the weakest link in the fight against trafficking due to their negative stereotypes of victims and their failure to prosecute aggressively. However, in the first half of the year, some prosecutors began to actively appeal sentences that did not include imprisonment; they appealed 17 of 18 cases. While some victims testified against traffickers, most were reluctant due to lack of trust in law enforcement agencies and the courts as well as concern that they would be subject to negative public opinion, that weak witness protection programs would not protect them, and that investigators and judges did not understand the real threats to victims from traffickers. Skepticism that civil courts would award significant compensation deterred victims from filing civil suits. Some courts had a separate witness room that enabled witnesses and victims of trafficking and other serious crimes to testify safely and confidentially through a video or telephone connection. The arrangement allowed judges to protect the rights of the victims, witnesses, and defendants. Local NGOs operated shelters in major cities with local administrations providing the premises at a nominal fee. Government funding for these facilities continued to be limited. A toll-free hotline offering advice and warnings regarding employment abroad continued to operate and provided assistance to persons who were exploited while abroad. Government cooperation with NGOs on antitrafficking programs remained steady during the year. Local administrations continued to include NGOs as partners in their regional action plans, but international donors continued to provide most of the funding for informational materials, free or inexpensive offices, and shelters. According to the IOM, during the year NGOs reported updated agreements with local government institutions and in-kind government assistance. The government's financial contribution to NGOs varied throughout regions of the country ranging from 2,400 hryvnia ($300) in Ivano-Frankivsk to 37,000 hryvnia ($4,610) in Rivne. Assistance focused on prevention activities, including production of information materials. Additionally, local governments supported NGOs by providing free or low-cost space in municipal newspapers and local television channels, offices, transportation, and multimedia equipment for use at trainings. During the year several television stations broadcast documentary films and information programs highlighting the danger of human trafficking. NGOs conducted general awareness campaigns throughout the country, often in cooperation with government entities. In addition new social advertisements about the risks of employment abroad with telephone numbers for NGO- and police-operated hotlines appeared in the downtown areas of major cities. The government worked to improve assistance provided by its diplomatic missions to trafficking victims in destination countries. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs operated a center in Kyiv and five other major cities to provide free consultations to citizens regarding their rights in foreign countries. The State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at http://www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and other state services; however, the government generally did not enforce these laws. The government estimated the number of persons with disabilities at between 2.4 to 2.7 million. The number of children with disabilities was estimated at 186,000. During the first nine months of the year, 5,300 persons with disabilities received jobs through government employment placement services, according to the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. The Ministry of Education confirmed that there were 385 specialized secondary schools and boarding schools with a total of 48,500 children, including 47 specialized secondary schools in which 4,800 children with disabilities studied while staying with their families. Advocacy groups maintained that, despite existing legal guarantees, most public buildings remained inaccessible to persons with disabilities. As a result, access to essential services and activities such as employment, education, health care, transportation, and financial services remained difficult. NGOs expressed concern over the lack of programs to promote the integration of students with disabilities into the general student population and noted that the lack of needs assessment programs by state-funded employment centers led to the placement of graduates with disabilities in inappropriate jobs. According to Semen Gluzman of the Ukrainian Psychiatric Association (UAHRB), patients in mental health facilities remained at risk for abuse, and many psychiatric hospitals continued to use outdated methods and medicines. According to the UAHRB, insufficient funding, the absence of public watchdog councils at psychiatric hospitals, patients' lack of access to legal counsel, and poor enforcement of legal protections deprived patients with disabilities of their right to adequate medical care. The UAHRB also expressed concern that nothing was done to address patient abuse and neglect in a psychiatric hospital in Crimea and in a Svyatoshynskiy district psychoneurological boarding school for women in Kyiv. In July 2008 the German-Polish Society for Psychiatric Healthcare visited both facilities and voiced concern about maltreatment of patients by medical personnel, as well as problems with sanitation, overcrowding, and insufficient funds to purchase quality medications. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The constitution and law prohibit discrimination based on race, skin color, and ethnic and social origin. Mistreatment of minority groups and harassment of foreigners of non-Slavic appearance remained a serious problem, although NGO monitors reported that there was no increase in hate-crime incidents. Incitement to ethnic or religious hatred is a criminal offense; however, human rights organizations said the requirement to prove actual intent, including proof of premeditation and intent to incite hatred, made its legal application difficult. Police and prosecutors generally prosecuted racially motivated crimes under legal provisions dealing with hooliganism or related offenses. Article 161 of the criminal code criminalizes deliberate actions to incite hatred or discrimination based on nationality, race or religion. This includes insulting the national honor or dignity of citizens in connection with their religious and political beliefs, race, and skin color. The government acknowledged that racism and ethnically motivated attacks were a problem; however, some officials continued to minimize its seriousness, maintaining that xenophobia was not a problem and that violent attacks were isolated incidents. No official statistics were available on the number of racially motivated attacks. However, the Diversity Initiative monitoring group, which is a coalition of international and local NGOs headed by the IOM mission in Kyiv, reported 26 attacks involving 35 victims during the year. This compared with 63 during the same period in 2008 and 68 in 2007. The attacks mainly involved Middle Eastern, Asian, and African nationals who were often asylum seekers and foreign students. Most of the attacks occurred in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Lviv, and Dnipropetrovsk; three were fatal. On January 18, a 25-year-old Nigerian national was stabbed to death in Lviv near a bus stop. On December 9, the Korrespondent Internet news service reported that police in Lviv Oblast had made an arrest in case and charged the suspect with murder. On June 26, the Kyiv-based NGO African Center reported that Nigerian national Julius Igbodunu Azike was shot three times in the head in front of his house in Kyiv. Police stated they were considering several motives for the killing, including racism. On March 19, the Ministry of Internal Affairs announced that the death in February of an Afghan national in Zakarpattia due to a severe beating remained unsolved. According to the Diversity Initiative, police initiated 11 criminal cases of hooliganism out of 17 cases that the monitoring group reported to officials. Unlike previous years, there were no reports on trials involving ethnic or racially motivated violence. According to the PGO, prosecutors initiated five criminal cases based on Article 161 of the criminal code, of which two were forwarded to court. Pretrial investigations continued in the other three cases. According to the State Judicial Administration, in the first six months of the year one person was found guilty of violating Article 161, compared with three in 2008 and one in 2007. On December 1, the president signed into law amendments to the criminal code that increased penalties for hate crimes. Accordingly, premeditated killing on grounds of racial, ethnic or religious hatred carries a 10- to 15-year prison sentence. Parliament also established a fine from 3,400 to 8,500 hryvnia ($425 to $1,060) or up to five years in custody for hate crimes. On November 16, on the occasion of International Tolerance Day, the IOM mission in Kyiv noted an improvement of the situation in the country and a decrease of the number of racially motivated crimes. In particular the IOM credited the Ministry of Internal Affairs with having a positive impact. However, human rights groups working on tolerance issues said much more needed to be done to eliminate racism and xenophobia. On February 6, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Prosecutor General's Office issued joint instructions urging law enforcement personnel to use a new form designed to register hate-motivated crimes and to create a register of hate crimes. However, observers maintained that the form was not used in practice and that statistics on the frequency of hate crimes remained difficult to find. Human rights groups noted that police remained reluctant to recognize ethnic- and race-based crimes and often described incidents as hooliganism. On April 23, the SBU, foreign students from Africa and Asia, and representatives of other communities of foreigners agreed to establish an independent commission with oversight responsibility to control investigations of hate crimes by law enforcement bodies. On May 25, the Kyiv police chief announced at press conference that city police had assembled a database of 750 individuals who were identified in connection with acts related to xenophobia and racial intolerance. During the year an interagency working group to combat racism, xenophobia, and discrimination met three times and agreed to draft a new two-year action plan for the period of 2010-12. However, there were no reports on the implementation of the group's previous two-year action plan. In November 2007 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs established the post of ambassador at large to combat racism, xenophobia, and discrimination, but it remained unclear what activities the office was involved in to promote tolerance. There were no reports on developments in investigations of three killings in Kyiv in 2008, including that of a Congolese refugee in January; a 39-year-old refugee from Sierra Leone in March; and a 40- year-old Nigerian in May. There was no further information about a number of incidents in 2007 that appeared to be racially or ethnically motivated, including the fatal stabbing in February of 34-year-old Georgian Moris Dzugashvili, the arrest of the organizer of a March rally of ultranationalists to protest the presence of African traders in Kyiv's Shuliavka market, the fatal stabbing in March of an Iranian-Ukrainian near Kyiv's Lukianivka market, or the fatal stabbing in Kyiv in June of a 43-year-old Iraqi refugee. Advocacy groups asserted that police occasionally detained dark- skinned persons and subjected them to far more frequent and arbitrary document checks; at times victims of xenophobic attacks were prosecuted for acting in self-defense. The media and domestic monitoring NGOs reported an increased number of protests against dark-skinned individuals, irregular migrants, and foreign students by locally based skinhead groups and neonationalist organizations. On November 28, the nationalist Svoboda party launched a national anti-immigrant campaign and conducted marches in all regions. Some of the most active groups were the unregistered Ukrainian National-Labor Party, the Patriot of Ukraine organization, the Ukrainian Movement against Illegal Immigration, White Power-Skinhead Spektrum, the Ukrainian branch of Blood and Honor, and the World Church of the Creator Ruthenia. Such groups appeared to be marginal and poorly organized. Roma continued to face governmental and societal discrimination. Romani rights groups estimated the country's Romani population to be between 200,000 and 400,000; however, official census data placed the number at 47,600. The discrepancy was due in part by lack of legal documentation and poor record keeping in the Romani community. According to SCNR, there were 88 Romani NGOs, of which three were national. A study by Chirikli Roma Women Foundation indicated that almost 70 percent of Roma had experienced a violation of their rights and that the majority did not know how to defend their rights or with whom to lodge complaints. According to Romani rights groups, two-thirds of Roma were illiterate, 15 percent were infected with TB, and 60 percent of Romani children in Zakarpattia were TB infected. One-third of Roma had no funds to pay for medicine and doctors' services. Romani rights groups reported that early marriages involving girls under 18 were common within the Romani community and that Romani women experienced racially discriminatory standards of medical care and lacked access to information on health matters. Representatives of Romani and other minority groups claimed that police officials routinely ignored and sometimes abetted violence against them and referred to Romani ethnicity in crime reports. However, the Roma Congress of Ukraine noted diminished ethnic profiling by police as a result of involvement of Romani rights groups. There were some reports of government cooperation with the Romani community. Roma had a representative in Cherkasy Oblast administration. The chairman of the Roma Congress of Ukraine, Petro Hryhorychenko, was a member of the presidential council on ethnic-national policy and a member of the NGO advisory council with the State Committee on Nationalities and Religions (SCNR). The constitution provides for the free development, use, and protection of the Russian language and other minority languages, but organizations and political parties in the Russian-speaking community complained that the increased use of Ukrainian in schools, college entrance exams, the media, and the courts put them at a disadvantage. According to the Ministry of Education, there were 2,217 educational facilities with Russian as the main language of instruction, serving nearly 1 million schoolchildren. According to ministry figures, 1.3 million school children studied Russian as a separate subject in secondary schools, and more than 165,000 secondary school children studied Russian as an extracurricular course Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar minorities in Crimea continued to complain of discrimination by the ethnic Russian majority on the peninsula and in Sevastopol. They urged that Ukrainian and the Crimean Tatar languages be given a status equal to Russian. Early in the year, the head of the Crimean Republican Committee for Nationalities and Deported Citizens reported that there were approximately 264,500 registered Crimean Tatars in the country. The SCNR reported 260,873 Tatars living in Crimea, Kherson Oblast, and Sevastapol. As of November 1, the SCNR reported that the government had allocated 28.276 million hryvnia (approximately $3.5 million) for the resettlement and integration of Crimean Tatars, including housing construction. According to Crimean Tatar Mejlis, Crimean Tatars resided in 300 settlements on the Crimean peninsula, and authorities allocated 53 million hryvnia ($6.6 million) for their integration. According to the Ministry of Education, 439 children studied the Crimean Tatar language in separate groups in preschool facilities. There were 15 secondary schools with Crimean Tatar as the main language of instruction; 17,725 children studied Crimean Tatar as a separate subject in secondary schools; and 5,153 secondary schoolchildren studied Crimean Tatar as an extracurricular course. Crimean Tatars asserted that discrimination by local officials deprived them of equal opportunities for employment in local administrations and that propaganda campaigns, particularly by pro- Russian groups, promoted hostility toward them among other inhabitants. For example, on July 11, member of parliament and presidential candidate for the 2010 election Inna Bohoslovska suggested at a press conference suspending the repatriation of Crimean Tatars for three years and called for a special status for Crimea's Russian population. On January 27, the Crimean Tatar Mejlis issued an alert about plans to demolish a Crimean Tatar settlement in Simferopol that was illegally seized by the Crimean Tatar community in 2006. Approximately 80 families lived there. The land formally belonged to the Ministry of Defense, which began the process of transferring it to the city of Simferopol. The city council, however, assumed ownership before the transfer was completed and rented the land to several commercial companies. The companies obtained a court order to evict the families. On February 22, the Mejlis reported a mistaken attack by the Ministry of Internal Affairs's Berkut special forces against a Crimean Tatar family in the village of Myrne. Approximately 10 police officers entered the home of Mustafa Khairov, assaulted his son, and wounded Khairov by detonating an explosive device. Khairov's hand was amputated as a result of injuries sustained during the incident. Khairov's wife reported that a man in civilian clothing subsequently came to the house, informed her that the attack was a mistake, tried to convince the family not to report the incident, and promised to pay all damages. The chief of Crimean police, Mykola Illichov, ordered an official investigation of the incident and dismissed 23 police officers. There was no further information about the July 2008 incident in which vandals reportedly tore down a national emblem of Crimean Tatars from the memorial complex to the victims of genocide of the Crimean Tatars in the Crimean village of Krasnogvardejskoye. There were no reports on developments in the arrest of 10 persons involved in a clash between Crimean Tatars and local police during a dispute over land in 2007 or the shooting of a Crimean Tatar man involved in clashes between Crimean Tatars and police on the Ay-Petri plateau in November 2007. During the year Crimean Tatars held several demonstrations, including in Kyiv, to protest unequal access to land ownership. The NGO Human Rights Watch reported that, during one protest on July 30 in front of the Cabinet of Ministers building in Kyiv, protesters were attacked while police stood by without intervening. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community continued to suffer societal stigma and discrimination. According to the coordinator of the Gay-Forum of Ukraine, Svyatoslav Sheremet, the number of persons with a homosexual orientation ranged from 800,000 to 1.2 million. Those who openly declared their sexual orientation experienced discrimination in education, in the workplace, and in access to medical treatment and to information on the prevention of HIV/AIDS. There were an estimated 19 LGBT rights groups in the country. In May activists of the nationalist Svoboda party threw eggs at participants of a sanctioned gay street action in Lviv; police did not intervene in the incident. On September 30, the Pavlo Hudimov Art Center in Kyiv was the target of an arson attack following a public discussion on homosexuality. Also in September police in Lviv detained and charged three activists of the right-wing Bandera Trident organization who tried to obstruct a press conference during a national book forum on a presentation of 120 Pages of Sodom. The activists threw tomatoes, mayonnaise' and water; smashed a microphone and glasses; and destroyed press releases and copies of the book. On September 17, in a related development, LGBT organizations criticized Lviv city council members of the Christian-Democratic Union party and Our Ukraine for urging a ban on the sale of 120 Pages of Sodom at the book forum. The political parties described the book, which is an 18th century anthology of sexual gratification, as ``overt perversion.'' According to Nash Mir (Our World), a registered LGBT rights group, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the SBU, and military academic institutions used a textbook approved by the Ministry of Education that qualified homosexual orientation as sexual perversion. The group also maintained that police mistreated and collected personal data on homosexual persons, while the Ministry of Internal Affairs ignored homophobic attitudes among its personnel. In February following the killing of a gay man in Lviv, regional police reportedly questioned more than 300 gay men over a three-month period as part the investigation into the death. According to Andriy Lyshchyshyn, director of the LGBT organization Total, the men were subjected to psychological pressure, insults, and physical violence. Police officers also threatened to reveal their orientation to employers. Detailed information about the men, including fingerprints, was collected. The men were also forced to sign statements that they had no complaints about police conduct. On April 10, Nash Mir reported that the Berkut police unit raided the Androgin gay club in Kyiv as part of an investigation into the killing of a homosexual man. Nash Mir said police indiscriminately detained approximately 80 individuals and brought them to the Holosiyivskiy district office where they were fingerprinted, photographed, and told to declare in writing that they had no complaints about police conduct. LGBT rights organizations complained to police and the prosecutor about the raid but were told that police had acted appropriately. In July 2008 the Kyiv prosecutor closed a criminal case opened in February 2008 against Oleksandr Zinchenkov, an editorial staff member of Gay.ua, the newspaper for Nash Mir. The organization's chairman, Andriy Maimulakhin, was also charged with distributing pornography. Maimulakhin was granted amnesty, and the court closed the case without a ruling. According to Nash Mir, the criminal investigation resulted in closure of Gay.ua, which was the only publication for the country's LGBT community. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Persons with HIV/AIDS faced discrimination and at times lacked access to treatment. There were an estimated 440,000 persons with HIV/AIDS in the country, according to statistics compiled by international organizations. However, the Ministry of Health estimated the number at approximately 156,000, of which 30,000 were diagnosed with AIDS. According to the Human Rights Watch's annual country report, the Ukrainian National AIDS Center reported 13,039 newly registered cases of HIV infection in the first eight months of year, nearly half among injection drug users. The All-Ukrainian Network of Persons Living with HIV noted that persons with HIV/AIDS faced discrimination in the workplace, job loss without legal recourse, harassment by law enforcement officials, prosecutors, social isolation and stigmatization. On September 14, Svitlo Nadii (the Light of Hope) charitable organization expressed concern about the refusal by Poltava and Reshetylivka maternity hospitals to admit a local resident, Olena Kulish, who was diagnosed with a still pregnancy. Hospital staff allegedly insulted the woman and repeatedly stated that they did not want to deal with HIV-positive persons. She was admitted to a hospital only after the staff of Svitlo Nadii complained to the deputy chief of the Poltava Oblast health agency. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Under the law workers have the right to form and join unions ``without previous authorization or excessive requirements,'' and this right was generally been respected in practice. However, in some instances local government and union officials restricted the right of workers to choose their union affiliation. There were no reliable estimates of the percentage of the workforce that belonged to a trade union. The law provides for the right of workers to strike on condition that a strike does not jeopardize national security, public health, or the rights and liberties of others. The right was generally respected in practice. The right to strike does not apply to personnel of the Prosecutor General's Office, the judiciary, armed forces, security services, law enforcement agencies, the transportation sector, or public servants. Federations and confederations are not entitled to strike. A strike may be organized only if two-thirds of the workers of an enterprise vote for it, which is considered disproportionate by international standards. By law all trade unions have equal status, and the establishment of a trade union does not require government permission. However, unions affiliated with the Federation of Trade Unions (FPU), which inherited assets from Soviet-era unions, have enjoyed an advantage in organizing workers. To function, a union must be registered by the government. Unions reported that the registration process was extremely burdensome, entailing visits to as many as 10 different offices and paying fees. The International Trade Union Confederation characterized the registration requirement as ``a restriction unacceptable by international labor standards.'' Unions not affiliated with the FPU, including the Confederation of Free Trade Unions of Ukraine (CFTU), continued to be denied a share of the former Soviet trade unions' real-estate and financial holdings. These included social insurance benefit funds, which gave the FPU a benefit that independent unions could not offer. Leaders of non-FPU trade unions and some government officials claimed that the FPU improperly sold some Soviet-era assets to thwart their future distribution. A 2007 parliamentary moratorium on the FPU's sale of property remained in place. According to the general counsel of the CFTU, there was only one reported incident during the year where an employer refused to recognize a newly formed trade union. The incident involved a newly established trade union at an agricultural company. Several CFTU-affiliated unions of coal miners in the eastern part of the country reported significant harassment and, in one case, firings because of their union activities. They alleged that FPU representatives colluded with management to put pressure on the CFTU union members to quit. Rather than rejoining the FPU, many workers pressured to withdraw from CFTU unions opted not to take part in organized labor activities. Members of CFTU-affiliated unions sometimes claimed that management forced them to carry out additional assignments without compensation or threatened them with dismissal if they refused to leave their unions. There were continuing complaints that FPU-affiliated unions deducted union dues from the salaries of workers who had chosen to join a different union. In March the administration of the Sumy customs office seized the offices of the independent trade union Spravedlyvist, representing customs personnel, and illegally took possession of their stamp, seal, and official documents. The administration claimed that the local trade union office was illegally located in the Sumy customs offices. In May Lviv Airlines ignored a court decision to rehire workers dismissed for independent trade union activities. A new trade union at a clinic in Chernihiv was pressured by the FPU and the regional department of the Ministry of Health. Bonuses were withheld and members were pressured to join the FPU. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law permits trade unions to organize and participate in collective bargaining, but these rights were not always respected in practice. Under the law joint worker-management commissions should resolve differences over wages, working conditions, and the rights and duties of management at the enterprise level. However, the commissions were not always effective in practice and sometimes were dominated by management and union representatives co-opted by management. Although the law provides the right to collective bargaining, the manner in which the law was applied prejudiced the bargaining process against newer unions and favored FPU-affiliated unions. Renouncing membership in an FPU-affiliated union and joining a new union was bureaucratically onerous and typically discouraged by management. The law provides for the National Mediation and Reconciliation Service to mediate labor disputes. The law allows for export processing (free economic) zones; however, in practice they were undeveloped. The government cancelled most of their tax and customs privileges in 2005. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that women, men, and children were trafficked for labor (see section 6). Trafficked women were used as housekeepers, seamstresses, dishwashers, or workers at small and large manufacturing plants. Some women with small children and persons with disabilities were trafficked abroad for begging. Men exploited for their labor made up 24 percent of the trafficking victims identified by the IOM during the year. They worked mainly on construction sites and in mines. There were instances in which men were forced to take part in criminal activities by dismantling stolen cars to be sold on the black market. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace, but the government did not always effectively enforce the law. The labor code sets 16 as the minimum age for most employment. Children ages 14 and 15 may perform ``light work'' with a parent's consent, but the law does not clearly define the term. Children can legally do some forms of agricultural and ``social'' work beginning at age 14, for example at elder-care facilities and orphanages, on a short-term basis with the consent of one parent. The Child Labor Division of the State Labor Inspectorate under the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy is responsible for enforcing child labor laws. The Department of Juvenile Affairs in the Ministry of Family, Youth, and Sport, and the Police Department for Juvenile Affairs in the Ministry of Internal Affair have the responsibility of identifying children in the informal sector involved in the worst forms of child labor. The ministry's Antitrafficking Department is responsible for the enforcement of child antitrafficking laws. The worst forms of child labor were found primarily in the informal sectors, such as commercial sexual exploitation, including production of pornography. Children also worked in agriculture and trade at open- air markets. The criminal code criminalizes exploiting children for labor. According to the Ministry of Health, there were no recent or official statistics about exploitation of child labor. In 1999 a research study conducted by the State Statistics Committee and the International Labor Organization found that 350,000 children were employed. The average age of beginning employment was 12; 46 percent worked in agriculture, 26 percent in commerce, and 19 percent in services industry. Enforcement improved but remained inadequate to deter violations fully. The government reportedly conducted more inspections, and there were more prosecutions of violators. In August 2008 the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy stated that the government inspected 660 enterprises and found child labor law violations at 421 of them. On February 26, the newspaper Fakty reported that a man from Kherson Oblast hired nine teenagers from Zakarpattia to work on his farm. He forced them to work 10 to 16 hours per day, housed them in a poultry barn, did not feed them properly, and did not pay wages. Police opened a criminal case. On March 13, the western Ukrainian information agency ZIK reported that labor inspectors in Chernivtsi Oblast found violations in 18 enterprises employing children under 18 and requested the court to bring administrative charges against 17 individuals. There were no reported developments on a number of cases from 2008 including the June 2008 investigation into 10 cases of the illegal use of child labor in Donetsk, the investigation of an entrepreneur in Volnovask who allegedly hired a teenager without a contract to work as a loader, and the May 2008 investigation into the possible use in Donetsk of vocational college students as construction workers instead of the internship to which they were entitled. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--On December 1, the government increased the monthly minimum wage to 669 hryvnias ($83). The minimum wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The State Labor Inspectorate is responsible for enforcing the minimum wage but was unable to monitor all employers. Many workers, particularly in the informal sector, received wages far below the established minimum. During the year wage arrears significantly worsened. According to the State Statistics Committee, arrears stood at 1.5 billion hryvnia ($187 million). Most arrears accumulated in state-run industries and agricultural enterprises. The law provides for a maximum 40-hour workweek, a 24-hour period of rest per week, and at least 24 days of paid vacation per year. The law provides for double pay for overtime work and regulates the number of overtime hours allowed. However, regulations covering rest periods, maximum hours, and overtime were not always effectively enforced. Although the law contains occupational safety and health standards, the standards were frequently ignored in practice. Lax safety standards and aging equipment caused many injuries on the job. During the first half of the year, 5,823 workplace injuries were reported (27 percent fewer than for the same period in 2008), including 306 job-related fatalities, compared with 514 in 2008). The number of mining fatalities during the year was 151, a decrease of approximately 13 percent from 2008. The number of miners reported injured in the coal sector during the first six months of year was 2,500, compared with 2,929 injuries during the same period in 2008. The law provides workers the right to remove themselves from dangerous work without jeopardizing their continued employment; however, trade unions reported that, in practice, asserting this right would result in retaliation or perhaps dismissal. __________ UNITED KINGDOM The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK), with a population of 60.8 million, is a constitutional monarchy with a multiparty, parliamentary form of government. Citizens elect representatives to the House of Commons, the lower chamber of a bicameral legislature. They last did so in free and fair elections in 2005. Members of the upper chamber, the House of Lords, occupy hereditary or appointed seats. Civilian authorities maintained effective control of the security forces. There were some reports of police misconduct and occasional abuse of detainees and other persons by police and military personnel and employees of government contractors. There were also reports of overcrowded prisons and some inadequate prison infrastructure. Societal problems included discrimination against religious minorities; mistreatment of women, children, ethnic minorities, gay persons, and persons with disabilities; and trafficking of persons. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed any politically motivated killings; however, the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) reported that in 2008-09 police shot and killed three persons in the performance of their duty, the same number as in 2007- 08. In July 2008 the Ministry of Defense agreed to pay 2.8 million pounds (approximately $4.5 million) to the family of Iraqi civilian Baha Mousa, who died in 2003 after suffering 93 injuries during a two- day detention by UK troops in Iraq. In 2007 a court-martial sentenced a soldier to one year in prison and dismissed him from the army for the inhuman treatment of Mousa. Six other soldiers were acquitted; no one was convicted in the deaths. In July 2008 the Ministry of Defense announced a public inquiry, which began taking evidence on July 13 and which was scheduled to last through mid-2010. Proceedings continued in three cases involving allegations of government involvement, collusion, or culpability in killings during the conflict in Northern Ireland in the 1980s and 1990s. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices and authorities did not usually engage in them; however, there continued to be allegations that members of the military services were at least complicit, if not participants, in the torture of detainees overseas, that individual police officers occasionally abused detainees, and that guards under contract to immigration authorities abused deportees while returning them to their home countries. Police are subject to oversight by the Independent Police Complaints Commission, which investigates charges of abuse and has the power to punish police officers if abuse is found. There were a number of allegations that the intelligence services colluded in the torture of citizens or residents. The attorney general asked the police to investigate two cases in which the domestic and external security services, respectively, were complicit in torture of detainees. A number of citizens alleged that they were tortured by Pakistani authorities with UK government complicity, and at least one has appealed to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In 2008 several citizens, all UK-Pakistani dual nationals, made similar charges. The Home Office asked the attorney general to investigate these allegations. There were no updates on these cases at year's end. In September the IPCC issued statistics for 2008-09 indicating that approximately 7,679 complaints of sexual assault, serious nonsexual assault, and ``other assault'' were made against police, which represented an increase of approximately 4 percent from the previous year. Investigations were initiated in 57 percent of serious nonsexual assault complaints, 47 percent of sexual assault complaints, and 37 percent of other assault complaints in 2008-09. Of the investigations that were brought to resolution in 2008-09, the complaints were found to be substantiated in 10 cases of serious nonsexual assault, six cases of sexual assault, and 108 cases of other assault. A Consultative Group on the Past in Northern Ireland, containing prominent individuals from both sides, concluded its work on ways to deal with the legacy of decades of strife between the two communities in Northern Ireland and released its report in January, with the overarching objective of promoting peace and stability in Northern Ireland. The report found that significant intercommunal suspicion continued to exist in Northern Ireland. At the end of the year, implementation of the Consultative 'Group's recommendations, including the establishment of a Legacy Commission, were still being debated. Under the Victims and Survivors Act for Northern Ireland that took effect in June 2008, four cross-community ``commissioners'' were appointed to address the needs of victims of the decades-long violence. The legitimacy of their appointments was challenged, but the judiciary upheld the appointments, and the Commission for Victims and Survivors Northern Ireland continued to provide support to victims and survivors sought assistance. In 2008 the ECHR issued a judgment that found one violation by the country involving the prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted visits by independent human rights observers; however, overcrowding and poor facilities continued to be problems. A study by the nongovernmental organization (NGO) Inquest, indicated that, as of December 23, the number of suicides in prison was 60, compared with61 in 2008. The Ministry of Justice reported the prison population in England and Wales on December 18 was 84,231 in facilities designed to accommodate 85,986. The Prison Reform Trust released a report, based on government statistics, stating that 88 out of 140 prisons held more than the ``certified normal accommodation.'' The Scottish Prison Service reported that as of December 18, 7,688 inmates were in prisons designed for approximately 6,600. England, Wales, and Scotland continued early release programs for nonviolent offenders that somewhat reduced overcrowding. Prison overcrowding and insufficient care of individuals who were in custody for their own protection or for offenses related to mental illness were cited as contributing to the number of deaths. The Scottish Prison Service reported 29 deaths in custody, 17 more than in 2008. In the same period, at least one person in Northern Ireland had died in custody. The known case was a suicide in which the officers were under investigation for neglect. As of year's end, no new data was available. The chief inspector for prisons criticized the prison system for inadequately protecting Muslim and ethnic minority inmates from attacks by white inmates. In April the Ministry of Justice's National Offender Management Service published its ``Single Equality Scheme,'' which aims to address inequalities in line with the country's equality legislation. At times juveniles, including some under age 16, were held together with adult prisoners. Although rare, there were instances when pretrial detainees were held with convicted prisoners due primarily to overcrowding. The government permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights groups, the media, the International Committee of the Red Cross, and the independent International Center for Prison Studies based at Kings College, London. Some of the organizations undertook monitoring missions during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions; however, critics charged that some procedures justified by government as necessary to combat terrorism constituted preventative detention. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the regional police forces, and the government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--In most cases police officers may make an arrest only if they have reasonable grounds for suspecting that someone has committed or is about to commit one or more listed ``arrestable offenses,'' or if an officer believes an arrest is necessary to prevent physical injury or damage to property. The Police Reform Act of 2002 introduced Community Safety Accreditation Schemes, which allowed police chiefs to grant nonpolice officers ``enforcement powers,'' including the right to issue citations and fines and to demand the names and address of persons stopped in the street. A 2008 Home Office report revealed that 23 police forces had implemented community safety accreditation programs and granted enforcement powers to 1,600 civilians. Human Rights groups and opposition politicians called the practice a civil rights violation and a move towards excessive surveillance. Opposition politicians noted that there were already regular police and other officials with law enforcement powers as well as fully trained and uniformed volunteers and a comprehensive closed-circuit television surveillance network. The government defended the practice as consistent with the 2002 Police Reform Act, citing existing procedure that permits a chief constable to designate a limited number of persons with a limited amount of enforcement power who are ``employees of organizations which contribute to public safety.'' Police may detain an ordinary criminal suspect for 96 hours without charges. However, detention for more than 24 hours must be authorized by a senior police official, and detention of more than 60 hours requires the approval of a magistrate. Only terrorism suspects may be detained without charge longer than 96 hours. Authorities may hold terrorism suspects for up to 28 days before formally charging them; they are entitled to counsel during this period. Existing law permits the extended detention of foreigners who are suspected of being terrorists but who cannot be deported immediately because of the risk they would be tortured or executed in their countries of destination. Such individuals may appeal their designation as terror suspects. The law gives defendants awaiting trial the right to bail, except for those judged to be flight risks, likely to commit another offense, suspected terrorists, or in other limited circumstances. Detainees may make telephone calls and have legal representation, including government-provided counsel if they are indigent. In February the Law Lords ruled that radical preacher Abu Qatada, whose ``inspirational'' tapes were found in the German apartments used by Mohammad Atta and other 9/11 terrorists, could be deported to Jordan. This reversed a 2008 ruling that had released him in the UK because the court ruled that ``assurances'' of humane treatment, contained in a memorandum of understanding between the UK and Jordanian governments, were an inadequate safeguard. (Abu Qatada was convicted in absentia in Jordan on terrorism charges in 2000.) The Abu Qatada ruling also applied to two terrorism suspects from Algeria, opening up the possibility of their deportation. The UK continued to hold a number of other detainees whom it deemed dangerous but had not deported due to concerns about torture in their home countries. Abu Qatada's lawyers appeal to the ECHR was pending at year's end. A day after the Abu Qatada ruling in the UK, the ECHR awarded damages to Abu Qatada and 10 others because their detention without trial violated their human rights. However, the court awarded damage amounts that ``were substantially lower than those the ECHR had made in past cases of unlawful detention, in view of the fact that the detention scheme was devised in the face of a public emergency and as an attempt to reconcile the need to protect the UK public against terrorism with the obligation not to send the applicants back to countries where they faced a real risk of ill-treatment.'' The Terrorism Act permits a judge (or the home secretary, with a judge's permission) to impose ``control orders,'' which include a range of restrictions, up to house arrest, on individuals suspected of involvement in terrorism-related activities, regardless of nationality or perceived terrorist cause. Control orders were first employed in January 2008. The government used control orders to keep terrorism suspects under arrest without allowing suspects to know the charges against them or see the government's evidence. The Law Lords ruled in June that the government's refusal to allow two men to know the charges against them was a violation of the Human Rights Act. The lords ruled that the defendants' legal appeal had to be reheard by the lower court. The ruling did not forbid the use of control orders generally, but most observers interpreted it as a precedent that others subject to control orders could use in their own appeals. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found two violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. Criminal proceedings must be held in public except those in juvenile court and those involving public decency or security. In a trial under the Official Secrets Act, the judge may order the court closed, but sentencing must be public. The law generally allows for jury trials. In England and Wales, the law provides for judge-only trials when there is a ``real and present danger that jury tampering would take place.'' On June 18, the appeals court ruled that a robbery case being heard for the fourth time should be heard without a jury. This will be the first juryless case in the Crown Court. In Northern Ireland, trials by a single judge, employed during previous decades in response to intimidation of juries by paramilitaries, ceased to be the norm in July 2008. However, as in the case of England and Wales, nonjury trials may be held in cases involving possible intimidation of juries. Scotland allows jury trials in criminal and civil cases. Defendants have the right to be present at their trials, to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, and to question witnesses against them. Defendants have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases, with some exceptions, including instances in which information pertaining to a suspect is acquired through sources associated with national security. ``Intercept evidence''--evidence collected by electronic interception--is not admissible in a court of law. The police claimed that divulging their methods and sources would hamper their effectiveness. Human rights organizations and prominent politicians criticized this rule, asserting that it led the government to use administrative or nonjudicial means of detaining criminal suspects who could not be prosecuted without the intercept evidence. The Home Office commissioned a report on the subject in 2008, but no action had been taken by year's end. Defendants have the right to appeal to successively higher courts. Indigent defendants have the right to free counsel of their choice, with some exceptions. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found one violation of the European Convention on Human Rights by the country with respect to length of proceedings and one violation of the right to an effective remedy. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, including access to a court to bring lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, a human rights violation. Administrative remedies were also available. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. In April the country implemented an EU directive by requiring Internet service providers (ISPs) to retain records of all users' Internet activity for one year. This follows a similar requirement effective in 2008 that applied to landline and cellular telephone calls. Both policies were a change from the previous system in which data retention was voluntary. Intelligence and law enforcement agencies, emergency services, and a number of other governmental bodies can request the data but must demonstrate a legitimate need for the information to protect public safety and ensure compliance with UK law. Critics claimed that in practice agencies can self-authorize warrants and that the ability to intercept communications was too broad. The use of electronic surveillance requires the approval of the home secretary, who authorizes an ``interception warrant,'' which must name or describe either one person or a single set of premises where the interception is to take place. However, in limited circumstances the home secretary may issue a ``certified'' interception warrant, eliminating the requirement to specify a person or premises. Certified warrants are intended only for communications with overseas parties. They include communications channeled through a foreign ISP. An independent ``interception of communications commissioner'' oversaw interception warrants, and the Investigatory Powers Tribunal investigated public complaints of surveillance abuses. According to its annual report, published in July, the tribunal received 136 new complaints in 2007 and completed its investigation of 70 of these, together with 32 of the 41 cases carried over from 2008. The tribunal carried a further 75 cases forward to 2009. This represented an increase in complaints from 2008, when 66 complaints were lodged. Two cases were decided in favor of the complainant. Only one case had been decided in the complainant's favor prior to 2008. In April the government announced that it would not pursue a centralized database that would store all communications data collected by communications service providers. Human rights groups had been critical of plans to do so. In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found three violations by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided under the European Convention on Human Rights. In December 2008 the ECHR ruled that the government's retention of DNA profiles from individuals not charged with a crime or cautioned for an offense violated the privacy clause of the convention. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. Judges can issue media suppression orders to prevent the publication of information about trial proceedings or other topics. In March, Barclays bank obtained a media suppression order that forced a newspaper to remove from its Web site leaked documents regarding alleged tax-avoidance schemes and prevented other newspapers from reporting Web sites where those documents could be found. In September a law firm representing a company accused of dumping toxic waste in Ivory Coast procured a ``super-injunction'' preventing the Guardian newspaper from reporting on parliamentary proceedings about the case and from reporting that the suppression order had been issued. The Guardian challenged the ruling, and the law firm agreed to allow the newspaper to report on the parliamentary proceedings. In May a court ruled that Simon Singh had committed libel in an article in which he criticized the British Chiropractic Association (BCA). The court ruled that what Singh saw as a scientific criticism was in fact a charge about the BCA's intentions, and therefore could be treated as libel. Also during the year, a U.S. company sued Briton Peter Wilmshurst for libel based on his criticisms of a medical device the company produces. Several British free-speech NGOs launched a public campaign to revise libel law in England and Wales. The 2007 Racial and Religious Hatred Act and other legislation make it an offense to use ``threatening words or behavior'' toward a religious, ethnic, or racial group. The 2007 act applies specifically to words, behavior, or displays of written material; publishing or distributing written material; the public performance of a play; distributing, showing, or playing a recording; broadcasting or including a program in a program service; or the possession of written materials or recordings with intent to display, publish, distribute, or include such materials in a program service. In September a couple who ran a hotel in Liverpool were charged with a public order offense when a Muslim guest in their hotel complained that they had insulted Islam. The couple maintained that they were merely expressing their opinion about Christianity and Islam. The trial was due to begin in December. Court decisions have established that possession of materials advocating terrorism alone was insufficient for conviction under the 2000 Terrorism Act; however, possession of materials that provided practical assistance to terrorists, such as the al-Qa'ida Manual, the Terrorist's Handbook, the Mujahideen Poisons Handbook, and a number of military manuals, did fall within the meaning of the act. In November 2008 four men were arrested and charged with violations of the Racial and Religious Hatred Act for distributing leaflets in Ireland and the UK blaming Muslims for the heroin trade. The arrests followed controversy over the precedence of free speech over stirring hatred in the community. The Crown Prosecution Service at first advised police that, while racist (most UK Muslims are of South Asian or African descent), the leaflets were protected speech, a position criticized by the National Association of Muslim Police, which advocated halting distribution and investigating the source. Three of the men would not face charges, and one was scheduled to go to trial in early 2010. The Home Office prohibited Dutch politician Geert Wilders from entering the country in February because of a film he had made about Islam. Wilders successfully appealed the ban to the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal and travelled to the country in October. The law allows the government to bar entry to non-UK citizens who express views that represent ``unacceptable behavior.'' In May the Home Office revealed a list of 16 persons who have been banned since October 2008, while also stating that others were banned but that it would not release their names. Internet Freedom.--There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. There were no reports that authorities routinely monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. However, the law permits communications data surveillance, including of Internet usage, in the interests of national security, to prevent or detect a crime, or in the interests of public safety. Authorities did not publicly discuss details of their monitoring activities. During the year the government mandated that all ISPs retain records of Internet usage for one year. The new law brought the UK into compliance with EU directives and replaced an arrangement where ISPs provided this information voluntarily. The government officially disavowed its previous proposal of a national database to store Internet usage information amid protests about privacy rights. The Internet was widely available throughout the country and was available at no cost in public libraries. Approximately 80 percent of the population used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The government did not consider the Church of Scientology and the Unification Church to be religions for purposes of issuing visas for ministers of religion or missionaries. Since the Church of Scientology does not fall within the definition of religion in the charity law, its chapels did not qualify as places of worship, and authorities did not consider its ministers to be ministers of a religion. There were no reports of specific visa denials during the year. The law requires religious education in publicly maintained schools. Localities determine the content of religious instruction, but it must reflect the predominant place of Christianity in the cultural and historical context of the nation while taking into account the teachings and practices of the country's other principal religions, and it must refrain from attempting to convert pupils. All parents have the legal right to request that their children not participate in religious education. Schools in England and Wales must also provide a daily act of collective worship of ``a wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character.'' Students of other faiths may offer prayers of their own religion. According to a 2005 survey by the British Broadcasting Company, a considerable number of schools were not participating in this form of worship. Teachers have the right not to participate in collective worship, without prejudice. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Kevin McDaid, a 49-year old Catholic community worker, was beaten to death in Northern Ireland in May in what police called a religiously motivated attack after a soccer match. Police charged a number of men with the murder, some of whom also faced charges in other attacks. A number of Catholic sources complained of attempts to intimidate McDaid's family and witnesses, and McDaid's sons were arrested on charges of assaulting one of those accused of their father's murder. The case remained pending at year's end. There were reports of anti-Islamic attacks against persons and property during the year. In May prisoners at Ranby prison in Retford, Nottinghamshire, constructed a bomb and placed it in a Muslim worship area. Also in May an Islamic Center in Bedfordshire was the target of a suspected arson attack. Throughout the year there were numerous incidents of violence against individuals and property, as well as a number of rallies and public gatherings with anti-Muslim messages. In October a man ripped a Muslim woman's veil from her face in Leicester, for which he was fined and given a four-month suspended prison sentence. In November a Muslim student in Leicester was beaten by a group of men shouting anti-Islamic statements after the student had tried to stop the men from taunting a Muslim woman for wearing Islamic dress. There were a number of violent attacks in August and September outside a mosque in Tooting, London, including one in which a man was bludgeoned to death. Precise figures for the number of such incidents were not available. Publication of a book about Mohammed and his youngest wife, The Jewel of Medina, scheduled for release in October 2008, was postponed by the publisher ``until further notice'' for ``security reasons.'' The book's publishing house was firebombed in September 2008. Three men were sentenced to four and one-half years of prison each for the attack. The Jewish population numbered approximately 300,000. There was an outbreak of anti-Semitic incidents in January and February following the conflict between Israel and Hamas in the Gaza Strip. The Community Security Trust, a group that tracked anti-Semitic incidents, reported that there were 609 anti-Semitic incidents in the first six months of the year, whereas the preceding year had seen 544 incidents. There were 286 incidents in January and 111 in February, both of which were higher than the previous record of 105 from October 2000. Anti-Semitic incidents continued to be higher than in the previous year in March, but the rate of incidents returned to previous levels by mid-year. The incidents included property damage, threats, abusive behavior, and mass-produced or mass-mailed anti-Semitic literature. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations to provide protection and assistance to refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Based in part on the EU's ``Dublin procedure,'' the government placed the burden of proof on asylum seekers who arrive from a country on a list of ``safe countries'' of origin promulgated by the home secretary, who passed through a country where they were not considered to be at risk, or who remained in the country for a period of time before seeking asylum. The law permits authorities to remove an asylum applicant to another country that is deemed responsible for adjudicating an applicant's claim. In practice the government provided protection against the return of persons to a country where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year the Home Office did not enforce deportations of failed asylum seekers from Zimbabwe and Darfur. However, the Home Office stated that there was no legal reason it could not deport someone and that deportation could be enforced on a case-by-case basis. In October the Home Office returned to Iraq approximately 40 Iraqis whose asylum claims were denied. The news media reported that 30 of those were refused entry by the Iraqi government for bureaucratic reasons and returned to the UK for further processing. The ultimate disposition of their cases was not known at the end of the year. The announcement followed criticism from several NGOs about the prospect of deportations. Estimates of the number of failed asylum seekers in the country from Zimbabwe ranged from 11,000 to 13,000. Failed asylum seekers from Darfur were estimated to number in the low thousands. In September 2008 the Home Office announced that Dame Nuala O'Loan, former police ombudsman for Northern Ireland, would investigate claims of abuse by private contractors, hired by the government to detain and remove failed asylum seekers. A July report by a consortium of NGOs documented the claims of over 300 persons who accused the private contractors of physical and sexual assault and racial abuse. Dame O'Loan was instructed to reopen 50 cases that the government previously classed as unsubstantiated. She was expected to address the appropriateness of using private contractors and whether the use of ``reasonable force'' was appropriate in dealing with failed asylum seekers. The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the categories of humanitarian protection and discretionary leave. In 2008, the most recent year for which figures were available, the government provided such protection to approximately 2,185 persons during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, to the Scottish Parliament, and to the Welsh Assembly took place in 2007. They were generally regarded as free and fair. Free and fair elections to the House of Commons took place in 2005. On June 4, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair. On March 12, the Queen granted Royal Assent to the Northern Ireland Act of 2009, which transferred power over policing and justice from the UK to the devolved Northern Ireland government. However the transfer, which many observers considered to be the final piece in Northern Ireland's devolution process, was not completed due to unfinished negotiations over how it would be funded. The overseas territories, with a total population of approximately 222,000, have varying degrees of self-government based on the UK model, with appointed governors. There were 125 women in the 646-seat House of Commons and 148 women in the 739-seat House of Lords. There were five women in the prime minister's cabinet. An additional 30 women held other ministerial posts. There was one woman among the 11 justices of the Supreme Court, which began operation in October, replacing the Law Lords as the UK's highest court. There were 15 members of ethnic minorities in the House of Commons. The number of members of ethnic minorities in the House of Lords was not reported; there were no members of ethnic minorities in the Cabinet; Baroness Scotland, who is Afro-Caribbean, is attorney general. Four members of ethnic minorities held junior ministerial posts. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were some reports of government corruption during the year. During the year there was a major scandal over whether members of Parliament had been abusing their expense privileges. In 2008 the courts ordered Parliament to release allowances claimed by its members. This was delayed by Parliament until July. However, the Daily Telegraph obtained a leaked copy of the reports and published their findings before Parliament did. When Parliament did publish the expense reports, it blacked out some information, leading to accusations of cover-up. In the wake of the scandal more than a dozen Members of Parliament declared they would not stand for reelection at the next elections. The speaker of the House of Commons resigned in the face of pressure resulting from his perceived support for the expenses system and his reaction to the scandal. In September the Serious Fraud Office succeeded in prosecuting a UK construction company for bribing foreign officials to win contracts and for violating UN sanctions against Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq. The court levied fines of approximately five million pounds ($8 million). Many observers considered the ruling important because it set a precedent by establishing that UK companies could be prosecuted for bribery outside of the UK. There was continued corruption-related controversy involving the UK's largest defense contractor, BAE Systems. In 2008 the government terminated its investigation into BAE's involvement in possible bribery connected to a sale in Saudi Arabia. However, on October 1, the Serious Fraud Office announced that it would seek the attorney general's consent to prosecute BAE for involvement in illegal payments in connection with military sales in Eastern Europe and Africa. The law provides for public access to information, and authorities generally granted access to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. There are numerous exceptions to the availability of government information, including those relating to national security and defense, personal privacy, and possible risks to health and safety. In some instances, authorities are not obliged to indicate whether relevant information exists; however, according to authorities, they are obliged to say why they are refusing a request. There are no fees for requesting information; however, there may be a bill for the cost of materials and postal fees. Government agencies may refuse a request if the cost to the government will exceed 450 or 600 pounds (approximately $730 or $955), depending on the government body. There was a mechanism to appeal denials. The Coroners and Justice Act was granted Royal Assent on November 12. It allows nonpublic reviews of deaths in the interest of national security. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views. The Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC), an independent body funded by the government, was set up in 2007 to protect and promote human rights in the country. It enjoyed the government's cooperation and operated without government interference. It had adequate resources and operated effectively. The EHRC produced numerous reports on various human rights matters. During the year the EHRC contributed to a report on areas of Britain that do not have services for female victims of violence. In November the government issued a national strategy to end violence against women. Parliament has a Joint Committee on Human Rights, composed of 12 members selected from the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The committee undertook inquiries into human rights matters in the UK and scrutinized legislation affecting human rights. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, or disability, and the government generally enforced the law effectively. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. According to a Home Office publication issued in July, there were 53,477 sexual crimes recorded by the police in 2008- 09. The vast majority of these crimes were perpetrated against women. Of the most serious cases where gender of the victim was identified, women were victims of 12,165 cases of rape and 19,740 cases of indecent or sexual assault. The government acknowledged that its rates of conviction in rape cases were far too low; it did not release new statistics on convictions but stated that the conviction rate was approximately 6 percent. A Rape Performance Group was established to hold individual police departments responsible for improving their conviction rates. The government estimated that one in 20 women in the country had been raped. The government provided shelters, counseling, and other assistance for victims of battery or rape and offered free legal aid to battered women who were economically reliant on their abusers. The government operated 29 Sexual Assault Resource Centers. The law prohibits domestic violence, including spousal abuse, and authorities strictly enforced the law in cases reported to them. The courts imposed punishment ranging up to life imprisonment; however, violence against women continued to be a problem. The law provides for injunctive relief, personal protection orders, and protective exclusion orders (similar to restraining orders) for female victims of violence. According to the 2008-09 British Crime Survey (BCS), 6.3 percent of women (and 3.9 percent of men) were victims of domestic abuse during the year. This was an increase over 2007-8 for women. BCS estimates for 2008-09 indicated that approximately 14 percent of all violent crime was domestic in England and Wales and that 31 percent of all violent incidents against women were domestic violence. NGOs raised concerns that police were not adequately trained to identify and respond when women sought protection. Police and NGOs estimated that approximately a dozen honor killings occurred each year, although there were no formal statistics. Many observers regarded honor killings as the extreme end of a spectrum that included abductions, forced abortions, imprisonment, mental and physical abuse, and rape. It was generally considered an ``imported crime,'' since a majority of the incidents involved families from Asia, Turkey, Algeria, and Nigeria. Many of the crimes involved hiring outside ``hit men''; in other cases the perpetrator was the youngest member of the family, who was supervised by older family members. In December a court convicted a man of killing his 15-year-old daughter in 1999. The man was allegedly angry with her for her involvement with an older man of a different religious sect. Forced marriages continued to be a problem, although their extent remained unknown. In 2007 the UK passed the Forced Marriage Protection Act to protect individuals from being forced into marriage. As of July 2, the Forced Marriage Unit's (FMU) helpline had received 770 calls or e-mails, a 16 percent increase over the same period in the previous year. In 2008 the FMU dealt with 440 cases of forced marriage and estimated that there were a total of 5,000 to 8,000 cases of forced marriages in the country; most cases involved families from Pakistan (70 percent) and Bangladesh (11 percent), with smaller percentages from India, the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. The law requires schools, social services, and police to receive training about this phenomenon and to take steps to combat it, ranging from increased truancy monitoring to assisting young persons who come to them for help without parental input. The law criminalizes forced marriage and makes taking individuals out of the country on false pretenses akin to kidnapping. It also has a provision to annul marriages made outside of the country against the will of one partner. In 2008 the government raised the age of persons who are eligible to sponsor a spouse for a marriage visa from 18 to 21 and added a requirement that intending sponsors of such visas register their intent to seek a visa before traveling abroad. Authorities believed that young adults often traveled on what they expected to be a vacation to the home country and were subsequently pressured into marriage and into applying for the spouse's visa. Prostitution is legal for adults; however, such related offenses as loitering for the purpose of prostitution and maintaining a brothel are illegal. The number of prostitutes in the UK was not known, but authorities and NGOs estimated that approximately 100,000 persons in the country were engaged in prostitution. The law prohibits child sex tourism and allows authorities to prosecute citizens or residents for offenses committed abroad. Individuals were arrested and in some cases jailed abroad on such charges, but according to the charity End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography, and Trafficking Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT), there were only a few cases of prosecution in the UK since the early 1990s, and there were no reports of prosecutions during the year. The law prohibits sexual harassment and provides penalties of up to five years' imprisonment; authorities followed up on the isolated complaints that were filed. Couples and individuals enjoy the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. The Department of Health has a National Support Team for Sexual Health, which worked to provide universal access to contraception to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies. There is also an Infant Mortality Support Team to improve the health of infants and mothers' after birth. Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including rights under family and property law and in the judicial system; however, in practice women experienced some discrimination. According to a 2009 report by the EHRC, women's average hourly earnings were significantly lower than men's. The mean unadjusted hourly gender pay gap was about 17 percent for full-time employees and 37 percent for part-time employees. The EHRC has undertaken a study of the pay gap in the private sector that was ongoing at year's end. There was a cabinet-level minister for women and a deputy minister for women and equality. Two independent bodies were concerned with women's matters, the EHRC and the Women's National Commission (WNC). The EHRC supported women by enforcing equality legislation and actively promoting gender equality. The WNC is an umbrella organization representing women and women's organizations. It lobbied the government to take women's views into account and include them in public debate. Children.--All births must be registered within 42 days in the district where the baby was born. Unregistered births were not common, and there were no reports of lack of birth registration as a cause for the denial of public services. Local authorities have procedures for the late registration of babies whose births are not registered within 42 days. Birth within the territory of the UK before 1983 conferred British citizenship for most people. Since 1983, a child becomes a British citizen if he is born in the UK and one of his parents is a British citizen or legally settled resident. Child abuse remained a problem, although there were no reliable figures on its prevalence. In Northern Ireland it is a criminal offense to fail to report most offenses against children; England, Wales, and Scotland do not have such laws; however, civil servants charged with the care, education, and welfare of children are ``responsible'' for their protection. The minister for children coordinated government policy concerning children and young persons in England and Wales. In Northern Ireland there was a commissioner for children. In Scotland the Ministries of Education, Young Persons, and Communities supervised similar programs designed to protect and provide assistance to minors. Public attention was drawn during the year to a case where a nursery worker and two accomplices sexually abused a number of children at the nursery and engaged in distribution of pictures of the children. In December the worker and her accomplices were convicted. Two of the three were jailed indefinitely, and the other was awaiting sentencing at year's end. This case arose after the sentencing during the year of a woman and her boyfriend to five years and life in prison, respectively, in the case of a child known as ``Baby P,'' who died as a result of abuse, despite knowledge by social services agencies that abuse was taking place. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is illegal. The maximum penalty for aiding, abetting, counseling, procuring, or carrying out this practice is 14 years' imprisonment. FGM was most often practiced by immigrant or refugee groups on girls aged seven to nine from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, West Africa, and Yemen. The Department of Health estimated in 2006 that approximately 74,000 women had undergone FGM. During the year the Department of Health in conjunction with several NGOs and universities began a study to better understand the scope of FGM in the UK, with England's chief nursing officer stating that up to 24,000 young girls were at risk. In 2006 the Metropolitan Police Service and a number of NGOs began an awareness and prevention campaign focused on the problem. The UK has a statutory rape law. It is illegal for a person over 18 to have sex with a person under 16 years old, unless the younger person is over 13 and the adult reasonably thought the younger person to be over 16. Penalties range from fines to 14 years' imprisonment. The law prohibits child pornography and provides for a maximum sentence of 10 years' imprisonment. Penal reformers and children's groups continued to criticize the government's reliance on antisocial behavior orders (ASBOs), civil ``warnings'' that can limit children's access to a geographic area or impose tailored curfews. ASBOs were introduced to prevent youths from interacting with the courts and youth services as a result of minor infractions. However, youth who subsequently violate ASBOs could be arrested and would enter the criminal system. Opponents contended that the ASBOs led to criminal records for youth whose behavior in the past would have been seen as ``kids being kids.'' According to one expert, more than 1,000 youths had been incarcerated for violating the ASBOs since their inception in 2000. Critics claimed that police were too quick to issue the orders for such minor infractions as excessive loudness or congregating in large numbers, violations that some children's advocates described as inevitable. Some experts contended that a third of youths receiving the orders had mental or behavioral problems that did not permit them to understand the orders. In her annual report issued in January, Anne Owers, the chief inspector of prisons, criticized the use of physical restraint on child prisoners and also reported that a significant number of young prisoners felt unsafe or had been victimized by other inmates. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits all forms of trafficking; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, through, and within, the country. There were no official statistics on the number of trafficking victims. In a 2008 report, police estimated (based on arrests, including from raids on bordellos and statements from those intercepted at the borders) that between 6,000 and 18,000 women and children were engaged in prostitution involuntarily, the majority trafficked from abroad. Regions of origin included Central and Eastern Europe-- primarily the Balkans and the former Soviet Union--and Asia, including China. Most victims were women trafficked for sexual exploitation. Women, men, and children were also trafficked for labor exploitation in domestic service, agricultural and rural labor, construction, and catering. In 2008 law enforcement agencies completed operation Pentameter 2, a crackdown on forced prostitution; prosecution of cases from the operation continued during the year. As of February, police had identified 164 victims of sex trafficking in 35 police-force areas, including 13 girls between the ages of 14 and 17. All but one of the victims were female. The operation netted 406 suspects, 47 percent of whom were Chinese or Asian, 34 percent EU nationals, and 57 percent female. Sixty-seven suspects were charged with human trafficking, of whom 15 were convicted of trafficking, eight were convicted of other offenses, and 37 were not convicted. Some cases were still ongoing. More than 600 brothels were raided during the operation, most in private homes. In a report on the Pentameter 2 operation, authorities noted that, since prostitution is not a crime, police often had difficulty distinguishing victims of trafficking and forced prostitution from those who engaged in prostitution voluntarily. The report also noted that an increasing number of persons forced into prostitution were born in the country. On April 1, the UK implemented a national referral mechanism for identifying and referring trafficking victims. In May the Guardian newspaper reported that it had obtained a copy of a government report stating that criminal gangs had been using a children's home near Heathrow Airport to traffic children. The report said that at least 77 children were suspected to have been trafficked. In October the Guardian published another investigative article that claimed that the government's efforts had resulted in many fewer arrests than previously expected and that trafficking might not be as great a problem as antitrafficking campaigners suspected. Antitrafficking advocates countered that the police were not well trained in identifying victims and their lack of success in finding victims and perpetrators did not mean that trafficking was not a significant problem. There were also reports that children were trafficked into the country and forced to work as domestic servants, beggars, pickpockets, drug couriers, or in sweatshops and restaurants. Authorities believed that organized gangs were behind most cases of trafficking for commercial exploitation. NGOs claimed that Albanian gangs were heavily involved in prostitution rings in London that used trafficked women. Gangs from Asia appeared to be increasingly involved in trafficking women from that area. Prosecutors also uncovered Eastern European and Chinese involvement in labor trafficking. Traffickers often lured women by false advertisements of work as restaurant staff, maids, and childcare providers. Some victims expected to work in the sex trade but were deceived about working conditions by the traffickers and exploited upon arrival. Traffickers used a variety of means, including use of valid travel documents, false documentation, and smuggling of aliens past border checks. Authorities believed traffickers frequently used Heathrow Airport as a transit point, primarily for trafficking between European destinations. Trafficking for prostitution, sexual exploitation, or forced labor carries a maximum sentence of 14 years' imprisonment. The law applies to both citizens and residents and to acts committed domestically or abroad. The law also prohibits such related acts as keeping a brothel and causing, inciting, or controlling prostitution for gain. There are severe penalties for such offenses as causing, inciting, controlling, arranging, or facilitating the prostitution of a child. The law also criminalizes paying for sexual services of a child, as well as travel abroad for the purpose of obtaining sexual services from children. The Home Office was the lead antitrafficking agency. Other cabinet- level departments involved in antitrafficking included the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the Department of Trade and Industry, the Department for Education and Skills, the Crown Prosecution Service, and the Department for International Finance and Development. The Serious Organized Crime Agency (SOCA) handled trafficking investigations nationally. The UK Human Trafficking Center (UKHTC) shared trafficking intelligence with SOCA and developed training modules for attorneys prosecuting traffickers. The government assisted with international investigations of trafficking. Immigration officers and airline personnel were trained to identify potential victims of trafficking. The UKHTC developed training programs that enabled police academies to add trafficking to the list of core police competencies. The ``Paladin'' program at Heathrow specifically screened for vulnerable children. Authorities provided short-term residence permits for victims of trafficking who cooperated with authorities in prosecuting their traffickers. The government continued funding the Poppy Project, which provided support services to female victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation who were willing to assist law enforcement authorities. The government did not prosecute victims of trafficking who were violating prostitution or immigration laws; however, authorities could deport them to their countries of origin. Local social services and charities provided services to trafficking victims. The Poppy Project ran a national outreach service. Local social service agencies were responsible for child victims of trafficking, who were usually placed in the foster care system. The government and the NGO community maintained an active dialogue concerning protection services for victims. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and other state services. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities, and the government effectively enforced this requirement in practice. The law requires that all public service providers (except in the transportation sector) make ``reasonable adjustments'' to ensure their services are available to persons with disabilities. The law forbids employers from harassing or discriminating against job applicants or employees with disabilities. The mandate of the EHRC, an independent organization funded by the government, included work on behalf of persons with disabilities to stop discrimination and promote equality of opportunity. The commission provided legal advice and support for individuals, a hotline for persons with disabilities and employers, and policy advice to the government. The commission may also conduct formal investigations, arrange conciliation, require persons to adopt action plans to ensure compliance with the law, and apply for injunctions to prevent acts of unlawful discrimination. The EHRC also has a mandate for combating discrimination based on race, sex, religion and belief, sexual orientation, and age, and some disability advocates argued this led to a dilution of efforts on behalf of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law prohibits racial discrimination, but Travellers (a distinct nomadic ethnic group with its own history and culture), as well as persons of African, Afro- Caribbean, South Asian, and Middle Eastern origin, at times experienced mistreatment on racial or ethnic grounds. The law authorizes police to order Travellers' caravans to move on from any rest area or other roadside location. Before the enactment of this provision in 2003, such locations were among the Travellers' primary stopping places. Travellers' organizations also reported that local governments across the country sought to evict them from so- called ``illegal encampments.'' In a high-profile case that has continued for a number of years Travellers fought an eviction order by the town council of Basildon, in Essex, seeking to remove them from the Dale Farm Traveller Settlement. The court initially ruled that the council could not remove the Travellers but during the year another court reversed this ruling. At the end of the reporting period, the Basildon Council had awarded a contract to a company to carry out the eviction, but the eviction had not taken place. The British Crime Survey recorded 12,299 racially or religiously aggravated crimes and 25,755 incidents of racially or religiously aggravated harassment or public fear, harm, or distress. During the year several dozen Eastern Europeans moved away from Belfast due to the extensive abuse they had been subjected to due to their national origin. The Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) reported 990 racially motivated incidents from April 2008 through March 2009, up by 1.4 percent from the preceding 12-month period. The PSNI reported 771 racially motivated crimes, including 302 violent crimes, during the same period. In October 2008 Home Secretary Jacqui Smith announced that the government would reappraise recruitment and promotion practices in police forces in England and Wales. London's mayor also announced his own inquiry into race and the London Metropolitan Police, commonly known as Scotland Yard. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits discrimination and harassment based on sexual orientation; however, sporadic incidents of homophobic violence were reported. The law encourages judges to impose a greater sentence in assault cases where the victim's sexual orientation is a motive for the hostility, and many local police forces demonstrated an increasing awareness of the problem and trained officers to identify and moderate these attacks. Numerous lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender NGOs existed and operated freely. Dozens of gay pride marches and other activities took place in locations throughout the country legally and with no interference by the authorities. In 2008 Stonewall, a gay-rights organization, released the results of a survey, conducted by the online polling service YouGov, which found that found that 20 percent of all gay respondents had suffered some form of hate crime, yet only 1 percent of hate crimes led to convictions. The Crown Prosecution Service released a report on December 16 stating that 1,090 homophobic crimes had been transferred to it in 2008-09, of which 65.1 percent resulted in charges being pressed. The service prosecuted 1,013 homophobic cases, 80.5 percent of which resulted in a conviction. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of violence or discrimination against persons with HIV infection during the year. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides for the right of workers, except those in the armed forces, public sector security services, and police forces, to form and join independent unions without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right in practice. Freelance or agency workers were not entitled to these rights. The law compels employers with 21 or more employees to recognize unions so long as the majority of workers have endorsed union representation However, small enterprises of fewer than 21 employees are effectively denied the right of representation by trade unions. Approximately 26 percent of the workforce was unionized. In September the Trade Union Congress reported that membership decreased by approximately 300,000 during the year, but this was likely due to the fact that the economy lost 600,000 jobs. Given the large number of lay-offs, the membership percentage may have actually increased. Coverage was most widespread in the public sector, where almost 60 percent of workers were unionized. In contrast, 17 percent of private sector workers were unionized. Manufacturing, transport, and distribution trades were highly unionized. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. Workers have the right to strike and freely exercised it during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Collective bargaining is protected in law and was freely practiced. Unions and management typically negotiate collective ``agreements,'' less formal than collective bargaining contracts. Collective agreements are considered as ``implied'' in individual work contracts and are legally enforceable as such. They covered approximately 35 percent of the workforce. There were no reported instances of antiunion discrimination. Six Kosovo construction workers were unfairly dismissed from their jobs after they involved the Union of Construction, Allied Trades, and Technicians, the construction workers' union, in a workplace dispute. The workers took the case to court, where the judge ruled in their favor and awarded them 46,000 pounds ($73,000). There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The government prohibits forced and compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports of forced labor by men, women, and children. Police estimated that between 6,000 and 18,000 women and children, the majority trafficked to and within the country from Central and Eastern Europe and Asia, engaged in involuntary prostitution. Women, men, and children were also trafficked to and within the country for labor exploitation and worked as domestic servants in private homes, beggars, pickpockets, and drug couriers, and in sweatshops, restaurants, agricultural and rural settings, construction, and catering. Unaccompanied foreign children, including girls from China, were subjected to sexual exploitation and forced labor. Hundreds of young children, many from Vietnam and China, were subjected to debt bondage by Vietnamese organized-crime gangs and forced to work on cannabis farms. Traffickers controlled their victims through insistence that they repay endless ``debts'' for room and board and travel expenses, by withholding their travel documents, misleading them about law enforcement and immigration penalties, and threatening violence against them or their families. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, and the government generally enforced these laws effectively; however, children were forced into prostitution and forced labor. Large numbers of children under age 18 work, mostly in ways permitted by the law. However, anecdotal evidence from social workers made clear that many children work longer or later hours than the law allows and many do not have the proper work permits. In many cases this was voluntary, and the children's parents agreed to or encouraged the child's working. In other cases, children were found working illegally in restaurants, farms, factories, the sex industry, and in cleaning and other low-paid service-sector jobs with long hours and low pay. Many of these children did not attend school. These problems affected migrant children disproportionately, but legally resident children were affected as well. The law prohibits the employment in any capacity of children under 13. Those under 16 are not permitted to work in an industrial enterprise, including transportation or street trading; their work hours are strictly limited and may not interfere with school attendance. Children under 16 may work as part of an educational course. Independent NGOs claimed that as many as two million school-age children were involved in part-time employment. Children age 13 to 16 must apply for a work permit from a local authority, and the local authority's education and welfare services have primary responsibility for oversight and enforcement. Authorities effectively enforced these laws. The Departments of Health, Trade and Industry, and Education and Skills also have regulatory responsibilities related to child labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage, which ranged from 3.53 to 5.73 pounds (approximately $5.65 to $8.15) per hour, depending on the age of the employee, did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family; however, government benefits, including complete free universal access to the National Health Service, filled the gap. Tax authorities may issue compliance orders against employers that are not paying the minimum wage, but employment tribunals handle disputes. The government aggressively monitored employer efforts to bring pay practices into compliance with minimum wage law. Unions and NGOs were also actively involved in ensuring employees' awareness of their rights. The law limits the workweek to 48 hours when averaged over a 17- to 26-week period; however, the regulations do not apply to senior managers and others who can exercise control over their own hours of work. There are also exceptions for the armed forces, emergency services, police, domestic workers, sea and air transportation workers, and fishermen. Workers can opt out of the 48-hour limit. The law provides for one day of rest per week, 11 hours of daily rest, and a 20-minute rest break when the working day exceeds six hours. The law also mandates a minimum of four weeks of paid annual leave, including eight national holidays. However, the average worker received five weeks of paid annual leave plus eight bank holidays as part of collective agreements. An individual employee may agree through a contract to work overtime for premium pay. The law does not prohibit compulsory overtime, but overtime is limited by the 48-hour week restriction. The law stipulates that the health and safety of employees not be placed at risk, and it was effectively enforced by the Health and Safety Executive (an arm of the Department of Work and Pensions), which could initiate criminal proceedings in appropriate cases. Workers' representatives also actively monitored enforcement of the law. Workers may legally remove themselves from dangerous work conditions without jeopardy to their continued employment. In 2008-09 the Advisory, Conciliation, and Arbitration Service reported more than 43,000 cases received from employment tribunals on grounds of unfair dismissal, which can include dismissals for safety-related reasons. __________ NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA ---------- ALGERIA Algeria is a multiparty republic of approximately 36 million inhabitants whose head of state and government (president) is elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The president has the constitutional authority to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and the prime minister. A November 2008 constitutional amendment eliminated presidential term limits. On April 9, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika won reelection to his third term in office in a contested election. Some opposition parties boycotted the election, arguing restrictions on freedom of association skewed the election outcome in favor of the incumbent. A state of emergency implemented in 1992 remained in effect during the year, although the government mostly enforced provisions restricting assembly and association. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Restrictions on freedom of assembly and association significantly impaired political party activities and significantly limited citizens' ability to change the government peacefully through elections. Failure to account for persons who disappeared in the 1990s and address the demands of some advocacy groups for families of victims remained significant problems. Reports of abuse and torture occurred but were fewer than in previous years. There were also reports of official impunity, abuse of pretrial detention, poor prison conditions, limited judicial independence, and restrictions on freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Additionally, there were limitations on religious freedom, problems with security-based restrictions on movement, corruption and lack of government transparency, discrimination and violence against women, and restrictions on workers' rights. Terrorist groups committed a significant number of attacks against civilians, government officials, and members of security forces. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. Information on terrorism-related violence in the country was difficult to verify independently. The Ministry of the Interior (MOI) infrequently released information concerning the total number of terrorist, civilian, and security force deaths. During the year, security forces killed, injured, or arrested approximately 1,300 suspected terrorists. According to press reports of official estimates, the total number of deaths was 804. Of these deaths, suspected terrorists killed 66 civilians and 220 security force members; security forces killed an estimated 518 suspected terrorists. These numbers increased from the 321 deaths reported in 2008. Most of the terrorist attacks during the year were attributed to the terrorist group al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), which emerged in January 2007 after the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) allied itself with al-Qa'ida in 2006. The year was marked by significant violence. On March 9, a suicide bomber killed two communal guards in Tadmait, 43 miles east of Algiers. On June 17, terrorists ambushed, shot, and killed 18 national gendarmerie officers and injured dozens more near the town of Mansourah in Bordj Bou Arreridj. On July 29, terrorists attacked a military supply convoy in Damous, 90 miles west of Algiers, killing 23 and wounding seven others. On October 22, terrorists killed seven and wounded three Algerian security guards working for a Canadian water project. AQIM claimed responsibility for all of these attacks. Minister of the Interior Noureddine Zerhouni stated in July 2008 that an estimated 400 terrorists operated in the country. b. Disappearance.--Enforced disappearances, reportedly numbering in the thousands, were a significant problem during the 1990s and continued to be a topic covered in the media and raised by local and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). During a March 6 conference in Geneva, representatives of the government's human rights advisory office, the National Consultative Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (CNCPPDH), stated that 8,023 persons were missing or disappeared as a result of government actions between 1992-99. The government had stated previously that approximately 10,000 additional persons were missing or disappeared from terrorist kidnappings and murders. NGOs reported that security forces had played a role in the disappearances of approximately 8,000 persons. In 2007 the government signed the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances but had not ratified it by year's end. Law 06-01 of 2006 provides measures for compensating victims of disappearances. For courts to hear charges of disappearance, the law requires at least two eyewitnesses. Many of the disappearances in the 1990s were later attributed to the security forces; however, the government did not prosecute security force personnel, and there was no evidence that the government investigated cases it acknowledged security forces caused. In 2005 voters approved by referendum President Bouteflika's proposed Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which ended the Ad Hoc Mechanism established in 2003 to account for the disappeared. The charter went into effect in 2006, granting amnesty to and preventing investigation into the conduct of the National Popular Army, the security forces, state-sponsored armed groups, and persons who fought on behalf of the government. The amnesty also covered certain persons involved in Islamist militant and terrorist activities. Persons implicated in mass killings, rapes, or bomb attacks in public places were not eligible for amnesty. Some local NGOs, including SOS Disparus, Djazairouna, and the Algerian League for the Defense of Human Rights (LADDH), criticized the charter for enabling terrorists to escape justice. In a February 9 report, the UN Human Rights Council Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances stated that in 2008 it transmitted 768 cases to the government, which were allegedly attributed to disappearances by government forces between 1992 and 1999. In May 2008 the UN Committee Against Torture (UNCAT) reported its concerns that Law 06-01 provides impunity for members of armed groups and state officials and that the government had not yet initiated proceedings to investigate the fate of the disappeared. UNCAT also expressed concern that the government had not publicized the criteria for compensating family members and required those compensated to waive their right to seek civil damages against the state. Families of the disappeared experienced complications and delays in receiving compensation. In October 2008 CNCPPDH president Farouk Ksentini, the government's human rights advisor, stated that 97 percent of families of the disappeared had accepted compensation under the charter. On September 1, the Ministry of National Solidarity (MNS) Minister Ould Abbes stated the government had paid 11 billion dinars ($150 million) in compensation to families. According to the government, as of the end of 2008, 25,316 claims had been filed for compensation under the charter. Authorities approved 13,866 claims and had paid compensation on 12,339 of these claims. Armed criminals conducted abuses against civilians including kidnappings, false checkpoints, and extortion. In May 2008 Interior Minister Zerhouni reported that 115 of 375 kidnapping cases in the previous two years were related to terrorism. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, NGO and local human rights activists reported that government officials sometimes employed them to obtain confessions. Government agents can face prison sentences of between 10 and 20 years for committing such acts, and some were tried and convicted in 2008. Nonetheless, impunity remained a problem. Local human rights lawyers maintained that torture continued to occur in detention facilities, most often against those arrested on ``security grounds.'' In December 2008 a court in Blida sentenced three police officers to three years in prison for torture. In May 2008 a court in Blida placed four police officers, accused of torturing five suspects at the police station in Cheraga, under judicial control and ordered their temporary detention. The prosecutor in Blida originally asked for prison sentences of 12 years for each officer and sought a seven-year prison sentence for the police chief of the station. The court dropped the charge against the police chief and one of the four officers placed under judicial control. The victims said that following their arrest the officers used a taser on them in order to extract confessions in a case involving a stolen car. On September 16, during a visit to El Harrach prison Minister of Justice Tayeb Belaiz announced that he would not tolerate prison officials who abuse prisoners, regardless of rank. Belaiz said the Ministry of Justice (MOJ) prosecuted and jailed 14 prison workers for mistreating prisoners. In February 2008 human rights NGO Alkarama reported that after a protest by inmates related to prayer room space, prison guards handcuffed, stripped, and beat approximately 80 prisoners with iron bars and sticks. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally did not meet international standards. Overcrowding was a problem in many prisons. According to human rights lawyers, the problem of overpopulation was partially explained by an abusive recourse to pretrial detention. In 2008 the CNCPPDH conducted 34 prison visits and highlighted concerns with overcrowding, insufficient bed space, as well as poor lighting, ventilation, nutrition, and hygiene. According to Mokhtar Felioune, the director general of the Prisons Administration, there were 59,000 prisoners in the country's penal system held in 127 prisons. In 2007 Felioune stated there were 54,000 persons held in the prison system. Prisons held men and women separately. In some cases, overcrowding meant that juveniles were held with adults; however, in general the government maintained separate juvenile detention centers. Pretrial detainees were held separately from convicted prisoners. During the year, the government permitted the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the Red Crescent Society to visit regular, nonmilitary prisons. ICRC visits to persons held in places of detention run by the MOJ and to those detained in police stations and gendarmeries were carried out in accordance with ICRC standard practices. The government denied other human rights observers visits to military and high-security prisons and detention centers. On April 1, an amendment to the penal code went into effect permitting the substitution of community service for prison sentences for first-time offenders with a maximum jail sentence of three years. During a July 23 conference, Felioune said the new law was designed to reduce recidivism and to alleviate overcrowding in prisons. In June 2008 Felioune announced that 7,547 prisoners benefited from temporary release as part of a government effort to reduce overcrowding in the country's prisons. Felioune also noted that 1,390 prisoners benefited from work and study release programs while 8,268 received parole for good conduct. In a May 2008 report, UNCAT expressed concern over reports that the Department for Information and Security (DRS), the military intelligence agency tasked with internal security, maintained secret detention centers inside military barracks that operated outside judicial authority. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, abuse of pretrial detention occurred in practice. In 2008 the head of the government-appointed CNCPPDH said the abuse of pretrial detention tarnished the image of the country's justice system. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The national police force, consisting of more than 140,000 members, falls under the control of the MOI and has national jurisdiction. The National Gendarmerie, under the Ministry of Defense (MND), also performs police-like functions outside urban areas. Organizationally, the DRS reports to the MND and exercises internal security functions, but it also performs functions comparable to the police in terrorism cases. Police and gendarmes were generally effective at maintaining order. All members of the security forces are provided a copy of a code of conduct establishing regulations for conduct and sanctions for abuses. Corruption existed, and the media focused especially on the customs police. According to press reports, 960 customs officials faced disciplinary commissions for official negligence or corruption charges between 2005 and 2008. Customs officials reported 215 disciplinary cases during the first quarter of 2008; 118 cases resulted in official reprimands, and nine cases resulted in suspensions. Impunity remained a problem. The government did not provide disaggregated public information on the numbers, infractions, or punishments of police, military, or other security force personnel. The criminal code provides mechanisms to investigate abuses. The MOJ and the MND cooperated with the ICRC in implementing seminars on incorporating international humanitarian law principles into legal practices and military training curricula. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--According to the law, the police must obtain a summons from the Prosecutor's Office to require a suspect to appear in a police station for preliminary questioning. Summonses also are used to notify and require the accused and the victim to attend a court proceeding or hearing. The government issues warrants under three different circumstances: to bring an individual from work or home to a court, to execute a prosecutor's approved request to place a person into custody pending trial, or to arrest a suspect considered to be a flight risk. Police may make arrests without a warrant if they witness an offense. Lawyers reported that procedures for warrants and summonses were usually carried out properly. The constitution specifies that a suspect may be held in detention for up to 48 hours without charge. If more time is required for gathering additional evidence, the police may request that the prosecutor extend the suspect's detention to 72 hours. Those suspected of terrorism or subversion may be held legally for 12 days without charge or access to counsel. In practice the security forces generally adhered to the 48-hour limit in nonterrorism cases. Prolonged pretrial detention remained a problem. The law does not provide a person in detention the right to a prompt judicial determination of the legality of the detention. Persons charged with acts against the security of the state, including terrorism, may be held in pretrial detention as long as 20 months according to the penal code; the prosecutor must show cause every four months for continuing pretrial detention. Judges rarely refused prosecutorial requests for extending preventive detention, which can be appealed but was rarely overturned. Should the detention be overturned, the defendant can request compensation. In 2008 the prison administration reported pretrial detainees represented 13 percent of the individuals held by prison authorities. There is no system of bail, but in nonfelony cases suspects are usually released on ``provisional liberty'' while waiting for trial. Under provisional liberty, suspects are required to report weekly to the police station in their district and are forbidden to leave the country. Most detainees have prompt access to a lawyer of their choice and, if the detainee is indigent, the government provides a lawyer. The penal code requires detainees in pretrial detention to be informed immediately of their right to communicate with family members, receive visitors, and be examined by a doctor of their choice at the end of detention. In addition, any suspect can request a medical examination once on police premises or before facing the judge. In practice, however, detainees were typically examined only at the end of their detention. Reports that these rights were not extended to detainees continued during the year. On July 23, Hakim Hamdane died of a chronic respiratory condition in Mustapha Pacha hospital while he was in pretrial detention in Serkadji Prison. An Algiers court was investigating Hamdane's involvement in a fraud scheme at the state power company Sonelgaz. The court held Hamdane in pretrial detention while conducting the investigation, despite his respiratory condition. Hamdane was cleared of the charges two days after his death. According to human rights NGO Alkarama, Adel Saker was arrested in May 2008 and reappeared in Skikda prison on April 12 after being held incommunicado by the DRS. Police subsequently filed formal terrorism charges against him. On June 23, the World Organization Against Torture reported that Moussa Rahli was arrested March 17 and held incommunicado until April 20, when he appeared in a military prison in Blida. Authorities charged Rahli with belonging to a terrorist group. He was permitted access to his family and a lawyer. In July 2008, authorities charged Kamal Akkache with belonging to a terrorist organization. Amnesty International (AI) reported that authorities held Akkache without charge for 10 months in 2007. Authorities acquitted Mohamed Fatmia of terrorism charges during the year. Fatmia was detained in Serkadji prison in 2008 and was held incommunicado throughout 2007. Human rights advocates reported that authorities continued to hold Mohamed Rahmouni at the military tribunal in Blida on alleged terrorism charges but had granted Rahmouni access to a lawyer. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the president exercises supreme judicial authority, and the executive branch limited judicial independence. The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial; however, in practice authorities did not always completely respect legal provisions regarding defendants' rights and denied due process. The High Judicial Council is responsible for judicial discipline and the appointment of all judges. President Bouteflika serves as the president of the council. The judiciary is composed of civilian courts, which hear cases involving civilians facing charges not related to security or terrorism, and military courts, which can hear cases involving civilians facing security and terrorism charges. Regular criminal courts can try cases involving security-related offenses at the local level. The family code draws on aspects of Shari'a (Islamic law), but there are no Shari'a courts. Legal decisions are based on the country's civil and criminal codes. Military courts in Oran, Blida, Constantine, and Bechar try cases involving state security, espionage, and other security-related offenses involving military personnel and civilians. Each tribunal consists of three civilian judges and two military judges. Although the president of each court is a civilian, the chief judge is a military officer. Defense lawyers must be accredited by the military tribunal to appear. Public attendance at the trial is at the discretion of the tribunal. Appeals are made directly to the Supreme Court. Military tribunals try cases, but they only occasionally disclose information on proceedings. There was no public information available on any cases that were tried before the tribunals during the year. The nine-member Constitutional Council reviews the constitutionality of treaties, laws, and regulations. Although the council is not part of the judiciary, it has the authority to nullify laws found unconstitutional, confirm the results of any type of election, and serve as the final arbiter of amendments that pass both chambers of the parliament before becoming law. Trial Procedures.--Defendants are presumed innocent and have the right to be present and consult with an attorney, provided at public expense if necessary. Most trials are public and nonjury. Defendants can confront or question witnesses against them or present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Defendants and their attorneys occasionally were denied access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Defendants have the right to appeal. The testimony of men and women has equal weight under the law. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees during the year. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The judiciary was neither fully independent nor impartial in civil matters and lacked independence in some human rights cases. Family connections and status of the parties involved reportedly influenced some decisions. Individuals may bring lawsuits, and there are administrative processes related to amnesty, which may provide damages for human rights violations and compensation for alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions; however, in practice government authorities infringed on citizens' privacy rights. According to rights activists, the government monitored the communications of political opponents, journalists, human rights groups, and suspected terrorists. Security officials reportedly searched homes without a warrant. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government restricted these rights in practice through accusations of defamation and informal pressure on publishers, editors, and journalists. Individuals generally were able to criticize the government privately without reprisal. However, citizens generally self-censored public criticism. The government attempted to impede criticism by monitoring political meetings. The law specifies that freedom of speech must respect ``individual dignity, the imperatives of foreign policy, and the national defense.'' The state of emergency decree, introduced in 1992 and still in effect, gives the government broad authority to restrict civil liberties and take legal action against what it considers to be threats to the state or public order. In recent years the portion of the decree most enforced has been the provision requiring prior government approval for public gatherings. A 2006 presidential decree continues to criminalize speech about the conduct of the security forces during the internal conflict of the 1990s. Radio and television were government-owned and broadcast coverage favorable to the government. During nonelection periods, opposition spokesmen generally were denied access to public radio or television. Some opposition parties were denied access to television. These limitations were less evident for radio. Political parties and independent candidates received the same amount of radio access time during the three-week campaign period prior to the April 9 presidential election and prior to the 2007 legislative and local elections. Several opposition parties said that their daily media allotment during the three-week period was the first time they had been allowed media access since the last election cycle. The country's print media consisted of numerous publications that supported or opposed the government to varying degrees. According to Ministry of Communication statistics, 29 newspapers circulated in excess of 10,000 copies each. The government owned two French-language and three Arabic-language newspapers. Many political parties, including legal Islamic parties, had access to the independent press and used it to express their views. Opposition parties also disseminated information via the Internet and published communiques. The law permits the government to censor, levy fines, and imprison members of the press. The government directly and indirectly censored and intimidated the media into practicing self-censorship. The government used defamation laws to harass and arrest some journalists, and some members of the press faced retaliation for criticizing government officials. Other journalists and many political cartoonists, however, regularly criticized the government. The law defines defamation broadly, and the penal code imposes prison terms of up to 24 months and fines of 50,000 to 500,000 dinars ($695 to $6,945). Defamation covers ``the insult'' of government figures, including the president, members of parliament, judges, members of the military, and ``any other authority of public order.'' Furthermore, a 1990 law protects Islam from defamation, controls access to external information, and outlaws writing that threatens national unity. In 2001 the government amended laws to criminalize writing, cartoons, and speech that insult or offend the president, parliament, judiciary, or armed forces. The government used these defamation laws regularly to pressure editors, journalists, and the owners of printing houses. In an April 20 letter to President Bouteflika, the international NGO Committee to Protect Journalists expressed concern for ``the rising incidence of press freedom violations.'' In December 2008 Reporters without Borders (RSF) criticized the defamation laws as ``repressive legislation.'' Omar Belhouchet, editor of the French-language newspaper El-Watan, faced government pressure throughout the year for articles published in his newspaper. In December 2008 authorities brought a case against Belhouchet and reporter Salima Tlemcani for allegedly libeling a faith healer in a 2004 article. An Algiers court sentenced both to three months in prison and a fine of 50,000 dinars ($695). The case remained pending at year's end. The charges against Belhouchet in connection with three libel cases relating to articles Belhouchet published several years ago about airfare increases and police killings of demonstrators were also pending. Belhouchet and Tlemcani remained free at year's end. On January 6, freelance journalist Hafnaoui Ghoul said unknown persons threatened him near his home in Djelfa. He claimed that authorities did not investigate the incident. According to RSF, officials have targeted Ghoul for years repeatedly detaining, beating, and persecuting him for his writing. At year's end Ghoul faced 16 pending lawsuits by local officials related to his articles on corruption. During a February 11 appeal hearing, a Mascara court sentenced Layadi El-Amine Yahia, a journalist for Le Carrefour d'Algerie, to one year in prison and fined Yahia 20,000 dinars ($280) for libel in an article implicating Mascara's commerce director in corruption. The court had earlier acquitted Yahia, who was unaware of the government's appeal of his acquittal. Yahia appealed the most recent decision, but the court had yet to set a date for the hearing at year's end. On March 2, authorities in Ghardaia detained news Web site Al-Waha editor Nedjar El-Hadj Daoud in connection with a 2005 defamation case but subsequently released him on March 4 for medical reasons. On May 11, a Ghardia court sentenced Daoud to six months' imprisonment in a lawsuit related to an article published in 2006 involving then- presidential chief of staff Labri Belkheir. According to RSF, Daoud faced 20 pending defamation complaints in Ghardia. According to RSF, the government banned three French publications-- L'Express, Marianne, and Le Journal du Dimanche--in the week preceding the April 9 election for content ``contrary to national values.'' Each magazine contained articles that criticized the election atmosphere. On March 7, the government banned another foreign publication, Afrique Magazine, because of an article titled ``Algeria, Twilight of the Generals.'' On April 4, authorities denied Tunisian journalist and human rights activist, Sihem Bensedrine, entry at Algiers airport. The LADDH had invited Bensedrine to monitor the media prior to the April 9 presidential election. Some foreign journalists noted long delays in obtaining visas to cover the election. Authorities denied Le Monde journalist Florence Beauge accreditation prior to the election after she wrote a series of articles critical of the government. On July 17, a Tebessa court sentenced Ennahar correspondent Rabah Lamouchi to six months in jail on charges of defamation and for lacking a press credential. Tebessa authorities arrested Lamouchi on June 9 and later released him on December 13 after the completion of his jail sentence. Ennahar editor Anis Rahmani pointed out that individual media outlets, not the government, issue press accreditations, adding that the authorities' action undermined press freedom. There were no developments in the 2007 appeal of Saad Lounes, who was given a one-year sentence for tax fraud on the basis of a complaint by the Ministry of Commerce dating to 1995. Lounes faced legal pressure for more than 10 years while he operated the only private printing press in the country. In 2008 an appeals court reduced the 2007 sentence of journalist Dhil Talal, convicted of defamation for an article exposing a government ministry's monetary losses, to a fine of 5,000 dinars ($70) and a six-month suspended prison sentence. During the year there was no decision on Talal's September 2008 appeal of his reduced sentence. The government exercised considerable economic leverage on the media. Most newspapers were printed at government-owned presses. The government continued to influence the independent press through the state-owned advertising company, Agence Nationale d'Edition et de Publicite (ANEP), which decided whether independent newspapers would benefit from advertisements placed by state-owned agencies and companies. ANEP, and therefore the government, controlled the largest source of income for most newspapers. As has been the case in recent years, independent advertisers played a considerably smaller, but increasingly visible, role in advertising revenue. During the October Algiers Book Fair, officials banned three titles by well-known government critics: The Village of the German, by Boualem Sansal; Kill Them All, by Salim Bachi; and Poutakhine, by Mehdi El Djezairi. At the 2008 book fair, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MRA) banned the sale of 1,471 religious titles. Shortly before the 2008 book fair, the government banned the printing of vocal government critic Mohamed Benchicou's latest book, The Diary of a Free Man. During the 2007 book fair, government officials confiscated and banned a previous book by Benchicou, The Jailhouses of Algiers. Access to print and broadcast media for Amazigh culture continued to grow. As in recent years, Tamazight (the Amazigh or Berber language) programming also increased on the non-Berber language channels, as did advertisements in Tamazight on all television and radio channels. In 2007 the government created an Academy and a Superior Council of the Tamazight language, announcing that Tamazight is a national language. The government continued restrictions on both the local and the international media's coverage of issues relating to ``national security and terrorism.'' Al-Jazeera's office remained closed, after the government banned it from operating in the country in 2004 for broadcasting a program featuring opposition figures criticizing the government. Several international journalists had their accreditations denied. The Agence France-Presse (AFP) and Reuters maintained offices, and the government reaccredited both in February. In June 2008, the government revoked the AFP and Reuters bureau chiefs' press accreditations in response to allegedly inaccurate reports the agencies filed on terrorist attacks in the country. Internet Freedom.--Access to the Internet was generally unimpeded; however, the government monitored e-mail and Internet chat rooms. On August 16, the government enacted a new law on cybercrimes that establishes procedures for using electronic data in prosecutions and the responsibilities of service providers to cooperate with authorities. On November 9, Minister of Post and Information Technology Hamid Bessalah announced that his ministry was creating a National Center for Internet Data Exchange to protect Internet users from inappropriate content, cybercrime, and hackers. Internet service providers can face criminal penalties for the material and Web sites they host, especially if subject matters are ``incompatible with morality or public opinion.'' No cases were brought during the year. The Ministries of Justice, Interior, Post, and Information Technology have oversight responsibilities. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union data, there were 12 users per 100 inhabitants in the country. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--Academic freedom generally was restricted in the same manner as freedom of expression. Academic seminars and colloquiums occurred without governmental interference, but there were delays in issuing visas to international participants and instances where authorities denied international experts entrance. On the margins of the October Algiers Book Fair, authorities prevented anthropologist Tassadit Yacine from holding an October 30 conference on the work of Jean Amrouche, a Berber writer from the Kabylie who died in 1960. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association; however, the government severely restricted the exercise of these rights in practice. Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for the right of assembly; however, the emergency decree and government practice continued to curtail this right. A 2000 decree banning demonstrations in Algiers remained in effect. Authorities required citizens and organizations to obtain permits from the government-appointed local governor before holding public meetings. The government frequently granted licenses to political parties, NGOs, and other groups to hold indoor rallies, although licenses were often granted on the eve of the event, thereby impeding publicity and outreach. The LADDH reported continuing difficulties in obtaining permission to hold outdoor meetings and seminars. Groups opposing the Charter on Peace and Reconciliation had difficulty securing permission to hold public gatherings. On May 25, local authorities denied the LADDH authorization to hold a three-day training workshop for journalists at a hotel in Algiers. Algiers city authorities provided no explanation for the refusal. On February 10, police prevented a sit-in organized by contract teachers who attempted to demonstrate near the presidential offices. In July and August 2008, police prevented a similar series of weekly sit- ins by trade unions and contract teachers. The police blocked walking routes to prevent persons from gathering. Eyewitnesses reported the police pushing and shoving participants but no beatings. SOS Disparus, an NGO representing relatives of persons who disappeared during the internal conflict of the 1990s, continued to hold weekly sit-ins in front of CNCPPDH headquarters. On August 30, 50 families gathered near the CNCPPDH to commemorate AI's International Day of the Disappeared. On July 16, authorities denied SOS Disparus authorization to hold a seminar on victims of enforced disappearance in the 1990s. Algiers city officials cited the need to maintain public order as the reason for the refusal. On December 9, police prevented SOS Disparus from staging a demonstration commemorating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights near the First of May market in Algiers. In 2007 security forces banned an international seminar on forced disappearances organized by several NGOs. The government denied visas for Roberto Garreton, a UN expert on human rights, and Anne Laurence Lacroix, deputy director of the World Organization Against Torture, to participate. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the right of association; however, the government and the emergency decree severely restricted this right in practice. The MOI must approve all political parties before they may be legally established. The government restricted the registration of certain NGOs, associations, and political parties on ``security grounds'' but declined to provide evidence or legal grounds for refusing to authorize other organizations that could not be disqualified on security grounds. The government frequently failed to grant official recognition to NGOs, associations, religious groups, and political parties in an expeditious fashion. The MOI may deny a license to or dissolve any group regarded as a threat to the government's authority or to public order. The law implementing the 2006 amnesty prohibits political activities by anyone responsible for having used religion leading to the ``national tragedy,'' that is, the internal conflict of the 1990s. The government issued licenses and subsidies to domestic associations, especially youth, medical, and neighborhood associations. The MOI regarded organizations unable to attain government licenses as illegal. Domestic NGOs encountered bureaucratic obstacles to receiving financial support from abroad. Although not illegal, financial support from abroad is conditioned on a series of authorizations from the ministries of interior and national solidarity. These authorizations were difficult to obtain. According to the MOI, there were 81,000 registered associations, 5,000 of which were active during the year. SOS Disparus remained unrecognized and continued to operate but faced government interference. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, but in practice the government restricted religious freedom. The constitution declares Islam to be the state religion and prohibits institutions from engaging in behavior incompatible with Islamic morality. More than 99 percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. The constitution prohibits non-Muslims from running for the presidency. Non-Muslims may hold other public offices and work within the government; however, human rights observers reported that the government did not promote such workers and that some hid their religious affiliation. The Ministries of National Education and Religious Affairs strictly required, regulated, and funded the study of Islam in public schools and monitored all Koranic schools to prevent extremist teachings. In September 2008 local press reported that the MRA dismissed 53 imams and closed 42 locations used for unauthorized Islamic worship. In February 2008 the government began enforcing a law that regulates non-Muslim religious associations. The law limits the practice of non-Muslim religions and restricts public assembly for the purpose of worship. The law requires organized religious groups to register with the government, controls the importation of religious texts, increases punishments for individuals who proselytize Muslims, and treats transgressions as criminal rather than civil offenses. According to reports from church leaders, approximately 22 churches that lacked government recognition reopened and held services. In 2008 the government ordered the closure of 27 churches for alleged noncompliance with the ordinance during the year. Church groups said the government denied the visa applications of some religious workers, citing the government ban on proselytizing. The Catholic Church was the only non-Islamic religion registered to operate in the country. Protestant, Anglican, and Seventh-day Adventist churches had pending registration requests with the government and reported no government interference in their holding services. In 2008 members of a church in Ouadhia said they attempted to apply for registration 12 times. In each instance, local authorities refused to accept the documents. Other churches operated without registration, some openly, while others secretly practiced their faith in homes. On July 2, the MRA approved the registration of a Jewish association headed by a lawyer from Blida. The MRA authorized the association in accordance with the law. In 2008 the government pressured domestic pastors, religious converts, and one foreign Catholic priest, accusing some of breaking the law's provisions banning proselytism. In January 2008 a court in Maghnia issued a one-year suspended prison sentence to a foreign Catholic priest for praying with Cameroonian migrants in an unauthorized place of worship. Upon appeal he received a reduced suspended prison sentence of two months and a fine of 20,150 dinars ($280), which he appealed. The appeal was pending at year's end. The MRA provided financial support to mosques and trained, paid, and regulated the appointments and sermons of imams. However, officials stated that they rarely interfered with sermons beyond an advisory capacity. The penal code provides for prison sentences and fines for preaching in a place of worship without the authorization of both religious and national authorities. All persons, including imams recognized by the government, are prohibited from speaking during prayers at the mosque in a manner that is ``contrary to the noble nature of the mosque or likely to offend the cohesion of society or serve as a pretext for such actions.'' The government required imams to obtain permits to hold night prayers during Ramadan In November 2008 local press reported that some imams filed censorship complaints with the MRA after they faced penalties for failing to address the November 1 anniversary of the country's revolution in their sermons. The ministry denied these claims. Conversion is not illegal under civil law, and apostasy is not a criminal offense. In March 2008 authorities charged Habiba Kouider with ``practicing a non-Muslim religion without a permit.'' The prosecutor asked that Kouider be sentenced to three years in prison. Kouider was traveling by bus when police questioned her and found her to be carrying Bibles and other religious materials. At year's end the case remained pending. During 2008 authorities arrested nine Christian converts for various combinations of proselytizing, blasphemy, and illegally practicing a non-Muslim faith. Courts sentenced each to prison terms and fines. A court acquitted five and gave two-month suspended prison sentences and fines of 100,000 dinars ($1,390) to three. One case remained pending at year's end. On September 1, police arrested two citizens in Ben Aknoun for eating and drinking during daylight hours in Ramadan. On September 2, an Algiers prosecutor transferred them to El-Harrach prison. A day later authorities released both citizens and dropped all charges. The government monitored activities in mosques for possible security-related offenses, barred their use as public meeting places outside of regular prayer hours, and convoked imams to the MRA for ``disciplinary action'' when deemed appropriate. The government restricted the importation of religious literature (including Islamic literature) intended for widespread distribution and infrequently arrested persons carrying such materials for personal use. In recent years non-Islamic religious texts, music, and videos were available for purchase in some stores in larger cities. The government- owned radio station provided broadcast time for Protestant and Catholic radio broadcasts. The government prohibits the dissemination of literature portraying violence as a legitimate precept of Islam. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The country's 1992-2002 civil conflict pitted self-proclaimed radical Muslims belonging to the Armed Islamic Group and its later offshoot, the GSPC--now known as AQIM-- against moderate Muslims. During the year radical Islamic extremists issued public threats against all ``infidels'' and ``apostates'' in the country, both foreigners and citizens. The country's terrorist groups generally did not differentiate between religious and political killings. The country's Jewish population numbered fewer than 2,000 persons, and there were no functioning synagogues. Anti-Semitic articles, political commentary, and cartoons appeared regularly in the Arabic- language press. The government did not promote antibias education, and there is no hate crime legislation. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement; however, the government restricted the exercise of this right in practice. The government generally cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Under the 1992 emergency decree, the interior minister and the provincial governors may deny residency in certain districts to persons regarded as threats to public order. The government also maintained restrictions for security reasons on travel into the four southern provinces of Ouargla, El-Oued, Laghouat, and Ain-Salah, where much of the hydrocarbon industry and many foreign workers were located. The same decree permits the minister of the interior to place individuals under house arrest. AI reported that the measure was used to assign a residence to individuals already detained in DRS barracks, thus concealing prolonged arbitrary detention. The government did not permit young men eligible for the draft, who had not yet completed their military service, to leave the country without special authorization; however, such authorization was granted to students and to persons with special family circumstances. The family code does not permit anyone under 18 to travel abroad without a guardian's permission. The law does not provide for forced exile, and it was not known to occur. Protection of Refugees.--The country is party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. It is also a party to the 1969 African Union Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of the Refugee Problem in Africa. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. However, there were no reports that the government granted refugee status and asylum to new refugee applicants during the year. According to the UNHCR, the government did not accept UNHCR-determined refugee status for individuals from sub-Saharan Africa fleeing conflict. During the year 144 asylum seekers, mostly sub-Saharan Africans, registered with the UNHCR. The UNHCR granted asylum status to 23 persons. There were reports that the government deported some asylum seekers after trials without legal counsel. Refugees holding valid UNHCR documentation were less likely to be deported. The government provided informal assistance to an estimated 1,000 Tuaregs in the south fleeing conflict in Mali and Niger. However, authorities did not extend legal protections to an estimated 1,400 asylum seekers from sub-Saharan Africa residing in Algiers. The government provided protection to an estimated 90,000 Sahrawi refugees who left the Western Sahara after Morocco took control of the territory in the 1970s. The UNHCR, World Food Program, Algerian Red Crescent, and other organizations also assisted Sahrawi refugees. Neither the government nor refugee leadership allowed the UNHCR to conduct a registration of the Sahrawi refugees. From September 8 to 10, UN High Commissioner for Refugees Antonio Guterres visited Algiers and the Sahrawi camps near Tindouf. Guterres discussed expanding UNHCR-sponsored family visits between the camps and Western Sahara and urged government officials to strengthen asylum institutions and allow the International Organization for Migration to open an office in the country. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their freedom would be threatened, as was the case with the Sahrawi refugees. However, the government did not provide protection to those fleeing conflict in sub- Saharan Africa. Sahrawi refugees lived predominantly in camps near the city of Tindouf, administered by the Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Harma and Rio de Oro (Polisario), an organization that claims sovereignty over Western Sahara. The remote location of the camps and lack of government presence resulted in lack of access to employment, basic services, education, police, and courts. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully through periodic elections based on universal suffrage. However, restrictions on freedom of assembly and association, as well as restrictions on political party activities, limited this right. Elections and Political Participation.--The constitution mandates presidential elections every five years. In October 2008 President Abdelaziz Bouteflika announced his intention to seek parliamentary approval for a set of constitutional amendments that included removal of presidential term limits. In November 2008 the parliament approved the proposed amendments by a wide margin with minimal debate. A contested, multiparty presidential election was held on April 9 in which the incumbent was elected to a third term. Official election statistics indicated that President Bouteflika won the election with 90.2 percent of the votes and a voter turnout of 74.6 percent. Opposition parties and defeated candidates estimated voter turnout as between 18 and 55 percent. Election observers from the Arab League, African Union, and Organization of the Islamic Conference stated in a press conference that the April 9 election was fair and transparent. Some international experts commented, however, that observers monitored only election-day procedures and were not on the ground to evaluate preelection activities. Others noted that the complexity of some election procedures created room for fraud and government influence. Two opposition parties, the Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD) and the Socialist Forces Front (FFS), boycotted the election, arguing that restrictions on freedom of association disadvantaged potential challengers and made the outcome of the election a foregone conclusion. The LADDH pointed to a lack of critical debate in the media and favorable treatment of the incumbent by state-owned media. There were complaints during the three-week campaign period that public areas dedicated to election propaganda did not display each candidate's materials equally. Some candidates reported interference from local election committees when organizing meetings with voters and filed complaints with the National Election Commission. On March 21, the Party of Liberty and Justice (PLJ) reported that one of its campaign buses was vandalized by a group of youths as PLJ's candidate left a meeting with supporters in the Algiers suburb of Bab El Oued. On March 29, authorities arrested an FFS official in Tizi Ouzou for distributing pamphlets calling for a boycott of the election. On April 4, police blocked a group of RCD party members who attempted to march in an Algiers suburb to encourage voters to boycott the election. In general all candidates received equal access to television and radio media as stipulated in the electoral code. Multiparty parliamentary elections were held in May 2007 for the lower house, but not all political parties were allowed full access to the electoral process. The MOI disqualified the Islamist party Islah on the grounds that its leader had not been elected in a recent party congress. Multiparty local elections were held in November 2007, but the election process was marred by irregularities and charges of fraud. No monitoring of the vote counting process was allowed at the local, district, or national level. There were reports of restrictions placed on opposition political parties. Opposition candidates complained that the MOI regularly blocked registered parties from holding meetings and denied them access to larger and better-equipped government conference rooms while facilitating the activities of the pro-Bouteflika National Liberation Front (FLN). The law requires that potential political parties receive official approval from the MOI to be established. To obtain approval a party must have 25 founders from across the country whose names must be registered with the MOI. July 2007 amendments to the electoral law stated that a party must receive 4 percent of the vote or have received at least 2,000 votes in 25 wilayas (provinces) in one of the last three legislative elections to participate in national elections. On May 19, the PLJ, whose leader Mohammed Said was a candidate in the April presidential election, applied to the MOI for accreditation. The application was pending at year's end. The Union for Democracy and the Republic party, which originally applied for accreditation in 2004, had also not received a decision from the ministry. From October 21 to 23, the RCD organized a series of training seminars for its members on various political topics, including civil society and democratic transition. The RCD reported that several foreign speakers invited to participate did not attend because of delays in receiving their visas. Membership in the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a political party banned in 1992, remained illegal. In July 2008 Wafa party leader Ahmed Taleb Ibrahimi announced that he was withdrawing from politics after the government's continued refusal to register his party because of its perceived ties to the banned FIS. No party may use religion or ethnic heritage as a basis to organize for political purposes. The law also bans political party ties to nonpolitical associations and regulates party financing and reporting requirements. There were three women in the cabinet. Women also held 30 of the 389 seats in the Popular Assembly of the Nation, the lower legislative chamber, and four of the 144 seats in the Council of the Nation, the upper chamber. A woman led the Workers Party, and three major political parties--FLN, National Rally for Democracy, and Rally for Culture and Democracy--had women's divisions headed by women. The country did not have a quota system to require election of women to a certain percentage of seats in the parliament. The ethnic Amazigh (Berber) minority, of approximately nine million centered in the Kabylie region, participated freely and actively in the political process and represented one-third of the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties of two to 10 years in prison for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively. The World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected the existence of a corruption problem. In 2006 the government passed a law establishing a national anticorruption program, although parliamentarians removed a provision that required elected and senior officials to declare their assets and lifted parliamentary immunity in certain cases. The parliamentarians argued that the existing penal code was sufficient to punish corruption offenses and that the decision to lift parliamentary immunity should reside solely with the parliament. In 2006 the president issued three decrees to implement provisions of the anticorruption legislation. The three presidential decrees and the penal code address the types of offenses that the removed provisions were intended to punish. The decree also stipulates the formation of an anticorruption agency, but it had not been established by year's end. High-level government officials were subject to financial disclosure laws established by two presidential decrees published in 2006. Irregularities, including the excessive use of private agreements often affected public procurement. According to the Ministry of Public Works, following the president's 2005 statement that the use of private agreements, including sole-source contracts, would be prohibited, government agencies began implementing a public tender policy for all infrastructure and large government projects. For those public tenders, evaluations were not released to participating companies, and evaluation methods and techniques were not clearly defined. Some agencies, however, continued to use direct contracts for public works projects. The government took action on several high-profile cases of official corruption during the year. On April 27, DRS officials in Annaba arrested Hassan Fellah, businessman and vice president of the Annaba local assembly, on charges of fraud, money laundering, and bribery to gain public office. Authorities alleged that Fellah was part of a criminal group involved in trafficking scrap metal and that Fellah paid bribes to be placed on a candidate list during a local assembly election. On May 30, the customs inspector general stated in an interview on state radio that authorities arrested 202 customs officers during the year on charges of bribery. According to the Customs Workers' Union, 90 customs officers faced disciplinary boards during the first trimester of the year for official misconduct. Forty-three officers received demotions in rank, and the government dismissed seven officers. In 2007 65 customs officials were charged with corruption. According to an August 15 press report, the court of Cheraga charged four Algiers police officers with trafficking stolen cars. Authorities placed one of the officers in pretrial detention in El Harrach prison. The court placed the three other officers under judicial control pending the outcome of their trial. On October 7, an Algiers court began questioning high-level government officials suspected of extortion and influence peddling in awarding contracts to foreign companies involved in the construction of the East-West highway, one of the country's largest infrastructure projects. Authorities arrested and levied corruption charges against Secretary General of Public Works Mohamed Bouchama and a DRS colonel who was an MOJ advisor. On December 9, authorities indicted the Ministry of Public Works chief of staff, Ferachi Belkacem, in connection with the same case. Authorities placed Belkacem under judicial control. At year's end the outcome of the trial remained pending. On December 1, the press reported a corruption scandal in the customs service dating back 10 years. Authorities charged five customs executives, six customs agents, and five waste exporters with forgery, filing false declarations, underinvoicing, and embezzlement of public funds. The report estimated losses between 1998 and 2001 at 100 billion dinars ($1.2 billion). Officials arrested the five customs executives and placed the remaining suspects under judicial control pending the outcome of their trial. According to a December 16 press report, the inspector general of finance conducted 128 audits and issued 160 investigation reports on corruption during the year. In May 2008 press reports quoted MOI officials as saying that since 2007, 1,325 employees of municipal and provincial governments were subject to legal proceedings for wasting public funds, forgery, and bribery. According to the report, authorities convicted 324 employees, while the others remained under investigation or had trials pending. Although permitted under the constitution, authorities restricted access to government information. There is no law facilitating access to information. Throughout the year the MOJ, in cooperation with the United Nations Development Program, improved access to information about the country's judicial system and developed a modern information management system for penitentiaries. Citizens may now request personal legal records from the courts and receive the documents the same day. Lack of government transparency remained a serious problem. The government did not release many economic statistics. All ministries have Web sites, but not all were updated. The MOJ provides information on citizens' rights and legislation. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government continued to restrict and harass some local NGOs and impeded the work of international NGOs. Although some human rights groups, including the Algerian League of Human Rights (LADH) and LADDH, were allowed to move about freely, the most active and visible organizations reported interference by government authorities, including surveillance, monitoring of telephone calls, difficulty in securing meeting spaces, and difficulty in obtaining approval for international speakers to speak on sensitive issues. The government was not publicly responsive to reports and recommendations from domestic human rights NGOs and interfered with attempts by some domestic and international human rights groups to investigate and publish their findings. Domestic NGOs must be licensed by the government and are prohibited from receiving funding from abroad without approval from the Ministry of National Solidarity and the MOI. However, approximately 100 unlicensed NGOs, such as women's advocacy groups and charity organizations, operated openly. Unlicensed NGOs did not receive government assistance, and citizens were at times hesitant to be associated with these organizations. The most active independent human rights group was the LADDH, a legally recognized NGO with members throughout the country. The LADDH was not permitted access to government officials for human rights advocacy or research purposes or to prisons, except for normal lawyer- client consultations. The smaller LADH, an independent organization based in Constantine, was licensed, and members throughout the country monitored individual cases. On October 8, authorities in Algiers denied the LADDH's request to hold a seminar on the death penalty in a local hotel. LADDH moved the conference venue to its downtown office space and held the meeting without incident. The government rarely approved requests for registration. However, on October 28, the Association of Algerian Women Managers and Entrepreneurs reported that its request for registration was approved after a five-year wait. NGOs not legally recognized by the MOI cannot conduct investigations. Sometimes, however, even legally recognized NGOs were prevented from conducting investigations. For example, the LADDH did not have access to prison camps or detention centers. International NGOs continued to experience delays in obtaining visas, and outright refusals occurred. Delays in processing visa applications prevented some NGOs from conducting programming during the year. However, during the year the government granted visas to personnel of several organizations that had not previously been able to obtain visas. The government maintained that legislation did not allow branches of foreign NGOs to operate legally in the country. In November a representative of the NGO National Democratic Institute (NDI) visited Algiers to meet with political and civil society actors after the government issued a visa in October. This was the first visit of an NDI official since 2007. Freedom House representatives attended an October 2-3 forum in Algiers on democratic reform in the Arab world, organized with the independent Arabic-language newspaper, El Khabar. According to local AI representatives, in November AI explored the possibility of visiting the country, but at year's end had not received a response to its request. AI officials have not visited the country since 2005 and were denied visas in 2006. Human Rights Watch secured permission for a visa but at year's end had not yet formally applied for one. In March 2008 the prime minister urged foreign diplomatic missions to respect diplomatic courtesy and warned civil society and political organizations about holding meetings (with foreign missions) that ``undermine the country's internal affairs.'' In April 2008 Interior Minister Zerhouni told an audience of parliamentarians that international NGOs in the country were not ``helping or building'' the country. The international NGO Handicap International and local NGO the National Foundation for Health Promotion and Research Development (FOREM), both of which worked on children's rights, reported no difficulty conducting investigations. In 2007 Yakin Erturk, UN special rapporteur on violence against women, visited the country. However, the government continued to deny requests for visits from the UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (pending since 1997), the UN special rapporteur on torture (pending since 1997), and the UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial executions (pending since 1998). The CNCPPDH is the government-established advisor for human rights. On August 27, the government issued an ordinance establishing CNCPPDH's legal status on the basis of law rather than presidential decree. The ordinance also changed the procedures to appoint CNCPPDH members by establishing a review of nominations intended to ensure that appointments reflect a broad spectrum of civil society. Directed by Farouk Ksentini, the CNCPPDH is composed of 22 members from governmental bodies and 23 from civil society and NGOs. The nongovernmental members included representatives of Islamic religious organizations, the Red Crescent Society, and women's rights advocacy groups. The president approves nominees, and the CNCPPDH's budget and secretariat come from his office. The CNCPPDH is mandated to report on human rights issues, coordinate with police and justice officials, advocate domestic and international human rights causes, mediate between the government and the population, and provide expertise on human rights issues to the government. The public generally viewed the CNCPPDH as progovernment. As in previous years, the group delivered its complete annual report only to the president and provided a public abstract, thus rendering it difficult to measure the effectiveness of the organization's work. On March 9, prior to the August 27 ordinance, the International Coordinating Committee of National Human Rights Institutions expressed concern that the CNCPPDH was established by presidential decree and that the appointment and dismissal of members was not transparent. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on birth, race, gender, language, and social status. In general the government enforced the nationality and family codes, although women continued to face legal and social discrimination. Women.--Rape, spousal and nonspousal, occurred. The law criminalizes nonspousal rape but does not address spousal rape. Prison sentences for nonspousal rape range from one to five years. Claims filed by women for rape and sexual abuse continued to face judicial obstacles; however, women's rights activists reported that law enforcement authorities had become more sensitive to the issue. During the year women's rights activists reported a significant increase in reports of violence against women. Spousal abuse occurred. The penal code states that a person must be incapacitated for 15 days or more and present a doctor's note certifying the injuries before filing charges for battery. The national police reported that 4,800 women were victims of assault during the first half of the year. The same report stated that police registered 9,517 complaints of violence against women in 2008. According to the CNCPPDH, approximately 4,500 women were victims of assault during the first half of 2008. Police statistics for that period reported 2,675 cases of physical assault, 1,359 cases of abuse, 144 cases of sexual assault, and four deaths. Approximately 20 percent of assailants were identified as male family members. During the year a national study showed that 67.9 percent of women acknowledged that spousal abuse occurred. Although police stated that violence against women was widespread in large cities, a 2007 study published by the National Institute of Public Health (INSP) showed that violence against women was more frequent in rural areas and among the less educated; however, it was less likely to be reported in such cases because of societal pressures. During the year local women's NGOs, including SOS Femmes en Detresse, the Wassila Network, and Bent Fatma N'Soumer, spoke out against violence in the family. SOS Femmes en Detresse and the Wassila Network provided judicial and psychological counseling to abused women. Women's rights groups experienced difficulty in drawing attention to spousal abuse as an important social problem, largely due to societal attitudes. Several rape crisis centers run by women's groups operated, but they had few resources. The Working Women section of the General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA) established a counseling center with a toll-free number for women suffering from sexual harassment in the workplace. The call center did not operate during most of the year due to budget constraints. SOS Femmes en Detresse operated one call center in Algiers and a second call center in Batna. During the first eight months of the year, the Algiers call center received 2,533 calls; the Batna call center received 1,340 calls. According to the penal code, prostitution is illegal; however, the INSP and female advocacy groups reported that prostitution was a growing problem. The punishment for sexual harassment is one to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 dinars ($695 to $1,390). The punishment is doubled for a second offense. The police stated that 107 sexual harassment cases were reported to the police in 2008. The INSP reported that 50 sexual harassment cases were brought to court in 2007. The majority of reported cases of harassment occurred in the workplace. SOS Femmes en Detresse provided legal advice and counseling to 640 women. During 2007 at least 500 women sought legal advice from the organization; however, the majority of women seeking assistance did not file formal complaints. The government did not impose restrictions on the right of couples and individuals to decide the number, timing, and spacing of their children. There were no restrictions on access to contraceptives. During the year the Health Ministry's Office of Family Planning conducted a public health awareness campaign. According to the office, 62 percent of women regularly use contraceptives. Government hospitals provided skilled attendance during childbirth as well as obstetric and postpartum care and equally diagnosed and treated women for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. The constitution provides for gender equality; however, some aspects of the law and many traditional social practices discriminate against women. The family code is based in large part on Shari'a. The family code prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslims, although this regulation was not always enforced. A woman may marry a foreigner and transmit citizenship and nationality in her own right to both her children and spouse. Muslim men may marry non-Muslim women. Under the law children born to a Muslim father are Muslim, regardless of the mother's religion. Women can seek divorce for irreconcilable differences and violation of a prenuptial agreement. In a divorce the law provides for the wife to retain the family's home until children reach 18 years of age. Custody of children normally is awarded to the mother, but she may not make decisions on education or take the children out of the country without the father's authorization. In practice more women retained the family's home when they had custody of the children. The family code affirms the Islamic practice of allowing a man to marry as many as four wives. In practice, however, this occurred in 1 to 2 percent of marriages. The amendments to the family code, in practice, supersede the Shari'a requirement that a male sponsor consent to the marriage of a woman. Although this requirement has been formally retained and the sponsor continues to contract the marriage, the woman may choose any male that she wishes to be the sponsor. Women suffered from discrimination in inheritance claims. Women were entitled to a smaller portion of an estate than male children or a deceased husband's brothers. The law explains that such a distinction is justified because other provisions require that the husband's income and assets be used to support the family, while the wife's remain, in principle, her own. However, in practice women did not always have exclusive control over assets that they brought to a marriage or that they earned. Married women under 18 years of age may not travel abroad without permission from their husbands. Married women may take out business loans and use their own financial resources. Despite constitutional and legal provisions providing gender equality, in practice women faced discrimination in employment. Leaders of women's organizations reported that discriminatory violations were common. In urban areas, there was social encouragement for women to pursue a higher education or a career. Girls graduated from high school more frequently than boys. According to 2006 official statistics, females represented 60 percent of the medical profession, 55 percent of the media profession, 30 percent of the upper levels of the legal profession, and more than 60 percent of the education profession. In addition, 36 percent of judges were women. Women served at all levels in the judicial system, and female police officers were added to some precincts to assist women with abuse claims. Of the 8.7 million workers, 1.5 million were female, representing 18 percent of the workforce. Women may own businesses, enter into contracts, and pursue careers similar to those of men. Children.--Citizenship and nationality can be transmitted from the mother or father. Under the law, children born to a Muslim father are Muslim, regardless of the mother's religion. The government provides free education for children through high school. Education is compulsory until the age of 16 years. According to a study by the Office of National Statistics released in 2008, 96.5 percent of children attended primary school, while 62.8 percent of children attended middle and secondary school. The study noted that a child entering primary school has a 93 percent chance of reaching the last year of primary education. Boys and girls generally had the same access to education. Girls from rural areas were slightly more prone to leave school because of familial financial and cultural reasons, while sons were often given educational priority. Beginning in the 2006-07 scholastic year, the Tamazight language was taught officially in primary schools, starting in the fourth grade, in 17 predominantly Berber provinces. The government provided free medical care for all citizens, including children with disabilities, albeit in generally rudimentary facilities, and to both sexes equally. The government was generally committed to protecting the welfare, rights, health, and education of children. Child abuse is illegal but continued to be a problem. NGOs that specialized in the care of children cited continued instances of domestic violence against children, which they attributed to the ``culture of violence'' developed since the civil conflict of the 1990s and the social dislocations caused by the movement of rural families to the cities to escape terrorist violence. Experts assumed that many cases went unreported because of familial reticence. The local NGO FOREM estimated that approximately 10,000 children suffered some form of abuse. FOREM stated that 805 children were victims of sexual abuse according to statistics for the first five months of the year. The criminal code prohibits solicitation for prostitution and stipulates prison sentences of between 10 and 20 years when the offense is committed against a minor under the age of 18 years. According to the law, the age of consensual sex is 16 years. The law stipulates a prison sentence of between 10 and 20 years for rape when the victim is a minor. The law prohibits pornography and establishes prison sentences of between two months and two years as well as fines up to 2,000 dinars ($28). Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes. There were unofficial reports that persons were trafficked through the country. On March 8, the government's antitrafficking law entered into force. The new law criminalizes trafficking in persons for the purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation and stipulates prison terms of three to 20 years. The country is a transit point to Europe and primarily a destination country for men and women from sub-Saharan Africa trafficked for forced labor and sexual exploitation. There were no indications of official government involvement in trafficking. Forced prostitution and domestic servitude of migrants from sub- Saharan Africa occurred as they transited through the country, with the help of smugglers, seeking economic opportunity in Europe. The government does not compile official statistical estimates of the severity of trafficking. There were no government assistance programs for victims, nor were there any information campaigns about trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services, although, in practice the government did not effectively enforce these provisions. The law provides protection, including free medical care, for persons with disabilities, especially children; however, there was widespread social discrimination against persons with disabilities. No government buildings were accessible to persons with disabilities. Public enterprises, in downsizing their work forces, generally ignored a requirement that they reserve 1 percent of jobs for persons with disabilities. Social security provided payments for orthopedic equipment. The MNS provided some financial support to healthcare- oriented NGOs; however, for many NGOs this financial support represented approximately 2 percent of their budgets. The MNS maintained that there were 1.5 million persons with disabilities in the country. However, according to the Algerian Federation of Wheelchair Associations, there were three million persons with disabilities living in the country. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The penal code criminalizes public homosexual behavior for males and females, and there is no specific legal protection for lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender (LGBT) persons. The law stipulates penalties that include imprisonment of two months to two years and fines of 500 to 2,000 dinars (($7 to $28). If a minor is involved, the adult may face up to three years' imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 dinars ($138). There was societal discrimination against homosexual conduct, but no reported violence or official discrimination. While some LGBT persons lived openly, the vast majority did not. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--HIV/AIDS is considered a shameful disease in the country. According to 2007 statistics released by the Ministry of Health, 2,100 citizens were HIV-positive, and 736 persons suffered from HIV/AIDS. There were 54 centers offering free testing services to detect HIV/AIDS. Only 51 percent of women noted use of condoms to prevent infection. During the year the Health Ministry and the NGO AIDS Algerie launched an HIV/AIDS prevention campaign, stressing the need to avoid discrimination, especially in the workplace, against those with HIV/AIDS. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution allows workers to join unions of their choice but requires workers to obtain government approval to form a union. The law on labor unions requires the Ministry of Labor (MOL) to approve or disapprove a union application within 30 days and allows for the creation of autonomous unions. However, the government may invalidate a union's legal status if its objectives are determined to be contrary to the established institutional system, public order, good morals, or the laws or regulations in force. There are no legal restrictions on a worker's right to join a union. Approximately two-thirds of the labor force belonged to unions. The UGTA was the only legally recognized labor confederation. The UGTA includes national unions that are specialized by sector. Unions have the right to form and join federations or confederations. Unions may also recruit members at the workplace. In practice attempts by new unions to form federations or confederations were obstructed by delaying administrative maneuvers, such as delays in processing registration requests. Since 1996 the Autonomous Unions Confederation, which functions without official status, has attempted unsuccessfully to organize the autonomous unions. The government did not allow the autonomous union of public sector workers (SNAPAP) to register as a national confederation. SNAPAP and other autonomous unions faced government interference throughout the year, including official obstruction of general assembly meetings and police harassment during sit-in protests. The law permits unions to affiliate with international labor bodies and develop relations with foreign labor groups. For example, the UGTA is a member of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. However, the law prohibits unions from associating with political parties and also prohibits unions from receiving funds from foreign sources. The courts are empowered to dissolve unions that engaged in illegal activities. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right in practice, subject to some conditions. Under the state of emergency decree, the government can require public and private sector workers to remain at work in the event of an unauthorized or illegal strike. According to the law on industrial relations, workers may strike only after 14 days of mandatory conciliation or mediation. On occasion the government offered to mediate disputes. The law states that decisions reached in mediation are binding on both parties. If no agreement is reached in mediation, the workers may strike legally after they vote by secret ballot to do so. A minimum level of public services must be maintained during public-sector service strikes. The law provides that all public demonstrations, protests, and strikes receive prior government authorization. During the year strikes and labor meetings occurred in various sectors, including the construction, medical, port facility, and education sectors. In January health workers and university medical professors went on strike to demand better working conditions and salaries. The protest shut down most nonemergency hospital services for almost five days. In February secondary school teachers protested in 40 schools in Algiers and Bejaia to demand higher salaries and state benefits. In March health worker unions called a three-day strike following Prime Minister Ouyahia's statement that the government refused a 15 percent salary increase. Transportation workers organized strikes to demand better social services in March and April. In June, 11,000 taxi drivers held a half-day strike to protest the government's weak enforcement of licensing rules. On November 9, autonomous teachers' unions called a nationwide, unlimited strike to demand improved compensation benefits and working conditions. Some workers were temporarily detained and fingerprinted after organizing sit-ins. Workers ended the strike on November 23 after education ministry officials agreed to discuss some demands and reinstate allowances and bonuses that had not been paid since January 2008. The authorities generally tolerated strikes but continued to enforce a ban on marches and demonstrations in Algiers in effect since 2001. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining for all unions, and the government permitted the exercise of this right, in practice, for authorized unions. According to the UGTA, 8.7 million workers are covered by collective bargaining agreements. The UGTA signed 218 collective bargaining agreements between 2000 and 2007, including sector-wide collective bargaining agreements and salary agreements covering industry, public works, and services. The UGTA is the only union authorized to negotiate collective bargaining agreements. The law prohibits discrimination by employers against union members and organizers and provides mechanisms for resolving trade union complaints of antiunion practices by employers. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports from the MOL that such practices occurred. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits participation by minors in dangerous, unhealthy, or harmful work or in work that is considered inappropriate because of social and religious considerations. The minimum legal age for employment is 16 years, except for apprentice positions. In order to be an apprentice, minors must have the permission of a legal guardian. In 2006 the MOL stated that only 95 ``young workers'' were identified during site visits performed by labor inspectors at 5,847 companies. The MOL made some surprise inspections of public sector enterprises, but it did not consistently enforce relevant statutes in the agricultural or private sectors. In 2005 the MOL reported a rate of child participation in the labor force of 0.56 percent. That figure was challenged in 2007 by FOREM, a children's rights watchdog group financed by the EU. According to FOREM, in the eight most populous provinces, 6 percent of children of age 10 years and younger participated in the labor force, while 63 percent of children between the ages of 13 to 16 years participated. The survey found children working a variety of hours in small workshops, on family farms, and especially in informal trades and street vending. During a November 25 conference on children's rights, FOREM representatives stated that there were approximately 300,000 children under 16 years of age working in the country. The MOL is responsible for enforcing child labor laws, but enforcement was hindered by a lack of sufficient human resources. In 2006 and 2007, FOREM implemented a public awareness campaign to encourage children to remain in school until 16 years of age, rather than participating in the workforce. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The national minimum wage of 15,000 dinars ($208) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum wage was raised to this level during the year by a tripartite social pact between business, government, and labor. Autonomous unions, which were not included in tripartite talks, reported the increase was inadequate and would not affect the majority of workers who already earn more than the minimum wage. The previous tripartite negotiation occurred in 2006 and established a minimum wage of 12,000 dinars ($166). MOL inspectors were responsible for ensuring compliance with the minimum wage regulation; however, enforcement was inconsistent. The standard workweek was 37.5 hours with one 10-minute break and one hour for lunch per day. Employees who worked beyond the standard workweek received premium pay on a sliding scale from time-and-a-half to double-time, depending on whether the overtime was worked on a normal workday, a weekend, or a holiday. In general the MOL effectively enforced labor standards, particularly in the civil service and in public sector companies; however, enforcement was less efficient in the private sector because of low union density. The law contains well-developed occupational, health, and safety standards, but MOL inspectors did not enforce these regulations effectively. There were no reports of workers being dismissed for removing themselves from hazardous working conditions. Because employment was usually based on detailed contracts, workers rarely were subjected to unexpected conditions in the workplace. If workers were subjected to such conditions, they first could attempt to renegotiate the employment contract or, failing that, resort to the courts; however, the high demand for employment in the country gave an advantage to employers seeking to exploit employees. Economic migrants from sub-Saharan Africa working in the country without legal immigration status were not protected by the country's labor standards, making them vulnerable to exploitation. __________ BAHRAIN Bahrain is a monarchy with a population of approximately 1,050,000, including approximately 530,000 who are citizens. King Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa is the head of state and all branches of government. The king appoints a cabinet of ministers; approximately half are members of the minority Sunni Al-Khalifa ruling family. The 2002 constitution reinstated a legislative body with one elected chamber, the Council of Deputies, and one appointed chamber, the Shura Council. All registered political societies participated in the 2006 parliamentary and municipal elections, which were marred by allegations of gerrymandering and vote rigging in some races. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Citizens did not have the right to change their government. The government restricted civil liberties, including freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, and some religious practices. Domestic violence against women and children persisted, as did discrimination on the basis of gender, religion, nationality, and sect, especially against the Shia majority population. Trafficking in persons and restrictions on the rights of foreign resident workers remained problems. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings during the year. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits such practices; however, there were allegations during the year that security forces employed them. Local human rights observers were critical of the tactics used by specialized police units responding to tire burnings and other such disturbances; in some cases, rioters threw Molotov cocktails and other projectiles at police. On several occasions, police detained dozens of young men in connection with small but frequent skirmishes between police and youths throwing rocks and, at times, Molotov cocktails. These youths routinely alleged that security forces beat them in custody. Security forces denied the accusations, and some opposition political activists expressed doubt about some of the allegations. On October 13, a judge acquitted 19 defendants of charges relating to the 2008 death of a police officer in Karzakan. According to local media sources, the presiding judge said that the defendants' claims that they confessed under duress had influenced his verdict. On November 11, the public prosecutor's office appealed the verdict, and at year's end a date for the hearing had not been set. Following December 2007 protests, security forces arrested and detained dozens of protestors in the Adliya jail. Some detainees reported that judicial interrogators beat and electrocuted them in prison; officials denied the allegations of abuse. A court-appointed medical team examined the detainees, subsequently testifying that they could neither prove nor disprove the defendants' accusations of abuse. In July 2008, the High Criminal Court sentenced 11 of the 15 defendants to between one and seven years' imprisonment; King Hamad subsequently pardoned them on April 11. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prisons and detention center conditions generally met international standards, although the government did not permit any independent inspections by human rights observers. Throughout the year some detainees alleged that pretrial detention facility guards physically abused them, a charge the government denied. Court-ordered medical examinations in 2008 of those alleging abuse were inconclusive. There were no similar reports of abuse from prison detainees. According to the Bahrain Human Rights Society (BHRS), as of May 9 there were more than 500 prisoners in the system, including 57 women. Total prison capacity is unknown. Men were held in separate facilities from women, and juveniles were held separately from adults. On May 9, the BHRS inspected the women's prison in Isa Town. The BHRS reported no major problems, although the report indicated the cells were not designed for their current occupancy of eight to 10 women. On June 3, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) officials provided training to managers of detention facilities and human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) on prison management, health and safety at detention centers, medical ethics, and treatment of prisoners. ICRC officials did not visit prisons during the trip. The country's Red Crescent Society officials reported that ICRC officials had not visited prisons since the release of all political prisoners in 2000. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions, although there were some allegations to the contrary. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Ministry of the Interior (MOI) is responsible for public security. The MOI controls the public security force and other specialized security units that are responsible for maintaining internal order. The Bahrain Defense Force (BDF) is responsible for defending against external threats and provides internal security. The security forces were generally effective in maintaining internal order. A widespread lack of transparency made corruption in the security services difficult to assess. The press reported that in a number of cases, authorities jailed or fined law enforcement officials for misconduct, most often for accepting bribes. In November 2008, the MOI announced that it disciplined 23 police officers during the year for committing human rights abuses. They received prison time and/or fines. The MOI maintained a hotline for citizens to report police abuses; however, many in the Shia community believed the MOI condoned police misconduct and therefore did not report allegations of abuse. In practice the MOI responded to allegations of abuse and public complaints by establishing temporary investigation committees. These committees did not issue public reports of their findings. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--To apprehend a felon suspect, police must present evidence to a judge who will decide whether to issue an arrest warrant. Police and security forces must transfer suspects to the public prosecutor's office within 48 hours, and they generally respected that requirement in practice. Within seven days of arrest, a detainee must appear before a judge in the public prosecutor's office. Judges may grant bail to a suspect and regularly did so. If the judge decides the suspect is a flight risk or a danger to society, they may allow up to an additional 45 days of detention while the public prosecutor conducts an investigation. This process may continue through subsequent reviews by different judges, but pretrial detention may not exceed six months. The 2006 counterterrorism law allows the public prosecutor to detain a terrorism suspect for five days. Upon request the public prosecutor may extend this period based on the needs of the investigation for up to 10 more days. At the end of this period, the detainee must be transferred to the public prosecutor and questioned within three days. The public prosecutor must then decide to issue a detention order or to release the detainee. The detention order may not exceed 60 days. Detainee access to attorneys was often restricted in the early stages of detention; attorneys must seek a court order to confer with clients and then coordinate with officials at the detention facility for access. The state provided counsel to indigent detainees. Detainees were generally allowed prompt access to visiting family members. Amnesty.--On April 11, the king announced amnesty for 178 persons, including many charged for rioting. After some initial confusion, the government determined that the defendants in the Ma'ameer attack and the killing of a police officer in Karzakan in 2008 were not covered by the amnesty, and their trials would continue. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice. According to the constitution, the king appoints all judges by royal decree. The king also serves as chairman of the supreme judicial council, the body responsible for supervising the work of the courts and the public prosecutor. The legal system is based on a mix of British civil law, common law, Shari'a, and traditional laws. The judiciary consists of civil law courts and Shari'a courts. The civil law courts adjudicate all civil and commercial cases, criminal cases, and personal status cases among non-Muslims. The courts of minor cases (the lower courts and the Court of Execution) have one judge, and the high courts have three judges with jurisdiction over felonies, personal status cases, and appeals. Shari'a courts have jurisdiction over personal status cases involving citizen and noncitizen Muslims. There are separate courts for Sunni and Shia Muslims, each of which has three levels: the Shari'a court, the High Shari'a Court, and the High Shari'a Court of Appeal. The High Shari'a Court of Appeal is composed of a minimum of two judges. In the event of a disagreement, the Ministry of Justice and Islamic Affairs (MOJIA) provides a third judge, and the decision is based on a majority vote. There are 13 judges in the Sunni Maliki Shari'a courts and 14 judges in the Shia Ja'afari Shari'a courts. The Constitutional Court provides final and binding ruling on the constitutionality of laws and statutes. The court's membership consists of a president and six members, all appointed by the king to nine-year terms that may not be abridged. The BDF maintains a separate court system that tries only military personnel accused of offenses under the military code of justice. The MOI has a similar system for trying police officers. Trial Procedures.--According to the constitution, defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty. Civil and criminal trial procedures provide for an open trial. There are no jury trials. By law and in practice, defendants have the right to prompt consultation with an attorney of their choice within 48 hours, and the government provided counsel to indigent defendants. Defendants are present during trial proceedings, and have the right to present witnesses and evidence on their behalf and question witnesses against them. No law governs defendants' access to government-held evidence, and the government often reviewed evidence prior to defendants' access to it. Defendants have the right to appeal. Women's legal rights varied according to Shia or Sunni interpretations of Islamic law. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens may bring civil suits before the court seeking cessation of, or damages for, human rights violations; however, the government maintained that the 2001 general amnesty granted immunity for alleged human rights violations committed before 2001. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice except under the provisions of the law and under judicial supervision. The government is required to obtain a court order before monitoring telephone calls, e-mail, and personal correspondence. Many Shia believed there were extensive and sophisticated police informer networks, but they were unable to provide concrete evidence. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press ``provided that the fundamenatal beliefs of Islamic doctrine are not infringed, the unity of the people is not prejudiced, and discord or sectarianism is not aroused.'' Freedom of press is also subject to applicable press laws. Both censorship and self-censorship took place. The law forbids any speech or discussion infringing on public order or morals. In private settings, individuals openly expressed critical opinions regarding domestic political and social issues. There was also considerable freedom of expression on the Internet, in letters to the editor, and occasionally on state-run television call-in shows. The government did not own any print media, but the Ministry of Culture and Information (MOCI) exercised considerable control over local privately owned print media. The government owned and operated all radio and television stations and vetted the selection of the country's Al-Jazeera correspondent. Radio and television broadcasts in Arabic, Farsi, and English from countries in the region, including by satellite, were received without interference. The government enforced, at its discretion, the press law to restrict freedom of speech and press. The law provides for fines of as much as 10,000 dinars ($26,500) and prison sentences of at least six months for criticizing Islam or the king or inciting actions that undermine state security, as well as fines of up to 2,000 dinars ($5,300) for 14 other offenses. These offenses include publicizing statements issued by a foreign state or organization before obtaining the consent of the minister of information, publishing any reports that may adversely affect the dinar's value, reporting any offense against the head of a state that maintains diplomatic relations with the country, or publishing offensive remarks toward an accredited representative of a foreign country because of acts connected with the person's position. Government censorship occurred. MOCI representatives actively monitored and blocked local stories on sensitive matters, especially those related to sectarianism and national security or criticism of the royal family, the Saudi royal family, and judges. Journalists also practiced widespread self-censorship. According to some members of the media, government officials contacted editors directly and asked them to stop writing about certain subjects or asked them not to publish a press release or a story. There were reports that the government paid journalists to represent the 2006 parliamentary elections favorably. In addition the MOCI Press and Publications Directorate reviewed all books and publications prior to issuing printing licenses. The MOJIA reviewed books that discussed religion. On April 11, the Constitutional Court overturned an article of the press and publication law that held publishing companies and publishers responsible for the content of the publications they distributed. Because of the ruling, the government may only punish publishers if they defy a judicial decision to revoke a publication's license. However, on June 22, the MOCI suspended the publication of Arabic daily Akhbar Al Khaleej for one day after the newspaper published an editorial by a Shura Council member criticizing Iranian political and religious leadership. Internet Freedom.--The government restricted use of the Internet, which residents accessed in their home, workplace, or Internet cafes. The number of Internet users more than doubled from 2004 to 2008, rising from 202,000 to 435,000 users. The government was a major shareholder in the Bahrain Telecommunications Company (Batelco), the country's principal telecommunications company, which prohibited user access to Internet sites considered antigovernment or anti-Islamic. Reportedly, the government did not monitor e-mail use. The government continued to invoke the press code to justify the questioning of some journalists and bloggers. By law Web site administrators face the same libel laws that apply to print journalists, and Web masters are held jointly responsible for all content posted on their Web sites or chat rooms. The government regularly monitored and attempted to block local access to numerous Web sites, including local blogs and chat sites, human rights Web sites, Web sites containing information about Arab Christians, and the Wa'ad political society's Web site. Public discussion of blocked Web sites was widespread, and many users were able to access blocked sites through alternate servers. On January 14, the minister of culture and information ordered all telecommunications companies and Internet service providers to block a number of political, human rights, commercial, and pornographic Web sites for violating the press and publication law, transgressing local values, and impairing national unity. According to an October 18 article in Alwasat newspaper, the government blocked approximately 100 Web sites during the year. The MOCI decree also ordered that proxy servers be blocked, prohibiting their use to bypass the decree. On January 24, the telecommunications regulatory authority threatened to revoke the license of any operator violating the decree. On February 19, Wa'ad filed a civil lawsuit against MOCI for blocking its Web site, and MOCI ordered the block removed. On April 19, MOCI announced that the government had decided to unblock a number of the Web sites; however, some remained blocked at year's end. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. Some academics self-censored, avoiding contentious political issues. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for the right of free assembly, but the law restricts the exercise of this right, and security forces intervened in some demonstrations during the year. Organizers must submit requests for public gatherings or demonstrations to the MOI at least 72 hours in advance. Three citizens from the proposed demonstration area must sign the application. If there is no response to the request, the gathering may proceed. The law prohibits public gatherings near hospitals, airports, commercial centers, designated security-related facilities, or funeral processions. The law prohibits gatherings between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m., unless the chief of public security or his deputy gives written permission. The law states that funeral processions may not be turned into political rallies and that security officials may be present at any public gathering. The head of public security must notify the organizers about any official changes to the request (such as location, time, or route) at least 48 hours prior to the event. Organizers of an unauthorized gathering face prison sentences of three to six months. The government specifically limited and controlled political gatherings. The law regulates election campaigns and prohibits political activities at worship centers, universities, schools, government buildings, and public institutions. The government did not allow ma'tams (Shia religious community centers) or other religious sites to be used for political gatherings without permission. Antigovernment demonstrations occurred regularly in numerous Shia villages around the country. Bands of Shia youth, allegedly instigated by members of the unregistered Haq Movement and the newly organized al- Waf'a Islamic Movement, regularly appeared at both registered and unregistered demonstrations where, according to Shia community members and MOI officials, they burned tires and trash and threw Molotov cocktails and stones at riot police. Police often dispersed demonstrations with tear gas. Local human rights NGOs alleged that riot police used tear gas against peaceful demonstrators; however, the MOI countered that it used tear gas in response to attacks by demonstrators. Periodically security forces fired rubber baton rounds at the ground to disperse demonstrations, and on a number of occasions, security forces allegedly ricocheted shotgun pellets from the ground to disperse rioters as a last resort. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the right to freedom of association; however, the government limited this right in practice. Although the government does not allow the formation of political parties, it authorized registered political societies to run candidates and participate in other political activities. The government required all groups to register: civil society groups with the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD), political societies with the MOJIA, and labor unions with the Ministry of Labor (MOL). The government decided whether the group was social or political in nature based on its proposed bylaws. The law prohibits any activity by an unlicensed society and any political activity by a licensed civil society group. To apply for registration, a political society must submit its bylaws signed by all founding members, a list of all members and copies of their residency cards, and a financial statement identifying the society's sources of funding and bank information. The society's principles, goals, and programs must not run counter to Shari'a law or the national interest, as interpreted by the judiciary, nor may the society be based on sectarian, geographic, or class identity. A civil society group applying for registration must submit its bylaws signed by all founding members and minutes of the founding committee's meetings, containing the names of founding members, their professions, their places of residence, and their signatures. The law grants the MOSD the right to reject the registration of any civil society group if it finds the society's services unnecessary, already provided by another society, contrary to state security, or aimed at reviving a previously dissolved society. Associations whose applications are rejected or ignored may appeal to the High Civil Court, which may annul the MOSD's decision or refuse the complaint. The MOSD continued to deny the National Committee for the Unemployed registration as a civil society group because of the political nature of its activities. The MOSD also rejected the Bahrain Youth Human Rights Society's (BYHRS) application, allegedly because of its ties to the dissolved Bahrain Center for Human Rights (BCHR) and because some of its members were younger than 18. The November 2008 legal proceedings filed by the MOSD against the BYHRS president, Mohammed Al-Maskati, who was accused of running an unlicensed NGO, remained pending. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution states that Islam is the official religion and that Shari'a is a principal source for legislation. The constitution provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings, in accordance with the customs and laws of the country; however, the government placed some limits on the exercise of these rights. The law requires all religious groups to obtain a permit from the MOJIA to operate and hold religious meetings. Depending on a group's activities, it may also need approval from the MOSD, the MOCI, and the Ministry of Education. The constitution prohibits speech considered blasphemous or anti-Islamic. The Baha'i congregation, repeatedly denied registration in previous years, continued to gather and worship freely without government interference. Numerous Christian churches operated freely, although several could not successfully register and were ordered to close. Most of these cases related to zoning concerns and neighbors' complaints about parking near houses used as unregistered churches. Other religious minorities, including Sikhs and Hindus, practiced freely. The government controlled and provided funding to official religious institutions, including Shia and Sunni mosques, Shia ma'tams, Shia and Sunni waqfs (religious endowments), and the religious courts. New mosques depended on the government's nontransparent land allocation process. Allocation reportedly was not proportionate to the Shia community's relative population in the country. Islamic studies are mandatory for all public school students; however, curriculum in the public schools is broadly based on the Sunni Maliki school. Although the law prohibits proselytizing by non-Muslims, it does allow for distribution of religious publications and other religious media in general, so long as the material is not anti-Islamic. The government scrutinized carefully those who chose to pursue religious study in Iran. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Government and societal discrimination against the majority Shia population remained a problem. Sunnis received preference for employment in sensitive government positions and in the managerial ranks of the civil service. The defense and internal security forces were also predominantly Sunni, and few Shia members attained high-ranking positions. During the year fewer than one percent of new recruits in the armed forces were Shia; however, the MOI increased efforts to recruit Shia into unarmed security agencies such as traffic and community police. In the private sector, Shia tended to work in lower-paid, less-skilled jobs. Educational, social, and municipal services in most Shia neighborhoods were inferior to those in Sunni communities. Unlike previous years, there were no reports of religious discrimination in university faculty employment. The Jewish community had approximately 36 members, one of whom serves as the country's ambassador to the United States. Jews practiced their faith privately without government interference; due to the small size of the Jewish community, the country's sole synagogue remained closed. Some anti-Jewish political commentary and editorial cartoons appeared, usually linked to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, without government response. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other personsof concern. The law provides that the government may reject applications to obtain or renew passports for ``reasonable cause,'' but the applicant has the right to appeal such decisions before the High Civil Court. In practice authorities relied on determinations of national security when adjudicating passport applications. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and there were no reports of forced exile or return from exile during the year. Some political oppositionists who refused the 2001 amnesty remained in self-imposed exile. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol, and the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Such individuals generally had access to certain social services, education, and employment. Stateless Persons.--In past years, the government offered citizenship to several thousand stateless ``Bidoon'' persons, mostly Shia of Persian origin. However, according to Freedom House, Bidoon and citizens who spoke Farsi as their first language continued to encounter discrimination in society and the work force. On October 11, the minister of interior stated that more than 68,000 persons were granted citizenship since 2002 in an effort to resolve the problem of stateless individuals. Citizenship is derived from one's parents. By law foreign women who marry citizens are eligible for citizenship after five years of marriage; however, foreign men who marry citizens are not entitled to citizenship, and women cannot transmit their nationality to their children. The Bahrain Women Association (BWA) reported that as of September, the organization was aware of 175 women with stateless children. In 2006 King Hamad issued a decree granting citizenship to some children of citizen mothers and noncitizen fathers; however, children born to such families since the decree are stateless. The law clearly defines naturalization requirements, but the adjudication process for naturalization applications was not transparent. Opposition groups claimed the government regularly ignored naturalization rules to manipulate demographics for voting and to maintain Sunni domination of police and defense forces. According to these opposition groups, the government was more lenient with naturalization requests from foreign residents in the security forces, while Shia and other applicants experienced delays in processing of their cases. The government occasionally granted citizenship to Sunni residents from neighboring countries. The government stated that some Saudis who had received citizenship were the grandchildren of Bahraini citizens who had emigrated to Saudi Arabia and had a legal right to citizenship. Accurate figures for the number of foreigners naturalized in recent years were not readily available. Stateless persons had access to certain social services, education, and employment. Stateless persons were eligible to receive housing and other government services; however, they were excluded from receiving scholarships. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government Citizens do not have the right to change their government or their political system; however, the constitution provides for a democratically elected Council of Deputies, the lower house of parliament. The king appoints the prime minister, who then proposes cabinet ministers. Members of the ruling Al-Khalifa family held all strategic cabinet ministry positions and approximately half of ministerial slots. The bicameral national assembly consists of the 40- member popularly elected Council of Deputies and the 40-member appointed Shura (Consultative) Council. The king may dissolve the Council of Deputies at his discretion; he also has the power to amend the constitution and to propose, ratify, and promulgate laws. Both councils may question government ministers (except the prime minister), and the Council of Deputies may require a minister's resignation with a two-thirds majority vote of no confidence. The Council of Deputies may introduce a resolution indicating it cannot cooperate with the prime minister, in which case the joint national assembly would have the option to pass the resolution by a two-thirds majority, requiring the king to dismiss the prime minister or to dissolve the Council of Deputies. A no-confidence vote has never arisen. Elections and Political Participation.--All registered political societies, including the four that boycotted the 2002 elections, participated in the 2006 Council of Deputies elections. Although no international observers participated, the government permitted nine local civil society groups, including the Bahrain Human Rights Watch Society (BHRWS) and the Bahrain Society for Public Freedoms, access to poll stations to observe voting. The Bahrain Transparency Society and the BHRS joined efforts to form the Election Monitoring Joint Committee (EMJC) and trained more than 200 local observers. The government asked a foreign organization involved in political party training and election observation to leave the country during the campaign process and elections. In its February 2007 report, the EMJC stated there were no widespread attempts to influence the outcome of the elections, although it noted that candidates did not cease campaign activities 24 hours before voting opened, as the law required. Official polling station observers did not report significant problems during the voting process, although there were allegations that the government manipulated general poll center vote counts against opposition candidates in several close races. Many opposition figures, including Shia activists, alleged that the government gerrymandered the districts to protect Sunni interests. The government did not allow the formation of political parties, but 15 political societies, which received some government funding and operated like political parties, chose candidates for parliamentary and municipal elections, campaigned for political office, developed political platforms, held internal elections, and hosted political gatherings. Political societies were highly critical of provisions in the law requiring them to notify the MOJIA before contacting political groups abroad. The law prohibits civil society groups from engaging in political matters; however, the government permitted such activity at its discretion. There were 10 women in the Shura Council and one in the Council of Deputies. Two women served as cabinet ministers, three women sat as judges in the criminal courts, and one was a judge in the Constitutional Court. Shia and Sunni citizens have equal rights before the law; however, Sunnis dominated political life although Shia comprised the majority of the citizen population. Twenty Shura Council members were Shia Muslims, 19 were Sunni, and one was Christian. Four of the 23 cabinet ministers were Shia, including a deputy prime minister. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement the law effectively, and some officials reportedly engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Significant areas of government activity continued to lack transparency. As in previous years, there was no government agency respobsible for combating official corruption. On December 8, the minister of the interior announced plans to establish an anticorruption unit within his ministry's Criminal Investigation Directorate. The law does not require government officials to provide financial disclosures, nor does it provide citizens access to government-held information. The annual National Audit Bureau report released on November 5 detailed financial irregularities affecting a number of ministries and agencies. The report did not state whether government employees would be prosecuted for corruption. On June 8, the high criminal court found the former CEO of the quasi-governmental housing bank for trade and finance guilty of embezzling 1.5 million dinars ($4 million) and sentenced him to 10 years' imprisonment. The ruling was the first guilty verdict in a major corruption case in many years. On June 21, authorities charged the executive director of the Bahrain Institute for Political Development (BIPD) and two other BIPD officials with fraud and embezzlement. The case remained pending at year's end. The corruption case against two former managers at the state-owned aluminum firm, Alba, continued. Media reports and information from NGOs indicated that the corruption probe might involve former top executives at the firm, as well as former government officials. In November 2008, the Lower Criminal Court sentenced the manager of a cleaning company to three years' imprisonment and a 5,000 dinar ($13,250) fine for attempting to bribe the new minister of municipalities. His lawyer appealed the case, and the appeal process remained pending at year's end. In 2007 the Ministry of Industry and Commerce filed a complaint with the public prosecutor accusing nine employees of embezzlement. On January 20, the court found four innocent and sentenced the other five to between one and five years' imprisonment. The five appealed the case. The case remained pending at year's end. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Restrictions on freedom of association and expression hindered investigation and public criticism of the government's human rights policies; however, local and international NGOs published reports on human rights during the year. There were three major human rights groups that reported on issues of concern: the BHRS, which, while independent, was widely viewed as allied with the socialist legacy party Wa'ad; the BHRWS, which considered itself independent, although some of its leaders were also members of the royally appointed Shura Council, and its former president serves as an ambassador; and the unregistered BCHR which, although the government dissolved it in 2004, it continued to issue reports and often coordinated its activities with the unregistered oppositionist Haq Movement. Senior government officials met with civil society organizations to discuss human rights, transparency, and the organizations' reports. On November 11, the king issued a decree establishing a national institution for human rights. The government-funded entity's stated purposes include protecting human rights in accordance with international commitments, receiving complaints pertaining to human rights, and preparing regular human rights reports. The government planned to announce the composition of the national institution in 2010. In recent years, the government has allowed increased interaction between local civil society groups and international human rights organizations. During the year, citizen members of Amnesty International carried out several activities without government interference. Although the law prohibits foreign NGOs from registering with the government, the government generally did not interfere with such NGOs' activities provided it did not perceive these activities as interfering in the political system. In previous years, the government provided written warning to foreign NGOs it believed had interfered in internal political matters. On April 11, the International Federation of Journalists established its first Middle East regional hub in the country. On June 3, the ICRC visited the country for the first time since 2002 to conduct training on prison and detention facility management for government officials and local NGOs. In April 2008, the UN Human Rights Council held a session on the country's human rights practices as part of the Universal Periodic Review mechanism. Some human rights NGOs, including the BHRS, BHRWS, the Bahrain Transparency Society, and BCHR, alleged that the government did not inform them of the deadline for submission of concurrent reports. The NGOs attended the review and submitted their own reports. The UN Development Program maintained an office in the country, and it advised the government to develop mechanisms to encourage respect for human rights. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides for equality, equal opportunity, and the right to medical care, welfare, education, property, capital, and work for all citizens. These rights were protected unevenly, depending on an individual's social status, sect, or gender. Women.--Rape is illegal; however, the law does not address spousal rape. Rape was not a major problem in the country. The press reported cases of men arrested for the crime, including a few cases in which fathers of rape victims sought lighter sentences for perpetrators. No government policies or laws explicitly addressed domestic violence. Spousal abuse of women was widespread, particularly in poorer communities. Women rarely sought legal redress for violence, and there was little public attention devoted to the problem. The Batelco Care Center for Family Violence continued to offer free medical, psychological, legal, and social assistance to victims of violence, primarily women and children. It also operated an abuse hotline that recorded 421 cases (154 men, 352 women, 75 children) involving domestic abuse during the year. According to the center's chairwoman, the center received 491 cases from January through August. According to the Bahrain Women's Union, an independent women's NGO, 72 female citizens reported domestic abuse at the hands of their husbands between September 2008 and this past September. Prostitution is illegal, although it did occur. Most prostitutes were foreign women, and some were victims of trafficking. Customers were primarily foreign residents and tourists. Sexual harassment is prohibited by law but remained a widespread problem for women, especially foreigners working as domestics and in other low-level service jobs. The press reported a number of cases of men arrested for sexually harassing women. Article 350 stipulates penalties of imprisonment of up to one year or a fine of 100 dinars ($265) for committing an ``act of indecency with a female.'' Reproductive health services, including birth control and maternity care, were available free of charge to all women. Health centers required women to obtain spousal consent in order to undergo sterilization; however, this consent requirement did not apply to provisions of other family planning services. On January 13, the government asked parliament to enact a bill that would codify and standardize personal status law, or family law, for both Sunni and Shia residents, who have traditionally administered parallel court systems. In response to Shia opposition to the proposed changes in the Shia system, the government withdrew the original bill and sent parliament a new bill that addressed Sunni personal status law only. Parliament passed, and on May 27 the king ratified, the Sunni personal status law. At year's end, the government continued to work with the Shia community toward a new Shia law. Women faced discrimination under the law. A woman cannot transmit nationality to her spouse or children. Women have the right to initiate divorce; however, religious courts may refuse the request. In divorce cases, the courts routinely granted mothers custody of daughters younger than age nine and sons younger than age seven. Custody usually reverted to the father once the children reached those ages. Regardless of custody decisions, the father retained guardianship, or the right to make all legal decisions for the child, until the child reached the age of 21. A noncitizen woman automatically loses custody of her children if she divorces their citizen father without just cause. Women may own and inherit property and represent themselves in all public and legal matters. In the absence of a direct male heir, Shia women may inherit all property; however, Sunni women without a direct male heir inherit only a portion as governed by Shari'a, and the brothers or male relatives of the deceased divide the balance. In practice better-educated families used wills and other legal maneuvers to mitigate the negative effects of these rules. Labor laws prohibit discrimination against women; however, discrimination against women was systemic in the country, especially in the workplace. There were numerous reports of employers mistreating noncitizen women working as domestic servants. The influence of religious traditionalists sometimes hampered women's rights. On December 2008, the central bank stated that women constituted 17 percent of the private sector workforce and 48 percent of the government workforce. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents. Women cannot transmit their nationality to their children; therefore, children of some citizen mothers and noncitizen fathers are born stateless. Primary education is compulsory for citizens and is provided free of charge to citizens and legal residents. Government-run primary schools are segregated by sex, though children are subject to the same curricula and textbooks. Schooling is compulsory for children through the age of 14, and is provided free of charge to citizens and legal residents through grade 12. NGOs reported they have observed an increase in the number of child abuse cases in recent years, but it is not clear whether abuse cases have increased or there is greater willingness to report abuse. Shari'a courts, not civil courts, deal with crimes involving child abuse, including violence against children. NGOs expressed concern over the lack of consistent, written guidelines for prosecuting and punishing offenders and over the leniency of penalties involving child abuse cases. The Be Free Center, an offshoot of the BWA that focuses on child abuse awareness and prevention, received 300 to 400 e-mails each month from child abuse victims. The government generally honored its commitment to children's welfare through enforcement of related civil and criminal laws and an extensive social welfare network. On June 30, a new law went into effect granting resident children born to citizen mothers and noncitizen fathers free access to some social services, including health care and education, although at year's end some NGOs reported the law was not yet fully implemented. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes, in line with the 2000 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, which the country ratified in 2004. However, trafficking in persons continued to be a significant problem. The country was a destination for persons trafficked from Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Horn of Africa, and East European and Central Asian states. Reports also indicated the country was a transit point for workers from these regions to Europe. Some victims were trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation, but victims were most commonly trafficked for unskilled construction and domestic labor. According to the Migrant Workers Protection Society (MWPS), the principal traffickers were illegitimate recruiting companies in source countries. Traffickers used debt bondage, contract substitution, and threats of legal action against their victims. The MWPS reported that victims often recruited additional victims from their home regions in an attempt to pay off debt. Under the law, traffickers face fines of 2,000 to 10,000 dinars ($5,300 to $26,500) and mandatory prison sentences of as long as 10 years for each offense, with anyone trafficking a person on behalf of a corporation facing a fine of up to 100,000 dinars ($265,000) and the same mandatory prison sentences. ``Aggravating circumstances,'' including trafficking of a woman or a child younger than 15, double the fine and prison sentence. However, since the promulgation of the January 2008 antitrafficking statute, there has only been one prosecution: a Thai woman was convicted in December 2008 of trafficking three compatriots into commercial sexual exploitation. No Bahraini citizens were charged in this case. The government established a 10-person unit within the MOI's Criminal Investigation Directorate focused on trafficking in persons. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) headed a committee that set trafficking policy and included representatives from the Ministries of Interior, Justice, Information, and Social Development, as well as the Labor Market Regulatory Authority (LMRA) and three NGOs. The MOSD headed another committee charged with evaluating and determining the status of victims that included representatives from the MOFA, MOI, and the LMRA. During the year, the government's Dar Al-Aman shelter for abused and migrant women housed women who fled from employers, although NGOs indicated that only a fraction of trafficked or runaway women used this facility. On July 1, to eliminate some of the practices involved in labor trafficking, the LMRA implemented new visa rules for migrant workers in the public and private sectors to reduce the incidence of employers holding workers' passports or otherwise restricting their movement. The new rules also targeted the illegal practice known as ``free visas,'' whereby an employment sponsor enabled a laborer to enter the country under the cover of working for the sponsor and then allowed the worker to find other work, at an often exorbitant fee payable to the sponsor. On August 1, new rules went into effect that allow foreign workers to change jobs without employers' permission, subject to certain time limits. In practice, however, some employers continued to hold foreign workers' passports and used other such coercive measures to prevent mobility. Moreover, these reforms did not cover the country's approximately 70,000 migrant domestic workers, the group that was most vulnerable to trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law protects the rights of persons with disabilities, and a variety of governmental, quasi-governmental, and religious institutions are mandated to support and protect persons with disabilities. New public buildings in the central municipality must include facilities for persons with disabilities. The law does not mandate access to nonresidential buildings for persons with disabilities. There were no reports of discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, or access to health care. Children with learning disabilities, physical handicaps, speech impediments, and Down syndrome were enrolled in specialized education programs in public schools. The government did not fund private programs for children with disabilities who could not find appropriate programs in public schools. The law requires the government to provide vocational training for persons with disabilities who wish to work. The law also requires any employer of more than 100 persons to hire at least 2 percent of its employees from the government's list of workers with disabilities; however, the government did not monitor compliance. The government placed persons with disabilities in some public sector jobs. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The law grants citizenship to Arab applicants who have resided in the country for 15 years and non- Arab applicants who have resided in the country for 25 years. There was a lack of transparency in the naturalization process, and there were numerous reports that the citizenship law was not applied uniformly. For example, there were allegations that the government allowed foreign Sunni employees in the security services that had lived in the country for less than 15 years to apply for citizenship. There were also reports of Arab Shia that had resided in the country for more than 15 years and non-Arab foreign residents that had resided more than 25 years who had not been granted citizenship. Although the government asserts that the labor code for the private sector applies to all workers, the International Labor Organization has noted that, in practice, non-national migrant workers faced discrimination in the workplace. On March 21, a Sunni Pakistani civilian, Mohammed Riyadh, died of burns he suffered after Shia rioters firebombed his vehicle on March 7. Due to his ethnicity, attackers assumed the victim was an undercover police officer monitoring activity in the village. Ten Shia men were subsequently arrested and charged with murder. At year's end, the trial remained ongoing. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law does not criminalize homosexual relationships between consenting adults at least 21 years of age; however, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender activities were not socially accepted, and discrimination was common. There were no reports of violence specifically targeting individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The media reported on few cases of HIV/AIDS. There were no reports of societal violence or discrimination based on persons with HIV/AIDS. The government mandated screening of newly arrived migrant workers for infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS; migrant workers found to be HIV-positive faced deportation. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law grants workers, including noncitizens, a limited right to form and join unions. Members of the military are prohibited from joining unions. In the private sector, workers may form unions without prior authorization. Public sector workers may join private sector trade unions and professional societies, but trade unions are prohibited in the public sector. All unions must join the General Federation of Bahrain Trade Unions (GFBTU). The law allows for the establishment of additional federations; however, at year's end, there were none. According to the GFBTU, approximately 18 percent of the labor force was unionized, with employees from the six major state-owned firms making up 52 percent of total trade union membership. The law prohibits unions from engaging in political activities, although union officials participated in public forums regarding workers' rights. The GFBTU did not report any government interference in its activities. The law states that the right to strike is a legitimate means for workers to defend their rights and interests; however, this right was restricted. The law prohibits strikes in certain sectors the government deemed essential. They included the oil, gas, education, telecommunication, transportation, and health sectors, as well as pharmacies and bakeries. For workers permitted to strike, the law requires a lengthy process of conciliation followed by mandatory arbitration. Workers must approve a strike with a two-thirds majority in a secret ballot and provide two weeks' notification to the MOL before conducting a strike. There were four legal strikes and no illegal strikes during the year. Although government sources held that the arbitration provision did not preempt the right to strike, the law does not specify that a union may proceed to a strike vote if it disagrees with the arbitrator's decision. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively. Employers and the government are required to treat unions as independent judicial entities. In the private sector, the law prohibits antiunion discrimination and employer interference in union functions. The government generally protected this right. The law also provides protection to workers who are terminated for their union activities. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred, particularly among domestic workers and those working in the informal sector. There were no reports of forced or compulsory child labor. Foreign workers, who made up 56 percent of the workforce (76 percent of the private sector workforce), were particularly vulnerable to forced labor. In some cases, foreign workers arrived in the country under the sponsorship of an employer and then switched jobs, while continuing to pay a fee to their original sponsor, which made it difficult to monitor and control their employment. In numerous instances, employers withheld salaries from foreign workers for months or years and refused to grant them permission to leave the country. The government and the courts generally worked to rectify abuses that were brought to their attention. The fear of deportation or employer retaliation prevented many foreign workers from making complaints to authorities. The government conducted an extensive awareness campaign, yet many foreign workers were unaware of their rights under the law. The government published pamphlets on foreign resident workers' rights in several languages, provided manuals on these rights to local diplomatic missions, and operated a telephone hotline for victims. On August 1, new rules went into effect to allow migrant foreign workers (excluding domestic workers) to change jobs without employers' permission, subject to certain restrictions. LMRA officials report that some workers have changed employers under the new rules, although local NGOs asserted that many in the construction industry are unaware of this change. Labor laws do not fully cover domestic workers. There were numerous credible reports that domestic workers, especially women, were forced to work 12-to 16-hour days, had to give up their identity documents to employers, had little time off, were malnourished, and were subject to verbal and physical abuse, including sexual molestation and rape. Between 30 and 40 percent of attempted suicide cases in the government's psychiatric hospitals were foreign domestic workers. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits child labor and establishes protections for children from workplace exploitation, and the government effectively enforced these laws. Some children were believed to work in family-run businesses, but the practice was not widespread. The minimum age for employment is 16 years. The MOL makes rare exceptions on a case-by-case basis for juveniles between the ages of 14 and 16 who have an urgent need to assist in providing financial support for their families. Minors may not work in industries the Ministry of Health deems hazardous or unhealthy, including construction, mining, and oil refining. Minors may work no more than six hours a day and may be present on the employment premises no more than seven hours a day. These regulations do not apply to family-operated businesses in which the only other employees are family members. According to NGOs, MOL inspectors enforced child labor laws effectively in the industrial sector; child labor outside that sector was monitored less effectively. During the year, the ministry employed 43 labor inspectors. In March the MOL organized a workshop for law enforcement officers, judges, prosecutor, lawyers, NGOs, and employers to discuss child labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no national minimum wage. Unskilled foreign laborers in particular did not earn as much as their home countries' guidelines suggested. For example, the Philippines imposed a minimum wage of 80 dinars ($212) for domestic workers and required a contract signed by the two parties and approved by the Philippines Embassy. The law allows employers to consider benefits for foreign workers such as annual trips home, housing, and education bonuses as part of the salary. The MOL enforced the labor law and mandated acceptable conditions of work for all adult workers except domestic workers, including a maximum workweek of 48 hours, with special permission required by MOL for work in excess of 60 hours per week. By law Muslims may not be required to work more than six hours per day and 36 hours per week during Ramadan. Workers are entitled to one day of rest after six consecutive days of work and to annual paid vacations of 21 days after one year of service. Work in excess of 48 hours per week is to be paid at a rate of 25 percent above the normal wage if conducted during the day and 50 percent if completed at night. In practice many foreign domestic workers worked more than 60 hours per week and did not receive overtime. The labor inspectorate conducted periodic comprehensive inspections of private sector enterprises, including verification of employee hours and wages. According to NGOs, workplace safety standards were adequate, but inspection and compliance were substandard. The MOL set occupational safety and health standards and sporadically enforced them with a team of eight engineers from multiple specialties. Inspectors had the authority to levy fines and close worksites if employers did not improve conditions by specified deadlines. During the year, the media reported several workplace deaths owing to a combination of inadequate safety procedures, worker ignorance of those procedures, and inadequate safety standards for equipment. Exact figures were not available. Particularly hazardous sectors included construction and automotive repair. In 2008 trained inspectors visited labor camps to verify whether workers' accommodations met required safety and hygiene standards. During the year, inspectors visited 1,316 labor camps, of which 113 failed the inspection because of safety issues such as gas and electricity problems, overcrowding, poor hygiene, and general disrepair. Inspectors cited poor hygiene in warnings issued to 138 camps, as well as part of their rationale for the closure of 28 camps. The inspectors were authorized to inspect only premises that had a commercial registration, not private homes where most domestic workers resided and worked, or unregistered ``private'' camps where many unskilled laborers lived. Reports of employers and recruiting agencies beating or sexually abusing foreign women working in domestic positions were common. Numerous cases were reported to local embassies, the press, and police; most victims were too intimidated to sue their employers, although they had the right to do so. If the victim brings a suit against the employer, the plaintiff cannot leave the country for the duration of the case. The MWPS continued to support several victims who took their cases to court, but compensation to victims was reportedly low. When a worker lodges a complaint, the MOL opens an investigation and often takes remedial action. The MOL reportedly received 4,216 complaints during the year, including complaints from domestic workers. On average there were 11 complaints from domestic workers per month. Ministry officials stated that they were able to resolve most of these cases through mediation in the ministry. The public prosecutor took up the remaining cases for investigation. Complaints brought before the MOL that cannot be settled through arbitration must be referred to the court within 15 days. On January 4, the government delayed until May 1 implementation of a 2008 decree requiring companies to transport workers in buses as of January 1. A few companies continued to transport foreign resident workers in open trucks on benches, and accidents, sometimes fatal, resulted. Authorities issued 213 citations for violating the ban during May and June. Penalties ranged from 40 to 120 dinars ($106 to $318). A ministerial decree prohibits outdoor work between the hours of noon and 4 p.m. during July and August. Health officials reported a decrease in the number of heatstroke cases from 1,154 cases in 2007, prior to the decree, to 814 during the year. According to the MOL, it fined 29 companies 50 to 300 dinars ($132 to $792) per worker for allegedly violating the ban during the year, an increase from 21 in 2007. __________ EGYPT The National Democratic Party (NDP) has governed the Arab Republic of Egypt, which has a population of approximately 83 million, since the party's establishment in 1978. The NDP continued to dominate national politics by maintaining an overriding majority in the popularly elected People's Assembly and the partially elected Shura (Consultative) Council. The government derives its governing authority from the 1971 constitution and subsequent amendments. Executive authority resides with the president and the cabinet. In 2005 President Hosni Mubarak won a fifth consecutive six-year term with 88 percent of the vote in the country's first presidential election, which was marred by low voter turnout, charges of fraud, and government efforts to prevent opposition candidates from participating effectively. The civilian authorities did not always maintain effective control of security forces, which committed numerous serious abuses of human rights. The government's respect for human rights remained poor, and serious abuses continued in many areas. The government limited citizens' right to change their government and continued a state of emergency that has been in place almost continuously since 1967. Security forces used unwarranted lethal force and tortured and abused prisoners and detainees, in most cases with impunity. Prison and detention center conditions were poor. Security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained individuals, in some cases for political purposes, and kept them in prolonged pretrial detention. The executive branch exercised control over and pressured the judiciary. The government's respect for freedoms of association and religion remained poor during the year, and the government continued to restrict nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The government partially restricted freedom of expression. There were steps forward in specific areas. The government promulgated procedures for members of unrecognized religions, including the Baha'i faith, to obtain national identification documents and reportedly issued 17 such documents and 70 birth certificates to Baha'i during the year. The government also permitted the newly formed Real Estate Tax Collectors Union, the country's only independent labor union, to operate. For the first time in the country's history, a UN special rapporteur and an independent expert visited at the government's invitation. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government did not commit any politically motivated killings; however, security forces committed arbitrary or unlawful killings during the year. The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) claimed there were eight cases of arbitrary deprivation of life during the year as a result of police brutality. At year's end the government had not publicly taken corrective action to investigate or prosecute the April 2008 killing by security forces of four individuals during violent clashes between police and protesters in Mahalla el Kubra, a textile town in the Nile Delta, or the November 2008 killing by Central Security Forces (CSF) of three Bedouin tribesmen in the North Sinai during demonstrations that followed the CSF killing of a suspected drug smuggler. On March 16, an appeals court in the city of Suez convicted and sentenced police officer Alaa Maqsud to 15 years in prison for murdering Mohammed Ibrahim in 2007 in Suez following an altercation over Ibrahim's driver's license. On April 19, the El Menia Criminal Court sentenced police officer Ahmed Anwar to one year in prison for beating to death a pregnant woman, Mervat Abdel Sattar, in October 2008. On July 8, the Cairo Appeals Court upheld the verdict. At year's end Anwar was in prison. In November 2008 in Aswan, police officer Mohamed Labib allegedly shot and killed Abdel Wahab Abdel Razeq after entering the wrong apartment in pursuit of a drug dealer. Police detained Labib following the killing and his ensuing trial. On December 24, a court acquitted Labib and released him from custody. In June 2007 the EOHR reported that Ahmed Abdel Salam Ghanem died after an exchange of gunfire between supporters of the NDP and independent candidates. On May 27, the North Giza Criminal Court sentenced police officers Hassan Mohammed Hassan and Maher Hussein Mohammed to five years in prison for throwing Nasser Sediq Gadallah off a balcony in 2007. b. Disappearance.--The EOHR claimed there were 73 cases of disappearances from 1992 to April but noted that it had confirmed 17 of the individuals were no longer missing. According to the National Council for Human Rights, Ahmed Ismail Al Sheikh disappeared from a prison in Damanhour in the Delta in May 2008. The government and the prison gave the family contradictory accounts of his whereabouts. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--Article 42 of the constitution prohibits the infliction of ``physical or moral harm'' upon persons who have been arrested or detained; however, the law fails to account for mental or psychological abuse, abuse against persons who have not been formally accused, or abuse occurring for reasons other than securing a confession. Police, security personnel, and prison guards often tortured and abused prisoners and detainees, sometimes in cases of detentions under the Emergency Law, which authorizes incommunicado detention indefinitely, subject to a judge's ruling. The government rarely held security officials accountable, and officials often operated with impunity. Domestic and international human rights groups reported that the Ministry of Interior (MOI) State Security Investigative Service (SSIS), police, and other government entities continued to employ torture to extract information or force confessions. The EOHR documented 30 cases of torture during the year. In numerous trials defendants alleged that police tortured them during questioning. During the year activists and observers circulated some amateur cellphone videos documenting the alleged abuse of citizens by security officials. For example, on February 8, a blogger posted a video of two police officers, identified by their first names and last initials, sodomizing a bound naked man named Ahmed Abdel Fattah Ali with a bottle. On August 12, the same blogger posted two videos of alleged police torture of a man in a Port Said police station by the head of investigations, Mohammed Abu Ghazala. There was no indication that the government investigated either case. The government investigated torture complaints in some criminal cases and punished some offending police officers. Courts sentenced officers to terms of one to six years in prison and ordered officers to pay compensation to victims in some cases. According to the government, in 2008 the Office of the Public Prosecutor referred 38 cases of cruel treatment and torture to the criminal courts and one to a disciplinary tribunal; the prosecutor also requested administrative sanctions on defendants in 27 cases. According to the government, during the year the public prosecutor referred nine cases of cruel treatment to the criminal courts and one case to a disciplinary tribunal; it also requested administrative sanctions in 10 cases. Of these cases, according to the government, courts tried and convicted one police officer for torture, acquitted another officer, and had not ruled in two other cases in the first six months of the year. Also in the first six months of the year, the time period for which the government provided information, 16 police officers faced MOI disciplinary action for committing abuse or torture. In December 2008 the official government-run news service reported that the MOI's deputy minister for legal affairs, Hamid Rashid, told the People's Assembly that the ministry had suspended 280 police officers from duty due to charges of human rights violations and was investigating the charges. Rashid did not specify the time period over which the MOI actions occurred. Rashid also told the People's Assembly that the ministry had discharged 1,164 lower-ranking police officers for misconduct and abuse of power. Police and the SSIS reportedly employed torture methods such as stripping and blindfolding victims; suspending victims by the wrists and ankles in contorted positions or from a ceiling or door frame with feet just touching the floor; beating victims with fists, whips, metal rods, or other objects; using electric shocks; dousing victims with cold water; sleep deprivation; and sexual abuse, including sodomy. There was evidence that security officials sexually assaulted some victims or threatened to rape them or their family members. Human rights groups reported that the lack of legally required written police records often effectively blocked investigations. During the year human rights groups and the media documented cases of abuse and harassment of journalists and bloggers who reported on controversial topics. According to multiple NGO sources, police tortured Mona Thabet twice, first on January 19 at a police station in the Shubra neighborhood of Cairo after she filed a complaint regarding the alleged police torture of her husband, and again on February 13 at her home in the same neighborhood. The alleged torture included beating, shaving her head, burning with cigarettes, and cutting. At year's end the government had closed its investigation, citing lack of evidence. In May 2008, according to multiple NGO sources, police officers in Mansoura tortured by beating and electric shocks 17-year-old Rami Ibrahim to force his confession to the rape and murder of a four-year- old child. On April 25, Mansoura Juvenile Court convicted Ibrahim and sentenced him to 15 years in prison; however, on December 30, an appeals court acquitted Ibrahim. In July, according to NGO sources, security forces used electric shocks and sleep deprivation to torture members of an alleged terrorist cell arrested for allegedly smuggling weapons to Gaza, among other charges. On March 28, Damanhur Criminal Court sentenced police corporal Ahmed Antar Ibrahim to six years' imprisonment for his April 2008 assault inside a courthouse in Kafr Al Dawwar on the director of the Al Nadim Center for the Psychological Rehabilitation of Torture Victims and antitorture activist, Magda Adly, and her colleague, Mona Hamed. Ibrahim subsequently confessed that police intelligence officer Ahmad Maklad of the Kafr Al Dawwar Police Station ordered him to attack Adly. Although implicated in the Hussein family's torture allegations, Maklad was never investigated. Ibrahim's retrial began in December. Authorities did not publicly announce investigating or taking any corrective action in the following 2007 cases: the case of 100 detainees affiliated with the Islamic Jihad, who alleged that police officers tortured and abused them; the alleged detention and torture of Fawzi Hassan and his children; the illegal detention of 40 individuals in Alexandria; and the torture by assistant investigations officer Ashraf Morgan of lawyer Ahmed Abdel Aziz. Throughout the year the MOI awarded compensation to members of Islamic groups consistent with court orders from previous years. On March 26, a judge released police officer Islam Nabih from prison. Nabih was sentenced to a three-year prison term in 2007 for assaulting and sodomizing Cairo minibus driver Imad El-Kabir in 2006. At year's end Nabih had rejoined the MOI as a police officer. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions and conditions in detention centers remained poor. According to observers, prison cells were overcrowded, with a lack of medical care, proper hygiene, food, clean water, and proper ventilation. Tuberculosis was widespread; abuse was common, especially of juveniles in adult facilities; and guards brutalized prisoners. The government did not publicly announce any investigations into the June 2008 alleged beating of detainees from the El-Mahallah demonstrations; the July 2008 alleged beating of a foreign detainee; or the killing of one prisoner and injury of 25 others during a September 2008 prison riot in Assiut, following the alleged torture of a prisoner. Although separate prison facilities existed for men, women, and juveniles, adults were not always separated from juveniles. Visits and visitors to prisoners accused of political crimes or terrorism were subject to restrictions. Pretrial detainees were sometimes held with convicted prisoners. The government did not permit visits to prisons or other places of detention by independent human rights observers during the year, despite repeated requests from the International Committee of the Red Cross and other domestic and international human rights monitors. Some prisons remained completely closed to the public. As required by law, the public prosecutor continued to inspect all regular prisons during the year. In November 2008 the People's Assembly Committee on Human Rights announced its decision to visit police stations randomly and inspect detention centers to determine whether they complied with human rights standards. According to the National Council for Human Rights (NCHR), a committee delegation visited four police stations in Cairo and reported on overcrowding and lack of ventilation. According to the NCHR, in April officials from the Office of the Public Prosecutor visited 80 police stations and detention centers throughout the country. SSIS detention centers were excluded from all inspections. The government reported inspecting 63 prisons and 298 police stations during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, during the year police and security forces engaged in such practices, including continued large- scale detentions of hundreds of individuals without charge under the Emergency Law, which was extended in April 2008 for two years. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The MOI controls local police forces, which operate in large cities and governorates; the SSIS, which conducts investigations; and the CSF, which maintains public order. SSIS and CSF officers are responsible for law enforcement at the national level and for providing security for infrastructure and key officials, both domestic and foreign. Single-mission law enforcement agencies, such as the Tourist and Antiquities Police and the Antinarcotics General Administration, also work at the national level. The security forces operated under a central chain of command and were considered generally effective in combating crime and terrorism and maintaining public order. There was no systematic prosecution of security personnel who committed human rights abuses. According to observers, there was widespread petty corruption in the police force, especially below senior levels. The government claimed to investigate corruption and other instances of police malfeasance using a nontransparent internal affairs mechanism, but it failed to investigate many credible allegations of torture and mistreatment by police and security forces. Courts convicted at least five police officers in murder cases and three in torture cases. Working with the UN Development Program, the government continued to provide human rights training for thousands of judicial and law enforcement officials. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Individuals may be arrested and detained under the Emergency Law or the penal code, both of which give the government broad powers. The Emergency Law allows arrest without a warrant and detention of an individual without charge for as long as 30 days, after which a detainee may demand a court hearing to challenge the legality of the detention order. A detainee may resubmit a motion for a hearing at one- month intervals thereafter; however, there is no limit to the detention period if a judge continues to uphold the order or if the detainee fails to exercise the right to a hearing, and there is no possibility of bail. Many detainees under the Emergency Law remained incommunicado in state security detention facilities without access to family members or to lawyers before their cases were transferred to trial, and some faced torture in detention. Arrests under the penal code occurred openly and with warrants issued by a district prosecutor or judge. A prosecutor must bring charges within 48 hours following arrest or release the suspect. Detainees under the penal code sometimes were not informed promptly of charges against them. Authorities may hold a suspect for a maximum of six months while they investigate the case. There was a functioning system of bail for persons detained under the penal code. In criminal cases, defendants have the right to counsel promptly after arrest and access to family members at the discretion of the court; however, they often faced obstacles and were unable to secure regular access to either. Notwithstanding the prevailing state of emergency and the government's use of the Emergency Law's provisions, the government continued to rely on the penal code for the majority of criminal investigations and prosecutions. In recent years authorities detained thousands of persons administratively under the Emergency Law on suspicion of terrorism or engaging in prohibited political activity, including dozens of terrorism suspects in the Sinai in 2006. Amnesty International (AI), the Human Rights Association for the Assistance of Prisoners (HRAAP), and other NGOs estimated that the government continued to hold approximately 5,000 persons in administrative detention without charge or trial, most of whom were members of Islamic extremist groups arrested in the 1990s. The quasi-governmental NCHR estimated that 1,000 detainees remained in prison under the Emergency Law. An estimated 300 Bedouins remained in detention. Observers claimed that security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained Bedouin in the Sinai without charge, sometimes en masse after security incidents. During the year there were cases of pretrial detention exceeding legal limits. Failure to implement judicial rulings regarding the release of detainees remained a problem. Amnesty.--On October 5, President Mubarak pardoned 150 prisoners on the occasion of the October 6 holiday commemorating the 1973 Arab- Israeli war. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but in practice the judiciary was subject to executive influence and corruption. The president may invoke the Emergency Law to refer any criminal case to the emergency or military courts, where the accused does not receive most of the constitutional protections of the civilian judicial system. The government continued to use the Emergency Law to try nonsecurity cases in these courts and to restrict many other basic rights. The constitution provides for the independence and immunity of judges and forbids interference by other authorities in the exercise of their judicial functions. The government generally respected judicial independence in nonpolitical cases in civilian courts. Emergency courts were not independent, as the Emergency Law stipulates that all emergency court verdicts are subject to the president's review and allows the president to modify sentences handed down by the judges. The Emergency Law also allows the president to replace two of an emergency court's three civilian judges with military judges. The president appoints all judges upon recommendation of the Higher Judicial Council, a constitutional body composed of senior judges. Judges receive tenure, limited only by mandatory retirement at age 70. Only the Higher Judicial Council may dismiss judges for cause, such as corruption. Headed by the president of the Court of Cassation, the council regulates judicial promotions and transfers. In the civil court system, there are criminal courts, civil courts, administrative courts, family courts, and the Supreme Constitutional Court. There are three levels of regular criminal courts: primary courts; appeals courts; and the Court of Cassation, which represents the final stage of criminal or civil appeals. Civil courts hear civil cases, and administrative courts hear cases contesting government actions or procedures; both systems have upper-level courts to hear appeals. The Supreme Constitutional Court hears challenges to the constitutionality of laws or verdicts in any of the courts. Emergency courts share jurisdiction with military courts over crimes affecting national security. The president can appoint civilian judges to emergency courts upon the recommendation of the minister of justice or military judges upon the recommendation of the minister of defense. Military courts were established under the code of military justice Law No. 25 of 1966. Under the code of military justice, the president can refer civilians to military courts for certain offenses in the penal code, such as acts harmful to the security of the government or deliberate destruction of property to harm national security. A 2007 amendment to the law includes an appeal mechanism, which lawyers were sometimes able to use to bring cases on behalf of their clients. Military verdicts were subject to review by other military judges and confirmation by the president, who in practice usually delegated the review function to a senior military officer. Defense attorneys claimed that they were not given sufficient time to prepare and that military judges tended to rush cases involving large numbers of defendants. On March 10, an administrative court rejected a motion by Muslim Brotherhood (MB) second deputy chairman Khairat El Shater and 24 other civilian MB members contesting their transfer to a military tribunal. Shater and 17 MB members appealed the decision before the Supreme Military Appeals Court. The application was rejected on November 18. In April 2008 a closed military tribunal had sentenced El Shater and his colleagues, seven in absentia, to prison terms ranging from three to 10 years on charges of money laundering. On December 14, nine MB members involved in the case were released from a military prison after serving their full three-year terms. El Shater and 13 other MB members convicted in the case remained in prison at year's end. The government stated that referral to emergency courts usually was limited to terrorism or national security cases and major drug trafficking cases. Trial Procedures.--Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence. There are no juries. Trials are usually public; however, observers needed government permission to attend court sessions. Human rights activists were generally able to attend trials in civilian courts but were excluded from most military trials. Defendants have the right to counsel in civilian courts, and the government provides a lawyer at the state's expense if the defendant does not have counsel; however, detainees in certain high-security prisons continued to allege that they were denied access to counsel or that such access was delayed until trial, thus denying them time to prepare an adequate defense. Defendants in military courts also have the right to counsel, but lawyers complained they did not have full access to their clients. The law allows defendants to be present and to question witnesses against them and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. The law provides defendants and their attorneys the right to access government- held evidence against them. In civilian courts defendants have the right of appeal up to the Court of Cassation. Sentences by military courts and death sentences in civilian criminal courts are subject to confirmation by the president. The president may alter or annul a decision of an emergency court, including a decision to release a defendant. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--The government held detainees, including many MB activists, for several weeks to several months or longer and did not permit international humanitarian organizations access to political prisoners. The government arrested and detained hundreds of MB members and supporters without formal charge or trial. According to the government, it arrested MB members because of their ``illegitimate actions and communications with foreign parties relevant to security and public order.'' According to public statements by the MB, approximately 217 of their leaders and members remained in prison at year's end. On February 18, a court released Al-Ghad (Tomorrow) party leader and 2005 presidential runner-up Ayman Nour on medical parole. On November 4, Nour announced that the government had denied him permission to travel to the United States. The government reportedly restricted Nour's ability to work as a lawyer or journalist, to sell property, and to open a bank account. In May the government began a new wave of arrests of MB leaders and members, who faced charges including membership in a prohibited international organization and money laundering. On November 17, the public prosecutor released on bail MB Guidance Council member and secretary general of the Arab Doctors Union Abdel-Monem Abou el- Fotouh. Fotouh had been held without formal charge since June 28. Approximately 20 members of the prohibited Hizb al-Tahrir al-Islami (Islamic Liberation Party) remained in prison at year's end. In 2004 the Supreme State Security Emergency Court convicted 26 men linked to Hizb al-Tahrir for belonging to a prohibited organization. Several of the defendants, including three British citizens, alleged they had been tortured to compel them to sign confessions. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Individuals had access to civil courts for lawsuits relating to human rights violations, and filed such lawsuits; however, the courts were not entirely independent, especially in politically high-profile cases. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution provides for the privacy of the home, correspondence, telephone calls, and other means of communication; however, the Emergency Law suspends the constitutional provisions regarding the right to privacy, and the government used the Emergency Law to limit these rights. Furthermore, authorities in terrorism cases may disregard constitutional protections of privacy of communications and personal residences. Under the law, police must obtain warrants or court orders before undertaking searches and wiretaps, but some human rights observers alleged that the government routinely violated the law. Police officers who conducted searches without proper warrants were subject to criminal penalties, although courts seldom imposed such penalties. The Emergency Law empowers the government to place wiretaps, intercept mail, and search persons or places without warrants. Security agencies frequently placed political activists, suspected subversives, journalists, foreigners, and writers under surveillance, screened their correspondence (especially international mail), searched them and their homes, and confiscated personal property. On July 10 and 11, according to NGO sources, police broke into the home of Alaa Al-Gamal, a journalist from the independent weekly newspaper Sawt Al-Uma who had written articles critical of the government. In March 2008, according to the Al Nadim Center and the Association for Human Rights Legal Aid (AHRLA), police chief of investigations Ali Kedr and officers Hossam Abdel Moneim and Mahmoud Al Deeb of the Menia Al Nasr Police Station allegedly raided the home of private citizen Ibrahim El Sayed Metwally because of a debt he owed. The officers severely beat and verbally abused Metwally's mother and siblings. Metwally's sister claimed the officers detained her, beat her with a stick, and threatened to strip her. In May 2008 press reports stated that the Al Daqahleya Public Prosecution had begun an investigation. There were no further updates as of year's end. Authorities did not investigate the 2007 home raid of writer and blogger Mohamed Mossad Yaqout. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government partially restricted these rights in practice through harassment, censorship, and arrests and detentions, sometimes under the Emergency Law and in other instances under provisions of the penal code that prohibit incitement of discrimination on grounds of sex, origin, language, religion or belief, and acts damaging to an individual's honor or a family's good name. Nevertheless, citizens and journalists openly expressed their views on a wide range of political and social issues, including vigorous criticism of senior government officials and policies and direct criticism of the president in the independent press, on satellite television, and on blogs. During the year there was public debate about political reform, succession, human rights, corruption, press freedom, and related issues. During the year a number of opposition political activists, journalists, and NGOs continued to advocate for political reform and openly criticized the government. Government actions--including arrests, wide-scale detentions of MB members, harassment of independent journalists and activists, and government restrictions on civil society organizations--led many observers to charge that the government sought to curtail criticism and activism. The penal code and the press and publications law govern press issues. The constitution restricts ownership of newspapers to public or private legal entities, corporate bodies, and political parties. There were numerous restrictions on legal entities seeking to establish newspapers, including a limit of 10 percent ownership by any individual; the government apparently enforced this limit unevenly. The government owned stock in the three largest daily newspapers, which generally followed the government line, and the president appointed their top editors. The government also controlled the licensing, printing, and distribution of newspapers, including independent papers and those of opposition political parties that frequently criticized the government and gave greater prominence to human rights abuses than did state-run newspapers. The daily independent newspapers Al-Masry Al- Youm, Al-Shurouq, Al-Dostour and Al-Youm Al-Sabya, which focused on domestic politics, offered significant, critical coverage of controversial topics. In July the independent paper Al-Badeel closed for financial reasons. NGO observers estimated that during the year the government revoked the licenses of at least five news publications. In April a court revoked the license of Ibdaa magazine, published by the Ministry of Culture, in a suit filed by a private individual that accused the magazine of publishing a poem insulting to religion. On June 15, the Supreme Administrative Court reversed the decision and reinstated the license. The Ministry of Information owned and operated all ground-based domestic television and radio stations. Independent satellite stations Al Hayat, Al-Mihwar, Dream TV, and OTV/OnTV operated without direct government control. The government blocked reception of at least one foreign channel, the Iranian Al-Aalam satellite channel. Security personnel continued to detain, harass, and assault journalists during the year. On March 16, a court in Damanhour sentenced Al Fagr journalist Kamal Murad to six months' imprisonment and fined him 100 pounds ($18) for allegedly insulting a police officer in Rahmaniyah in June 2008. On July 1, a Damanhour appeals court overturned the prison sentence but increased Murad's fine to 200 pounds ($36). Authorities took no action to investigate the alleged assault on Murad by Rahmaniya police officers Mohammed Badrawy, Amr Allam, and Mohamed Basiouni. Murad had reportedly been taking photos of police beating farmers in Ezbat Mohram to coerce them to sign leases with a local businessman. Human rights organizations alleged that the officers arrested Murad because he had previously reported on the 2007 high-profile police torture case of Imad El-Kabir; the officers reportedly referred to Murad as ``the one who sent the officer to jail for three years.'' During the year opposition party and other independent newspapers published articles critical of the president and foreign heads of state generally without being charged or harassed. Private individuals continued to file politically and nonpolitically motivated suits against journalists. Individuals filed libel suits under the portion of the press and publication law that forbids malicious and unsubstantiated reporting. Under the law, an editor in chief could be considered criminally responsible for libel contained in any portion of a newspaper, and journalists faced fines of as much as 20,000 pounds ($3,650) and as long as five years in prison for criticizing foreign leaders or the president. The Moltaqa Forum for Development and Human Rights Dialogue reported that between January and March 57 journalists from 13 newspapers appeared in court in 28 lawsuits. At year's end, according to a domestic NGO, an estimated 60 defamation suits, some of which were filed by NDP members, were pending against the leading independent newspaper, Al-Masry Al-Youm. On January 31, a Cairo appeals court upheld fines against four independent newspaper editors for publishing articles ``insulting'' senior ruling NDP officials but struck down the one-year prison sentences imposed in a 2007 civil ruling. On February 10, a court fined independent newspaper editor Yasser Barakat 40,000 pounds ($7,290) for allegedly defaming member of parliament Mustafa Bakry in a series of 2007 and 2008 articles criticizing Bakry's government connections and business dealings. On June 24, the Cairo Criminal Court sentenced Barakat to six months in prison for allegedly defaming Bakry in a 2007 newspaper article. On July 6, police arrested and imprisoned Barakat to carry out the sentence; however, the public prosecutor released Barakat from prison on July 11, pending the case's appeal. In April police in Minya arrested Mounir Saad Hanna, a local government clerk, for writing an unpublished poem that allegedly insulted President Mubarak. A local court subsequently sentenced him to three years in prison. On July 18, a Minya appeals court acquitted Hanna, and he was released on July 20. In June the MOI filed assault charges against Alaa Al-Gamal, a journalist at the independent weekly Sawt Al-Uma. Al-Gamal had written a series of articles critical of the MOI. At year's end the case remained under investigation by the Public Prosecutor's Office. On July 4, a Cairo court fined Mohammed Barakat, a reporter for the independent daily Al-Dustour, 15,000 pounds ($2,730) for defaming NDP official Ahmed Ezz in an article speculating whether Ezz played a role in the July 2008 murder of Lebanese pop star Suzanne Tamim. Observers believed the court's decision was based on the article's lack of sourcing and was not politically motivated. On January 27, the public prosecutor referred a criminal case against Saad Eddin Ibrahim, founding chairman of the Ibn Khaldun Center for Development Studies, to the State Security Prosecutor's Office for investigation. In November 2008 Hossam Mustafa, leader of the Free Republican political party, brought the criminal case against Ibrahim for allegedly committing ``espionage'' by publishing articles asserting that Ibrahim had convinced a foreign government to withhold economic assistance to the country because of lack of progress on reform. On May 25, a Cairo appeals court reversed an August 2008 court ruling against Ibrahim in a civil lawsuit by an NDP activist for ``tarnishing Egypt's image'' in a series of articles and speeches on democracy. The ruling overturned Ibrahim's two-year prison sentence and 10,000 pounds ($1,821) fine. The appeals court also ruled that other pending civil lawsuits against Ibrahim on similar grounds be referred to the public prosecutor for potential investigation. Ibrahim lived in self-imposed exile outside the country since 2007. The Emergency Law authorizes censorship for reasons of public safety and national security. Domestic media practiced self-censorship due to fear of government reprisal. The government regularly confiscated publications by Islamists and other critics of the state, and it increasingly ceded confiscatory authority to government- controlled Al-Azhar University and authorities acted on the university's recommendations to confiscate publications In April 2008 the Nilesat network, a government-owned satellite transmission company, stopped the broadcast of Al-Hiwar, a privately owned London-based channel, without prior notice. Al-Hiwar had featured talk shows such as People's Rights, which had hosted prominent government critics such as Ibrahim Eissa. At year's end the network remained prohibited. On February 26, a Cairo court fined editors Magdy El Galad and Abass El Tarabily of the independent newspapers Al-Masry Al-Youm and Al Wafd and three reporters from the newspapers 10,000 pounds ($1,820) each for violating a press prohibition on reporting on the murder trial of former member of parliament Hisham Talat Mustafa; on May 21, Mustafa was convicted of ordering the July 2008 murder of Lebanese pop singer Suzanne Tamin. In June author Mohammed Al-Sharkawy went on trial in connection with a lawsuit filed by an NDP member accusing him of using profanity and depicting nudity in his graphic novel Metro. Observers believed the suit was politically motivated due to the novel's criticism of the NDP and the government. On November 21, a court fined Sharkawy 5,000 pounds ($910) and prohibited the novel. On December 27, a court fined Adel Hamouda, the editor of the independent weekly newspaper Al-Fagr 10,000 pounds ($1,820) for defaming NDP Assistant Secretary-General Ahmed Ezz. The paper had written that Ezz compelled his wife to resign from a position in the NDP. Observers believed the decision was politically motivated. Hamouda was one of the four editors fined by an appeals court in January for insulting a senior NDP official. According to one NGO observer, the government prohibited three books during the International Book Fair in Cairo. In April 2008 authorities confiscated 5,000 copies of a book written by former senior police officer Amr Afifi. The book discussed legal procedures relating to interactions with police officers, including investigations, arrests, and inspections, and it explained citizens' rights vis-a-vis security forces. Afifi subsequently fled the country and remained in self-imposed exile at year's end. On October 5, the government's Supreme Press Council revoked the license of the weekly newspaper Al-Balagh Al-Gadid, effectively shutting it down. The action was in response to an article in the newspaper alleging that police questioned a group of named popular male actors for engaging in a gay prostitution ring. On October 6, the newspaper's editor stated publicly that his source was a senior police officer, but observers believed the paper had no evidence for its allegations. Throughout the year the government routinely searched imported written material to confiscate items deemed insulting to religious sensibilities. Internet Freedom.--According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union statistics, approximately 14 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet, which the government actively promoted through low-cost access. According to the government, during the year there were more than 160,000 blogs in the country, and approximately 20 percent of them focused on politics, 15 percent on art and culture, 7 percent on religion, 6 percent on personal issues, 4 percent on science and technology, and 2 percent on social issues. According to the government, 68 percent of blogs were in Arabic, 10 percent in English, and 20 percent combined Arabic and English. On rare occasions during the year, the government blocked access to some Web sites and monitored the Internet. According to Arabic Network for Human Rights Information (ANHRI), during the year the government continued to implement an August 2008 regulation requiring Internet cafes to gather personal information of Internet users, including names, e-mail addresses, and telephone numbers. During the year police harassed, detained, and allegedly abused certain bloggers and Internet activists. On January 20, a court fined blogger Tamer Mabrouk 42,500 pounds ($7,750) for defaming the Trust Chemical Company by accusing it of polluting a lake near the Suez Canal. On May 26, an appeals court upheld the decision, reduced the fine to 2,500 pounds ($460), and ordered Mabrouk to pay the company 40,000 pounds ($7,290) in compensation. On February 6, the SSIS detained pro-Palestinian blogger and activist Dia Eddin Gad under the Emergency Law without charge after he insulted President Mubarak on his blog as a ``Zionist, an agent for Israel, and a loser.'' On March 23, the ANHRI released a public statement accusing the government of placing Gad in solitary confinement, depriving him of medical care, and threatening to kill him. On March 27, the SSIS released Gad. According to the government, the SSIS arrested Gad under the Emergency Law because his activities posed a threat to public order. On June 30, customs officials held blogger Wael Abbas for 13 hours at Cairo International Airport upon his return from a conference in Sweden where he had criticized the government. Customs officials seized some of his personal property, including his laptop computer. On July 22, the SSIS detained three MB-affiliated bloggers--Magdy Saad, Abd El Rahman Ayyash, and Ahmed Abu Khalil--and held them for appoximately a week before releasing them. The three bloggers had criticized trials of MB members in military courts and voiced support for MB detainees. In October 2008 the SSIS arrested blogger Hany Nazir under the Emergency Law following his blogging on allegedly sensitive religious issues. The MOI rejected several court orders for his release after his incarceration began. In August the ANHRI publicly asserted that prison officials attempted to pressure Nazir to convert to Islam in exchange for his release. At year's end Nazir remained in prison. According to the government, the SSIS continued to detain Nazir under the Emergency Law for his own security, in light of public anger toward him because of his blogging. On November 11, a court sentenced blogger Wael Abbas in absentia to six months in prison for allegedly damaging a neighbor's Internet line. Observers believed the court decision was a politically motivated reaction to Abbas' blogging, which was often critical of the government. At year's end Abbas remained free, pending his attendance at a subsequent court session. On March 10, the SSIS released blogger and activist Mohammed Adel, who was previously affiliated with the MB. The SSIS had held Adel in detention since November 2008. SSIS officers allegedly seized many of Adel's books and CDs from his home and tortured him in detention. Adel's blog called for MB detainees to be released. According to the government, the SSIS arrested him for illegally entering Palestinian territory. Blogger Karim Amer, jailed in 2006 and convicted and sentenced in 2007 to four years in prison for ``denigrating religion'' and insulting President Mubarak, remained in prison at year's end. On December 22, a Cairo court rejected Amer's appeal. Blogger and activist Musad Abu Fagr, jailed in 2007 under the Emergency Law following posts about the Sinai Bedouins' difficulties, remained in prison at year's end. The government blocked several court orders for his release. On September 29, the government detained Swedish journalist and blogger Per Bjorklund at the airport, preventing him from entering the country, and deported him on October 1. Bjorklund had lived in the country for the previous three years and had written critically about labor issues. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government restricted academic freedom through various means. It selected deans rather than permitting the faculty to elect them, justifying the measure as a way to combat Islamist influence on campus. It also restricted some academic travel. Professors published articles in academic journals covering a wide range of topics, but observers assessed that professors practiced degrees of self-censorship regarding commentary on sensitive issues such as the military, the security forces, and government corruption. The Ministry of Culture must approve all scripts and final productions of plays and films. The ministry censored foreign films to be shown in theaters but was more lenient regarding the same films in videocassette or DVD format. Government censors ensured that foreign films made in the country portrayed the country in a favorable light. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly, but the government restricted the exercise of this right. Citizens must obtain approval from the MOI before holding public meetings, rallies, and protest marches. Protests may not be held in or near places of worship, per a 2008 ministerial decree. The MOI refused to grant permits for some political events, and the government tightly controlled public demonstrations, including some meetings on private property and university campuses. In January, during attacks on Gaza, the government prevented many demonstrations from proceeding in Cairo by deploying large numbers of riot police to stop protesters from gathering and to forcibly break up demonstrations. The government generally permitted such demonstrations to proceed outside Cairo. At some demonstrations throughout the country, police and protesters clashed, resulting in injuries to both sides. During the January demonstrations, police arrested several hundred protesters, releasing most of them after holding them between two and 24 hours. Most detentions did not exceed 24 hours. A large percentage of the protesters arrested were reportedly MB members. On January 2, at a demonstration in downtown Cairo, police beat unconscious an Al-Masry Al-Youm journalist covering the event. The journalist was treated at a local hospital and subsequently discharged. On January 9, the MB and other opposition groups organized a ``day of anger and solidarity with Gaza,'' and thousands of protesters demonstrated in several cities outside Cairo. More than 50,000 protesters demonstrated outside the central mosque in Alexandria. On January 9, police and approximately 1,000 protesters clashed in El- Arish in the Northern Sinai, resulting in injuries to both sides. Protesters reportedly damaged shops and cars. Throughout the year authorities sometimes showed little tolerance for peaceful demonstrations by opposition groups and activists protesting government policies. Police sometimes responded to political demonstrations in large numbers to contain the size and effectiveness of the demonstrations, and they sometimes used excessive force. In certain demonstrations police detained suspected organizers, some of whom alleged mistreatment in detention. On February 6, SSIS officers arrested Egyptian-German pro- Palestinian activist, student, blogger, and filmmaker Philip Rizk following a small, peaceful rally in Ismailia to call for opening the Rafah border crossing with Gaza. On February 11, the SSIS released Rizk after subjecting him to physical and mental abuse. According to the government, the SSIS arrested Rizk because he had not followed procedures to request and receive permission to hold the rally. In the seven days before a planned strike on April 6, police arrested approximately 15 activists affiliated with the April 6 Movement, who were planning the strike, and generally released them within 24 hours. Police reportedly beat some of the activists in custody and while breaking up an April 4 courthouse demonstration in the Delta protesting some of the arrests. Throughout the year police briefly detained members of the April 6 Movement who distributed leaflets and planned political events. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of association; however, the government significantly restricted the exercise of this right. The minister of social solidarity has the authority to dissolve NGOs by decree, and the law requires NGOs to obtain permission from the government before accepting foreign funds, apart from donations from foreign governments with established development programs in the country. On April 27, the EOHR received a letter from the Ministry of Social Solidarity reminding it of the ministry's right to dissolve the organization for receiving unauthorized foreign funding. The EOHR had received funding from a Moroccan NGO for a Cairo conference in January on press freedom. On May 10, the EOHR received a letter from the ministry stating that the ministry did not intend to dissolve the EOHR. On September 27, security forces arrested 15 MB members in three provinces (Beni Suef, Giza, and Sharqiya) on charges of recruiting for an illegal organization. On November 21, the MB announced that a Cairo court had ordered the release of Gamal Heshmat and nine others. On November 26, the MB announced that the MOI released Heshmat on medical grounds. Throughout the year the Ministry of Social Solidarity delayed or did not grant permission for some NGOs to receive foreign funding. In one case the ministry prevented an NGO from distributing 1,100 human rights-themed children's books produced through a foreign government grant. Throughout the year the government prevented some NGOs from holding human rights-themed conferences at hotels in different cities. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of belief and the practice of religious rites; however, the government restricted the exercise of these rights. According to the constitution, Islam is the official state religion and Shari'a (Islamic law) the primary source of legislation. Religious practices that conflict with the government's interpretation of Shari'a are prohibited. The government continued to sponsor ``reconciliation sessions'' following sectarian attacks, which generally prevented the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes against Copts and precluded their recourse to the judicial system for restitution. This practice contributed to a climate of impunity that encouraged further assaults. Members of non- Muslim religious minorities officially recognized by the government generally worshipped without harassment; however, Christians and members of the Baha'i faith, which the government does not recognize, faced personal and collective discrimination in many areas. Religious groups seeking recognition must submit a request to the MOI, which determines whether in its view the group would pose a threat to national security or social order. The MOI also consulted leading religious figures, particularly the pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the sheikh of Al-Azhar. The last official recognition of a religious group occurred in 1990. The government does not recognize marriages of citizens adhering to faiths other than Christianity, Judaism, or Islam nor does it recognize conversions of Muslim-born citizens to other religions. On June 13, the Cairo Administrative Court ruled against Maher El- Gohary, a convert from Islam to Christianity, who had filed suit on the basis of constitutional guarantees of religious freedom to compel the government to issue him an identity document listing his religion as Christian. The law prohibits blasphemy and the ``denigration of religions.'' Although there were no reported prosecutions, the government detained members of religious groups whose practices deviated from mainstream Islamic beliefs and whose activities were believed to jeopardize communal harmony. The law prohibits Baha'i institutions and community activities, and the Baha'i religion is not recognized. On March 16, the Supreme Administrative Court dismissed a legal challenge filed by an Islamist lawyer to block the implementation of a January 2008 court decision directing the MOI to issue identification documents to members of the country's Baha'i community. Previously, all such documents specified the holder's religion as Muslim, Christian, or Jewish. Many Baha'is were unwilling to accept such a document because they considered that it would require them to give false testimony concerning their faith. On April 14, the MOI published a decree authorizing members of ``nonrecognized religions'' to obtain identification documents with a dash in the mandatory religious identification space. Egyptian Baha'is reported that the government issued 17 national identification cards and 70 birth certificates to Baha'is during the year. The government failed to redress laws and government practices that discriminate against Christians. The law requires non-Muslims to obtain a presidential decree to build new worship facilities. MOI regulations, issued in 1934 under the Al-Ezabi decree, specify 10 conditions that the government must consider before a presidential decree for construction of a new non-Muslim place of worship can be issued. The conditions include the requirement that the distance between a church and a mosque be at least 100 meters (328 feet) and that approval of the neighboring Muslim community be obtained before a permit to build a new church may be issued. The law also requires non-Muslims to obtain a governor's approval to repair, renovate, or expand existing church complexes. While Decree 291 of 2005 delegates this authority, which was formerly held by the president, to the governors, loopholes in the law were exploited to prevent its implementation. For example, some local authorities refused to process applications without ``supporting documents'' that were virtually impossible to obtain (e.g., a presidential decree authorizing the existence of a church that had been established during the country's monarchical era). Church and lay leaders maintained that security forces blocked them from using permits that had been issued and, at times, denied them permits for repairs to church buildings and for the supply of water and electricity to existing church facilities. As a result, congregations generally continued to wait years to be able to build and repair church properties. The constitution requires elementary and secondary public schools to offer religious instruction. Public and private schools provided religious instruction according to the faith of the student. The government did not carry out forced conversions; however, there were again claims of Muslim men forcing Coptic women and girls to convert to Islam. Reports of such cases were disputed and often included inflammatory allegations and categorical denials of kidnapping and rape. Most cases involved a female Copt who converted to Islam when she married a male Muslim. Government authorities detained and harassed some converts from Islam to Christianity and pressured them to revert to Islam. On June 15, the Court of Cassation granted Kamilia Lotfy custody of her 14-year-old twin sons, overruling a September 2008 Alexandria Appeals Court decision that gave custody to the boys' father following his conversion from Christianity to Islam. The Court of Cassation ruling affirmed for the first time the right of a non-Muslim to retain custody of children until the age of 15 following the conversion of a spouse to Islam. Human rights groups, however, criticized the court for failing to address the policy that considers children younger than 15, whose parents convert from Islam, to be Muslim. Neither the constitution nor the civil and penal codes prohibit proselytizing, but police harassed or arrested some individuals proselytizing on charges of ridiculing or insulting the ``heavenly religions'' (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) or inciting sectarian strife. Jehovah's Witness leadership reported that authorities monitored the homes, telephones, and meeting places of members of Jehovah's Witnesses. The government also reportedly maintained regular and sometimes hostile surveillance of Muslim-born citizens who were suspected of having converted to Christianity. Authorities monitored and occasionally placed restrictions on religious materials (both published in the country and imported) as they did other written materials. The government prohibited women and girls in public primary schools from wearing the niqab, or face veil. Girls in secondary or preparatory schools could wear a face veil only upon a parent's written request to the school. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Societal religious discrimination and sectarian tension continued during the year. In a May report, the quasi-governmental NCHR expressed alarm at growing sectarian conflict. In March Muslim villagers in the Sohag governorate attacked and burned homes of their Baha'i neighbors. On August 20, authorities released two Copts, held in detention without charges since May 2008, who had been accused of killing a Muslim during the armed attack by Muslim Bedouins on the Abu Fana Monastery. A December 2008 court order requiring their release was not implemented. According to a credible human rights organization, their release came after an agreement was reached in which the monastery dropped criminal charges against the attackers. Two Muslims, held since the attack, were also released. There were no charges filed against the assailants, who assaulted the monastery and abducted and abused the monks. The constitution provides for equal public rights and duties without discrimination based on religion or creed, and the government generally upheld these protections; however, government discrimination against non-Muslims existed. The government continued to discriminate against non-Muslims in public sector employment and in admission to the publicly financed Al Azhar University. Anti-Semitism in the media was common, although less prevalent than in recent years. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts directed toward the country's approximately 125 Jews. However, anti-Semitic sentiments frequently appeared in both the progovernment and independent press. According to the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI), a series of clerics appeared on Al-Rahma TV conveying anti-Semitic messages, such as celebrating the Holocaust and praising the humiliation that the Holocaust inflicted on Jews. Anti- Semitic editorial cartoons and articles depicting demonic images of Jews and Israeli leaders, stereotypical images of Jews along with Jewish symbols, and comparisons of Israeli leaders with Hitler and the Nazis were published throughout the year, particularly during and following the attacks on Gaza in January. The government reportedly advised journalists and cartoonists to avoid anti-Semitism. Government officials insisted that anti-Semitic statements in the media were a reaction to Israeli government actions against Palestinians and did not constitute anti-Semitism. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice, albeit with some notable exceptions. Citizens and foreigners may not travel in areas of the country designated as military zones. Males who have not completed compulsory military service may not travel abroad or emigrate, although this restriction may be deferred or bypassed under special but unclear circumstances. Baha'i men of draft age had difficulty obtaining passports because, according to some reports, the Ministry of Defense would not issue military service exemption certificates, a requirement for draft-age men who have not served in the military to obtain passports. The Baha'i did not have national identification cards because they are unable to establish that they have fulfilled or are exempt from military service obligations. An unmarried woman younger than 21 must have permission from her father to obtain a passport and to travel, and police reportedly required such permission for married women in practice, although the law does not require it. Authorities occasionally held individuals at the airport to delay or prevent altogether their travel for what appeared to be political reasons. The government also used travel prohibitions to punish dissidents. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not use it during the year; a number of citizens remained outside the country in self-imposed exile. The government did not consistently cooperate with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, its 1967 Protocol, and the 1969 OAU Convention Governing Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. The constitution includes provisions for the granting of refugee status or asylum; however, the country has no national legislative framework or system for granting asylum. The government admits refugees on the understanding that their presence in the country is temporary and that the UNHCR assumes full responsibility for the determination of refugee status on behalf of the government. In practice the government sometimes did not provide protection against the expulsion or forced return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government continued to forcibly repatriate Eritrean asylum seekers, although fewer were returned during the year than in 2008, when more than 1,300 were returned. The basic problem of forced return has not been resolved. According to AI, between December 23, 2008, and January 18, the government forcibly returned to Eritrea approximately 100 Eritrean asylum seekers, who were apprehended attempting to enter Israel. AI stated that the asylum seekers faced likely torture in Eritrea. Hundreds of other Eritrean asylum seekers were being held in detention centers in Nekhl and elsewhere in the country at year's end. Refugees also faced violence by security forces, abuse, and discrimination. There was a consistent flow of Eritrean, Sudanese, and other African asylum seekers, who attempted to migrate illegally through the country to Israel during the year. Since May border police shot and killed at least 17 African migrants attempting to cross the border into Israel. Many more migrants were injured in shootings at the border, and more than 400 were arrested in the first seven months of the year and charged with attempting an unlawful crossing of the country's eastern border with Israel. Those apprehended were tried in military courts that, according to AI, did not meet international standards for fair trial. The migrants were subsequently sentenced to one year in prison and were subject to deportation following completion of the sentence. The government maintained that these measures were necessary to ensure security along the border and combat smuggling. The UNHCR did not have access to those arrested to determine their refugee status. At year's end the government had not taken action to prosecute any of the officers involved in these incidents. According to an October 25 press report, Hawa Shogar, a female refugee from Darfur, said lack of employment opportunities, rising food prices, and the global economic crisis compelled her and her husband Ahmed to try to go to Israel, where they heard other Africans were getting jobs. They borrowed $500 and gave it to a Bedouin smuggler. They joined 23 other Sudanese and Eritreans, carrying their possessions in small plastic bags. As they approached the border, an Egyptian patrol fired into the air and stopped their trucks. Her husband said that some of the migrants tried to flee and were shot, at least one fatally. According to a December 11 report in a foreign publication, police shot at Eritrean Yirgalam Beyene and her three children as they tried to cross the border into Israel. During the incident, her 21-year-old son Iskender and three-year-old daughter Rosa were shot. While Rosa survived, Iskender later died from his wounds in a Sinai hospital. They were among a group of some 20 asylum seekers from Eritrea, Darfur, and southern Sudan trying to cross the border that night. Imprisoned refugees were held in small cells with convicted criminals, where they had limited or no access to sunlight for periods of three to five months, no access to medical treatment, and poor food. African prisoners often faced race-related beatings and discrimination. Refugees continued to face limitations with regards to access to work, education, and health services. African refugees in particular faced harassment by the SSIS, restrictions on employment, poor housing, limited access to health care and education, and societal discrimination based on race. Iraqi refugees faced restrictions on employment and on access to health and education services. Representatives of stateless refugees living in Cairo expressed concern that such refugees often did not qualify for protection under the local refugee apparatus. Stateless persons comprised less than 1 percent of all registered refugees. Nearly all stateless persons, many of whom were the children of Eritrean fathers and Ethiopian mothers, lacked refugee status and were not considered citizens by either of their parents' countries. They received no monetary assistance, lacked the ability to work, and were isolated from other members of refugee communities. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides that citizens shall elect the president every six years and the 454-seat People's Assembly every five years. The constitution also provides that two-thirds of the 264-member Shura Council, the upper house of parliament, are elected and one-third are appointed by the president. Shura Council terms are six years, with half of the council's elected seats contested every three years. There continued to be limitations on citizens' rights to change their government peacefully. Elections and Political Participation.--In July 2008 the country held parliamentary by-elections for four vacant parliament seats in Kafr Al Sheikh and Alexandria. MB-affiliated candidates ran for three of the seats, but the NDP won all four. The MB subsequently accused the government of rigging the vote to favor the NDP. The four seats had been vacant since a legal challenge during the 2005 parliamentary election, which international monitors were not permitted to observe. The government also barred international observers from the 2005 presidential election, which was marred by low voter turnout and charges of fraud. In October 2008 the country held parliamentary by- elections for two seats in Fayoum (Utssa Constituency). The NDP won both contested seats, which had been vacant since a legal challenge during the 2005 parliamentary election. In February the country held parliamentary by-elections for one seat in Minya (Samalout), which became vacant following the death of an NDP member of parliament. The NDP candidate won the seat. In March and May, there were parliamentary by-elections for a seat in Cairo (Masr El Qadima Constituency) and another in Alexandria (Moharram Bek Constituency), which became vacant following the death of an NDP member of parliament. The NDP candidate won the seat. In August there were parliamentary by-elections for two vacant seats in Qaliuybia, and the NDP won both seats. The NDP continued to dominate national politics by maintaining an overriding majority in the People's Assembly and the Shura Council. It also dominated local governments, mass media, labor, and the public sector and controlled licensing of new political parties, newspapers, and private organizations. The law prohibits political parties based on religion, and the MB remained an illegal organization; however, independent MB-affiliated members of parliament continued to participate in parliament. In previous years the government refused to grant official registration to at least 12 political parties that had filed applications. In August the political parties committee rejected the Al-Wasat Party's application for registration. There were nine women in the 454-seat People's Assembly and 21 in the 264-seat Shura Council. Two women served among the 32 ministers in the cabinet. On June 14, the parliament passed a law to allocate a quota of 64 parliamentary seats for women, effective in 2010. There were six Christians (five appointed, one elected) in the People's Assembly, 10 Christians (all appointed) in the Shura Council, and two Christians in the cabinet. Christians, who represent 8 to 12 percent of the population, held fewer than 2 percent of the seats in the People's Assembly and Shura Council. A Copt served as one of the country's 28 governors in Qena. According to available information, there were very few Christians in the upper ranks of the security services and armed forces. No other minorities served in political or other high-ranking positions. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, but the government did not consistently and effectively implement the law, and impunity was a problem. The media routinely reported on confirmed cases of low-level corruption, including the fraudulent alteration of official documents, embezzlement, and bribery. The Central Agency for Auditing and Accounting (CAA) is the government's anticorruption body and submits biennial reports to the People's Assembly that are not available to the public. The CAA stations monitors at state-owned companies to report corrupt practices. Observers did not judge the CAA to be effective. On March 11, the Safaga Misdemeanor Appeals Court sentenced ferry owner and Shura Council member Mamdouh Ismail in absentia to seven years in prison in connection with the 2006 Al-Salaam Bocaccio 90 ferry sinking, which killed more than 1,000 persons. In addition the court sentenced two other defendants to three years' imprisonment for negligence. In July 2008 the Safaga Misdemeanors Court had acquitted Ismail, along with five other defendants, of failing to offer assistance in the 2006 sinking. Ismail's relationship with presidential chief of staff Zakaria Azmi had sparked public debate about corruption. At year's end Ismail remained in London, where he fled immediately after the sinking. There were no financial disclosure laws for public officials, nor was there a legal framework stipulating how citizens could access government information. In practice the government was not generally responsive to requests for documents regarding government activities and did not provide reasons for its lack of responsiveness. The government released public statements and held press briefings for foreign and domestic journalists. According to the government, ministries provided publications and pamphlets to citizens who requested information. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Government restrictions on NGO and international organization activities, including limits on domestic organizations' ability to accept foreign funding, continued to limit investigation of and reporting on human rights abuses. Local independent human rights NGOs included the EOHR, the HRAAP, the Arab Penal Reform Organization, AHRLA, the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies, the EIPR, the Ibn Khaldun Center, the Arab Center for the Independence of the Judiciary and the Legal Profession, the Arab Network for Human Rights Information, the Nadim Center for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Torture and Violence, and the Egyptian Center for Women's Rights (ECWR). Informal coalitions of Internet activists and bloggers continued to play a significant role in publicizing information about human rights abuses. Although nonregistered organizations generally were allowed to conduct operations, they did so in technical violation of the NGO law with the prospect of government interference or closure. The government did not demonstrate a consistent approach to cooperating with human rights NGOs, sometimes harassing them or restricting their activities. For example, the government prevented some NGOs from holding certain conferences and events during the year. Government officials were selectively cooperative and responsive to some NGOs' views. Throughout the year the government met with a range of NGOs to discuss legislation related to human rights. The government generally allowed international human rights NGOs to establish informal operations, and Human Rights Watch maintained an office in the country. Other organizations, such as AI, made periodic visits as part of their regional research program and were able to work with domestic human rights groups. In April 2008 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs withdrew approval for the International Federation for Human Rights to open a regional office in Cairo. At year's end the NGO was still waiting for official approval. The National Democratic Institute, the International Republican Institute, and the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, which provided technical assistance in support of expanded political and civil rights, remained unregistered but were able to pursue limited activities. The government cooperated selectively with the UN and other international organizations. For the first time in history, it permitted the visits of a UN special rapporteur and a UN independent expert. From April 17 to 21, Martin Scheinin, the UN special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, visited the country and met with government officials and NGOs. The special rapporteur's August 3 report to the UN General Assembly noted that the visit focused on the government's draft counterterrorism law and that he had requested a follow-up trip to visit places of detention and observe legal proceedings. On October 14, Scheinin issued a report to the UN Human Rights Council that expressed concern about the long-standing Emergency Law's ``restrictions on fundamental rights and freedoms,'' and called for lifting the law ``with a view to restoring the rule of law and full compliance with human rights.'' From June 21 to 28, Catarina de Albuquerque, the UN independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation, visited the country to meet with government officials and visit relevant sites. In a public statement on June 28, de Albuquerque noted the government's ``vision and a strategy with the objective of providing access to safe drinking water and sanitation for all.accompanied by significant political will, at the highest levels, and incredible amounts of money.'' She outlined recommendations for the government to improve drinking water quality, sanitation facilities for clean water, and the affordability of clean water. According to the UN on November 29, the government did not agree to visit requests from six special rapporteurs and one working group. The requests were made by the special rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers; the special rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders (requested in 2003 and renewed in 2008); the special rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief (requested in 2005); the special rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (requested in 1996 and 2007); the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (requested in 2008); the special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary, or arbitrary executions (requested in 2008); and the special rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography (requested in 2009). The NCHR is a consultative subsidiary of the Shura Council that monitored government abuses of human rights, formally submitted citizen complaints to the government, and issued reports critical of the government. On May 6, the NCHR issued its fifth annual report on the status of human rights in the country, covering 2008 and the first quarter of 2009. The report called on the government to lift the state of emergency, address mistreatment of citizens in detention centers, improve judicial supervision of prisons and detention centers, provide the draft counterterrorism law to the NCHR for review, lift restrictions on political parties and NGOs, issue new election regulations, follow up on the implementation of political rights, and enforce citizenship rights. The People's Assembly had a Human Rights Committee that human rights activists deemed ineffective. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides for equality of the sexes and equal treatment of non-Muslims; however, aspects of the law and many traditional practices discriminated against women and religious minorities. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, ethnic origin, language, religion or creed. Women.--The law prohibits rape, prescribing penalties of 15 to 25 years' imprisonment or life imprisonment for cases involving armed abduction. The number of cases investigated was small because women were reluctant to report rape. Spousal rape is not illegal. According to a 2007 study by the National Center for Criminal and Social Research, there were approximately 20,000 cases of rape annually. Although the law does not prohibit domestic violence or spousal abuse, provisions of law relating to assault in general may be applied with accompanying penalties. However, the law requires that an assault victim produce multiple eyewitnesses, which is a difficult condition for a domestic abuse victim. Domestic violence continued to be a significant problem. Several NGOs offered counseling, legal aid, and other services to women who were victims of domestic violence. The quasi-governmental National Council for Women (NCW) trained law enforcement personnel and attorneys on increasing their efforts to combat domestic violence against women. The NCW also held sessions to train women on how to report domestic violence to attorneys and law enforcement personnel. The law does not specifically address honor crimes, in which a man violently assaults or kills a woman, usually a family member, because of a perceived lack of chastity. There were no reliable statistics regarding the extent of honor killings, but observers believed such killings took place during the year, particularly in rural areas. Prostitution and sex tourism were illegal but continued to occur, particularly in Cairo and Alexandria. Prostitution existed in cities and in some rural areas. Sex tourism existed in Luxor and Sharm El- Sheikh. Street children were subject to prostitution. Most sex tourists came from Europe and the Persian Gulf region. There is no specific law criminalizing sexual harassment, but the government prosecuted sexual harassment under a statute titled Public Exposure and the Corruption of Morals. Sexual harassment remained a serious problem. A 2008 ECWR survey found that 83 percent of Egyptian women and 98 percent of foreign women in the country had been sexually harassed and that approximately half of women surveyed faced harassment daily. In June, to combat increasing rates of sexual harassment, the Ministry of Islamic Endowments distributed a book entitled Sexual Harassment: Its Reasons and How to Address It to imams and preachers in all governorates. The ECWR noted the step but criticized the book's discussion of sexual harassment, which included blaming women for triggering harassment. The Ministry of Population and Families conducted a public awareness campaign to encourage smaller families. The Ministry of Health distributed contraception, provided personnel at no cost to attend births, postpartum care to mothers and children, and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases at no cost. The government did not restrict citizens' family planning decisions. According to the government, the maternal mortality rate in 2008 was 55 deaths per 100,000 live births, an improvement from 75 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2002. NGO observers reported that poor health care contributed to the maternal mortality rate, and that government family planning information and services were not adequate to meet the needs of the entire population. NGOs expressed concern over lack of access to reproductive information and services for adolescent girls. The law provides for equality of the sexes; however, aspects of the law and traditional practices discriminated against women. Laws affecting marriage and personal status generally corresponded to an individual's religion. For example, a female Muslim citizen may not marry a non-Muslim man without risking arrest and conviction for apostasy; under the government's interpretation of Shari'a, any children from such a marriage could be put in the custody of a male Muslim guardian. Khul divorce allows a Muslim woman to obtain a divorce without her husband's consent, provided she is willing to forgo all her financial rights, including alimony, dowry, and other benefits. The Coptic Orthodox Church permits divorce only in specific circumstances, such as adultery or conversion of one spouse to another religion. A Muslim female heir receives half the amount of a male heir's inheritance, and Christian widows of Muslims have no inheritance rights. A sole Muslim female heir receives half her parents' estate, with the balance going to the siblings of the parents or to the children of the siblings if the siblings are deceased. A sole male heir inherits his parents' entire estate. A woman's testimony is equal to that of a man in courts dealing with all matters except for personal status, such as marriage and divorce. Labor laws provide for equal rates of pay for equal work for men and women in the public sector, although this did not always happen in practice. Educated women had employment opportunities, but social pressure against women pursuing a career was strong. Women's rights advocates claimed that Islamist influence and other traditional and cultural attitudes and practices inhibited further gains. According to 2007 government figures, women filled 19 percent of private sector jobs, 29 percent of public sector jobs, and 22 percent of the total workforce. According to 2006 government figures, women's average monthly wages were approximately 80 percent of men's average monthly wages. On June 10, President Mubarak appointed Hend Hanafy as president of Alexandria University. Hanafy, who took office for the 2009-10 academic year, was the country's first female university president. During the year the government continued to implement a 2004 law that grants citizenship to those born to either Egyptian fathers or mothers. The law previously conferred citizenship only on those born to Egyptian fathers. At year's end the Supreme Judicial Council had not ruled on the 2006 cases of two female attorneys, Fatma Lashin and Amany Talaat, who had challenged the government's refusal to appoint them as public prosecutors. A variety of government offices promoted women's legal rights. The Ministry of Social Solidarity operated more than 150 family counseling bureaus nationwide to provide legal and medical services. The NCW proposed and advocated policies to promote women's empowerment and designed development programs to benefit women. It also provided assistance to women facing discrimination in employment and housing, domestic violence, sexual assault, and child custody disputes. A number of active women's rights groups also worked to reform family law, educate women on their legal rights, promote literacy, and combat female genital mutilation (FGM). Children.--Citizenship is derived through a combination of the principles of birth within the country's territory (jus soli) and from one's parents (jus sanguinis). The government generally attempted to register all births but faced resistance from citizens in some remote areas of the country, such as the Sinai. The government worked with NGOs in an attempt to address this problem. FGM remained a problem, but the government addressed it seriously, and FGM rates declined from previous years. According to government information, between 2005 and December, it received 4,821 reports of FGM cases from citizens. In 2008 the minister of family and population stated publicly that FGM rates in Upper Egypt were 65 percent but did not exceed 9 percent in northern governorates. In June 2008 the People's Assembly criminalized FGM except in cases of medical necessity, with penalties of three months to two years in prison or a fine of up to 5,000 pounds (approximately $911). The Ministry for Population and Families continued its campaign to combat FGM through public outreach and prosecutions. The ministry partnered in these efforts with NGOs, the Justice Ministry, and the public prosecutor. In cooperation with the ministry's public outreach, which included renunciation ceremonies, the ministry made announcements through the year that certain villages were FGM-free. Although reliable data were lacking, several NGOs, including the Hope Village Society, the Egyptian Center for Women's Rights, and the Alliance for Arab Women, reported that child marriages, including temporary marriages intended to mask prostitution, were a significant problem. In June 2008, as part of the Child Law amendments, the government raised the legal age of marriage from 16 to 18. The amendments also allow the mother of a child whose father is unknown to receive a birth certificate for the child under the mother's name. On May 12, an Alexandria court, using the Child Law's antitrafficking provisions and other criminal laws, convicted two Egyptian men of forcing eight street children into prostitution. The court sentenced Mohammed Kamel Al-Zangeery to life imprisonment with labor and Ramadan Abdel Salaam El-Sayed to 15 years in prison with labor. On October 19 and 22, a court in the Delta Governorate of Gharbeya sentenced two marriage registrars to two years in prison for registering the marriages of hundreds of girls younger than 18. According to press reports, many of the marriages involved short-term relationships between underage Egyptian girls and male tourists. The Ministry of Social Solidarity offered shelters for street children, but many children chose not to seek refuge there. The shelters closed at night, forcing the children back onto the street. The Ministry for Population and Families offered a hotline for street children and abused children and in January established a day shelter to rehabilitate male street children that also provided literacy training, computer training, and health care. On January 26, the Tanta Criminal Court upheld the death sentences of Ramadan Abdel Rahman Mansour and Farrag Mahmoud Al Sayed and the 18- to 45-year prison sentences of four others for kidnapping, deceiving, molesting, and murdering 24 street children in 2006. At year's end the death sentences had not been carried out. Trafficking in Persons.--There is no comprehensive law prohibiting trafficking in persons. However, other laws, such as the labor code and the 2008 child law amendments, were used to prosecute traffickers. The government prosecuted trafficking-related cases under laws prohibiting commercial sexual exploitation, with a maximum penalty of seven years' imprisonment and forced labor. Under the child law amendments, an individual who sells, buys, or offers a child for sale may be sentenced to at least five years' imprisonment and fined as much as 200,000 pounds ($36,500). The country was a source, transit point, and destination for women and children trafficked primarily for the purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation. The ECWR reported that Egyptian women and girls were sexually exploited through ``temporary marriages'' to tourists from the Persian Gulf region. Traffickers brought East European women through the country to Israel for sexual exploitation. Children were trafficked from rural areas in the country for work as domestic servants or laborers in agriculture. Street children--both boys and girls--were at high risk for being trafficked into prostitution and forced begging. Young female Sudanese refugees, including those under 18, may be coerced into prostitution in Cairo's nightclubs by family members or Sudanese gang members. Marriage brokers were known to facilitate some ``temporary marriages.'' Organized crime groups usually facilitated East European women's transit through the country to Israel. Local gangs were often responsible for exploitation of street children. In May the government prosecuted two men under the 2008 Child Law amendments and the antiprostitution law for forcing eight street children into prostitution. One defendant received a sentence of life imprisonment, and the other received an eight-year sentence. In October the government prosecuted two marriage registrars for registering the marriages of hundreds of underage girls, also in violation of the 2008 Child Law amendments. Courts convicted both and sentenced them to prison. Sixteen government agencies were involved in antitrafficking efforts under the auspices of the National Coordinating Committee to Combat and Prevent Trafficking in Persons, chaired by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs deputy assistant minister for human rights and international social affairs. The government continued to lack a formal victim identification program, and there were reports that police at times harassed and arrested street children for allegedly violating prostitution or other laws, rather than treating them as victims. The government offered minimal protection services to victims during the year. It continued to operate a child abuse hotline and launched a new hotline in August to provide family consultations and investigate child-related trafficking complaints, especially those involving child marriages. There was no evidence of government officials participating in or condoning trafficking. The National Council for Childhood and Motherhood (NCCM) formed a new antitrafficking unit to provide services and training and held several workshops during the year. In February the NCCM released a manual to train parents, doctors, and nurses on how to protect newborn babies from being kidnapped from hospitals and subjected to trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides that all businesses must designate 5 percent of their positions for persons with physical or mental disabilities; however, there are no laws prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities in education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services, nor are there laws mandating access to buildings or transportation. Widespread societal discrimination continued against persons with disabilities, particularly mental disabilities, resulting in a lack of acceptance into mainstream society. Government-run treatment centers for persons with disabilities, especially children, were poor. On April 26, the People's Assembly passed the Law for the Care of Mental Patients, which provides a bill of rights for patients in mental health facilities, increases safeguards on the involuntary admission of patients to mental health facilities, and prohibits solitary confinement or physical restrictions patients except in exceptional cases. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Social Solidarity share responsibility for protecting rights of persons with disabilities. Persons with disabilities rode government-owned mass transit buses free of charge, received special subsidies to purchase household products, wheelchairs, and prosthetic devices. Persons with disabilities also received expeditious approval for the installation of new telephone lines and received reductions on customs duties for specially equipped private vehicles. The government also worked closely with UN agencies and other international aid donors to design job- training programs for persons with disabilities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Although the law does not explicitly criminalize homosexual acts, in at least one case, police targeted homosexual persons and arrested them on charges of debauchery. On January 2, police arrested 10 men in Cairo on charges of debauchery. Authorities forced the men to undergo HIV tests and anal examinations in detention. Following a May 27 court order, police released the men on May 30 and 31. Homosexual persons faced significant social stigma in society and in the workplace. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--HIV-positive individuals faced significant social stigma in society and in the workplace. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law permits workers to form unions, with several significant restrictions. All unions are required to join one of the 23 officially recognized industrial federations to operate, and these federations must affiliate with the government- linked Egyptian Trade Union Federation (ETUF) to be legally recognized. In addition a minimum of 50 employees are required to form a union. In practice there was minimal private-sector union representation, and private-sector union representation was most often found in privatized, formerly state-owned factories. According to the Land Center for Human Rights, ETUF represented approximately 4.5 million workers. ETUF influenced nomination and election procedures for trade union officers and permitted public authorities to intervene in union financial activities. State-owned enterprises employed most union members, who made up approximately one- quarter of the labor force. Workers seeking to form unions outside of the legal framework may face dismissal. Nevertheless, in December 2008 the country's 52,000 public-sector real estate tax collectors announced the formation of the Real Estate Tax Collectors Authority (RETA) Union and refused to join the ETUF. On April 22, the independent RETA presented its application for registration to the Ministry of Manpower and Migration (MOMM). The registration was not rejected, but the RETA union has uncertain legal standing because it has not been formally recognized by the ETUF. ETUF leadership filed a complaint with the public prosecutor against the RETA union president in September. The public prosecutor interviewed the president but took no further action. The 2003 Unified Labor Law permits peaceful strikes, but only after an extended negotiation process and only if the strike is announced in advance and approved by a general trade union affiliated with ETUF. In practice strikes were rarely, if ever, approved. According to credible workers' rights NGOs, there were 117 strikes as of October 30 and an additional 170 actions that did not involve a work stoppage; a general trade union, the General Union of Textile Workers, approved only one strike. Police rarely intervened, and intervention generally was limited to containing protests and demonstrations to the immediate vicinity of the workplace. To call a strike, the trade union must notify the employer and concerned administrative authority at least 10 days in advance, giving the reason for the strike and the date it would commence. Prior to this formal notification, approval from two-thirds majority of the ETUF-member general trade union is necessary. The law prohibits strikes while collective bargaining agreements are in force or during the mediation and arbitration process. The law also prohibits strikes in a lengthy list of ``strategic or vital'' entities, at which the interruption of work could result in disturbance of national security or basic services. Despite these prohibitions, strikes and work stoppages occurred throughout the country. Strikes were largely peaceful, despite the presence of government security forces at larger strikes. The majority of high-profile strikes occurred in the textile industry. With some notable exceptions, the government generally did not interfere in strikes in either the public or private sector, provided they did not become violent and strikers' demands were focused on economic issues. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for collective bargaining; however, it requires tripartite negotiations, including the employer, workers, and the government's MOMM. In practice the requirement for tripartite negotiations was seldom followed, and workers negotiated directly with employers. In a few cases of strikes in the private sector, the government reportedly involved itself in negotiations. In many cases, such as the large state-owned textile factories in Mahalla, the government is the employer. The law does not permit antiunion discrimination; however, there were reports that such discrimination occurred in practice and that enforcement efforts were ineffective. Labor law and practice were the same in the approximately 10 existing export processing zones (EPZs) as in the rest of the country. The International Trade Union Confederation reported that private sector workers throughout the country, including in special economic zones, complained of poor working conditions and of being required to sign letters of resignation before accepting employment to facilitate their being dismissed at a later date. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution and law prohibit forced or compulsory labor, including by children. Such practices were reportedly rare. There were NGO reports that women were sexually exploited through ``temporary marriages'' to tourists from the Persian Gulf (see section 6). d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits children younger than 17 from working in most sectors. In some cases employers abused, overworked, and generally endangered working children. The law limits the type and conditions of work a child younger than 18 may perform. In nonagricultural work the minimum age for employment is 15. Provincial governors, with the approval of the minister of education, may authorize seasonal work for children who are 13 and 14, provided that duties are not hazardous and do not interfere with schooling. Children are prohibited from working for more than six hours per day, and one or more breaks totaling at least one hour must be included. Several other restrictions apply to children. They may not work overtime, during their weekly day(s) off, between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m., or on official holidays. Children are also prohibited from working for more than four hours without a break. Children younger than 16 are prohibited from working in 44 hazardous industries, including agricultural work involving the use of pesticides. A person convicted of forcing children below the minimum age to work may face a prison sentence of three to six months. According to recent UN, NGO, and American University in Cairo estimates, between 2.7 million and 5.5 million children worked in the country, 70 to 80 percent in agriculture. Children also worked in light industry, on construction sites, and in service businesses such as auto repair shops. Press reports continued to focus attention on the estimated 2,000 to 3,000 children working in stone quarries in Minya and hundreds of children working in small brick factories in the Arab Jbour area. According to NGO reports, street children in were at risk of being sexually exploited or forced to beg. The MOMM, working with the NCCM and the MOI, generally enforced child labor laws in state-owned enterprises through labor inspections and supervision of factory management, but enforcement in the informal sector was spotty. When offenders were prosecuted, the fines imposed were often as low as 500 pounds ($91) and thus had questionable deterrent effect. According to the independent Hisham Mubarak Center, the government's efforts to combat child labor in the informal sector were ineffective. The government made progress toward eliminating the worst forms of child labor, pursuant to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child; however, challenges remained. The NCCM worked during the year to provide working children with social security safeguards and reduce school dropout rates by providing families with alternative sources of income. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The government did not set a private-sector minimum wage, but the private sector generally followed public-sector compensation practices, including the public-sector minimum wage, which frequently did not provide a decent standard of living. Base pay commonly was supplemented by a complex system of fringe benefits and bonuses that could double or triple a worker's base pay. The National Council of Wages determined working hours for government and public-sector employees, but there were no standards for the private sector. The law stipulates that the maximum workweek is 48 hours. Most private-sector employees worked five days per week, usually Sunday to Thursday. Overtime for hours worked beyond 36 hours per week is payable at the rate of 35 percent extra for daylight hours and 70 percent extra for work performed at night. The premium for work on rest days is 100 percent, and workers are supposed to receive 200 percent for work on national holidays. The labor law permits overtime work in limited circumstances; the law was enforced through labor inspections. The Ministry of Labor sets and enforces worker health and safety standards, which also apply in the EPZs; enforcement and inspections were uneven. The law prohibits employers from maintaining hazardous working conditions, and workers have the right to remove themselves from hazardous conditions without risking loss of employment. There were reports of employer abuse of undocumented workers, especially domestic workers. A number of private sector employers were prosecuted during the year for abuse of domestic workers, but many claims of abuse were unsubstantiated because undocumented workers were reluctant to make their identities public. __________ IRAN The Islamic Republic of Iran, with a population of approximately 65.8 million, is a constitutional, theocratic republic in which Shia Muslim clergy dominate the key power structures.\1\ Government legitimacy is based on the twin pillars of popular sovereignty--albeit restricted--and the rule of the supreme leader of the Islamic Revolution. The current supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, was not directly elected but chosen by a directly elected body of religious leaders, the Assembly of Experts, in 1989. Khamenei's writ dominated the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. He directly controlled the armed forces and indirectly controlled internal security forces, the judiciary, and other key institutions. The legislative branch is the popularly elected 290-seat Islamic Consultative Assembly, or Majles. The unelected 12-member Guardian Council reviewed all legislation the Majles passed to ensure adherence to Islamic and constitutional principles and also screened presidential and Majles candidates for eligibility. On June 12, Mahmoud Ahmadi-Nejad was reelected president in a multiparty election that many Iranians considered neither free nor fair. Due to lack of independent international election monitors, international organizations could not verify the results. The final vote tallies remained disputed at year's end. Civilian authorities did not fully maintain effective control of security forces. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- \1\ The United States does not have an embassy in Iran. This report draws heavily on non-U.S. Government sources. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The government's poor human rights record degenerated during the year, particularly after the disputed June presidential elections. The government severely limited citizens' right to peacefully change their government through free and fair elections. The government executed numerous persons for criminal convictions as juveniles and after unfair trials. Security forces were implicated in custodial deaths and the killings of election protesters and committed other acts of politically motivated violence, including torture, beatings, and rape. The government administered severe officially sanctioned punishments, including death by stoning, amputation, and flogging. Vigilante groups with ties to the government committed acts of violence. Prison conditions remained poor. Security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained individuals, often holding them incommunicado. Authorities held political prisoners and intensified a crackdown against women's rights reformers, ethnic minority rights activists, student activists, and religious minorities. There was a lack of judicial independence and of fair public trials. The government severely restricted the right to privacy and civil liberties, including freedoms of speech and the press, assembly, association, and movement; it placed severe restrictions on freedom of religion. Official corruption and a lack of government transparency persisted. Violence and legal and societal discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons; trafficking in persons; and incitement to anti-Semitism remained problems. The government severely restricted workers' rights, including the right to organize and bargain collectively, and arrested numerous union organizers. Child labor remained a serious problem. On November 20, for the seventh consecutive year, the UN General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a resolution on Iran expressing concern about the country's ``serious, ongoing, and recurring human rights violations.'' Following the June 13 announcement of President Ahmadi-Nejad's reelection, hundreds of thousands of citizens took to the streets to protest. Police and the paramilitary Basij violently suppressed demonstrations. The official death count was 37, but opposition groups reported approximately 70 individuals died, and human rights organizations suggested as many as 200. In August the judiciary estimated that authorities detained approximately 4,000 persons. Authorities continued to arrest numerous political activists throughout the rest of the year. On August 5, with many of those arrested charged with fomenting a ``velvet revolution,'' the head of the national security forces, Esmail Ahmadi-Moghaddam, said in an interview that the government was holding individuals it considered the most dangerous offenders in Kahrizak Prison, and the rest were taken to Tehran's Evin Prison. The Green Movement, the opposition that formed from many disparate groups to protest the election results, organized demonstrations throughout the country on various dates after the election, including Qods Day (September 18), the anniversary of the U.S. Embassy seizure (November 4), Students' Day (December 7), Grand Ayatollah Montazeri's funeral (December 21), and Ashura (December 27). During the December 27 protests, at least eight civilians, including the nephew of presidential candidate Mir Hossein Mousavi, died in confrontations with authorities. Authorities responded to all the demonstrations with raids on opposition activists' offices. Police reportedly arrested approximately 300 protesters and 10 opposition leaders in relation to the December 27 demonstrations alone. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were reports that the government and its agents committed multiple acts of arbitrary or unlawful killings during the year. During the June election protests, scores of protesters and nonprotesting bystanders were killed, especially during antigovernment rallies; government sources reported the death toll at 37, opposition groups reported approximately 70 individuals died, and human rights organizations suggested as many as 200. On June 15, security forces shot Sohrab Arabi in the chest and abducted him during an antigovernment demonstration. On June 19, according to the nongovernmental organization (NGO) the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran (ICHRI), Arabi's body arrived at the coroner's office. It was unclear whether Arabi died immediately from the gunshot wound or if he was first taken to a hospital for treatment. In the days following his abduction and death, Arabi's case became widely publicized on the Internet, and he became a symbolic figure for the opposition. Also on June 15, security forces arrested 47-year-old Behzad Mohajer for his participation in a protest march, according to Iran Human Rights Voice (IHRV). On August 1, the coroner's office returned his body to his family. In photos authorities showed to Mohajer's sister, the body appeared to have bullet holes in the chest. On June 20, according to eyewitnesses, Basij militia killed Neda Agha-Soltan in Tehran. Although she was in close proximity to an antigovernment demonstration at the time of the shooting, her fiance' and others report that she was not participating in the demonstration. The video of her death appeared on YouTube and became a symbol of the opposition movement. In the wake of their children's death, Neda Agha- Soltan and Sohrab Arabi's mothers joined a group of women calling themselves the Mourning Mothers, who held regular evening vigils on Saturdays in Laleh Park during the year. According to Amnesty International (AI) and the ICHRI, authorities repeatedly broke up the vigil's protests, and on December 5, police arrested 15 members of the group. By year's end all had been released on bail. Also on June 20, security forces reportedly beat Mahmud Raisi Najafi when he was caught up in a crowd fleeing unspecified armed forces on his way home from work. On June 28, he died of his injuries. Also on June 20, Basij forces shot and killed Ashkan Sohrabi, who was participating in street protests in Tehran. He was reportedly shot three times in the chest. In late June Basij militia severely beat and arrested Amir Mirza. He was subsequently sent to prison where security forces allegedly tortured and beat him for three days. He died a few days later in detention due to complications involving internal bleeding and meningitis. Local human rights groups reported that authorities denied him medical care. On June 28, according to AI and the ICHRI, Basij forces arrested Taraneh Mousavi when she was on her way to a demonstration at Ghoba mosque. Reports indicated authorities detained her for five hours, and then she disappeared. AI and the ICHRI reported an allegation that police raped and tortured Mousavi. On July 16, authorities reportedly informed her parents that they could pick up a burned body resembling their daughter. According to AI, authorities subsequently took her mother into protective custody. On July 1, according to IHRV, plainclothes security forces arrested Mohammad Naderipour, chairman of the student chapter in Mousavi's election campaign, in the city of Sirjan. Forty-eight hours later, his body was found inside his vehicle. Local human rights groups reported Naderipour's stereo and wallet had been left untouched in the car. The coroner determined that Naderipour's death was the result of ``a blow by a blunt object to the back of the head.'' Authorities reportedly demanded the family bury his body immediately; IHRV reported that authorities wished to avoid further investigation into the causes of Naderipour's death. On July 9, security forces arrested university students Amir Javadifar, Mohammed Kamrani, and Mohsen Rouhalamini during protests. On July 16, Mohammed Kamrani died in Mehr Hospital after being detained at Kahrizak Prison. Authorities labeled the cause of death as meningitis, but the family told the press that his body bore the marks of severe beating. On July 23, Rouhalamini, the son of Abdelhossein Rouhalamini, an advisor to conservative presidential candidate Mohsen Rezaei, died under suspicious circumstances in detention. His father spoke publicly about seeing bruises on his son's body when he picked the body up from the hospital. On July 25, police contacted Javadifar's father and instructed him to pick up the body of his son from the coroner's office in Kahrizak Prison. Authorities claimed he died from a preexisting condition, but medical reports show he had been beaten, had several broken bones, and his toenails had been pulled out. On July 28, the supreme leader ordered Kahrizak Prison closed (see section 1.c.). On December 20, an investigatory committee of the judiciary confirmed publicly that prison officials in Kahrizak Prison beat to death Kamrani, Rouhalamini, and Javadifar, and it charged 12 prison officials of various crimes, including murder. On July 27, former student activist Alireza Davoudi died in a psychological hospital under suspicious circumstances. Davoudi served as the Isfahan spokesman for Students for Equality and Freedom in Iran (SEF) and was editor of a student publication until he was expelled from Isfahan University reportedly for his political activities. On February 12, Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS) officers allegedly attacked Davoudi in his home in Isfahan and took him into custody, where he reportedly underwent torture, including cigarette burns, beatings, and hanging from the ceiling for three days. On April 25, authorities released him on bail awaiting trial, but his family hospitalized him soon afterward to help him with psychological problems stemming from the alleged torture. His family said officials warned them not to publicize his funeral. In September security forces arrested Saeedeh Pouraghaee for chanting ``Allahu Akbar'' (``God is the greatest'') from the rooftop of her home in Tehran. Before the 1979 revolution, protesters used this chant to express resistance to the Shah's regime; during the year protesters used the chant to express opposition to the current government, which treated such chants as support for the opposition and therefore considered it a crime. Two days after Saeedeh's arrest, authorities summoned her mother to identify and claim her daughter's body. According to Saeedeh's family, the body had been partially burned to hide evidence of rape and torture. On November 10, Ramin Pourandarjani, a physician who worked at Kahrizak Prison, died under suspicious circumstances. Earlier in the year, Pourandarjani had testified to a parliamentary committee that authorities told him to list meningitis as the cause of death for Mohsen Rouhalamini (see above), whom Pourandarjani claimed actually died as a result of injuries inflicted during torture. Officials gave conflicting reports of the cause of Pourandarjani's death, including a heart attack and an auto accident, before police chief Ismail Ahmadi Moghaddam announced that Pourandarjani had committed suicide by eating a salad laced with heart medication, traces of which were found in his blood, and that a suicide note explained he feared charges over his alleged failure to give detainees adequate medical treatment. The conflicting reports regarding the cause of death resulted in opposition accusations that authorities had poisoned the 26-year-old doctor to silence him about what he had witnessed at the prison. The government made only limited attempts to investigate allegations of abuses. For instance, despite numerous reports of death and torture of arrested prisoners, the government launched investigations only after the death of Mohsen Rouhalamini, the son of a conservative politician. On December 10, AI reported an allegation that 44 bodies were buried in anonymous graves after the election. Cemetery officials said the deceased were unidentified drug abusers, but news reports alleged that some of the coroner reports were falsified. There were no developments in the 2008 cases of suspicious deaths in government custody of Ebrahim Lotfallahi, Kaveh Azizpour, Bahman Rigi, ``Mohammed,'' or Ali Sadeqi; or the 2007 deaths of 11-year-old Roya Sarani or Zahra Bani Ameri (also known as Zahra Bani Yaghoub). The government did not release any reports or issue any charges that would indicate an investigation into any of the preceding incidents. On December 2, Canadian courts heard arguments in a civil lawsuit against the Iranian government in the 2003 death of Zahra Kazemi, a dual Iranian-Canadian citizen. The Kazemi family was suing the government, including Supreme Leader Khamenei, Tehran prosecutor Saeed Mortazavi, and prison official Mohammad Bakhshi, for 17 million Canadian dollars ($16.2 million). The Iranian government claimed immunity based on Canada's State Immunity Act. Kazemi, a photojournalist arrested for taking pictures outside Evin Prison during a student-led protest, died in custody after security forces allegedly tortured her. According to international press reports, authorities executed approximately 250 individuals during the year after trials that were conducted in secret or that did not adhere to basic principles of due process. Exiles and human rights monitors alleged that many persons supposedly executed for criminal offenses such as narcotics trafficking were actually political dissidents. The law criminalizes dissent and applies the death penalty to offenses such as apostasy (conversion from Islam), ``attempts against the security of the state,'' ``outrage against high-ranking officials,'' ``enemy of god,'' and ``insults against the memory of Imam Khomeini and against the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic.'' Public executions continued throughout the year; AI reported that the government executed at least 14 persons in public during the year. On May 28, authorities hanged three Baluch men in public less than 48 hours after the People's Resistance Movement of Iran (also known as Jondollah) bombed a crowded mosque during a worship service. On November 11, according to the ICHRI, prison officials hanged Ehsan Fattahian, reportedly a member of a Kurdish Marxist opposition group, for acting against national security. Fattahian originally faced a prison term of 10 years, but an appeals court increased the sentence and ordered him executed. The ICHRI claimed the execution occurred without due process and without ample evidence. There was no further information available about the approximately 50 detainees executed in Sistan va Baluchistan province in 2007 after reportedly unfair trials for terrorist attacks against government officials, nor was there information about the status of seven Ahvazi Arabs sentenced to death after allegedly unfair trials in Khuzestan province. The government executed individuals for crimes committed when they were minors despite an October 2008 judicial directive banning the practice. During the year the government executed approximately five individuals who committed crimes as minors. As of October, according to Iranian human rights lawyers, at least 130 juvenile offenders were on death row, many for offenses such as homosexual conduct, apostasy, or acts incompatible with chastity. On January 21, the government executed Molla Gol Hassan, an Afghan national convicted of the 2004 murder of a person known only as Fakhreddin; he was 17 when he allegedly committed the crime. On May 1, the government executed Delara Darabi, age 22, for a murder she allegedly committed during a robbery when she was 17; she later said she confessed to protect her boyfriend, who she said was the actual killer. Authorities did not inform her lawyer that her execution was being carried out despite a two-month stay of execution granted by the head of the judiciary to allow for further legal review and a legal requirement that a defendant's lawyer be given 48 hours' notice of an execution. Darabi's family reportedly learned she was to be executed when her executioner allowed her to call them immediately before her hanging. On October 11, the government executed Behnoud Shojaii in Evin Prison for killing another boy in 2005 when he was 17, reportedly during a street fight involving a dozen youths. According to AI, Shojaii had no legal representation at his trial, and his family could not afford to pay the 6.2 billion rials ($625,000) in diyeh, or blood money, that the victim's family demanded in return for pardoning him. While Shojaii was on death row, three individuals raised money for the diyeh and campaigned for his release; according to local human rights organizations, the judiciary froze the diyeh account and threatened to arrest the individuals. On December 17, authorities reportedly hanged Mosleh Zamani, a 23- year-old Kurd, at Dizel Abad Prison for having had sexual relations outside wedlock with his girlfriend when he was 17. Adultery remained punishable by death by stoning, and on January 11, according to AI, judiciary spokesman Ali Reza Jamshidi said a 2002 directive suspending executions by stoning had no legal weight and could be ignored. The law provides that a victim of stoning is allowed to go free if he or she escapes. It is much harder for women to escape, as they are buried to their necks, whereas men are buried only to their waists. In December 2008 authorities in Mashhad stoned three men convicted of adultery; two died and the third, an Afghan citizen, was severely wounded but escaped. On March 5, according to AI, Vali Azad, convicted of adultery, was secretly stoned to death in Lakan Prison in Rasht. According to several sources, five to nine persons were at imminent risk for death by stoning at year's end. b. Disappearance.--There was an increase in reports of politically motivated abductions during the year. Plainclothes officers or security officials often seized journalists and activists without warning and detained them incommunicado for several days or longer before permitting them to contact family members (see section 1.d.). The ICHRI issued a report on July 8 noting that arbitrary detention and disappearances were ``widespread.'' Families of executed prisoners did not always receive notification of their deaths (see section 1.a.). Human rights groups reported numerous disappearances related to the protests during the year. On July 7, unidentified persons arrested Fayzolah Arabsorkhi, a member of the central body of the reformist Islamic Revolution Mujahedin Organization and former deputy minister of commerce. The individuals did not present a warrant or identify themselves as police. Arabsorkhi remained missing at year's end. The Iranian-American Jewish Federation reported that 11 Jewish men who disappeared in 1994 and 1997 remained missing. In 2007 witnesses claimed they saw some of the men in Evin Prison. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit torture, but there were numerous credible reports that security forces and prison personnel tortured detainees and prisoners, especially those arrested after the June election. In Tehran alone, 37 detained protesters, male and female, claimed prison or security officials had raped them. Major human rights and news organizations reported ``systematic'' torture of individuals after the election. Common methods of torture and abuse in prisons included prolonged solitary confinement with extreme sensory deprivation (sometimes called ``white torture''), beatings, rape and sexual humiliation, long confinement in contorted positions, kicking detainees with military boots, hanging detainees by the arms and legs, threats of execution, burning with cigarettes, pulling out toenails, sleep deprivation, and severe and repeated beatings with cables or other instruments on the back and on the soles of the feet. Reported practices also included wetting prisoners before beating them with electric cables, to intensify the abuse. Prisoners also reported beatings on the ears, inducing partial or complete deafness; blows in the area around the eyes, leading to partial or complete blindness; and the use of poison to induce illness. Some prison facilities, including Evin Prison in Tehran, were notorious for cruel and prolonged torture of political opponents of the government. Authorities also maintained ``unofficial'' secret prisons and detention centers outside the national prison system where abuse reportedly occurred. The government reportedly used white torture especially on political prisoners, often in detention centers outside the control of prison authorities, including Section 209 of Evin Prison. On June 15, according to the ICHRI, authorities arrested Saeed Hajjarian, a former presidential advisor and prominent journalist. During his incommunicado detention at Evin Prison, prison authorities reportedly interrogated Hajjarian in direct sunlight at high temperatures and then doused him with ice water, causing him to have heart palpitations. Since sustaining a spinal cord injury in an assassination attempt in 2000, Hajjarian has used a wheelchair and required a number of medications; according to the ICHRI, authorities denied him medication and allegedly give him psychotropic drugs to weaken his mental state. On September 30, authorities released Hajjarian after his appearance in the ``show trials'' (see section 1.e.). On October 17, the Revolutionary Court of Tehran sentenced Hajjarian to a five-year suspended sentence for inciting postelection unrest. During a week of detention that began June 22, security personnel reportedly sexually assaulted Ibrahim Sharifi, who had been arrested for participating in antigovernment demonstrations. Sharifi went to authorities to lodge a complaint, but they initially refused to launch an investigation to determine the veracity of his allegations. On August 19, former presidential candidate and head of the National Trust Party Mehdi Karoubi and a high-ranking judiciary official took Sharifi's testimony. Tehran prosecutor Saeed Mortazavi also requested an interview with Sharifi. On August 20, Mortazavi's deputy interviewed Sharifi, but rather than trying to collect details of Sharifi's experience, he reportedly focused on gathering information to support the assertion that Karoubi was paying Sharifi to make false claims of torture and rape. On August 23, an unidentified man Sharifi suspected of being a government agent warned him against testifying to a parliamentary committee about his allegations of abuse. On July 30, according to Human Rights Watch (HRW), authorities arrested Maryam Saberi during the commemoration of the 40th day after the death of Neda Agha-Soltan (see section 1.a.). Saberi was arrested after her photo appeared on a Web site connected to the Iran Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) that posted pictures of protesters and asked viewers to identify persons in the photos for arrest. According to Saberi, prison guards raped her four times before they released her on August 12. On July 26, according to HRW, authorities arrested Ebrahim Mehtari, a computer science student and political activist, whom they released on August 1. On August 19, several officers Mehtari believed to be IRGC members abducted him from his workplace and transferred him to a location in eastern Tehran. Mehtari told HRW that his jailers beat him severely and repeatedly and sodomized him with a baton or stick during his detention. On August 24, his captors reportedly dropped him on a street in Tehran semiconscious, bleeding, and with his hands and feet tied; passers-by found him and took him to a hospital. The medical examiner's office, which reports to the judiciary, examined Mehtari the next day. The report described in detail the extent of his injuries. When the medical examiner's office learned Mehtari had just been released from detention, officials tried to destroy the report, but Mehtari's father was able to make a copy of it while visiting his son in the hospital. Ahvazi Arabs also alleged that authorities tortured and raped community activists during the year (see section 6, Minorities). There were no updates in the October 2008 case of Peyman Fatahi, hospitalized after security officials reportedly beat him severely during questioning related to his association with the Ale-Yasin Community, a religious society. At year's end the government had not made public the results of its reported investigation into the 2007 torture of three student activists in Evin Prison, nor had it responded to HRW's April 2008 call to investigate torture allegations by student activists and SEF members Behrooz Karimizadh, Peyman Piran, Ali Kantouri, and Majid Pourmajid. Authorities had arrested the four in 2007 and released them in 2008-- Karmizadh and Pourmajid in April, Piran in May, and Kantouri in October. Some judicially sanctioned corporal punishment constituted cruel and inhuman punishment, including amputation for multiple theft offenses and lashings and execution by stoning for adultery. On November 9, international press reported that the head of the Criminal Investigation Unit called on judges to rely more heavily on Islamic law for sentencing and advocated the use of amputations. In January 2008 authorities in Sistan va Baluchistan province amputated the right hands and left feet of five men convicted of armed robbery and kidnapping. In December 2008, according to domestic press reports, prison authorities amputated the hand of a man convicted of robbery. During the year the government initiated limited investigations into reports of torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; according to AI, these investigations focused more on covering up abuses than revealing the truth or punishing those believed responsible. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions were poor. Many prisoners were held in solitary confinement or were denied adequate food or medical care as a way to force confessions. Overcrowding was a significant problem. Numerous prisoners complained that authorities intentionally exposed them to extreme cold for prolonged periods and said they lacked access to medical care in prison. On February 6, Amir Hossein Heshmat Saran, a political prisoner in Karaj, died under suspicious circumstances. In an interview with the media, his lawyer claimed his death was the result of poor prison conditions, specifically insufficient medical care. The medical specialist who treated Saran told Saran's wife her husband had a brain hemorrhage and a lung infection that had spread throughout his body. Saran was serving an eight-year sentence imposed in 2004 for establishing the United National Front political party. On March 18, blogger Omid Reza Mirsayafi died in Evin Prison, reportedly due to an overdose of sedatives; the ICHRI alleged neglect (see section 2.a., Internet Freedom). On November 8, a domestic human rights Web site reported that political prisoner Mansour Radpour was suffering from severe gastric and kidney ailments and had been denied medical treatment in Ward 4 of Gohardasht Prison near Karaj. In 2007 Radpour was convicted of supporting terrorist organization Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (MEK) and sentenced to three years' imprisonment. At the end of July, Supreme Leader Khamenei ordered Kahrizak Prison closed after detainees alleged abuse and inhumane conditions. The prisoners were transferred to Evin Prison. In September 2008 the UK-based International Center for Prison Studies reported that more than 150,000 prisoners in the country occupied facilities constructed to hold no more than 65,000 persons. Human rights activists and international media reported cases of political prisoners confined with violent felons. There were also reports of juvenile offenders detained with adult offenders. Pretrial detainees occasionally were held with convicted prisoners. The government did not permit independent monitoring of prison conditions by any outside groups, including UN groups or special rapporteurs. On July 28, a parliamentary committee visited Evin Prison to investigate conditions. At year's end its report had not been published. In 2007 the government granted foreign journalists a tour of Evin Prison for the second time in two years. According to Agence France- Presse (AFP), during the visit Tehran prison director Sohrab Soleimani denied there were political prisoners in Evin Prison but told journalists there were 15 prisoners in Evin on ``security'' charges. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--Although the constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, these practices significantly increased during the year. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Several agencies share responsibility for law enforcement and maintaining order, including the MOIS, the Law Enforcement Forces under the Interior Ministry, and the IRGC. The Basij and informal groups known as the Ansar-e Hizballah (Helpers of the Party of God) were aligned with extreme conservative members of the leadership and acted as vigilantes. On October 4, the government announced the merger of the Basij into the IRGC ground forces. While some Basij units received formal training, many units were disorganized and undisciplined. During government led crackdowns on demonstrations, the Basij were primarily responsible for the violence against the protesters. The decentralized organization of the Basij forces contributed to individual Basijis being less accountable for their actions, further contributing to their excesses. Corruption and impunity were problems. Regular and paramilitary security forces committed numerous serious human rights abuses, but there were no transparent mechanisms to investigate security force abuses and no reports of government actions to reform the abusers. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The constitution and penal code require a warrant or subpoena for an arrest and state that an arrested person must be informed of charges within 24 hours. Authorities rarely followed these procedures in practice. Authorities held detainees, at times incommunicado, often for weeks or months without charge or trial, frequently denying them prompt contact with family or timely access to legal representation. In practice there was neither a time limit for detention nor judicial means to determine the legality of the detention. According to the law, the state is obligated to provide indigent defendants with attorneys only for certain types of crimes. The courts set prohibitively high bail, even for lesser crimes, and in many cases courts did not set bail. Authorities often compelled detainees and their families to submit property deeds to post bail. Prisoners released on bail did not always know how long their property would be retained or when their trials would be held. The intelligence arm of the IRGC reportedly conducted arrests during the year. Additionally, security forces executed general warrants to arrest protesters or those perceived as opponents of the government. The use of these general warrants precluded the need for individual warrants. There were numerous reports of arbitrary and false arrests during the year, and the trend dramatically accelerated in the aftermath of the disputed June 12 election. On August 11, media reported the judiciary estimated that authorities detained approximately 4,000 people in the aftermath of the election; officials claimed they released 3,700 within a week. Human rights groups believed the number of detainees was much higher. On March 9, university security officers reportedly beat and arrested Yasser Torkman, a student at Amir Kabir University and member of the Islamic Students Organization in Tehran. University security staff reportedly called Torkman to the university gates and told him he was banned from classes and not permitted on campus grounds. According to eyewitnesses, two security officers beat Torkman before taking him away. On April 25, Torkman was released on bail of approximately two to three billion rials ($200,000 to $300,000). On June 13, according to AI, police arrested former government spokesman Abdollah Ramezanzadeh and seriously beat him, causing injuries to his head and rib cage. After 74 days in incommunicado detention without charge, he appeared at the August 1 ``show trial'' (see section 1.e.). On December 24, he was sentenced to six years in prison for acting against state security, propagating lies against the establishment, and possessing classified documents. While on a four-day furlough during his sentencing proceedings, Ramezanzadeh told news organizations he had spent 116 days in solitary confinement. On June 25, plainclothes police officers arrested Mohammad Mostafaei, the lawyer for approximately 25 juvenile offenders on death row. On July 1, authorities released Mostafaei from Section 209 of Evin Prison on bail of one billion rials ($100,000). Mostafaei was accused of ``conspiring against state security'' and ``propaganda against the system.'' On July 1, authorities arrested Clotilde Reiss, a French national teaching assistant at Isfahan University, on charges of espionage. She was present at the August ``show trials'' along with French Embassy employee Nazak Afshar and British Embassy employee Hossein Rassam, who were also charged with espionage and plotting to overthrow the government. Reiss was released on bail and resided at the French Embassy until her trial on December 23, which continued at year's end. Rassam was sentenced to four years in prison. Afshar was released on August 11. On July 31, border guards detained three foreigners on the Iran- Iraq border. Authorities interrogated them and held them in solitary confinement for extended periods of time during the first months of their detention. At year's end the three remained detained in Evin Prison, without formal charges or contact with their families. In November, according to the ICHRI, security forces arbitrarily arrested scores of students throughout the country in an attempt to stifle protests expected on Students' Day, December 7. For instance, on November 3, media reported that authorities had arrested civil activists and student leaders Hasan Asadi Zaidabadi and Mohammad Sadeghi. At year's end their status and whereabouts were unknown. During protests in December after the death of Grand Ayatollah Montazeri and during Ashura celebrations, authorities detained 200 to 1,000 persons, according to the ICHRI and IHRV. At year's end many of them remained in jail. During the year, as in previous years, security forces arrested several Iranian-American journalists and academics on charges of espionage and ``acting against national security.'' Prison authorities subjected the activists to harsh interrogation techniques and solitary confinement and in most cases kept them in prison for several months. At year's end two remained in prison. There were no developments during the year in arbitrary arrest cases from previous years. At year's end Ebrahim Mirnehad remained in prison; authorities sentenced him in September 2008 to five years' imprisonment on charges of ``acting against national security'' and ``spreading propaganda,'' charges that, according to AI, stemmed from his public condemnation of his brother's execution earlier in the year. Authorities reportedly did not grant Mirnehad access to a lawyer and tortured him in custody. In June 2008, according to AI, authorities arrested Arash and Kamiar Alaei, physicians specializing in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS, and detained them for six months in Evin Prison without charges or trial. In a summary trial in December 2008, the Alaei brothers were found guilty of ``cooperating with an enemy government'' under article 508 of the Islamic Penal Code. Kamiar was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and Arash to six years, and the two were serving their sentences at year's end. Pretrial detention was often arbitrarily lengthy, particularly in cases involving alleged violations of national security laws. Approximately 25 percent of prisoners held in state prison facilities were reportedly pretrial detainees. According to HRW, a judge may prolong detention at his discretion and pretrial detention often lasts for months. During the year the government reportedly continued to use house arrest without due process to restrict the movement and communication of senior Shia religious leaders whose views regarding political and governance issues were at variance with the ruling orthodoxy; however, there were no new confirmed instances of this practice during the year. Grand Ayatollah Montazeri, the most prominent cleric under such restrictions, died on December 20. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides that the judiciary be ``an independent power''; in practice the court system was corrupt and subject to government and religious influence. After the 1979 revolution, the judicial system was revised to conform to an Islamic canon based on the Koran, Sunna (the traditions of the Prophet), and other Islamic sources. The constitution provides that the head of the judiciary is a cleric chosen by the supreme leader. The head of the Supreme Court and prosecutor general also must be clerics. Traditional courts adjudicate civil and criminal offenses, and Islamic revolutionary courts try offenses viewed as potentially threatening to the Islamic Republic, including threats to internal or external security, narcotics and economic crimes, and official corruption. A special clerical court examines alleged transgressions within the clerical establishment, and a military court investigates crimes connected with military or security forces. A media court hears complaints against publishers, editors, and writers, including Internet cases. The Supreme Court has review authority over some cases, including appeals of the death penalty. Trial Procedures.--Many aspects of the prerevolutionary judicial system survive in the civil and criminal courts. According to the constitution and criminal procedure code, a defendant has the right to a public trial, presumption of innocence, a lawyer of his or her choice, and the right of appeal in most cases that involve major penalties. These rights were not respected in practice. Panels of judges adjudicate trials; there is no jury system in the civil and criminal courts. In the media court, a council of 11 persons selected by the court adjudicates cases. No defendants in any court had the right to confront their accusers, nor were they granted access to government-held evidence. During the year human rights groups noted the absence of procedural safeguards in criminal trials. On August 13, the UN special rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment, the special rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, and the vice chairperson of the working group on arbitrary detention expressed ``serious concern'' about the situation of detainees in the country. AI, HRW, Reporters Without Borders (RSF), and several other human rights groups specifically condemned trials in the revolutionary courts for disregarding international standards of fairness. The government often charged individuals with vague crimes such as ``antirevolutionary behavior,'' ``moral corruption,'' and ``siding with global arrogance.'' Prosecutors imposed strict penalties on government critics for minor violations. For example, according to local news reports, journalist Hengameh Shahidi received a six-year prison sentence for disturbing traffic during postelection riots. Another reformer, Behzad Nabavi, also received a six-year sentence for a similar infraction. When postrevolutionary statutes did not address a situation, the government advised judges to give precedence to their knowledge and interpretation of Islamic law. The head of the judiciary chose revolutionary court judges in part due to their ideological commitment to the system. Secret or summary trials of only five minutes' duration frequently occurred. Other trials were deliberately designed to publicize a coerced confession. On August 1, the Tehran Revolutionary Court convened the first of a series of televised mass trials for more than 100 opposition politicians and activists detained after the June 12 election; the opposition referred to them as ``show trials.'' Among those on trial were senior proreform politicians, lawyers, and journalists, including former vice president Muhammad Ali Abtahi; journalist and former interior ministry official Muhammad Atrianfar; intellectual and prodemocracy activist Saeed Hajjarian; filmmaker and Newsweek reporter Maziar Bahari (see section 2.a.); an Iranian-American academic; and Mohsen Mirdamadi, the leader of the largest reformist party, the Islamic Iran Participation Front. The prosecution accused the defendants of fomenting a ``velvet revolution,'' acting against national security, and having ties to British spies. Authorities did not permit any of the defendants access to legal counsel prior to the trial. Some of those charged read aloud ``confessions'' in which they denounced former colleagues and declared there had been no fraud in the election. There were allegations that several defendants, including Abtahi and opposition candidate Mousavi supporters Mostafa Tajzadeh, Abdollah Ramezanzadeh, and Mohsen Aminzadeh, underwent ``massive interrogation'' in Evin Prison. There were also reports that authorities tortured Hajjarian in detention (see section 1.c.). At year's end human rights groups reported that 20 of the ``show trial'' defendants had been sentenced to six months to 15 years in prison; three unnamed individuals were sentenced to death. Some human rights groups believed the decision by authorities not to release the names of those sentenced to death was an intimidation tactic to deter people from protesting. At year's end authorities had released a limited number, including Bahari, Hajarian, and Abtahi, but most of the show trial defendants remained in prison. Opposition groups continued to question the legitimacy of the special clerical court system. The clerical courts, which investigate alleged offenses and crimes by clerics and which the supreme leader directly oversees, are not provided for in the constitution, and they operated outside the domain of the judiciary. According to a 2007 AI report, defendants could be represented only by court-nominated clerics who are not required to be qualified lawyers. According to the AI report, in some cases a defendant was unable to find a cleric willing to act as defense counsel and was tried without legal representation. Critics alleged that clerical courts were used to prosecute clerics for expressing controversial ideas and for participating in activities outside the sphere of religion, such as journalism or reformist political activities. For instance, in October, according to Tehran chief prosecutor Abbas Jafari-Dolatabadi, the special clerical court was preparing a case against leading opposition figure Mehdi Karoubi for alleging that security officers raped detainees in the aftermath of the June 12 election. At year's end there was no update on the investigation, and no charges had been filed against Karoubi. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Statistics regarding the number of citizens imprisoned for their political beliefs were not available, but human rights activists estimated the number in the hundreds, not including the approximately 4,000 to 5,000 persons detained in the aftermath of the June election protests and the approximately 1,000 persons detained during and after the Ashura protests. Human rights groups believed that approximately 200 persons remained in detention at year's end. According to opposition press reports, the government arrested, convicted, and executed persons on questionable criminal charges, including drug trafficking, when their actual ``offenses'' were reportedly political. The government charged members of religious minorities and others with crimes such as ``confronting the regime'' and apostasy and followed the same trial procedures as in cases of threats to national security. During the year the government rounded up students and political activists prior to demonstrations to prevent them from organizing or participating in the events. Authorities occasionally gave political prisoners suspended sentences or released them for short or extended furloughs prior to completion of their sentences, but they could order them to return to prison at any time. Suspended sentences often were used to silence and intimidate individuals. The government also controlled political activists by temporarily suspending baseless court proceedings against them, allowing authorities to rearrest them at any time, and it attempted to intimidate activists by calling them in repeatedly for questioning. Numerous observers considered Tehran public prosecutor, Saeed Mortazavi, the most notorious persecutor of political dissidents and critics. According to international press reports, Mortazavi was put in charge of interrogations at Evin prison where most of the postelection protesters were detained. Authorities routinely held political prisoners in solitary confinement for extended periods and denied them due process and access to legal representation. Political prisoners were also at greater risk of torture and abuse in detention. The government did not permit access to political prisoners by international humanitarian organizations or UN special rapporteurs. The government imprisoned minority activists (see also section 6); Kurdish human rights organizations reported that 16 Kurdish political prisoners faced execution at year's end. The government also reportedly held some persons in prison for years under charges of sympathizing with outlawed groups such as the MEK. On February 19, authorities arrested Shabnam Madadzadeh, a member of the Islamic Association and deputy general secretary of the student organization Tahkim Vahdat, along with her brother Farzad Madadzadeh. Authorities accused her of disseminating propaganda against the state and ``enmity with God.'' Despite her lawyer's protests against her detention, the judge refused to assign a bond for her release, arguing that she was a flight risk. As of mid-October, she was reportedly being held in the women's general section of Evin Prison. On March 14, police arrested Hesam Firouzi, a physician and blogger, on the order of the Tehran Revolutionary Court, reportedly for spreading news through his lawyer about the death of blogger Omid Reza Mir Sayafi in Evin Prison. Firouzi was charged with acting against the country's national security, distorting public opinion, distributing lies, and giving refuge and medical treatment to political prisoners. On January 6, the court sentenced Firouzi to 15 months in prison, and he was serving his sentence at year's end. On June 16, authorities arrested without a warrant Abdolfattah Soltani, a prominent human rights lawyer and spokesman for the NGO Defenders of Human Rights Center (DHRC). Authorities gave no reason for the arrest but held him for 72 days, including 17 days in solitary confinement, until his release August 27. On June 17, authorities arrested Ebrahim Yazdi, former foreign minister and the secretary-general of the Freedom Movement of Iran, a civil rights organization. He was released on June 22 but rearrested on December 28. Yazdi reportedly suffered from prostate cancer and required constant medical attention. He remained in detention at year's end. On June 21, police arrested Abdollah Momeni, spokesperson for the Alumni Association of Iran (Advar-e Tahkim Vahdat), a legally registered political organization. On September 14, Momeni appeared at the fifth session of the ``show trials'' and confessed to crimes against the state, and in November authorities sentenced him to eight years in prison. According to AI, Momeni was charged with disseminating propaganda against the Islamic Republic by transmitting news of street protests and colluding to harm national security. AI reported that authorities used as evidence against him Momeni's ``contacts'' with AI and HRW. At year's end Momeni remained in prison despite repeated calls for his release on medical grounds. Also in June, according to various sources, authorities arrested at least two members of the Student Committee for the Defense of Political Prisoners, Naseh Faridi and Ali Bikas, the latter of whom was also an Azeri minority activist. Faridi, released on bail of 500 million rials ($50,000) on September 1, faced libel and national security-related charges at year's end, according to IHRV. Authorities accused Bikas of being a ``field agent for a velvet revolution'' during the show trials. At year's end Bikas remained in prison, without access to counsel or family members. On July 8, police arrested Mohammad-Ali Dadkhah, a member of the Center for Defending Human Rights and an attorney for several political activists, at his office and charged him with meeting with ``foreign enemies.'' On September 14, authorities released him from Evin Prison on a 5 billion rial ($500,000) bail. HRW reported that at the time of his arrest he was meeting with colleagues to discuss the judiciary's proposed legislation to change the legal code to restrict the independence of the bar association and increase the power of the judiciary. On July 9, authorities arrested an Iranian-American academic on charges of espionage. The government based its case on his association with the Open Society Institute, which the government had previously approved, and his subscription to the Gulf/2000 mailing list run by an unnamed American citizen, whom the prosecution identified as a CIA agent. He was one of many politicians, academics, journalists, and others arrested in the wake of the postelection protests, and he appeared before the ``show trials'' in August. On October 20, he was sentenced to 15 years in prison. At year's end his case was before the appellate court. On September 8, a revolutionary court sentenced Misagh Yazdan- Nejad, a 23-year-old university student, to 14 years in Gohardasht Prison in Karaj for participating in a ceremony in 2007 to commemorate those killed in the 1988 mass executions of political prisoners reportedly associated with the MEK. The government had previously executed three of Yazdan-Nejad's uncles and imprisoned both his parents on political grounds. On September 11, a reformist Web site reported police detained Mohammad Ozlati-Moghaddam, head of opposition leader Mousavi's veterans' affairs committee, following a search of his home. At year's end there was no update on his status or whereabouts. Authorities continued to prevent former political prisoner Siamak Pourzand from leaving the country to receive medical care and to join his wife, Mehrangiz Kar, also a former political prisoner, and family abroad. On December 3, authorities sentenced Saeed Leylaz, an economist and journalist, to nine years in prison for allegedly maintaining ties with foreigners and working to overthrow the government, his lawyer told a news agency. During the August ``show trials,'' authorities accused Leylaz of having dealings with Hossein Rassam, an Iranian employed as a political analyst at the British Embassy who was sentenced in October to four years in prison for fomenting violence. Authorities also charged Leylaz with keeping classified documents at his home, apparently due to his possession of a public report issued by parliament that had been posted on the Internet, according to his lawyer. At year's end he remained in prison. On December 28, authorities rearrested former political prisoner Emaddedin Baghi, founder of the Committee for the Defense of Prisoners' Rights. On November 9, authorities had prevented his travel to Geneva to receive an award for human rights defenders from the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. Authorities had imprisoned Baghi previously for his activities as a journalist and his campaigns against the government's execution of juvenile offenders. At year's end Baghi remained in prison without charge. According to the DHRC, judicial authorities denied an appeal request for Kurdish and women's rights activist Zeinab Bayazidi. At year's end she was serving a four-year sentence for acting against national security. Security forces arrested her in July 2008; she was reportedly tried behind closed doors without access to an attorney of her choosing. At year's end Abbas Khorsandi, a political activist and founder of the Iran Democratic Party, an Internet forum for political debate, remained in Evin Prison, where authorities reportedly prevented him from seeing a doctor despite his poor health. In July 2008, according to human rights groups, a Tehran revolutionary court upheld an eight- year prison sentence against Khorsandi for ``acting against national security through formation of an illegal association.'' Security forces arrested him at his place of business in 2007 and held him incommunicado for three months. There were no updates in the following 2008 cases; all individuals were believed to be in prison at year's end: writer and student leader Amin Ghazain Tehran; human rights lawyer Saleh Kamrani; Hadi Qabel, reformist cleric and member of the reformist political group Islamic Iran Participation Front; and Office for Consolidating Unity spokesman Ali Nikunesbati. Authorities transferred Ayatollah Mohammad Kazemeini Boroujerdi to Evin Prison despite appeals for his release on medical grounds; at year's end he remained in the special ward for clergy. Human rights groups claimed he has been in solitary confinement without access to an independent lawyer since his arrest at his home in 2006. Prior to Boroujerdi's arrest, the government had increased pressure on him for his belief that religion and the state should be separate. Political prisoner Behrouz Javid-Tehrani, who spent four years in prison for his activities during the 1999 student uprising and was sentenced in 2005 to seven more years in prison following a secret trial without legal representation, remained in prison at year's end. According to human rights organizations, Branch 26 of the Revolutionary Court of Tehran convicted Javid-Tehrani of having contact with foreign opposition groups. At the time of the most recent conviction, Javid- Tehrani was in solitary confinement in Gohardasht Prison in Karaj, where he alleged security agents severely tortured him on numerous occasions. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--By law the judiciary is independent from the executive and legislative branches; in practice it remained under the influence of executive and religious government authorities. According to the constitution, the Court of Administrative Justice, under the supervision of the head of the judiciary, investigates the grievances of citizens with regard to government officials, organs, and statutes. In practice citizens had limited ability to sue the government. Citizens were not able to bring lawsuits against the government for civil or human rights violations. Dispute resolution councils are available to settle minor civil and criminal cases through mediation before referral to courts. Property Restitution.--The constitution allows the government to confiscate property acquired illicitly or in a manner not in conformity with Islamic law, and the government particularly targeted religious minorities, especially members of the Baha'i faith (see section 2.c.). f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution states that ``reputation, life, property, [and] dwelling[s]'' are protected from trespass except as ``provided by law,'' but the government routinely infringed on this right. Security forces monitored the social activities of citizens, entered homes and offices, monitored telephone conversations and Internet communications, and opened mail without court authorization. There were widespread reports that government agents entered, searched, and/or ransacked the homes and offices of reformist journalists in an attempt to intimidate them. On June 26, HRW reported that Basij forces carried out raids at night, destroying public property, entering homes, and beating civilians in an attempt to stop nightly protest chants. On June 22, according to a resident of the Vanak neighborhood in Tehran, Basij forces entered the home of his cousin and destroyed doors and automobiles in response to opposition-organized chanting in the area. In a second report, a woman from the Velenjak neighborhood in Tehran claimed Basij forces responded to chants during the night of June 23 by kicking down doors or climbing over walls and entering homes through interior doors. Once inside the homes, Basij members beat residents and destroyed property. HRW collected similar reports of raids by Basij and security forces in neighborhoods throughout Tehran. During the year vigilantes continued to attack young persons considered ``un-Islamic'' in their dress or activities, invade private homes, abuse unmarried couples, and disrupt concerts. During the year the government continued its crackdown on un-Islamic dress or ``bad hijab'' (when a headcovering is brightly colored or does not completely cover the wearer's hair). According to press reports, morality police have stopped or detained more than two million individuals since 2007 for inappropriate hairstyles (usually related to the length of men's hair or beards) or bad hijab. In September the BBC reported that the morality police stopped male shopkeepers from selling women's undergarments, and the Los Angeles Times reported stores were forced to ensure that mannequins had appropriate dress. In December, according to local news reports, Basij forces patrolled universities to arrest male students with inappropriate dress or long hair, which they considered a sign of dissent. There were reports during the year that the MOIS harassed family members of political prisoners and rights activists, banning them from speaking to foreign media or traveling abroad, blocking their telephone conversations, making false criminal charges against them, and blocking their access to higher education. MOIS agents reportedly threatened to arrest family members of Kurdish political prisoner Shirko Moarefi if they protested or publicized his execution, scheduled for November 14. The execution was subsequently delayed, and at year's end Moarefi remained on death row. On December 28, intelligence officers reportedly arrested Nushin Ebadi, a professor of dentistry and sister to Nobel Prize-winning human rights lawyer and activist Shirin Ebadi, at her home. According to Shirin Ebadi, Nushin was not involved in human rights issues and did not participate in any of the postelection protests. At year's end she remained in prison. There were also reports that authorities threatened and arrested family members of expatriates who posted critical comments about the country on social networking Web sites such as Facebook. According to media accounts, an Iranian-American studying abroad reported he received an e-mail warning him that his relatives in Iran would be harmed if he did not delete an online petition he had created relating to the imprisonment in Iran of a human rights activist; he claimed that security agents arrested his father two days later and held him briefly. Authorities occasionally entered homes to remove satellite television dishes, which are illegal in the country. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of expression and of the press, except when the words are deemed ``detrimental to the fundamental principles of Islam or the rights of the public.'' In practice the government severely restricted freedom of speech and of the press. There were no basic legal safeguards for freedom of expression, and the government--notably the judiciary--arbitrarily enforced censorship measures against the independent press. Government censorship and self-censorship limited dissemination of information during the year. The government frequently threatened and jailed journalists as a consequence of their work, and it closed the offices of the journalists' union in August (see section 7). Individuals could not criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the government actively sought to impede criticism. On June 9, a court reportedly sentenced singer and composer Mohsen Namjoo in absentia to five years' imprisonment for ``disrespecting religious sanctities'' based on the way he used Koranic verses in a private 2005 recording purportedly leaked on the Internet earlier in the year without his approval. Namjoo continued to live outside the country at year's end. The country's media outlets were varied, including state-controlled television, radio, and print publications, as well as private newspapers and magazines that cover current affairs, politics, the arts, and sports. The government closely monitored all media outlets, and private media lacked independence in practice. Journalists who failed to abide by government guidelines faced intimidation, arrest, or closure of their publications. As a result, the government held significant influence over all media in the country. The government's Press Supervisory Board (PSB) was responsible for issuing press licenses, which it sometimes revoked in response to articles critical of the government, and for examining complaints filed against publications or individual journalists, editors, or publishers. According to article 175 of the constitution, private broadcasting is illegal. The government controlled and maintained a monopoly over all television and radio broadcasting facilities through a state- controlled entity, the Voice and Vision Organization. Radio and television programming--the principal source of news for many citizens, especially in rural areas--reflected the government's political and socioreligious ideology. Satellite dishes that received foreign television broadcasts were forbidden, and the government periodically confiscated them from homes. For instance, on June 24, according to HRW, uniformed police officers forced residents in the Niavaran and Dorous neighborhoods of Tehran to take down their satellite dishes and returned later to confiscate many dishes. Nevertheless, most satellite dishes in individual homes reportedly continued to operate. International media did not operate freely. The government required foreign correspondents to provide detailed travel plans and topics of proposed stories before it granted visas. Authorities also closely monitored reporters and attempted to influence them to garner more favorable coverage. The government issued standard one-week visas for foreign journalists who entered the country to cover the June election, but it reportedly denied most of the journalists' extension requests as the postelection protests developed. The government also forbade foreign journalists to report on the protests, in some cases confining reporters to their hotel rooms or offices during the protests. Some journalists reported authorities told them they would face arrest if they had a camera on the streets. According to a June 5 report from the German weekly newsmagazine Focus, the Iranian press attache' in Berlin, Mehrzad Tabatabai, informed Focus's country expert Andrea Hoffman that the Iranian government would censor her reporting from inside Iran on the June election. When Hoffman refused to accept Iranian censorship of her reporting, the Iranian Embassy denied her visa application. During the year the government banned, blocked, and closed publications that were critical of the government. Public officials often lodged criminal complaints against reformist newspapers; the PSB referred complaints to the media court for further action, including closure and fines. The court conducted its hearings in public with a jury of appointed clerics, government officials, and editors of government-controlled newspapers. Some human rights groups asserted that the increasingly conservative media court assumed responsibility for cases before PSB consideration. The government censored both reformist and conservative newspapers after they published articles contradicting the official line, and it permanently closed others, including more than 10 national dailies such as Kalameh Sabz (June 13), Etemad-e Melli (August 17), the business newspaper Sarmayeh (November 2), and Hayat-e no (closed December 8 after carrying reports about the crackdown on the Student Day protests). On January 1, the PSB closed down Farsi-language daily Kargozaran for allegedly downplaying the actions of the Israeli armed forces during the December 2008 military operation in Gaza and finding fault with Hamas for its tactics during the conflict. The paper remained closed at year's end. On February 5, the PSB shut down the pro-Ahmadi-Nejad weekly Hemat on the charge of ``insulting higher officials.'' On May 16, the proreform daily Yas-e Now reappeared on newsstands after a five-year ban. The judiciary shut down the paper in 2004 after it published a letter criticizing the mass disqualification of candidates from the 2004 election. Later on May 16, the Commission of Press Authorization and Surveillance, acting on orders from Tehran prosecutor Saeed Mortazavi, shut down the paper again. Mortazavi claimed legal proceedings from the original closure in 2004 were still under way, despite an April 11 decision by Branch 76 of Tehran's penal court allowing the paper to open. The Yas-e Now editor wrote an open letter to President Ahmadi-Nejad accusing him of shutting down the newspaper to restrict the opposition's access to the public. On June 11, the day before the presidential election, Tehran prosecutor Mortazavi forbade pro-opposition newspapers to lead with stories announcing their candidate's victory, according to RSF. Authorities reportedly threatened to confiscate the printing press Kalameh Sabaz, a newspaper owned by opposition leader Mirhossein Mousavi, until it rewrote its front-page story that proclaimed Mousavi had won. On August 17, authorities banned the publication of reformist newspaper Etemad Melli due to its publication of a critical article on the country's detention centers. In October the PSB revoked the publication licenses of the Shiraz- based Tahleel-e Rooz and Tehran newspapers Farhang-e Aashti and Arman. On November 23, authorities banned for one day the publication of daily newspaper Hamshahri after it published a picture from the temple of the banned Baha'i faith. On January 1, the judiciary lifted the ban on Tehran-e Emrouz, a daily newspaper affiliated with Tehran mayor Mohammad Baqer Qalibaf. The government banned the paper in June 2008 after it published articles authorities deemed offensive. The media law forbids censorship by the government but also forbids disseminating information that may damage the Islamic Republic or offend its leaders and religious authorities, and censorship occurred. Government officials also routinely intimidated journalists into practicing self-censorship. On September 17, according to IHRV, the Supreme National Security Council declared illegal the publication of any news related to presidential candidates Mehdi Karoubi or Mir-Hossein Mousavi or the presidential election. On December 20, according to RSF, the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance issued a directive banning print and Internet articles about cleric Grand Ayatollah Montazeri, a critic of the government who died on December 19. RSF also reported that broadcast of a BBC documentary on Montazari was jammed. At various times in 2008, government officials advised reporters not to use the names of unauthorized political parties and to ``censor pages which are likely to create a dispute,'' observing the country's ``religious, moral, and national sensitivities. In September 2008 former deputy interior minister Mostafa Tajzadeh said the government imposed censorship ``to the greatest degree'' regarding nuclear policy. During the year the government detained, jailed, tortured, or fined numerous publishers, editors, and journalists (including Internet media) for their reporting. The penal code states that ``anyone who undertakes any form of propaganda against the state'' can be imprisoned for as long as one year; the law does not define ``propaganda.'' The law also subjects writers to prosecution for instigating crimes against the state or national security or ``insulting'' Islam; the latter offense is punishable by death. In late January security agents confiscated the passport of Saeed Razavi-Faghih, a former editorial writer for several reformist newspapers and former member of the Office of Consolidating Unity (a reformist student organization), and informed him of his summons to a revolutionary court on charges of acting against national security. Razavi-Faghih was returning to the country from France, where he had been studying since 2004. On February 2, authorities arrested Razavi- Faghih and sent him to Evin Prison; he was released on bail 16 days later. On May 1, according to RSF, during International Workers Day demonstrations, authorities arrested several journalists, including Alireza Saghafi, who edited the magazine Rah Ayandeh until authorities closed it in May 2008, and Amir Yaghoubali, a journalist for the daily Etemad. On May 26, authorities released Yaghoubali from Evin Prison, pending his trial on charges of ``activities against national security'' and ``disturbing public order'' based on his writings. On June 10, authorities released Saghafi on 700 million rial ($70,000) bail pending trial on charges related to his participation in the May 1 demonstration. According to RSF, authorities arrested more than 100 journalists after the June 12 election, and 30 others fled the country, the largest exodus of journalists since the 1979 revolution. RSF reported that 43 journalists remained in detention at year's end. On June 17, authorities detained Global Radio News freelance correspondent and Washington Times reporter Iason Athanasiadis-Fowden, a British-Greek citizen, in the Tehran airport as he was leaving the country. Intelligence officials held Athanasiadis in Evin Prison for three weeks, during which they interrogated and abused him, accusing him of being a British spy. He was released on July 6 after 20 days of incarceration. On June 20, security agents reportedly arrested Mohammad Ghouchani, a journalist and editor in chief of Etemad Meli daily, after the newspaper published leading opposition figure Mehdi Karoubi's letter to the Guardian Council calling for the election results to be canceled. Authorities charged Ghouchani with ``participation in illegal gatherings to endanger national security'' and ``writing articles instigating unrest,'' and he appeared in two of the ``show trials.'' According to AI, Ghouchani's family paid one billion rials ($100,000) bail on August 23, but authorities delayed his release from Evin Prison until October 30. On June 20, authorities arrested journalist and women's rights defender Bahman Ahmadi-Amoee and his wife, Zhila Baniyaghoub, also a journalist, in their home. Authorities released Baniyaghoub on August 26, but Ahmadi-Amoee remained in prison at year's end. Authorities reportedly prevented Ahmadi-Amoee's access to legal counsel and held him in solitary confinement for 65 days; his lawyer had no access to any government evidence against him. In March 2008 authorities sentenced Ahmadi-Amoee to a six-month suspended prison term for ``activity against national security.'' On June 21, authorities arrested Iranian-Canadian journalist Maziar Bahari, a reporter for Newsweek. While in detention, Bahari was held in solitary confinement and underwent daily interrogations. Officials reportedly forced him to make a televised confession acknowledging Western journalists as spies. He was among the political prisoners present during the ``show trials'' but was released on October 20. At year's end Bahari had left the country but still faced trial on espionage charges. On June 30, according to IHRV, authorities arrested journalist Hengameh Shahidi, a member of the Committee for Human Rights Reporters, and sentenced her on December 9 to six years in prison for participating in postelection demonstrations and ``spreading propaganda against the holy Islamic Regime,'' based on an interview with the ``antirevolutionary'' BBC. On December 20, authorities arrested journalist and blogger Shiva Nazar Ahari and two of her colleagues from the Committee for Human Rights Reporters as they were headed to Qom for Grand Ayatollah Montazeri's funeral. On December 28, authorities arrested another member of the organization, Nasrin Vaziri. At year's end no further information on their arrests was available. According to human rights organizations, authorities arrested seven of the nine leaders of the organization during the year and pressured the group to close its Web site. Security forces previously arrested Ahari on June 14 at her workplace in Tehran, reportedly on charges of being a member of the MEK and organizing demonstrations; authorities released her on bail August 23. The day before her arrest, security forces searched her home in her absence and confiscated some of her personal possessions. On December 27, according to international media and RSF, authorities arrested Dubai television journalist and Syrian national Reza Al-Bacha while he was covering demonstrations. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance stated that Al-Bacha was not acting as a journalist at the time of his arrest. On December 28, according to RSF, authorities arrested Kalemeh Sabz editor Alireza Behshtipour Shirazi. At year's end he remained in prison. On December 28, authorities arrested writer and journalist Mostafa Izadi at his home. Izadi worked for the daily Sobh-e Emrouz and was formerly editor in chief of the Ava weekly. He also authored a biography of Grand Ayatollah Montazeri. At year's end he remained in prison. There were several developments in cases from previous years. On March 26, authorities rearrested journalist and activist Mahboubeh Karami and others as they prepared to visit families of detained activists (see section 6, Women). In June 2008 authorities arrested Karami after she criticized police for beating demonstrators and detained her until August 2008. There were no updates in the July 2008 case of Kurdish journalist Saman Rasoulpour, charged with ``distributing propaganda against the state'' and released on bail in August 2008. On September 9, authorities transferred imprisoned journalist Mohammad-Hossein Falahiezadeh to Evin Prison's medical clinic due to his critical health situation. Falahiezadeh had served his September 2008 prison sentence for reporting on street protests by members of the Ahvazi Arab minority, but MOIS officials reportedly stated his release was contingent on setting bail. Human rights groups claimed this was a ploy by government officials to keep Falahiezadeh imprisoned as they know that he cannot afford to pay bail. On July 11, a revolutionary court summoned Iranian Azerbaijani journalist Said Matinpour and handed down his eight-year sentence of one year for ``propaganda against the Islamic Republic'' and seven years for ``maintaining relations with foreigners.'' Matinpour was originally arrested in 2007 and held in pretrial detention until his release on bail in February, with no contact with his family or lawyer for most of that time. According to activists, MOIS officials tortured Matinpour and detained his younger brother to coerce him to confess. On July 19, the Mahabad revolutionary court began the trial of Mohammad Sadegh Kaboudvand, a Kurdish journalist and founder of the Human Rights Organization of Kurdistan (HROK), for allegedly spreading antigovernment propaganda in publications on Kurdish women's rights, according to NGO reports. Police originally arrested Kaboudvand in 2007, and he was serving a 10-year prison sentence imposed in May 2008 for establishing an illegal organization and other crimes. At year's end he remained in Evin Prison, despite severe health problems, including a second heart attack in December 2008. In March 2008 a court sentenced Kurdish journalist Abdolvahed ``Hiva'' Boutimar to death for a second time on espionage-related charges. He remained on death row at year's end. Kurdish journalist Adnan Hassanpour, Boutimar's cousin and colleague, continued to await his retrial on charges of espionage and working with outlaw parties. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance must grant permission to publish any book, and it inspected foreign printed materials prior to their domestic release. Internet Freedom.--NGOs reported that the government continued to increase control over the Internet during the year as more citizens used it as a source for news and political debate. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union statistics, approximately 31 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The government monitored Internet communications, especially via social networking Web sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, with technology it purchased at the end of 2008. The government threatened, harassed, and arrested individuals who posted comments critical of the government on the Internet; in some cases it reportedly confiscated their passports or arrested their family members (see section 1.f.). Freedom House and other human rights organizations reported that authorities sometimes stopped citizens at Tehran International Airport as they arrived in the country, asked them to log into their YouTube and Facebook accounts, and in some cases forced them to delete information. All Internet service providers (ISPs) must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. The government also required all owners of Web sites and blogs in the country to register with the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance; in practice, this regulation was rarely enforced. The government used filtering software to block access to domestic blogs and some Western Web sites, reportedly including the Web sites of prominent Western news organizations and NGOs. According to RSF, the government blocked access to thousands of Web sites during the year, and in some cases ISPs redirected computer users from opposition Web sites to progovernment news sites. The government also censored Web site content to control citizens' access to information. According to Freedom House, content from opposition leaders' Web sites was deleted during the year. During the period prior to the June presidential election, authorities blocked access to Facebook and Twitter. On election day, authorities reportedly blocked access to YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites through which individuals were reporting on the election. The government also imposed limits on Internet speed and technology, making it difficult to download Internet material or to circumvent government restrictions to access blocked Web sites. After the June election, there was a major drop in bandwidth, which experts posited the government may have caused in its effort to prevent activists involved in the protests from accessing the Internet and especially from uploading large video files. The Press Law and Islamic Penal Code both apply to electronic media, and the PSB and judiciary used such laws to close Web sites during the year. In December 2008 the Tehran prosecutor general announced the creation of a special office to review Internet and text message-related crimes related to the June 2009 presidential election. During the year the government prosecuted and punished persons for peaceful expression of dissenting views via the Internet. During the ``show trials,'' prosecutors often cited activities on the Internet or e-mails sent to foreigners as evidence of illegal activity. According to RSF, seven bloggers remained detained at year's end. On September 2, authorities arrested Ali Asguar Jamali, a blogger and doctor based in the northern city of Qasvin, and other activists for ``inciting actions against national security including protests and insults against government officials by means of publications and meetings,'' according to the news agency Fars. Jamali, who defends workers' rights, writes a blog called Dr. Social-Democrat. At year's end there was no update on his case. On December 20, according to RSF, police arrested journalist and blogger Mohammad Norizad. The previous evening, he had posted on his blog that a court had summoned him by telephone to appear and answer to charges of insulting the head of the judiciary. In December Norizad wrote an article criticizing the new head of the judiciary, and earlier in the year Norizad posted statements on his blog that criticized the supreme leader. The Tehran prosecutor's office reportedly stated that Norizad was under investigation for ``publicity against the regime and insulting the authorities.'' During the year there were developments in several cases from previous years. On March 18, authorities released blogger Esmail Jafari from prison on payment of bail pending his sentencing. In April 2008 authorities had arrested him and seized his computer equipment, which allegedly held photos of a demonstration in Bushehr, and in December 2008 a court sentenced him to five months in prison for ``antigovernment publicity.'' Also on March 18, Omid Reza Mirsayafi, a 25-year-old blogger, died in the medical ward of Evin Prison, reportedly due to an overdose of a medication he received from the prison clinic for depression. According to the ICHRI, Mirsayafi died as a result of neglect by prison authorities. In April 2008 security forces arrested Mirsayafi, and in December 2008 a Tehran revolutionary court sentenced him to 30 months in prison for propaganda against the state and criticism of the supreme leader. Internet journalist and cleric Mojtaba Lotfi continued to serve a four-year prison sentence imposed in November 2008 for posting online a sermon by Grand Ayatollah Hussein Ali Montazeri, a well-known opponent of Supreme Leader Khamenei, that criticized President Ahmadi-Nejad's claim that Iran was ``the world's freest country.'' According to RSF, Lotfi suffered from lung problems stemming from Iran-Iraq war injuries. Well-known blogger, author of the first Persian-language blogging guide, and dual Iranian-Canadian citizen Hossein Derakhshan reportedly remained in Evin Prison, where he was subjected to psychological and physical abuse, according to the group Human Rights Activists in Iran. Authorities arrested Derakhshan in November 2008 while he was visiting the country. On January 5, domestic media sources reported an appeals court in Azerbaijan province had upheld blogger and women's rights activist Shahnaz Gholami's six-month prison sentence. Gholami had been in Tabriz Prison since her November 2008 arrest for publishing ``propaganda against the Islamic Republic'' and ``jeopardizing national security.'' A court sentenced her to six months in prison. Gholami was released on bail of 200 million rials ($20,000) on January 19. On February 3, according to HRW and the ICHR, the Judiciary Court sentenced four bloggers (three in absentia)--Omid Memarian, Roozbeh Mirebrahimi, Shahram Rafizadeh, and Javad Gholamtamimi--to prison terms of up to three years, fines, and flogging for ``participating in the establishment of illegal organizations,'' ``membership in illegal organizations,'' propaganda against the state,'' ``disseminating lies,'' and ``disturbing public order,'' despite the judiciary head's admission that the bloggers' confessions were coerced. Authorities arrested the four in 2004 and detained them without charge at Evin Prison until they were released on bail later the same year. All four claimed authorities physically and psychologically abused them in detention, including subjecting them to prolonged periods of solitary confinement in a secret detention center without access to legal counsel or family. Memarian, Mirebrahimi, and Rafizadeh left the country after their 2004 release on bail and remained abroad at year's end; Gholamtamimi continued to reside in the country. The government had not made public the full findings of any investigation, nor had it announced any penalties or prosecution for the abuse. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government significantly restricted academic freedom. Authorities working with universities continued to dismiss university professors in accordance with a 2006 presidential call for the removal of secular and liberal professors. To obtain tenure, professors had to refrain from criticism of authorities. According to AI, in August the Supreme Council for the Cultural Revolution instructed the Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies to revise the humanities curriculum. Earlier in the year Supreme Leader Khamenei had made a speech noting worrisome trends in the teaching of humanities, including what he considered encouraging doubt of religious principles. According to AI, in October authorities banned from teaching five prominent law professors from Alameh Tabatabai University's law school. Local news reports noted that the professors taught human rights courses at the university. Admission to universities was politicized; in addition to standardized examinations, all applicants had to pass ``character tests'' in which officials eliminated applicants critical of the government's ideology. Basij members were given advantages in the admissions process. Student groups reported that a ``star'' system inaugurated by the government in 2006 to rank politically active students was still in use. Students deemed antigovernment through this system reportedly were banned from university admission or prevented from registering for upcoming terms. During the previous three years, according to the ICHRI, government interference with university admissions considerably increased with a coordinated assault by the Ministry of Higher Education, the MOIS, and the judiciary aimed at preventing student activists from continuing their education. On February 2, a human rights organization reported that in the past few years authorities had barred 58 students from matriculating at graduate programs at universities in the country due to their prior participation in student activism. HRW also reported during the year that authorities used university disciplinary committees to expel or transfer students to other universities as punishment for peaceful political activities. On November 10, according to the Mehr news agency, the leader of the student Basij organization, Mohammad Saleh Jokar, announced that 6,000 Basij units would be created in the country's elementary schools. Jokar said the action aimed to expand and promote Basij and revolutionary ideals among young persons. He added that approximately 4.5 million students and 320,000 teachers were members of the Basij. The government censored cultural events with stringent controls on cinema and theater and a ban on Western music. A 2006 NGO report noted that censorship by authorities and a culture of self-censorship strongly inhibited artistic expression in the country. The government monitored cultural associations and continued to crack down on underground music groups (i.e., any group that failed to obtain a recording license from the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance), especially those it considered inspired by Satan such as heavy metal or other Western-type music. In May Basij militia members and Revolutionary Guard officers reportedly raided an underground music concert in Shiraz and arrested 104 individuals for ``immoral'' and ``Satanic'' behavior, as well as for drinking alcohol. In October in Orumiyeh, police reportedly arrested 12 underground musicians accused of promoting ``Satanism.'' There was no information at year's end about the status or whereabouts of those arrested in either case. On November 21, IHRV reported that authorities had banned broadcasting of certain singers' music and certain songs from government-owned radio stations for unspecified reasons. The censure list contained the following artists' names: Shahin Aryen, Feraydoun Aseraei, Alireza Eftakhari, Majid Akhshabi, Alireza Afshar, Mohammad Isfehani, Esmailzadeh, Shahram Amiri, Ehsan Khajeh-Amiri, Masoud Khadem, Hossein Zaman, Kouros Sarhangzadeh, Naser Abdullahi, Alireza Assar, Fataali Ovaisi, Golshan, Ali Lahrasbi, Mohammad Nouri, and Kambiz Afzali. As the main source of production funding, the government effectively censored domestic filmmaking. Producers were required to submit scripts and film proposals to government officials in advance of funding approval. Movies promoting secularism, feminism, unethical behavior, drug abuse, violence, or alcoholism were illegal, and some domestic directors were blacklisted. The government prevented distribution of citizen Bahman Ghobadi's film on censorship, No One Knows About Persian Cats. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution permits assemblies and marches ``provided they do not violate the principles of Islam''; in practice the government restricted freedom of assembly and closely monitored gatherings to prevent antigovernment protests. Such gatherings included public entertainment and lectures, student meetings and protests, labor protests, women's gatherings and protests, funeral processions, and Friday prayer gatherings. According to activists, the government arbitrarily applied rules governing permits to assemble, with conservative groups rarely experiencing difficulty and groups viewed as critical of the government experiencing harassment regardless of whether a permit was issued. The government continued to prohibit and forcibly disperse peaceful demonstrations during the year. Paramilitary organizations such as Ansar-e Hizballah also harassed, beat, and intimidated those who demonstrated publicly for reform. They particularly targeted university students. On February 5, according to AI, authorities arrested four men from Tehran Polytechnic (Amir Kabir) University's Islamic Students Association, Esmail Salmanpour, Majid Tavakkoli, Hossein Torkashvand, and Koroush Daneshyar. The students had taken part in a ceremony commemorating the life of Mehdi Bazargan, the first prime minister appointed after the 1979 revolution. As the gathering was beginning, authorities interrupted the ceremony and arrested approximately 20 participants, 16 of whom were later released. The four students reportedly initiated a hunger strike in protest of their detention. No updates were available at year's end. On February 23, more than 1,500 Amir Kabir University students demonstrated against the government's plan to rebury soldiers from the Iran-Iraq War on university grounds. According to AI, security forces arrested four Amir Kabir University students, Abbas Hakimzadeh, Mehdi Mashayekhi, Nariman Mostafavi, and Ahmad Qasaban, along with 70 other students during the demonstrations. Authorities later released 40 of the students. There was no information regarding the status of the remaining detained students at year's end. On March 26, authorities arrested Khadijeh Moghaddam, Mahboubeh Karami, and 10 others as they prepared to visit families of detained activists (see section 6). After the June 12 election and as protests continued throughout the year, police reportedly preemptively arrested numerous student activists. On December 7, thousands of opposition supporters and students gathered in Tehran and cities across the country to mark the anniversary of the killing of three students by security forces in 1953. According to AI, security forces used excessive violence in suppressing student-led demonstrations, where scores of protesters were beaten and detained. In a number of instances, Basij militia and other security forces reportedly used batons and tear gas to disperse opposition supporters. Many individuals who participated in demonstrations since 2006 were imprisoned at year's end. For example, on January 31, judicial officials from the Revolutionary Court of Tehran arrested Alieh Eghdamdoust in her hometown of Foman to begin serving a three-year prison sentence for participating in an ``illegal gathering'' based on her participation in a 2006 women's rights protest in Haft Tir Square in Tehran; she remained in Evin Prison at year's end. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the establishment of political parties, professional associations, Islamic religious groups, and organizations for recognized religious minorities, as long as such groups do not violate the principles of ``freedom, sovereignty, and national unity'' or question Islam as the basis of the Islamic Republic. The government limited freedom of association in practice through threats, intimidation, imposing arbitrary requirements on organizations, and arresting group leaders and members. According to a January 9 HRW report, under the Ahmadi- Nejad administration, municipal, provincial, and national councils-- established by 2005 regulations ostensibly to facilitate NGOs' permit process--instead served to suppress NGO activities. Such councils generally denied NGOs' applications without written explanation, especially in minority regions, where those who successfully obtained permits nevertheless faced harassment (see section 6, National/Ethnic/ Racial Minorities). Throughout the year the government reportedly continued to exert significant pressure on the DHRC, a Tehran NGO headed by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi (see section 5). The journalists' union and other labor-related groups also continued to face problems during the year (see section 7). c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution states that Shia Islam is the state religion and that all laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. The constitution also nominally protects other Islamic denominations, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Judaism. In practice the government severely restricted freedom of religion, particularly the Baha'i faith. The central feature of the country's Islamic system was rule by the ``religious jurisconsult.'' Its senior leadership consisted principally of Shia clerics, including the supreme leader of the revolution, the head of the judiciary, and members of the Assembly of Experts and the Guardian Council. Apostasy was punishable by death, according to Shari'a law. In September 2008 the Majles enacted a revision to the penal code to make conversion from Islam punishable by death for men or life imprisonment for women. The legislature reportedly implemented the revision on a one-year trial basis. On June 23, the Legal and Judicial Committee of the Majles recommended removing the revision from the penal code, but it remained at year's end. There were no reported instances of courts imposing the death penalty for apostasy during the year. Government rhetoric and actions created a threatening atmosphere for nearly all non-Shia religious groups, most notably for Baha'is, as well as for Sunni Muslims, evangelical Christians, and members of the Jewish community. According to human rights activists, the government grew increasingly intolerant of Sufism and increased restrictions on Sufi houses of worship (husseiniya). If a Sufi student's faith was revealed, the university expelled him or her. The government continued to repress Baha'is and prevent them from meeting in homes to worship. It banned them from government and military leadership posts, the social pension system, and public schools and universities unless they concealed their faith. The courts denied Baha'is the right to inherit property, and the government does not recognize Baha'i marriages or divorces; the government, however, accepts a notary certificate acknowledging the union which allows couples to live together legally. According to the law, Baha'i blood is considered mobah, meaning Baha'is may be killed with impunity. The government repeatedly pressured Baha'is to recant their religious beliefs in exchange for relief from mistreatment. On January 14, according to AI and Baha'i groups, authorities raided the homes of 12 Baha'i and arrested six persons. One was released shortly after he was arrested, but the other five spent two months in prison before being released. On February 18, Radio Free Europe reported plainclothes police officers had destroyed a library and a religious hall at a Sufi house of worship in Ifsahan. On March 5, security forces arrested two Christian women, Maryam Rostampour and Marzieh Amirizadeh Esmaeilabad, interrogated them, and detained them in several police stations without charging them before they appeared before Branch 2 of the Revolutionary Court in Tehran on March 18 to face charges of ``taking part in illegal gatherings'' and ``acting against state security.'' During their continued detention in an overcrowded cell in Evin Prison with 27 other women, they reportedly received no medical attention for infections and fevers. On October 7, authorities brought them before court again and charged them with three additional crimes: antistate activities, propagation of the Christian faith, and apostasy. On November 18, authorities released both women without bail, but it was uncertain whether they would face further court proceedings based on charges against them. On July 23, according to the Iran Minorities Human Rights Organization, riot police and security forces arrested 20 Sufi practitioners (dervishes) in Gonabadi who were part of a group of 200 to 300 dervishes protesting the arrest of Hossein Zareya, a local leader. Police reportedly used force and tear gas to disperse the crowd, injuring several dervishes. According to Radio Free Europe, authorities had arrested Zareyi for presiding over the burial of a dervish at the cemetery. Authorities had purportedly banned dervishes from being buried at the cemetery for ecological reasons, but the dervishes claimed the ban was part of a government campaign against Sufis. On September 27, MOIS officers in Yazd searched the home of Soheil Rouhanifard and confiscated belongings and materials related to the Baha'i faith. The next day, Rouhanifard appeared at the local MOIS office in response to a summons. Authorities interrogated and released him. He was summoned again on October 19 and arrested without charge. At year's end he remained in prison and was not permitted family visits. On October 12, MOIS officers arrested Behnam Rouhanifard, brother of Soheil Rouhanifard. Two days later authorities summoned his wife to appear at the local MOIS office, where authorities interrogated her for two hours. At year's end Rouhanifard's family had not heard from him since October 17, when he was permitted to call home; his whereabouts were unknown. On October 31, MOIS officers searched the home of Baha'i member Ali Bakhsh Bazrafkan, confiscated items linked to his faith, and arrested him. Bazrafkan was a member of the former Baha'i administrative group (Khademin) in Yasouj. According to IHRV, Bazrafkan received a 30-month prison sentence followed by five years in exile in a remote area in the province of Kohkiloyeh va Boyerahmad. According to human rights groups, all seven members of the Baha'i national leadership body, arrested in March and May 2008, and a total of at least 48 Baha'is, 29 of whom had been arrested during the year, were imprisoned at year's end. Authorities scheduled capital punishment trials for the seven leaders on several occasions during the year, only to cancel each time at the last minute. At year's end the trial date was set for January 12, 2010. Human rights organizations reported that the government demolished several Sunni mosques during the year. With the exception of Baha'is, the government generally allowed recognized religious minorities to conduct religious education of their adherents in separate schools, although it restricted this right considerably in some cases. The Ministry of Education, which imposed certain curriculum requirements, supervised the schools and must approve all textbooks, including religious texts. Sunni leaders reported bans on Sunni religious literature and teachings in public schools, even in predominantly Sunni areas. The government reportedly allowed Hebrew instruction but limited the distribution of Hebrew texts, particularly nonreligious texts, making it difficult to teach the language. With few exceptions, directors of private religious schools must be Muslim. The law required all Muslim students to take Islamic studies courses. The government did not respect the right of Muslim citizens to change or renounce their religion. On November 2, MOIS officers entered a venue where a Baha'i gathering was underway. They filmed the event, distributed forms committing participants to respond to any summons from the local MOIS office, and arrested a man with the surname Ghanavati. When officers asked participants if anyone was absent, Sonia Ahmadi's name came up; the officers subsequently went to her home, searched it, and arrested her. Some reports speculated that their arrest was due to Ahmadi having converted Ghanavati from Islam more than 30 years previously. At year's end both individuals remained in prison. Proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims was illegal. The authorities continued to increase vigilance in curbing proselytism by evangelical Christians. On October 19, authorities arrested Peyman Kashfi, a Baha'i, after he appeared before the Tehran Revolutionary Court in response to a summons. Prior to his arrest, an unidentified government official demanded Kashfi be terminated from his job due to his alleged proselytizing of colleagues. His employer refused the demand. At year's end Kashfi was reportedly being held in Section 209 of Evin Prison. The government, specifically the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance and the MOIS, monitored all religious activity and the statements and views of all religious leaders, including the country's senior Muslim religious leaders. It restricted the movements of several Muslim religious leaders who had been under house arrest for years and continued to detain at least one dissident cleric, Ayatollah Boroujerdi. The government pressured all ranking clerics to ensure their teachings conformed to (or at least did not contradict) government policy and positions. Since the June elections, the government has pressured proreform clerics to refrain from calling into question the election results and from criticizing the government's response to the demonstrations. For instance, on November 25, the opposition Web site Rahesabz reported that Ayatollah Hashemi Rafsanjani, a moderate cleric often critical of the current government, would not be leading Eid Qorban prayers for the first time in several years and that Rafsanjani would be replaced by conservative Ayatollah Ahmad Khatami, according to an announcement by the Tehran Friday Prayers Office. Khatami also replaced Rafsanjani in leading prayers on Qods Day. The government also required evangelical Christian groups to compile and submit congregation membership lists. President Ahmadi-Nejad continued a virulent anti-Semitic campaign, stating in news conferences during the year that ``Zionists'' and Israel must be destroyed. Jewish citizens were free to travel out of the country but were subject to the general restriction against travel by the country's citizens to Israel. This restriction was not enforced. The government reportedly continued to confiscate private and commercial properties, as well as religious materials, belonging to Baha'is. In 2006 the UN special representative on housing reported approximately 640 documented cases of Baha'i property confiscations since 1980, instances of numerous undocumented cases, and court verdicts declaring confiscation of property from the Baha'is legally and religiously justifiable. The constitution did not recognize rights of members of the Baha'i faith, and they had no avenue to seek restitution or compensation for confiscated property. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Government actions continued to support elements of society who created a threatening atmosphere for some religious minorities. All religious minorities--including but not limited to Sunni Muslims, Christians, Baha'is, and Sufis, and Mandeans--experienced varying degrees of officially sanctioned discrimination, particularly in employment, education, and housing. Inheritance laws favored Muslims over non-Muslims. Broad restrictions on Baha'is undermined their ability to practice their faith and function as a community. Baha'i groups reported that the government often denied their applications for new or renewed business and trade licenses. Baha'is could not teach or practice their religious beliefs or maintain links with coreligionists abroad. It was difficult to distinguish whether the cause of government discrimination against Sunni Muslims was religious or ethnic as most Sunnis are also members of ethnic minorities. The government's anti-Israel stance, in particular the president's repeated speeches decrying the existence of Israel and calling for the destruction of its ``Zionist regime,'' created a threatening atmosphere for the 25,000-person Jewish community. Government officials continued to make anti-Semitic statements, organize events during the year designed to cast doubt on the Holocaust, and sanction anti-Semitic propaganda. The government also limited distribution of nonreligious Hebrew texts and required Jewish schools to remain open on Jewish Sabbath. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, and emigration, and repatriation. The government placed some restrictions on these rights. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) with regard to refugees from Afghanistan and Iraq. The government required exit permits for foreign travel for all citizens. Some citizens, particularly those whose skills were in demand and who were educated at government expense, had to post bond to obtain an exit permit. The government restricted foreign travel of some religious leaders and individual members of religious minorities and scientists in sensitive fields, and it increasingly targeted journalists, academics, and activists--including women's rights activists--for travel bans and passport confiscation during the year. The government banned travel to Israel, but this ban was reportedly not enforced. On March 17, authorities imposed a travel ban on human rights lawyer and writer Naser Zarafshan. Authorities confiscated his passport at the airport in Tehran as he was about to board a plane to Brussels to attend a conference on the environment. On April 7, authorities prevented academic Mehdi Zakerian from leaving the country to take part in a conference in Italy on international legal issues. Officials confiscated his passport and other personal belongings, including his computer and research papers. Zakerian, a board member of the Center for Scientific Research and Middle East Strategic Studies, was detained for several months in August 2008 on espionage charges based on his contacts with foreign diplomats related to his work and research activities; no verdict had been issued on his case at year's end. On May 10, the government reportedly stopped DHRC deputy head Narges Mohammadi and peace activist Soraya Azizpanah at the Tehran airport. Mohammadi and Azizpanah were on their way to Guatemala to speak at a conference about the role of women in democracy. Authorities seized their passports and prevented them from traveling. According to the New York Times, authorities prevented filmmaker Jafar Panahi, whom authorities briefly detained after the June election, from leaving the country to attend an October 29-November 5 Indian film festival. A woman must have the permission of her husband, father, or other male relative to obtain a passport. A married woman must receive written permission from her husband before she leaves the country. The government did not use forced external exile, but it used internal exile as a punishment. Many dissidents practiced self-imposed exile to be able to express their beliefs freely. There were indications that members of all religious minorities were emigrating at a high rate, although it was unclear whether the reasons for emigration were religious or economic. Protection of Refugees.--The country was a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. The law provides means for granting asylum or refugee status to qualified applicants, and the government reportedly had a system for providing protection to refugees, but the UNHCR did not have any information as to how the country made asylum determinations. The government did not consistently provide protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. As of December, approximately 980,000 refugees registered by the Bureau for Aliens, Foreigners, and Immigrant Affairs were living in the country; 935,600 were Afghans and 44,400 were Iraqis. Approximately 70 percent of the Afghan and Iraqi refugees in the country had lived there for 20 to 30 years. The number of registered Afghan refugees opting for voluntary repatriation declined since 2007 due to a combination of factors, including concerns about security in Afghanistan. The government continued to postpone discussions to renew the tripartite repatriation agreement, but at an international conference on resettlement and repatriation held in Kabul in November 2008, the government verbally committed to permit registered Afghan refugees to stay until they voluntarily repatriated or resettled elsewhere. In addition to the 935,600 registered Afghan refugees, the UNHCR estimated as many as 1.5 million Afghans illegally resided in the country as migrant workers. In March 2008 the government announced it would deport all Afghans who lacked refugee documentation. According to the UNHCR, the government deported 200,000 Afghans in the first six months of the year and more than one million in the last three years. On March 22, the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and provincial authorities reported that more than 1,000 children deported to Afghanistan's western province of Herat in 2008 faced poverty and were at risk of abuse. There were reports of some registered refugees included in mass deportations during the last several years, although these reports were not officially documented. According to HRW, many of those deported received no warning that they were being deported, and many were separated from their families or had little time to collect belongings and wages. Other deportees claimed they were beaten, detained, or required to perform forced labor for several days before they were deported. Among the deportees were vulnerable individuals and families who required humanitarian assistance upon arrival in Afghanistan. At the November conference in Kabul, the Iranian delegate stated that Afghan refugees would continue to be treated as ``respected guests'' and that the two countries were discussing the issuance of 300,000 visas to Afghan workers. No new visa arrangement had been announced by year's end. Since 2007 authorities maintained approximately 19 ``No Go Areas'' in the country for Afghan refugees, according to the UNHCR. Refugees were required to register and relocate in areas the government approved; those who did not were considered unregistered and remained subject to deportation. According to the UNHCR, the government's reregistration campaign launched in 2008 to assist male refugees to obtain work permits enabled more refugees to work in the country. In July, according to the UNHCR, the government announced a policy to treat the enrollment of all school-age children, including lawful foreign residents and registered refugees, in the same manner. At year's end, however, there was no information available about how the new policy was enforced. The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported in 2008 that Afghan refugee children were charged fees, while Iraqi refugee children were able attend public school for free. In some cases, local government officials reportedly suspended education services for refugees to encourage them to repatriate. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change peacefully the president and the parliament through free and fair elections, but the authority of unelected representatives over the election process severely abridged this right in practice. The Assembly of Experts elects the supreme leader, the recognized head of state, who may be removed only by a vote of the assembly. The supreme leader exercises influence over the government appointments of the 12 clerics and religious jurists who make up the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council then approves the list of candidates for the Assembly of Experts, whose 86 members must also be clerics, who serve eight-year terms and are chosen by popular vote. There was no separation of state and religion, and clerical influence pervaded the government. The supreme leader also approved the candidacy of presidential candidates. Elections and Political Participation.--On June 12, the country held its 10th presidential election, which outside observers regarded as neither free nor fair. International observers were not allowed entry to monitor the election results. The Guardian Council approved only four candidates out of more than 450 prospective candidates, including 42 women and former officials. Authorities increased censorship and surveillance during the campaign, blocking cell phone signals and access to social networking and opposition Web sites (see section 2.a., Internet Freedom). Conversely, this election campaign also witnessed an unprecedented number of televised debates between the candidates. The government also reportedly harassed and arbitrarily arrested political activists, members of the country's religious and ethnic minority communities, students, trade unionists, and women's rights activists during the preelection period. For example, on April 19, authorities detained Mehdi Mo'tamedi Mehr, a member of the Committee to Defend Free, Healthy and Fair Elections and the banned political organization the Freedom Movement of Iran, after the Committee published a statement about civil society institutions as election observers. On December 28, according to local press reports, the MOIS summoned Mehr and other members of the Freedom Movement, and at year's end they remained in detention. On May 27, authorities detained Emad Bahavar, also a member of the Freedom Movement, for ``spreading propaganda against the system'' by campaigning for presidential candidate Mousavi. According to IHRV, he was released 96 hours later. Anecdotal evidence suggested that authorities forced some election observers representing opposition candidates to leave polling stations and that millions of unused paper ballots went missing. Before all polls closed and ballot counting had commenced, government-controlled media announced that President Ahmadi-Nejad had been reelected in the first round of elections, obtaining a majority of the votes. Contrary to the election law, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei approved the election results before the Guardian Council certified the election and before the Interior Ministry announced the final results. Independent analysts studied election data and concluded there were a number of irregularities, including at least two provinces showing a turnout of more than 100 percent and absence of long-standing regional variations in turnout. According to official government data, President Ahmadi-Nejad took not only all former conservative voters, all former centrist voters, and all new voters, but also up to 44 percent of former reformist voters, a scenario analysts questioned. The constitution allows for the formation of political parties, although the Interior Ministry granted licenses only to parties with ideological and practical adherence to the system of government embodied in the constitution. There were more than 240 registered political organizations that generally operated without restriction or outside interference, but most were small entities, often focused around an individual, and did not have nationwide membership. Political parties and candidates faced harassment during the year. On June 19, presidential candidate Mir-Hossein Mousavi's spokesperson reported that plainclothes police ransacked Mousavi's offices and arrested many of his staffers. At year's end several of his campaign members remained in jail. On September 8, the Tehran prosecutor closed the offices of Mehdi Karoubi, a proreform cleric and former presidential candidate, and ordered Karoubi and his staff to leave the building. Judiciary officials took documents, computer disks, computers, and films from the office. Previously, Karoubi had turned over films and other materials to a parliamentary committee documenting authorities abusing detained protesters. According to the Guardian Council's interpretation, the constitution barred women and persons of non-Iranian origin or religions other than Shia Islam from becoming president. Women were also barred from serving as supreme leader; as members of the Assembly of Experts, Guardian Council, or Expediency Council (a body responsible for mediating between the Majles and the Guardian Council and serving as a consultative council for the supreme leader); and as certain types of judges. One of the 10 vice presidents and one cabinet minister were women. Twelve women served in the Majles during the year. Five Majles seats were reserved for recognized religious minorities. Other ethnic minorities in the Majles included Arabs and Kurds. There were no non-Muslims in the cabinet or on the Supreme Court. Section 4. Official Government Corruption and Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, but the government did not implement the law effectively, and official corruption remained a serious and ubiquitous problem in all three branches of government. Many officials expected bribes for providing even routine service. Individuals routinely bribed officials in order to obtain permits for illegal construction. Under President Ahmadi-Nejad, the IRGC has been a major beneficiary of state contracts for infrastructure projects. According to Freedom House, the hard-line clerical establishment also grew wealthy through its control of bonyads, tax-exempt foundations that monopolize many sectors of the economy such as cement and sugar production. All government officials, including cabinet ministers and members of the Guardian Council, Expediency Council, and Assembly of Experts, were required to submit annual financial statements to the state inspectorate. There was no information available regarding whether these officials obeyed the law. Numerous government agencies existed to fight corruption, including the Anticorruption Headquarters and the Anticorruption Task Force, both established in 2005, as well as the Committee to Fight Economic Corruption and the General Inspection Organization. On February 5, media reported that a National Audit Office report to the Majles revealed that the Oil Ministry had not returned 12 trillion rials ($1.2 billion) in oil revenues during the 2006-07 budget to the treasury. At least one opposition presidential candidate blamed President Ahmadi-Nejad for the missing revenue. In November a special parliamentary commission to investigate the government's recent privatization efforts criticized the management of the process, singling out the sale of the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI) to a company reportedly linked to the IRGC. The commission concluded that the consortium contesting the bid was a front and that the government essentially gave the TCI to the IRGC. A RAND Corporation report during the year noted allegations that the IRGC controls much of the country's black market trade. On February 25, government officials granted bail to Abbas Palizdar, allegedly a former member of a parliamentary committee to investigate economic corruption, after he reportedly had served 13 months of his 10-year prison sentence for ``acting against national security.'' Palizdar reportedly accused several prominent clerics of money laundering during speeches he gave at Shiraz and Hamedan universities in June 2008. The Judicial Inquiry and Review Committee continued to deny any connection to Palizdar, who failed to provide evidence to back his claims. Following his speeches, which were widely circulated on the Internet, judiciary officials arrested and indicted 11 persons Palizdar named, most of them government employees, on corruption charges. There were no laws providing for public access to government information. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government continued to restrict the work of human rights groups and activists and sometimes responded to their inquiries and reports with harassment, arrests, monitoring, unlawful raids, and closures (see also sections 1.d., 1.e., 2.a., 2.c., 6, and 7). The government continued to deny the universality of human rights and stated that human rights issues should be viewed in the context of a country's ``culture and beliefs.'' In May 2008 judiciary chief Hashemi Shahroudi told the Human Rights Task Force, an intragovernmental entity established in 2001, that the international community uses human rights as a weapon against Muslim majority countries. Hundreds of domestic NGOs focused on issues such as health and population, women's rights, development, youth, environmental protection, human rights, and sustainable development, despite the restrictive environment, including pressure not to accept foreign grants. NGOs must register with the Interior Ministry and apply for permission to receive foreign grants. According to various sources, independent human rights groups and other NGOs faced intensifying harassment and threat of closure from government officials as a result of prolonged and often arbitrary delays in obtaining official registration. During the year the government increasingly prevented human rights defenders, civil society activists, journalists, and scholars from traveling abroad, particularly to attend international conferences (see section 2.d.). Human rights activists reported receiving intimidating phone calls and threats of blackmail from unidentified law enforcement and government officials. Government officials routinely harassed family members of human rights activists (see section 1.f.). Courts routinely applied suspended sentences to human rights activists; this form of sentencing acted as de facto probation, leaving open the option for authorities to suddenly and arbitrarily arrest or imprison individuals. This threat was sometimes enough to silence activists or pressure them into providing information about other activists. Professional groups representing writers, journalists, photographers, and others attempted to monitor government restrictions in their respective fields, as well as harassment and intimidation against individual members of their professions. The government severely curtailed these groups' ability to meet, organize, or effect change. Throughout the year the government reportedly continued to exert significant pressure on the DHRC, a Tehran NGO headed by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi. According to a June 7 letter from Ebadi to President Ahmadi-Nejad, during the year a Basij student mob attacked Ebadi's offices and home; the government pressured at least two of the DHRC's employees to resign; authorities prevented several DHRC members from traveling outside the country; officials arrested and detained a DHRC secretary, Jinnous Sobhani, for 55 days; officials regularly summoned DHRC members for interrogation; and security officials warned individuals not to attend the DHRC's gatherings, some of which police dispersed. On November 22, authorities reportedly confiscated Ebadi's Nobel Peace Prize and diploma from her safety deposit box while Ebadi was out of the country; the medal was reportedly returned two weeks later. Authorities also tried to tax the award money, although Ebadi maintained the prize was exempt. On December 28, officials arrested Ebadi's sister, a professor of dentistry. In December 2008 security forces unlawfully raided and closed the DHRC's offices. The raid occurred immediately before a scheduled ceremony to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A foreign ministry spokesperson said the government closed the center for operating without a valid permit; the DHRC had not received a permit at year's end despite its assertion that authorities had approved its application in 2006. Also in December 2008 government security officers posing as tax officials raided Ebadi's private law offices, seizing office files and computers. Despite numerous appeals, the government denied requests from international human rights NGOs to establish offices in or conduct regular investigative visits to the country. The last visit by an international human rights NGO was AI's 2004 visit as part of the EU's human rights dialogue with the country. The ICRC and UNHCR both operated in the country with some restrictions. According to HRW, since the government issued a standing invitation to all UN human rights agencies in 2002, there have been six visits to the country by UN special human rights institutions. The government generally ignored recommendations these bodies made and failed to submit required reports to the UN Human Rights Committee or the UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. The government ignored repeated requests for visits by UN special rapporteurs. On December 18, the UNGA passed a resolution expressing ``deep concern that, despite the Islamic Republic of Iran's standing invitation to all thematic special procedures mandate holders, it has not fulfilled any requests from those special mechanisms to visit the country in four years and has not answered numerous communications from those special mechanisms.'' The UNGA ``strongly urge[d] the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to fully cooperate with the special mechanisms, especially the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances.'' In 2001 the supreme leader called for the creation of a human rights task force, chaired by the judiciary chief and composed of the ministers of intelligence, interior, foreign affairs, justice, and culture, as well as other judicial and military officials. The committee, which did not convene until 2006, was not considered effective. Mohammed Javad Larijani, brother to Ali Larijani, speaker of the Iranian parliament, and Sadeq Larijani, head of the judiciary, headed the committee. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons Although the constitution formally prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, and social status ``in conformity with Islamic criteria,'' the government did not effectively enforce these prohibitions. Women.--Rape is illegal and subject to strict penalties, but it remained a problem. Spousal rape is not illegal. Cases of rape were difficult to document due to social stigma against the victims. Most rape victims did not report the crime to authorities because they feared societal reprisal such as ostracism or punishment for having been raped. According to the penal code, rape is a capital offense, and four male witnesses or three men and two women are required for conviction. A woman or man found making a false accusation of rape is subject to 80 lashes. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence. Spousal abuse and violence against women occurred. According to a study published in 2008 using 2005 data, 52.7 percent of women reported being physically abused during their married lives. Abuse in the family was considered a private matter and seldom discussed publicly, although there were some efforts to change this attitude, particularly by the ``One Million Signatures for the Repeal of Discriminatory Laws,'' or ``Change for Equality,'' Campaign (OMSC). Some nongovernmental shelters and hotlines assisted victims during the year. A man may escape punishment for killing a wife caught in the act of adultery if he is certain she was a consenting partner. According to a police official quoted in a domestic newspaper in 2008, 50 honor killings were reported during a seven-month period, although official statistics were not available. The punishment for perpetrators was often a short prison sentence. In February, according to a local newspaper, a father killed his 16-year-old daughter for suspicious activity. There were no reports of developments in the May 2008 case of a man known as ``Ahmad,'' who allegedly killed his daughter after her former brother-in-law kidnapped and slept with her, or the June 2008 case of ``Morteza,'' who allegedly killed his sister after she married a man without her family's permission. Prostitution is illegal, but it took place under the legal cover of sigheh (temporary marriage). International press reports described prostitution as a widespread problem. The problem appeared aggravated by difficult economic conditions and rising numbers of drug users and runaway children. According to a May 29 AI report, an unemployed couple in Eastern Azerbaijan province prostituted themselves to local officials. On October 5, authorities reportedly hanged the husband, Rahim Mohammadi, for sodomy; at year's end his wife, Kobra Babaei, awaited execution by stoning. In March 2008 authorities arrested and dismissed from his post Tehran police chief Reza Zarei after he was discovered in a brothel during a police raid. In April 2008 he was reportedly taken to the hospital following a suicide attempt in prison. There were no further updates in his case during the year. There was a lack of reliable data on the prevalence of sexual harassment in the country. Media reports indicated that unwanted physical contact and verbal harassment occurred. There are laws addressing sexual harassment in the context of physical contact between men and women. In early January a court sentenced to 30 lashes Zanjan University deputy dean Hassan Madadi, caught on camera pressuring a female student for sexual favors in June 2008. The female student also received a sentence of 30 lashes. Courts suspended both punishments. The 1993 family planning law recognizes the basic right of married couples to decide freely and responsibly the spacing and timing of their first three children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. According to the law, health and maternity benefits are cut for the family after three children. Local clinics and rural health centers disseminated information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. There were no restrictions on the right of married persons to access contraceptives. According to the Population Reference Bureau, nearly 80 percent of married women of reproductive age used family planning methods, 75 percent of whom used modern methods of contraception. Couples who plan to marry must take a class in family planning. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. According to UNICEF, 97 percent of women gave birth with a skilled attendant present. The constitution nominally provides women with equal protection under the law and all human, political, economic, social, and cultural rights in conformity with Islam. Provisions in the Islamic civil and penal codes, particularly sections dealing with family and property law, discriminate against women. Shortly after the 1979 revolution, the government replaced those laws that provided women with increased rights in the home and workplace with a legal system based largely on Shari'a practices. On March 12, President Ahmadi-Nejad instructed the relevant bodies to implement a law in which women's share of their husband's inheritance would increase to one-fourth from the previously stipulated one-eighth of his property. At year's end there was no information on the law's implementation. The governmental Center for Women and Family continued to publish reports on feminism with a negative slant and limited the debate on women's issues to matters related to the home. Although a man (or boy) can marry at age 15 without parental consent, the law states that a virgin woman or girl needs the consent of her father or grandfather to wed, or the court's permission, even if she is older than 18. The country's Islamic law permits a man to have as many as four wives and an unlimited number of sigheh, based on a Shia custom in which a woman may become the wife of a Muslim man after a simple religious ceremony and a civil contract outlining the union's conditions. Sigheh wives and any resulting children were not granted rights associated with traditional marriage. The government does not recognize marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men, or Baha'i marriages. A woman has the right to divorce only if her husband signs a contract granting that right, cannot provide for his family, or is a drug addict, insane, or impotent. A husband was not required to cite a reason for divorcing his wife. Traditional interpretations of Islamic law recognized a divorced woman's right to part of shared property and to alimony. These laws were not enforced. According to a study by the National Organization for Civil Registration quoted in a book by a women's rights activist, more than 89 percent of women did not receive their due alimony, and 9 percent did not receive their share of the wedding gift (wedding contracts traditionally stipulate that in case of divorce the groom give his bride the wedding gift for financial support). The law provides divorced women preference in custody for children up to age seven; divorced women who remarry are forced to give the child's father custody. After the child reaches age seven, the father is entitled to custody (unless the father has been proven unfit to care for the child). The court determines custody in disputed cases. Women sometimes received disproportionate punishment for crimes such as adultery, including death sentences. The testimony of two women is equal to that of one man. The blood money paid to the family of a female crime victim is half the sum paid for a man. Women had access to primary and advanced education. Reportedly, 65 percent of university students were women. Government officials acknowledged the use of quotas to limit women's university admissions in certain fields such as medicine and engineering. In addition, social and legal constraints limited women's professional opportunities. Women were represented in many fields, including the legislature, municipal councils, police, and firefighters, but a woman must seek her husband's consent before working outside the home. According to a World Economic Forum report during the year, the unemployment rate for women, who constituted 33 percent of the workforce, was 15.8 percent, compared with 9.3 percent for men. Women cannot serve in many high-level political positions or as judges, except as consultant or research judges without the power to impose sentences. The government enforced gender segregation in most public spaces, including medical care, and prohibited women from mixing openly with unmarried men or men not related to them. Women must ride in a reserved section on public buses and enter public buildings, universities, and airports through separate entrances. On January 26, media sources reported that authorities fined and suspended managers and coaches involved in the first mixed (men versus women) soccer game since the 1979 revolution. The Esteghlal soccer club's technical manager and both head coaches received suspensions of six months to one year and fines of as much as 50 million rials ($5,000). The penal code provides that if a woman appears in public without an appropriate hijab, she can be sentenced to lashings and fined. However, absent a clear legal definition of ``appropriate hijab'' or the punishment, women were subject to the opinions of disciplinary forces or judges. Pictures of uncovered or immodestly dressed women in the media or in films were often digitally altered. The government continued its intense crackdown against members of the OMSC, which activists launched in 2006 to promote women's rights. On January 30, authorities arrested three OMSC members--Nafiseh Azad, Bigard Ebrahimi, and a person who wished to remain anonymous-- while they were collecting petition signatures and held them for several days. Authorities charged Azad with ``acting against national security through propaganda against the state,'' according to the ICHR. On August 18, a judge gave Azad a one-year suspended sentence, but in late October an appeals court acquitted her of all charges. On March 26, according to the ICHR, security forces detained 12 members of the OMSC and the NGO Mothers for Peace--Delaram Ali, Khadijeh Moghadam, Leila Nazari, Farkhondeh Ehtesabian, Mahboubeh Karami, Bahara Behravan, Ali Abdi, Amir Rashidi, Mohammad Shoorab, Arash Nasiri Eghbali, Soraya Yousefi and Shahla Forouzanfar--at a street corner in Tehran as the group met to make traditional Nowruz (New Year) visits to families of several political prisoners. The ICHR suggested that security and intelligence forces must have eavesdropped on activists' private communications to apprehend them. Judge Matin Rasekh charged the women with ``disturbing public opinion'' and ``disrupting public order,'' and they were transferred to Section 209 of Evin Prison under MOIS control. On March 29, authorities released 10 of the activists on bail, and on April 7 and 8, they released Mahboubeh Karami and Khadijeh Moghadam. According to lawyer Nasim Ghanavi, Moghadam was also charged for participating in a January 11 demonstration with Mothers for Peace against the Israeli military operation in Gaza. On May 8, the security deputy of the Tehran Revolutionary Court summoned Moghaddam and her husband, Akbar Khosrowshahi. They appeared in court with their attorney, and Moghadam answered questions about assistance she gave to victims of the 2003 Bam earthquake, as well as her advocacy on behalf of detained labor activists and a fellow women's rights defender. Moghadam was previously detained in April 2008 and charged with ``spreading propaganda against the state,'' ``disrupting public opinion,'' and ``actions against national security.'' On April 25, authorities arrested Maryam Malek in Tehran, charged her with ``propaganda against the system'' in connection with her membership in the OMSC, and detained her in Evin Prison. On April 29, authorities released her on a third-person guarantee, as she could not pay bail set at 200 million rials ($20,000). On May 7 and 8, authorities in Qom arrested two OMSC members, Maryam Bidgoli and Fatemeh Masjedi, along with the male author of The Women's Movement in the East, Gholamreza Salami. Intelligence agents searched both women's homes and took personal belongings. According to news reports, the women had previously been investigating an honor killing. They were released later in May. In December, according to the IHRDC, authorities arrested Zohre Tonkaboni and Mahin Fahimi, members of Mothers for Peace. The same month, authorities arrested OMSC members Atiey Youseffi, Somayeh Rashidi, and Mansourreh Shojaaiei. According to the ICHRI, Rashidi reported authorities were holding her in solitary confinement at Evin Prison. At year's end all reportedly remained in prison. Several members of the OMSC, including Parvin Ardalan, remained under suspended prison sentences and travel bans at year's end. On January 31, a revolutionary court reportedly sentenced Mehri Moshrefi and her husband to a two-year suspended sentence. In November 2008 authorities arrested Moshrefi, her husband, and two of her children at a cemetery where the OMSC was staging a protest and transferred them to Evin Prison, despite activists' claims that the family was not involved in the gathering. Authorities held Moshrefi's two children (one of whom was a minor) for one month, and prison officials did not allow the family to contact their third child, who was not with the rest of the family at the time of arrest, for more than two weeks. In April a court sentenced Ronek Safazadeh to six years in prison for spreading propaganda about the government and membership in the armed opposition group Free Life Party of Kurdistan, with which her lawyer maintained she was only marginally involved. In 2007 security agents arrested Safazadeh in Sanandaj for collecting signatures for the OMSC petition. On February 26, authorities released Hana Abdi, whom police arrested in 2007 for collecting signatures for the OMSC petition. In October 2008 a court reduced her five-year sentence to 18 months. At year's end Maryam Hosseinkhah had found temporary refuge in Ireland, and Jelvah Javaheri remained in the country, where she spent the month of May in prison for her participation in demonstrations on International Workers Day and faced a six-month prison sentence issued in October. Police originally arrested both women in 2007 for ``propaganda against the system.'' Children.--Citizenship is derived by descent when a child is born to a citizen father regardless of the child's country of birth. In general, birth within the country's borders does not confer citizenship, except when a child is born to unknown parents; when both parents are noncitizens, but at least one parent was born in the country; or when a child born to noncitizens continues to reside in the country for at least one year after age 18. Although primary schooling up to age 11 is free and compulsory for all, media and other sources reported lower enrollment in rural areas for girls than for boys. There was little information available to reflect how the government dealt with child abuse, including child labor. Abuse was largely regarded as a private family matter. According a 2005 study by the UN's Integrated Regional Information Network, child sexual abuse was rarely reported. The law requires court approval for the marriage of girls younger than 13 and boys younger than 15, but it was reportedly not unusual in rural areas for parents to have their children marry before they became teenagers, often for economic reasons. Sex outside of marriage is illegal. There were reportedly significant numbers of children working as street vendors in Tehran and other cities and not attending school. International news reported on the plight of children of imprisoned mothers. According to State Prisons Organization regulations, children could stay in prison with their mothers until the age of three; according to a report by the Association for Defending Prisoners' Rights, children sometimes stayed through the age of six. On December 31, according to the IHRC, authorities arrested Maryam Zia, a leader of a child welfare organization and wife of a labor leader. Zia was previously arrested in 2006 during a women's rights protest in Haft Tir Square. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons. According to publicly available information from NGOs, the media, international organizations, and other governments, trafficking in persons was an extensive problem, and the country was a source, transit, and destination point for trafficking. Women and girls were trafficked from the country to Pakistan, Turkey, Europe, and the Gulf States for sexual exploitation and involuntary servitude. Men, women, and children from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Afghanistan were trafficked through the country to the Gulf States and sometimes to Europe for purposes of employment. Afghan women and girls were trafficked to the country for sexual exploitation and forced marriages. Internal trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced labor also occurred. Media reports indicated that criminal organizations played a large role in human trafficking to and from the country. In some cases authorities reportedly tried and convicted persons involved in trafficking, but aspects of the law and practice--such as punishment of victims for prostitution or adultery--hindered efforts to combat trafficking. There was no evidence that the government took steps to protect trafficking victims or to prevent trafficking during the year. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities. The law also provided for state- funded vocational education for persons with disabilities, but according to domestic news reports, vocational centers were confined to urban areas and were unable to meet the needs of the entire population. Building accessibility for persons with disabilities remained a widespread problem. The Welfare Organization of Iran is the major governmental agency charged with protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The constitution grants equal rights to all ethnic minorities and allows for minority languages to be used in the media and in schools; in practice, minorities did not have equal rights, and the government consistently denied their right to use their language in school. The government disproportionately targeted minority groups, including Kurds, Arabs, Azeris, and Baluch, for arbitrary arrest, prolonged detention, and physical abuse. These groups reported political and economic discrimination, particularly in their access to economic aid, business licenses, university admissions, permission to publish books, and housing and land rights. In 2007 then interior minister Mustafa Purmohammadi ranked ethnic divisions as one of the biggest problems his ministry had to address. The government blamed foreign entities, including a number of Western countries, for instigating some of the ethnic unrest. On January 9, HRW released a report documenting government persecution of the 4.5 million Kurds in the country, who have frequently campaigned for greater regional autonomy. The report documented the government's use of security laws, media laws, and other legislation to arrest and persecute Kurds solely for exercising their right to freedom of expression and association (see also section 1.e., Political Prisoners and Detainees). According to the report, the government consistently banned Kurdish-language newspapers, journals, and books and punished publishers, journalists, and writers for opposing and criticizing government policies. Although the Kurdish language is not banned, schools did not teach it. Authorities suppressed legitimate activities of Kurdish NGOs by denying registration permits or bringing spurious charges of security offenses against individuals working with such organizations. Kurds were not allowed to register certain names for their children in official registries. IHRV reported that two Kurdish students who passed entrance exams for graduate school during the year were denied admission based on their ethnicity. On January 13, the Sanandaj revolutionary court sentenced Kurdish political activist Jebraeil Khosravi to a 20-year prison term for membership in an illegal party. At year's end he remained in Bandar- Abbas Prison. On January 15, IHRV reported that authorities arrested Kurdish writer Abbass Jalilian, who goes by the name ``AKO.'' In November an appeals court upheld his 15-month sentence for espionage, issued by the Kermanshah revolutionary court in March. His initial court proceedings reportedly took place without his lawyer present. On August 3, authorities released Kurdish journalist and human rights activist Massoud Kordpour after he completed his one-year prison term in Mahabad Central Prison. In August 2008 security forces arrested Kordpour on espionage charges related to interviews he gave to foreign media outlets. Authorities reportedly held Kordpour incommunicado for several months. In July the Supreme Court upheld Farrad Kamangar's February 2008 death sentence for ``endangering national security'' based on his alleged involvement with the Turkey-based Kurdish Workers Party. Kamangar, superintendent of high schools in Kamayaran, was affiliated with a number of civil society organizations, including the local teachers' union, an environmental group, and the HROK. The court also sentenced fellow Kurdish activists Ali Heydarian and Farhad Vakili to death, and all three remained on death row at the end of the year. Authorities originally arrested the three men in 2006 because of their human rights activism. Foreign representatives of the Ahvazi Arabs of Khuzestan claimed their community of two to four million in the country's southwest encountered oppression and discrimination, including the lack of freedom to study and speak Arabic. Ahvazi and human rights groups alleged torture and mistreatment of Ahvazi Arab activists, including allegations that in September IRGC intelligence officers raped two female activists. In October relatives of seven men sentenced to death for killing a clergy member in Ahwaz told local human rights organizations that authorities had tortured them to coerce confessions. Ethnic Azeris comprised approximately one-quarter of the country's population, were well integrated into government and society, and included the supreme leader among their numbers. Nonetheless, Azeris complained that the government discriminated against them, banning the Azeri language in schools, harassing Azeri activists or organizers, and changing Azeri geographic names. Azeri groups also claimed a number of Azeri political prisoners had been jailed for advocating cultural and language rights for Azeris. The government charged several of them with ``revolting against the Islamic state.'' On May 26, media sources reported that 16 ethnic Azeris were injured during clashes with police in the city of Tabriz; 15 demonstrators were arrested. Protests also took place in the town of Orumiyeh and in Tehran. The demonstrations commemorated 2006 riots in Tabriz and other cities protesting a newspaper caricature depicting Azeris as cockroaches. In a series of arrests beginning in July 2008, police reportedly detained at least eight Azeri-Iranian students in Tabriz and charged them with ``establishing illegal groups in order to disrupt national security'' and ``propaganda against the state.'' According to AI, the student activists were campaigning for greater cultural and linguistic rights, including the right to education using the Azeri language and the right to celebrate Azeri culture and history. In October 2008 authorities released all but one on bail; the remaining prisoner, Dariush Hatemi, was released in November 2009. No updates were available in the case of a group of Azeri cultural rights activists--including author Hasan Rashedi, poet Mehdi Naimi Ardabili, writer Alireza Sarafi, and journalist Saeed Mohammadi Moghalani--whom authorities arrested in September 2008 at an Iftar celebration. Authorities held the men incommunicado and without charge for several weeks before releasing them on bail in November 2008. Local and international human rights groups alleged serious economic, legal, and cultural discrimination against the Baluch minority during the year. Baluch journalists and human rights activists faced arbitrary arrest, physical abuse, and unfair trials, often ending in execution. In August 2008 authorities executed Baluch journalist and education activist Yaghoob Mirnehad in Zahedan for alleged membership in the militant group People's Resistance Movement of Iran (formerly Jundallah), which the government considers a terrorist group. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The Special Protection Division, a volunteer unit of the judiciary, monitored and reported ``moral crimes.'' The law prohibits and punishes homosexual conduct; sodomy between consenting adults is a capital crime. The law defines transgender persons as mentally ill, encouraging them to seek medical help in the form of gender-reassignment surgery. The government censored all materials relating to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues. In September 2008 President Ahmadi-Nejad called homosexual activity an ``unlikable and foreign act'' that ``shakes the foundations of society.'' The size of the LGBT community was unknown, as many individuals feared identifying themselves. There were active LGBT NGOs in the country, but most activities to support the LGBT community took place outside the country. According to a November 4 HRW report, three men--Mehdi P., Moshen G., and Nemat Safavi--faced execution based on homosexual conduct allegedly committed when they were minors. At year's end they were still believed to be in prison. According to HRW, the last confirmed death sentences for homosexual conduct were handed down in 2005, although there were allegations of executions related to homosexual conduct in 2006 and 2007. The punishment of a non-Muslim gay man or lesbian was harsher if the gay man or lesbian's partner was Muslim. Punishment for homosexual behavior between men was more severe than for such behavior between women. The government provided grants of as much as 45 million rials ($4,500) and loans of as much as 55 million rials ($5,500) for transgender persons willing to undergo gender reassignment surgery. Human rights activists and NGOs reported that some members of the gay and bisexual community have been pressured to undergo gender reassignment surgery to avoid legal and social persecutions in the country. In September international newspapers reported that a family court allowed the first transsexual marriage between a woman and her male partner, previously also a woman. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Persons with HIV/AIDS reportedly faced discrimination in schools and workplaces. The government supported programs for HIV/AIDS awareness and generally did not interfere with private HIV/AIDS-related NGOs. Government hospitals diagnosed and treated AIDS patients free of charge. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to establish unions; in practice the government did not permit independent unions. A national organization known as Workers' House was the sole authorized national labor organization. It served primarily as a conduit for government control over workers. The leadership of Workers' House coordinated activities with Islamic labor councils in industrial, agricultural, and service organizations comprising more than 35 employees. According to the ICHRI, these councils, which consisted of representatives of workers and a representative of management, were essentially management-run unions that undermined workers' efforts to maintain independent unions, but they nonetheless frequently blocked layoffs and dismissals in support of workers' demands. During the year the government pressured workers to join the government-sponsored councils. The 1990 labor code stipulates that workers may establish an Islamic labor council or a guild at any workplace, or that workers may appoint an official representative. The law strongly favors Islamic labor councils; no other form of representation is allowed in a workplace where such a council has been established. Although Workers' House oversees Islamic labor councils, the Interior Ministry, the Ministry of Labor, and the Islamic Information Organization draft councils' constitutions, operational rules, and election procedures. Restrictions on the ability of workers to associate continued during the year as the government and the judiciary regularly abused the justice system to imprison and silence labor activists. On April 26, authorities arrested Sajad Khaksari, the 25-year-old son of Mohammad Khaksari and Soraya Darabi, leaders of the Teachers' Trade Association, which the government banned in 2007. Authorities first arrested Sajadin in 2006 for his writings in a union publication and again in January for taking photographs of a government building. His April arrest was for attending an ``illegal teachers' gathering'' in front of the parliament. On June 6, a revolutionary court acquitted him of all charges, and an appeals court commuted the six-month prison sentence for his first arrest. In the aftermath of the postelection crackdown on activists, the prosecutor ordered the court to send Sajad's file to a different revolutionary court branch that retried him, without his lawyer present, and sentenced him to one year in prison on the charges for which he had been acquitted. Sajad appealed the sentence and was reacquitted on two of the three charges. The final charge had yet to be heard by a public court in Tehran at year's end. On March 8, media sources reported that MOIS agents raided the residence of Ali Nejati, president of the board of directors of the Haft Tapeh Sugar Cane Company Workers' Syndicate, and arrested Nejati and five others. On the evening of February 28, MOIS agents had previously raided and searched his home and confiscated some documents related to the syndicate. After holding him in solitary confinement for one month, authorities tried and convicted him of ``propaganda against the system'' in connection with interviews he gave about working conditions. On October 12, another court convicted Nejati and four others--Mohammed Heydari Mehr, Feridoun Nikoufard, Jalil Ahmadi, and Ghorban Alipour--on charges related to union activity in 2007. The court sentenced each to four to six months' imprisonment followed by four- to six-month suspended sentences. At year's end the men remained in prison. On May 1, authorities reportedly arrested 100 to 200 people in Laleh Park in Tehran during International Workers Day (May Day) celebrations. Detainees included members of trade unions, journalists, women's and children's rights activists, and others active on behalf of civil society. On May 2, authorities released 25 men and two women on third-party guarantees. All remaining detainees were reportedly sent to Ward 240 of Evin Prison where, according to those who were released, the detainees suffered mistreatment and were not allowed contact with their families or lawyers. According to the Iran Free Trade Union's Web site, authorities demanded that bail of approximately 500 million rials ($50,000) be posted for some of the detainees, including Jafar Azimzadeh, Shahpour Ehsani, and Bahram (Issa) Abedini. At year's end there had been no developments on the status of the detainees. On June 14, during a general crackdown on dissidents, authorities arrested Iranian Teachers' Organization head Alireza Hashemi and detained him for 25 days. At year's end he remained under a three-year suspended sentence on charges related to a 2007 protest calling for teachers to receive pay and benefits equal to those of government employees. On August 6, security officers closed the offices of the Association of Iranian Journalists (AIJ) immediately before a union general meeting and President Ahmadi-Nejad's swearing-in. On December 28, according to RSF, plainclothes men arrested the spokesperson for the organization. In June 2008 the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs threatened to dissolve the AIJ because it allegedly failed to uphold its internal regulations. According to RSF, authorities sought removal of the association's executive committee on grounds of alleged procedural irregularities in voting during its general assemblies. The AIJ held internal elections to satisfy the Ministry of Labor's concerns but had yet to receive approval at the end of the year. On February 18, authorities reportedly flogged two female labor activists, Sussan Razani and Shiva Kheirabadi, in Sanandaj Central Prison for participating in International Workers Day celebrations in May 2008. Razani received a sentence of 70 lashes and a nine-month suspended sentence, and Kheirabadi received 15 lashes (originally 40, but reduced by an appeals court) and a four-month suspended sentence. The court sentenced two other labor activists, Abdullah Khani and Syed Ghalib Husseini, to prison terms and flogging for participating in the same event. Also on February 18, authorities released trade union member and writer Mohsen Hakimi from Evin Prison, where he allegedly endured physical and psychological abuse. In December 2008 security agents reportedly arrested Hakimi on unspecified charges. There was no further information about the 2007 case in which nine members of the Hamedan Teachers' Association were sentenced to 91 days' imprisonment for ``participating in unlawful strikes'' and for closing schools; the pending trial of labor activist Mahmoud Salehi, former head of the Saqqez Bakery Workers' Union, after he completed a one-year term in prison in April 2008 for ``acting against national security''; or bus driver syndicate leaders Mansur Ossanloo and Ebrahim Madadi, who remained in prison at year's end on charges from 2007. AI noted that Ossanlu was named in the general indictment of the ``show trials'' in August and that authorities denied Ossanloo medical care. The law prohibits public sector strikes, and the government considered unlawful any strike deemed contrary to government economic and labor policies, including strikes in the private sector, but strikes occurred. According to an October 2008 UNGA report, security forces continued to respond with arbitrary arrests and violence to workers' attempts to create associations or conduct labor strikes over wages. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Workers did not have the right to organize independently or to negotiate collective bargaining agreements freely. According to the International Trade Union Confederation, labor legislation did not apply in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The labor code prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Female citizens were trafficked internally for the purpose of forced prostitution. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits employment of minors younger than 15 and places restrictions on employment of minors younger than 18. The government did not adequately enforce laws pertaining to child labor, and child labor was a serious problem. The law permits children to work in agriculture, domestic service, and some small businesses, but prohibits employment of minors in hard labor or night work. There was no information regarding enforcement of these regulations. According to government sources, three million children were prevented from obtaining education because their families forced them to work. Unofficial sources claimed the figure was closer to five million. There were reportedly significant numbers of children-- primarily Afghan but also Iranian--working as street vendors in major urban areas. Traffickers also exploited children for forced commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary servitude as beggars and laborers. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The law empowers the Supreme Labor Council to establish annual minimum wage levels for each industrial sector and region. On March 18, media reported that the government increased the minimum monthly wage by 20 percent to 2.6 million rials ($260), which labor groups stated did not provide a decent standard of living for workers and their families. International media reported that government wages returned to their previous monthly minimum in July after the election. There was no information regarding mechanisms to set wages, and it was not known whether minimum wages were enforced. The labor law does not cover an estimated 700,000 legal workers, as it applies in full only to workplaces with 10 or more workers. Workplaces with fewer than five workers or in export processing zones are exempt from all labor laws. Afghan workers, especially those working illegally, often were paid less than the minimum wage. During the year the government continued to deport illegal Afghan migrant workers, some of whom may have been unregistered refugees (see section 1.d., Protection of Refugees). The law establishes a maximum six-day, 48-hour workweek with a weekly rest day, normally Friday, at least 12 days of paid annual leave, several paid public holidays. The law establishes a safety council chaired by the labor minister or his representative protects workplace safety and health. Labor organizations outside the country have alleged that hazardous work environments were common and resulted in thousands of worker deaths annually. The quality of safety regulation enforcement was unknown, and it was unknown whether workers could remove themselves from hazardous situations without risking the loss of employment. __________ IRAQ Iraq, with a population of approximately 29 million, is a republic with a freely elected government led by Prime Minister Nouri Jawad al- Maliki. The current administration assumed office in 2006 after the Council of Representatives (COR) approved a unity government composed of the major political parties. The 2005 COR elections establishing this government met internationally recognized electoral standards for free and fair elections, and the results of the elections reflected the will of the voters, according to the final report of the International Mission for Iraqi Elections. During the year, the general security situation in the country improved substantially. Violence decreased to the lowest level since 2004, although attacks on military, police, and civilians continued. Compared to the previous year, civilian deaths from violence during the year fell 47 percent to an average of seven civilian deaths per day and Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) deaths from violence fell by 52 percent to an average of 1.4 ISF deaths per day. Successful ISF operations contributed to decreasing violence by consolidating government control of areas Shia special groups and other extremists previously dominated. Sectarian killing declined due to the continued observance, except by some breakaway factions, of a series of unilateral ceasefires the Shia militia Jaysh al-Mahdi (JAM) first announced in 2007, and the continued efforts of ``Sons of Iraq'' (SOI) neighborhood security forces -- initiated in 2007 and 2008 and mostly affiliated with Sunni tribal groups -- to undermine the influence of the terrorist group Al-Qa'ida in Iraq (AQI) and other largely Sunni extremists. During the year, the Ministry of Interior (MOI) and Ministry of Defense (MOD) increased the numbers of trained security forces to more than 655,000, an increase of 65,000 from the 590,000 present at the end of 2008. The ISF assumed control of cities on June 30 from Multinational Force-Iraq (MNF-I) and, despite major coordinated terrorist attacks in August, October, and December, generally maintained law and order effectively. Civilian authorities generally maintained control of the ISF. Continuing violence, corruption, and organizational dysfunction undermined the government's ability to protect human rights. During the year the following significant human rights problems were reported: arbitrary or unlawful killings; insurgent and terrorist bombings and executions; disruption of authority by sectarian, criminal, and extremist groups; arbitrary deprivation of life; disappearances; torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; impunity; poor conditions in pretrial detention and prison facilities; denial of fair public trials; delays in resolving property restitution claims; immature judicial institutions lacking capacity; arbitrary arrest and detention; arbitrary interference with privacy and home; other abuses in internal conflicts; limits on freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association due to sectarianism and extremist threats and violence; limits on religious freedom due to extremist threats and violence; restrictions on freedom of movement; large numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees; lack of protection of refugees and stateless persons; lack of transparency and significant widespread corruption at all levels of government; constraints on international organizations and nongovernmental organizations' (NGOs) investigations of alleged violations of human rights; discrimination against and societal abuses of women and ethnic and religious minorities; human trafficking; societal discrimination and violence against individuals based on sexual orientation; and limited exercise of labor rights. Insurgent and extremist violence, coupled with weak government performance in upholding the rule of law, resulted in widespread and severe human rights abuses. Although their influence and ability to attack has significantly weakened since 2007, terrorist groups such as AQI and other extremist elements continued to launch highly destructive attacks, attempting to fuel sectarian tensions and undermine the government's ability to maintain law and order. Extremist and AQI attacks continued against ISF and government officials. AQI and other extremists also conducted high-profile bombings targeting urban areas, particularly prominent government buildings, Shia markets, and mosques, and killing Shia religious pilgrims. Religious minorities, sometimes labeled ``anti-Islamic,'' were often targeted in the violence. Insurgents also carried out a number of attacks against other civilians. During the year, despite some reconciliation and easing of tensions in several provinces, the government's human rights performance consistently fell short of according citizens the protections the law provides. The constitution and law provide a strong framework for the free exercise of human rights. The country conducted credible and legitimate provincial elections in 14 majority Arab provinces on January 31 and regional elections in the three provinces that make up the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) on July 25. The prime minister and minister of justice directed the MOD, in cooperation with other government institutions, to transfer its civilian detainee population to Ministry of Justice (MOJ) custody. The passage of a new electoral law on December 6 set the stage for national parliamentary elections in early 2010. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--During the year there were reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings in connection with the ongoing conflict. According to personal accounts and numerous press reports, government security forces caused civilian deaths during operations that targeted and killed armed fighters or persons planning to carry out violence against civilian or military targets. On July 28, clashes erupted at Ashraf in Diyala Province when the ISF attempted to establish a police presence inside the more than 3,400-person compound of the terrorist Iranian dissident group Mujahedin-e Khalq (MEK). The clashes resulted in the deaths of 11 MEK members and injuries to 30 ISF officers. The government credibly claimed the MEK provoked the clashes by staging a violent demonstration to block the ISF from entering the compound. Unlike in previous years, with the increased exercise of central government authority over security forces, the phenomena of widespread and confirmed unauthorized government agent involvement in extrajudicial killings largely ceased. However, there were reports of attacks by individuals posing as ISF. On November 17, west of Baghdad, perpetrators wearing Iraqi army uniforms used silenced guns in the execution-style killings of 13 men, including a Sunni politician from the Iraqi Islamic Party. The victims had been kidnapped from their homes in the villages of Abid and Khodeir Zaidan. On November 25, men dressed in Iraqi army uniforms entered a house in the village of Tarmiya and killed six members of a family, including women and children. There was virtual impunity for officials tried for extrajudicial killings. In 2007 several high-ranking Ministry of Health (MOH) officials who were JAM members--including deputy minister Hakim al- Zamili--were arrested and charged with organizing the killing of hundreds of Sunnis in Baghdad's hospitals. In March 2008 a three-judge panel, citing a lack of evidence, acquitted the defendants, who were released soon after. There were allegations of witness intimidation throughout the process. At year's end an appeal by the prosecution was pending. Although overall violence against the civilian population greatly decreased during the year, insurgent and terrorist bombings, executions, and killings were regular occurrences throughout all regions and sectors of society. On March 23, a suicide bomber attacked a Kurdish funeral in the city of Jalula, killing 27. On August 19, a coordinated attack on the ministries of foreign affairs and finance killed 100 persons and injured more than 500. Four more attacks occurred simultaneously throughout Baghdad, wounding 20 other individuals. On September 28, a series of bombings in Baghdad, Ramadi, Mosul, and Qadasiya killed 18 persons and wounded 55 others. On October 25, two car bombs targeting the MOJ and the Baghdad Provincial Government headquarters exploded, killing 155 persons and injuring approximately 500. On December 8, bombs exploded near education facilities, judicial complexes, and other government institutions, killing 127 persons and wounding more than 500. AQI claimed responsibility for the coordinated Baghdad bombings targeting government institutions on August 19, October 25, and December 8. Incidents of terrorist attacks by female suicide bombers continued to occur during the year. On February 13, a female suicide bomber blew herself up in the midst of a group of Shia pilgrims on their way to visit the shrine of Imam Hussein in Karbala, killing 30 and wounding 80 individuals. On February 15, a female suicide bomber in Khanaqin blew herself up inside a restaurant, killing 15 persons and injuring 13 others. On January 21, the ISF arrested Samira Ahmed Jassim al-Azzawi, who confessed to recruiting 80 women to carry out suicide bombing missions in Baghdad and Diyala Province. Police linked her to a 2007 attack that killed 12 individuals, many of whom were police recruits, and another 2007 bombing that killed 15 persons at a Sunni Awakening meeting in Diyala. On November 30, the ISF arrested Rajaa Idan Farhan for recruiting female bombers and for preparing an explosive belt for Ranya Ibrahim, a failed suicide bomber arrested in Baaquba in 2008. An estimated 515 ISF members were killed during the year. Police officers, in particular, were targeted. On March 8, a suicide bomber attacked a police academy in eastern Baghdad killing 28 persons and wounding 57 others. On September 7, six army and police checkpoints in Baghdad, Karbala, Ramadi, and Baquba were attacked with bombs and grenades, killing approximately 21. On December 24, two explosions in Hilla killed 25 persons, including 14 police, and wounded 105, including 35 police. Terrorists also targeted political institutions and leaders. On January 16, Dawa party member Haitham Kadhim al-Husaini was shot and killed after a campaign appearance in the Jabala district in Babil Province. On June 12, Dr. Harith al-Obeidi, deputy chairman of the COR's Human Rights Committee and head of the Sunni Tawafuq Front party, was shot and killed as he left a Baghdad mosque after Friday prayers. On July 30, a pair of explosions targeting the Iraqi Islamic Party offices in Baquba killed five persons and injured 14. On November 22, a gunman assassinated a member of the Executive Committee of the Iraqi Turkoman Front political party, Yauz Ahmad Efendi, at his home in Mosul. On December 30, two suicide bombers detonated explosives near the governor's office in Ramadi, killing 24 persons including one member of the provincial council and wounding 58 including the governor of Anbar, Qasim Abed al-Fahadawi. Terrorists also targeted religious institutions and minority groups (see section 2.c.). AQI attacks against SOI and Sunni tribal leaders increased during the year. On January 24, two Awakening Council guards were killed and two wounded when their checkpoint was attacked in Babil. On April 11, a suicide bomber killed eight SOI members and injured 30 others while the officers waited for their pay in Iskandariyah. On December 7, six Awakening Council members were shot and killed in Nadeem village, north of Baghdad. In Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, and Dohuk, the three provinces comprising the Kurdistan region, there were significantly fewer reports of sectarian violence than elsewhere in the country. Unlike in the previous year, there were no confirmed reports of KRG security forces using excessive lethal force. In August 2008 residents of Sreshma village in Erbil demonstrated in favor of improved access to water. As they reached the Khalifan village mayor's office, the police opened fire, killing a 15-year-old bystander and injuring four others. The governor of Erbil suspended the chief of the Khalifan police, but an investigation was unable to fix responsibility for the incident. Unlike in the previous year, there were no terrorist attacks within the Kurdistan region. There were attacks on Kurdish regional security Peshmerga forces operating in other provinces. On October 5, a car bomb in Shalaan village in Ninewa governorate targeting a convoy of Peshmerga soldiers injured 12. On December 25, a car bomb targeting a patrol of Peshmerga soldiers in the district on Sinjar in Ninewa governorate killed three and wounded 15. The Turkish Air Force and artillery targeted the Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) sites in the Kurdistan region multiple times during the year. During the week of February 8, these attacks killed 13 PKK members. Iranian forces occasionally bombarded areas along the Iran- Iraq border, targeting members of the Party of Free Life of Kurdistan, an Iranian Kurdish separatist rebel group. In August there were Iranian mortar attacks against the border villages of Hajj Omran district in Erbil Province, including the villages of Bwara Gurg, Dola Sebar and Kodian Mountain. There were no other known developments in 2008 killings. Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 2.a., 2.c., and 2.d.). b. Disappearance.--During the year kidnappings and disappearances remained severe problems. The majority of the reported cases appeared to be financially motivated, with large ransom demands, rather than sectarian-based. Police believed that the majority of cases went unreported. Unlike in previous years, there were fewer reports that police arrested civilians without an arrest warrant and held them for ransom. On November 17, a Baghdad police lieutenant was arrested for the kidnapping and murder of his neighbor's son. The officer had demanded ransom before he killed the child. He remained in custody awaiting trial at year's end. Kidnappings were often conducted for ransom, and religious minorities and children were often the target of such kidnappings. Kidnappers who did not receive ransom often killed their victims. On August 18, Sameer Gorgees was kidnapped in Kirkuk and held for 29 days, during which he was tortured. The kidnappers released him on September 16 after a payment of 110 million Iraqi Dinars (ID) (approximately $100,000) ransom. On September 14, unknown assailants abducted Soran Abdul-Qadir, head of human rights and democracy programs for Norwegian People's Aid's in Sulaymaniyah. He was found alive three days later in Kirkuk, showing signs of physical abuse. In July his home was vandalized and he received death threats. On October 3, Iman Elias Abdul Karim was kidnapped in Kirkuk and his body found a day later. The MOI Human Rights office reported that it investigated 525 missing person cases during the year; results were pending. Five British men (a computer expert and four bodyguards) were kidnapped in 2007. Peter Moore, the computer expert, was released unharmed on December 30, while the bodies of three of the four bodyguards were returned on June 19 and September 3 to the United Kingdom. The whereabouts of the fifth man remained unknown at year's end. Fifteen Americans, four South Africans, four Russian diplomats, and one Japanese citizen who were abducted since 2003 remained missing. There was no further information on the 2007 kidnapping of the Ministry of Science and Technology acting undersecretary, Samir Salim al-Attar. Until its fall in 2003, the former regime caused the disappearance of many thousands of persons. Additional mass graves from that period were discovered during the year. On May 12, a mass grave was discovered containing 100 bodies in the province Diwaniyah. The victims were thought to be Kurds killed prior to 1991 by the former regime. On May 15, the Ministry of Human Rights (MOHR) announced that it had discovered three mass graves in the Qadissiya district west of Najaf. The graves were estimated to contain 3,000 bodies, mostly of Kurds killed during the Al-Anfal campaign in 1988. On December 19, the government announced the discovery of a mass grave near Kirkuk that contained dozens of bodies believed to be those of Kurds killed between 1988 and 1991. More recent mass graves were also discovered. On February 14, officials found a mass grave in al-Midaan village north of Baghdad containing 40 persons killed in 2006 by Sunni insurgents in the area. On May 25, a mass grave containing eight bodies believed to be victims of AQI was found in the city of Baqubah. Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 1.b. and 2.a.). c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment The constitution expressly prohibits torture in all its forms under all circumstances, as well as cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. During the year there were documented instances of torture and other abuses by government agents and similar abuses by illegal armed groups. The government's effectiveness in adhering to the rule of law in these circumstances faced obstacles from ongoing large-scale violence, corruption, sectarian bias, and lack of civilian oversight and accountability, particularly in the security forces and detention facilities. During the year local and international human rights organizations, the MOHR, and the human rights directorates of the MOI and MOD continued to report allegations of torture and abuse in several MOI and MOD detention facilities, as well as in KRG security forces' detention facilities. A MOHR prisons report for 2009 indicated that there were 326 documented cases of torture and ill-treatment at MOI facilities, 152 cases at MOD facilities, 14 cases at Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) facilities, one case at MOJ facilities, and 12 in Peshmerga facilities in the Kurdistan region during that year. As in previous years, reports of abuse at the point of arrest and during the investigation period, particularly by the MOI's Federal Police and the MOD's battalion-level forces, continued to be common. Allegations of abuse included beatings, sexual assault, and death threats. On February 8, the Central Criminal Court of Iraq (CCC-I) found three defendants guilty of terrorism charges stemming from a 2007 improvised explosive device attack that killed former Babil Province police chief Qais Hamza Abud al-Mamouri. The CCC-I issued life sentences rather than imposing the death penalty due to credible evidence that the defendants had been tortured while in police custody awaiting trial. On February 14, thousands of protesters called for Diyala provincial police chief Ghanim al-Quraishi to be fired for several incidents of torture; he was relieved of duty in mid-August. On May 17, three detainees at the MOI Al Forsan detention facility in Ramadi were allegedly tortured. The MOI brought charges against five officers for their role in the abuse. On June 10, prison guards allegedly tortured and raped female detainees at an MOI detention facility in the Adamiya neighborhood of Baghdad. Two MOI officers were charged, but there were no updates at year's end. On June 11, three members of the COR alleged that 11 detainees had been subject to abuse and torture by MOI officials, including 11 at an MOI facility in the Rusafa district and 10 at Diwaniyah prison. Following these claims, prisoners at the 11th Iraqi Army detention facility went on a hunger strike for a day in protest of their own conditions before receiving government assurances of an investigation. On June 18, the government established a committee to investigate the claims and charged 40 police officers for abuse. According to government reports, one general, two colonels, two majors, and two lieutenants were suspended pending additional investigation into charges of detainee abuse. There were no updates on their cases at year's end. There were indications that some disciplinary action was taken against security forces accused of human rights abuses and some judicial follow-up in torture cases. During the year the MOI Human Rights Directorate, with a staff of 50 investigators, opened 55 investigations into human rights abuse cases and sent 15 cases to court for further investigation. At year's end nine of the 15 investigations had substantiated allegations of torture against 14 officers including one general, five colonels, and three majors. There were fewer reports of torture or abuse in the MOJ's pretrial detention facilities than in MOI or MOD facilities. The KRG's Antiterrorist Law allows abusive interrogation under certain conditions, and such practices reportedly occurred in some detention facilities run by the KRG internal security forces (Asayish) and party-affiliated intelligence services Parastin of the KDP and Zaniyari of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Allegations of abuse included stress positions, broken fingers, and application of electric shocks. A MOHR report on prison conditions in the Kurdistan region noted that inspectors had observed signs of ``systemic torture'' in Asayish detention facilities, although cases in prisons run by KRG social welfare authorities were limited to isolated instances. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Despite a law mandating that detention facilities be under the sole control of the MOJ, four separate ministries operated detention facilities: the MOJ, MOI, MOD, and MOLSA, whose facilities are exclusively for juvenile detention. KRG social welfare authorities operated prisons in the KRG, and KRG security authorities operated pretrial detention facilities. KRG internal security forces and KRG intelligence services operated separate detention facilities as well. Kurdish authorities operated eight detention facilities that combined pretrial and postconviction housing and eight additional internal security pretrial detention facilities. Although the government had not yet adequately resourced the MOJ with the personnel, supplies, equipment, and facilities to assume complete control over all detention operations throughout the country, there was significant progress in transferring MOD detainees to MOJ detention facilities. At year's end there were 11 MOJ prisons and seven MOJ pretrial detention facilities. Under the direction of the previous acting minister of justice, the Baghdad Central Prison (formerly Abu Ghraib) was reopened in November 2008 with a plan to hold as many as 5,000 posttrial prisoners. A prison riot occurred on September 10 that damaged the facility and required relocation of the entire prison population of 2,630 inmates. At year's end the MOJ did not have plans to reopen or further use Baghdad Central Prison, and to accommodate the relocation of its inmates, the MOJ formally activated the 3,000-bed posttrial facility at Chamchamal in Sulaymaniyah Province. MOI detention facilities comprise an estimated six Federal Police facilities and 294 Iraqi Police facilities. There are an estimated 1,200 smaller MOI police holding stations throughout the country managed, staffed, and operated by the Federal Police, Iraqi Police Services, Criminal Investigations Division, and the National Investigative and Information Agency. Although there were no independently verified statistics, it was estimated that the MOI facilities held as many as 8,000 pretrial detainees. The MOD operated 27 Iraqi Army pretrial detention centers for detainees captured during military raids and operations. There were reports of unofficial detention centers throughout the country. The MOD lacks the legal authority to detain civilians and is required to transfer detainees to MOI or MOJ facilities within 24 hours. In May the MOD began transferring its civilian detainees to MOJ custody. At year's end an estimated 75 percent of MOD detainees (approximately 1,500 persons) had been transferred. Approximately 650 civilian detainees remained in MOD custody at year's end, the majority located in a detention facility in the International Zone in Baghdad, operated by the 56th Iraqi Army Brigade, and the Old Muthanna Airfield in Baghdad, operated by the 54th Iraqi Army Brigade. The majority of individuals in MOI and MOD facilities were pretrial detainees. Overcrowding of pretrial detainees remained a problem in all detention facilities throughout the country, due to slow case processing. For example, the MOI Khamees detention center in Diyala, with a capacity of 200 inmates, held more than 450 in unsanitary conditions, according to an April report of the UN High Commissioner on Human Rights. The MOJ is the only government entity with the legal authority to hold, care for, and guard posttrial detainees. The total capacity of MOJ's Iraqi Corrections Service (ICS) facilities was 20,295 beds (not including emergency capacity), which included 304 dedicated beds for women. The total number of prisoners in the ICS was 20,223, 47 percent of whom were pretrial detainees. In MOI and MOD detention facilities, conditions and treatment of detainees were generally reported as poor. The MOI Human Rights Directorate conducted 120 inspections during the year and found that most facilities had shown improvement from the previous year, but overcrowding remained widespread. Many lacked adequate food, exercise facilities, medical care, and family visitation. Limited infrastructure or aging physical plants in some facilities resulted in marginal sanitation, limited access to water and electricity, and poor quality food. Medical care in MOI and MOD detention facilities was not provided consistently, and there continued to be allegations of abuse and torture in some facilities. At the MOD's detention center in the International Zone in Baghdad, detainees were denied family visits or access to counsel, were held in overcrowded cells, and exhibited evidence of torture and abuse. Despite limited resources and funds, MOJ detention facilities provided detainees with better treatment and living conditions than MOI and MOD detention facilities. Medical care in MOJ's ICS prisons in some locations exceeded the community standard. ICS personnel made significant progress in meeting internationally accepted standards for prisoner needs. The MOJ is responsible for training ICS guards and correctional executive management staff, providing the facilities with necessary supplies and equipment, addressing overcrowding, facilitating case processing, and providing prison rehabilitation programs. The ICS internal affairs department monitored abuse or violations of international standards for human rights in prisons. Allegations of abuse have resulted in the disciplining of ICS officers in some cases. During the year there were two allegations that ICS staff abused detainees. The law mandates that women and juveniles be held separately from adult males. Although this law was generally observed, in some cases women were held in the same detention facility as men, but in segregated quarters and cellblocks. An MOD inspection of a facility in Baghdad's International Zone found women at the facility, albeit in separate cells. Juveniles were also occasionally held with adults. MOD inspections of its own International Zone facility and Old Muthanna detention facilities found juveniles living in the same cells as adult detainees. Additionally pretrial detainees and convicted prisoners were sometimes held in the same facility due to space limitations. During the year MOLSA's juvenile facilities improved. In June the Tobschi juvenile facility in Baghdad completed renovations and increased its capacity from 265 to 327 beds. The current population at Tobschi is 279 pretrial juveniles. The Kharq juvenile facility remained overcrowded, with a capacity of 245 and a total population of 435 posttrial juveniles. There have been no reported instances of abuse or mistreatment in MOLSA facilities. KRG security authorities operated male pretrial detention facilities and KRG social welfare authorities operated male posttrial and female and juvenile pretrial and posttrial detention facilities in the Kurdistan region. The national MOHR and a KRG human rights official visited several detention facilities run by KRG social welfare authorities during the year. The KRG internal security forces and the KRG intelligence services operated separate detention facilities. Domestic and international human rights NGOs and intergovernmental organizations generally had access to pretrial and posttrial facilities. Access by independent organizations to the facilities of the KRG internal security and intelligence services was limited to the MOHR, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and UN. National detention facilities permitted visits by representatives of the national MOHR and members of parliament, and KRG detention facilities permitted visits by the national MOHR and KRG human rights authorities. In accordance with a directive from the prime minister, the national MOHR continued its own program inspecting every detention facility monthly apart from those run by the KRG, which were inspected jointly. The MOHR's fourth annual report covering 2009 was generally critical of prison standards across the country and addressed general conditions and populations of detention facilities, judicial processes, and torture allegations. It reported 326 confirmed cases of torture or abuse within the MOI, 152 cases within the MOD, 14 cases within MOLSA, 12 cases in Peshmerga facilities in the Kurdistan region, and one case in the MOJ for the year. The Higher Judicial Council (HJC) was investigating the cases at year's end. Domestic and international human rights NGOs and intergovernmental organizations generally did not have access to national MOI detention and pretrial facilities, although the MOHR initiated a program during the year to train NGOs in how to conduct prison inspections. Some intergovernmental organizations had access to similar facilities of the KRG internal security and intelligence forces. Only the ICRC visited several detention facilities and prisons under the MOI, MOD, MOLSA, and MOJ around the country and had access to KRG detainees, some of whom were held in Asayish facilities. The ICRC visited these facilities in accordance with standard modalities. During the year the ICRC carried out 76 visits to 26 central government detention facilities. The ICRC also regularly visited 32 KRG detention facilities. Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 1.d. and 5). d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution provides for protection against arbitrary arrest and detention without a warrant, except in extreme exigent circumstances as provided for in a state of emergency. In practice there were many instances of arbitrary arrest and detention. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The ISF consists of MOI security forces and MOD military forces. The MOI exercised its responsibilities throughout the country, except in the KRG area. These responsibilities include providing internal security through police and domestic intelligence capabilities, facilities protection, and regulating all domestic and foreign private security companies. The ISF also has responsibility for emergency response, border enforcement, dignitary protection, firefighting, and internal monitoring of the conduct of MOI personnel. The army, under direction of the MOD, also plays a part in providing domestic security. The MOI security forces include several components: the 292,700- member Iraqi Police Service deployed in police stations; the 43,800- member Federal Police, overwhelmingly Shia and organized into commandos and public order police; the 40,000-member Border Enforcement Police; and the 83,000 Facilities Protection Service security guards deployed at MOI direction at individual ministries. The MOI was responsible for approximately 600,000 employees, 10 percent of the country's male labor force. During the year the security services exhibited greater integration of the SOI into the ISF, strengthened chain of command and control, and fewer shortages of personnel and equipment. Total trained ISF numbers grew to at least 655,000 from 590,000 in 2008, enabling the ISF to improve operations against extremist activity. Although oversight by MOI and MOD Internal Affairs increased, problems continued with all security services, arising from sectarian divisions, corruption, and unwillingness to serve outside the areas in which personnel were recruited. The effort of the head of the Federal Police to have police serve in provinces other than their home provinces to reduce corruption was partially successful. The ability of the overwhelmingly Shia ISF to convince Sunni communities that the ISF was not biased in enforcement remained a problem. Government efforts to pay the approximately 94,000 SOI personnel, mostly Sunnis, and integrate them into full-time government employment positions (20 percent with state security agencies and 80 percent with civil ministries) continued on a largely successful course. Legitimate complaints about payment delays persisted, in part because the country operated principally as a cash economy. Although the government's stated goal was to transition all 50,000 of the Baghdad SOI into government positions by the end of the year, this did not occur. The government did successfully transition more than 37,000 of the SOI during the year. Suspected government targeting and arrest of SOI personnel for alleged previous insurgent of Ba'athist activity continued to be a point of tension between the Sunni population and the government. Since October 2008, 43 SOI leaders have been arrested, and 33 remained in custody at year's end. The KRG maintained its own regional security forces, the Peshmerga, as set forth in the constitution. The two main parties of the Kurdish region maintained ties to these Peshmerga units as well as to other security and intelligence units currently outside KRG or central government control. KRG security forces and intelligence services were involved in the detention of suspects in KRG-controlled areas. The variety of borders and areas of authority remained a cause of confusion, and therefore concern, with regard to the jurisdiction of security and courts. During the year the KRG merged its two KDP and PUK-based Peshmerga forces under an entity for Peshmerga affairs. KRG internal security forces remained separated in practice along party lines. On April 5, in Sulaymaniyah, the chief judge of the province and the head of the PUK branch of the KRG internal security forces signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU), acknowledging the supremacy of the civilian court system in all security matters. Through the MOU, KRG internal security forces pledged not to carry out arrests and other actions without court authority. Central government and KRG authorities often did not maintain effective control over security forces, despite increased efforts. In April 2008 the MOI established the Internal Security Forces disciplinary and criminal court system to adjudicate disciplinary violations and crimes committed by MOI police. The court began hearing cases in July 2008. Although the MOI Internal Security Forces Courts continued to process cases during the year, their effectiveness in holding high-level officials accountable for serious violations remained unproven. There are five regional courts: Erbil, Mosul, Baghdad, Hillah, and Basrah. All but the First Regional ISF Court, in Erbil, heard cases. A court of cassation heard appeals in Baghdad. The regional courts have reviewed 5,937 cases, returned 1,475 cases for further investigation, issued 1,495 sentences, and had 814 cases pending as of July. In July alone the Internal Security Forces Courts convicted and sentenced 272 police and acquitted two. Courts sentenced six police officers to five to 15 years, eight police officers to one to five years, and 258 police officers to less than one year in jail. Two police officers were assessed fines. Between January and July, MOI Internal Affairs closed 391 investigations. Of the closed cases, 128 were referred to the court system for adjudication and 105 to the Commission of Integrity for further inquiry. Auditors identified 140 billion ID (approximately $112 million) in improper expenditures. In an environment where allegations did not often lead to convictions, there were more allegations of MOI and MOD abuses than in the previous year. There were continuing reports of torture and abuse throughout the country in many MOI police stations and MOD facilities; the incidents generally occurred during the interrogation phases. Unlike in the previous year, MOI employees accused of serious human rights abuses were generally investigated and punished rather than transferred. The MOI Internal Affairs division punished 103 officers and opened 66 new investigations into wrongdoing. Investigative judges rarely pursued security force officials for suspected crimes because the law permits the minister responsible for the suspect to block an arrest warrant by withholding agreement. Permission was rarely given during the year to prosecute higher-level officials. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The constitution prohibits ``unlawful detention'' and mandates that preliminary investigative documents be submitted to an investigative judge within 24 hours from time of arrest, a period that can be extended only by one day. For offenses punishable by death, the defendant can be detained for as long as necessary to complete the judicial process. Law enforcement authorities reportedly continued to detain and search individuals without an arrest warrant after the state of emergency law expired in 2007, although there were no reliable statistics available on such incidents. In practice many detainees have been held for months or years without access to defense counsel or without being formally charged or brought before a judge. Police and army personnel frequently arrested and detained suspects without judicial approval. MOHR and MOD Human Rights Directorate inspections of the MOD detention facilities in the International Zone and at Old Muthanna Airfield found many detainees without case files or valid detention orders. Security sweeps sometimes were conducted throughout entire neighborhoods or provinces. For example, on September 19, the police arrested 33 men in Baqubah who were wanted for alleged terrorist activity. Police often failed to notify family members of the arrest or location of detention, resulting in incommunicado detention. At year's end the number of detainees in government hands was estimated at 29,000, not including those in central government facilities in the KRG or Asayish and KRG intelligence service facilities. At year's end the ICS held 19,751; the MOI, an unverified number estimated at 8,000; the MOD, 650; and the MOLSA, approximately 700. The KRG total was approximately 2,200, not including central government facilities in the KRG or Asayish and KRG intelligence service facilities. In practice few detainees saw an investigative judge within the legally mandated time period. Many complained they did not see the investigative judge until months or sometimes years after arrest and detention. Incommunicado detention took place. Lengthy detention periods without judicial action were a systemic problem. The lack of judicial review was due to a number of factors that included undocumented detentions, backlogs in the judiciary, slow processing of criminal investigations, and an insufficient number of judges. A February 20 UN Security Council report noted that many detainees were deprived of their liberty for months or even years, often in poor conditions. There were allegations of detention beyond judicial release dates as well as unlawful releases. In April the MOJ, with assistance from the international community, took action regarding pretrial detainees who had been in the Rusafa Prison Complex without movement on resolving their cases. This MOJ initiative represented the first step by the government to identify and implement a process for moving cases against pretrial detainees toward resolution. The MOJ began by identifying 936 pretrial detainees the MOD had arrested who were in need of case processing. By year's end 365 of the MOD detainees had received case processing, and another 190 had been released. In August the MOJ completed a second survey of pre-trial detainees at Rusafa, which identified 1,209 pretrial detainees who had been arrested and had been in pretrial confinement for more than six months. At year's end 340 of the detainees had received some level of court action on their case, resulting in the release of 262 individuals. There were reports that KRG internal security units detained suspects incommunicado and without an arrest warrant and that they transported detainees to undisclosed detention facilities. Police across the country continued to use coerced confessions and abuse as methods of investigation. The law allows release on bond, and in practice criminal (but not security) detainees were generally released on bail. Judges are authorized to appoint paid counsel for the indigent and did so in practice. Some attorneys appointed to represent detainees complained that poor access to their clients after their appointment hampered adequate attorney-client consultation. Amnesty.--The COR passed a general Amnesty Law that became effective in February 2008. Pursuant to the law, the HJC formed an amnesty committee in each province headed by four judges and a prosecutor to review all detainee cases and, when appropriate, to recommend release. The law, designed to foster national reconciliation because detainees are disproportionately Sunni, allowed amnesty for certain cases predating the passage of the law. It was not applicable for detainees sentenced to death, and it excluded from amnesty other specified crimes, such as murder and acts of terrorism. Since passage of the Amnesty Law, the HJC has reviewed more than 171,000 cases and determined that more than 137,000 cases affecting individuals who were fugitives, on bail, or held in pretrial and posttrial confinement--a total of 25,000 detainees--were eligible for amnesty. Since the Amnesty Law came into effect, there have been more than 35,000 persons granted amnesty and more than 19,000 detainees released, according to MOHR data. In 2007 the Kurdistan National Assembly passed a General Amnesty Law for the KRG. A KRG human rights official reported that more than 644 of the approximately 1,054 convicted prisoners in KRG social welfare authorities' prisons received amnesty by the end of 2007, which was the only year in which the KRG Amnesty Law was in effect. Other sections of this report contain related information (see sections 2.a. and 2.d.). e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary. Although the judicial system was credited with efforts to maintain an independent stance, unstable circumstances in the country rendered the judiciary weak and dependent on other parts of the government. Threats and killings by insurgent, sectarian, tribal, and criminal elements impaired judicial independence in many places. The courts in Baghdad were notable exceptions, particularly the Central Criminal Court of Iraq (CCC-I), Kharkh, and the Felony Court, Rusafa, (formerly the Rusafa CCC-I), which operated in heavily guarded locations. The MOI agreed to supplement security for judges and allowed judges to select which police officers would be assigned to their security detail. Approximately 2,000 police officers under MOI authority have been assigned to protect judges. Judges frequently faced death threats and attacks. On October 16, a judge from Ninewa Province was among those killed in a suicide bombing at a mosque in Mosul. This was the only judge killed during the year, although there were several instances of attempted killings, assaults, and attacks on judges and their family members. Although individual judges were generally viewed as objective and courageous, judges were vulnerable to intimidation and violence. There were reports that criminal cases at the trial level or on appeal to the Court of Cassation were decided by corruption or intimidation. Unlike in the previous year, there were few reports that court-issued detainee release orders were not consistently enforced. Security threats hindered the ability of citizens to access courts and the judicial system. Witness intimidation continued, and witnesses to criminal trials often failed to attend trials and testify due to threats against them. The law also restricted the free investigation of wrongdoing. Section 136(b) of the criminal procedure code gives ministers the opportunity to review and prevent the execution of arrest warrants that sitting judges presiding over criminal investigations have issued against ministry employees. This provision provided immunity to selected government employees and enabled a component of the executive branch to terminate proceedings initiated by the judicial branch. During the year permission was given to arrest only lower-level ministry employees under Section 136(b). The HJC, an administrative body of sitting judges from the Federal Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation, and the appeals courts, manages and supervises the judiciary at all levels--investigative, trial, appellate, and supreme court. The HJC also includes representatives of the Judiciary Oversight Committee (a judicial oversight board that hears charges of judicial misconduct) and regional judicial councils. Although implementing legislation for the constitutionally created HJC received its second reading in the COR in July 2008, it had yet to be enacted by year's end. On October 25, a suicide car bomber heavily damaged the MOJ building, which housed the headquarters of the HJC. Despite the damage to the building, the HJC continued its operations with minimal interruption and continued to manage and supervise the judiciary from alternate headquarters. The attack on the HJC headquarters on October 25 and a subsequent attack on December 8 on the Old Kharkh Courthouse (temporary headquarters of the Court of Cassation) did not cause any long-term disruption to the HJC as an institution. The constitution provides for an independent judiciary in all regions. In 2007 the KRG passed the Judicial Power Law, which attempted to create a more independent judiciary. The Kurdish Judicial Council (KJC), which had been part of the executive branch's MOJ, became legally independent and took responsibility for its own budget, human resource management, and reporting. KRG judicial authorities no longer have direct operational control over the judiciary, the KRG financial authorities relinquished control of the KJC's budget, and the chief justice was appointed by other judges and not by the executive branch. Nonetheless, the executive continued to influence cases in politically sensitive areas, such as freedom of speech and the press. According to an April report from Amnesty International (AI) on the Kurdistan region, a KRG judge who wrote a newspaper article in which he criticized Asayish interference in the judicial process was subsequently threatened by a senior Asayish official to stop such comments or face adverse consequences. The judicial system includes civil courts that address domestic, family, labor, employment, contract, and real and personal property claims. Challenges to the judgments rendered in these civil proceedings go first to the appeals courts of the provinces in which the trial courts sit; after that, secondary appeals may be made to the Court of Cassation. The Law on Criminal Proceedings provides for the use of traditional tribal justice. Usually, arbitration (al-Fasil) is accepted in all governorates or other forms of extrajudicial procedures. Cases are referred to government courts when tribal arbitration is unable to reach a verdict. The CCC-I, located in Baghdad, hears cases involving serious criminal offenses, including detainees referred for prosecution. It has nationwide discretionary investigative and trial jurisdiction over all criminal violations, with focus on terrorism, governmental corruption, organized crime, sabotage, and sectarian or ethnic violence. The NGO Human Rights Watch (HRW) claimed in a December 2008 report that the CCC-I seriously failed to meet international standards of due process and fair trials. The failures reported included long periods of pretrial detention without judicial review, inability to pursue a meaningful defense or challenge evidence, and abuse in detention to extract confessions. The lack of judicial review was due to a number of factors, whose relative weight was difficult to assess, including a large number of pre-trial detainees, undocumented detentions, backlogs in the judiciary, slow processing of criminal investigations, and an insufficient number of judges. In addition to the criminal and civil trial and appellate courts, the court system includes a Federal Supreme Court (FSC), the jurisdiction of which is limited to resolving disputes between branches of government or between the federal government and the provinces (governorates) and reviewing the constitutionality of laws, regulations, procedures, and directives of the various branches and units of government throughout the country. The Presidency Council appointed the nine members of the FSC. Like the HJC, the FSC had yet to see its proposed implementing legislation enacted by year's end, but this has not hindered the court's operations. In 2003 the Governing Council created the Iraqi High Tribunal (IHT), formerly the Iraqi Special Tribunal, to try persons accused of committing war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity, and specified offenses from July 17, 1968, through May 1, 2003. After a trial, the IHT in 2006 sentenced Saddam Hussein to death based upon his conviction for crimes against humanity relating to the killing of 148 villagers from Ad-Dujayl following an alleged 1982 assassination attempt. Two other regime members, Barzan al-Tikriti and Awad al-Bandar, were also convicted and sentenced to death at the same time for similar crimes. The verdicts were confirmed on appeal and they were executed in 2006 and 2007. In the 2007 Anfal trial, Ali Hassan al-Majid, widely referred to as ``Chemical Ali,'' and two codefendants, Sultan Hashem Ahmed and Hussein Rashid Mohammed, were convicted of genocide and related charges and sentenced to death. The sentences were upheld on appeal. Codefendants Farhan Jubouri and Saber Abdel Aziz al-Douri were sentenced to life imprisonment, and Taher Tawfiq al-Ani was acquitted. The Anfal trial concerned the deaths of an estimated 182,000 Kurdish men, women, and children, caused in part by the use of chemical weapons. The death sentences had not been carried out at year's end because of a dispute between the Prime Minister's Office and the Presidency Council (the president and two deputy presidents) over whether the sentences had to be affirmed by the Presidency Council. In February 2008 the Presidency Council ratified the death sentence of Ali Hassan Al Majid. Sunni vice president Tariq Al Hashimi and Shia vice president Adel Abdul Mahdi signed the ratification. Mahdi also signed the decree on behalf of President Jalal Talabani. The death sentence for Ali Hassan Al Majid is the only IHT death sentence the Presidency Council has ratified. In 2007 the IHT began its third trial, the 1991 Intifada case, in which 15 defendants were charged with crimes against humanity in Maysan and Basrah Provinces. The 15 defendants were high-level members of the former regime and key military and Ba'ath Party officials, including Ali Hasan Al-Majid. In December 2008 the IHT sentenced al-Majid and Abdul Ghani Abdul Ghafour to death. Former minister of defense Sultan Hashim Ahmad al-Tai was sentenced to 15 years (al-Tai already had been sentenced to death for his role in Anfal). After appellate review, four defendants received life sentences, Sultan Hashim and five others were sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment, and three defendants were acquitted. The events in other provinces involving the 1991 Shia uprising remained under investigation. The prosecutor subsequently appealed the acquittals of two defendants and the sentences of the two others. Those cases were sent back to the trial chamber for reconsideration, and the trial chamber heard additional evidence. Upon reconsideration, the two defendants who were acquitted were convicted and sentenced to 15 years each. The two defendants who were sent back to the trial chamber for sentencing had their sentences increased from 15 years to life. In April 2008 the IHT began its fourth trial, the merchants' case, in which the former regime in 1992 blamed merchants for shortages and high prices. At that time a ``Special Court'' was convened, and 42 merchants brought before the court were convicted and executed within hours. The eight defendants included former deputy prime minister Tariq Aziz. On March 11, a verdict in the case was announced. Two defendants, Sabawi Ibrahim and Watban Ibrahim, Saddam Hussein's half-brothers, were sentenced to death. One defendant was acquitted. The remaining defendants received sentences varying from life to six years' imprisonment. Tariq Aziz was convicted and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. The verdict and sentence were appealed. The appeals court left the conviction and sentences intact with the exception of the forfeiture of movable and immovable assets, which was vacated. In July 2008 the IHT began its fifth trial, the Friday Prayers trial, involving the Shia protests of 1999 after Saddam's agents killed the Shia leader and father of Muqtada, Mohamed Sadiq al-Sadr. The Third and Fourth Iraqi Army corps, overseen by Ali Hassan al-Majid, quashed the protests. Fourteen defendants, including Ali Hassan al-Majid and Tariq Aziz, stood trial. The prosecution presented its case at the end of 2008, the defendants then presented their evidence, and on March 2, the trial chamber announced its verdict. Of the 13 defendants, three were acquitted, including former foreign minister Tariq Aziz. Three defendants were convicted and sentenced to death. Four defendants were sentenced to life imprisonment. The remaining defendants were sentenced to between six and 15 years' imprisonment. On appeal the verdicts and sentences were upheld with the exception of the portion requiring the forfeiture of the movable and immovable assets, which was vacated. Two additional cases were referred to the trial chamber. The Halabja case, which included five defendants and began in December 2008, involved chemical attacks on the Kurdish town of Halabja that resulted in the death of more than 5,000 civilians. In December 2008 the trial began of 25 defendants who were part of the former regime and were allegedly involved in the persecution of Dawa party members. At year's end the trial court in the Halabja case was preparing to announce its verdict, and the Dawa Party case remained in litigation. On April 7, the IHT began the Ethnic Cleansing case, in which 13 defendants were charged with involvement in forcibly relocating Kurds from Kirkuk to other areas of the country. The case ended with a verdict on August 2 acquitting five defendants and convicting the remaining eight. All prison sentences in the case ranged from six to seven years. The prosecutor appealed three of the acquittals. The case remained under consideration by the appeals court. In September the IHT issued a warrant for the arrest of Dr. Abdel Basit Turki, head of the Board of Supreme Audit, responsible for auditing the financial records of all central government institutions. Turki was charged with ``wasting national wealth'' during his time as a senior government official under Saddam Hussein's regime, in particular for the transfer of billions of dollars in cash out of the country prior to Saddam's removal. The allegations fall under the jurisdiction of the IHT due to their nature and the time period in which the offenses were allegedly committed. During the year the IHT continued to investigate a number of crimes allegedly committed by members of the former regime, including other atrocities following the 1991 uprising, the draining of the southern marshes, and the invasion of Kuwait. The IHT also dropped charges against some detainees. At year's end the IHT had nine trials in process. Trial Procedures.--The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and judges--investigative, trial, and appellate--generally sought to enforce that right. An accused person is considered innocent until proven guilty and has the right to privately retained or court- appointed counsel. One of the significant challenges facing the criminal trial courts was insufficient access to defense attorneys. Many defendants met their lawyers for the first time during the initial hearing. Defense attorneys were provided at public expense if needed. In May 2008 the Baghdad Legal Defense Center opened at the Rusafa Detention Complex, providing 25 attorneys, including three female attorneys, to assist the 7,500 detainees in the facility. Since the center's opening, the attorneys have met with more than 10,000 detainees, including detainees held at the Rusafa women's prison. The criminal justice system is based on a civil law regime similar to the Napoleonic Code. It is fundamentally inquisitorial, not adversarial, in form and content. The system focuses on the search for the truth, initiated and pursued almost exclusively by judges whose role is to assemble evidence and adjudicate guilt or innocence. Investigative judges, working collaboratively with judicial investigators, and in some cases with police officers, are responsible for interviewing witnesses, assembling evidence, examining suspected criminals, and generating files on the results of the investigative work. Although prosecutors and defense attorneys frequently participated in pretrial investigative hearings, their roles were, for the most part, limited to recommending the pursuit of certain lines of investigation, including posing suggested questions of witnesses and defendants. They rarely appealed decisions of judges about the manner and scope of their investigations. Three-judge panels are responsible for trying accused persons in public trials based largely on the results of judicial investigations. During those trials, all three judges on the panel can question the defendants, but in almost all cases the presiding judge is the one who questions the defendants; witnesses may testify at these proceedings. The prosecutor and the defense attorney may make brief closing statements. After deliberation among the members of the panel, the presiding judge announces the verdict and, in the case of a conviction, the sentence. Criminal judgments of conviction and acquittal may be appealed to the Court of Cassation, a judicial panel that reviews the evidence assembled in the investigative and trial stages and renders a decision. The constitution provides for the establishment of military courts, but only military crimes committed by the armed forces and the security forces may come before such courts. The MOI courts investigate and try crimes committed by MOI employees related to their employment. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--During the year there appeared to be an orchestrated political campaign against Sunni politicians from Diyala Province with arrest warrants issued for four members of the provincial council, the deputy governor, and a member of the parliament from Diyala. On May 18, Iraqi Special Forces affiliated with the prime minister entered the Diyala Provincial Council during the regular weekly meeting and arrested Abdel Jabbar Ali Ibrahim, a member of the provincial council and head of the Sunni Accordance Front bloc in the council. Ibrahim was arrested on terrorism-related charges and taken to a detention facility in Baghdad, where he remained in custody at year's end. Arrest warrants were also issued against provincial council members Ismail Ibrahim Farhan, Dhiyab Sa'ad Khalil, and Hashem Ali al- Hayali, but the prime minister reportedly suspended the warrants following requests from senior Sunni parliamentarians. An arrest warrant was issued for al-Hayali's wife, Taysir Mashadani, who served as a member of the COR and as a result had immunity. On November 22, the deputy governor, Muhamad Hassayn Jasim, was arrested on charges related to terrorism financing. He was being held in a MOD detention facility at year's end. A former Sunni provincial council member, Hussayn al-Zubaydi, continued to be detained on murder charges since his August 2008 arrest, although he was found not guilty of terrorism- related charges in September. There was little information available concerning persons detained in Kurdish Asayish facilities. The Political Prisoners Organization, a quasi-governmental organization with 500 employees, worked on behalf of Saddam-era political prisoners to reintegrate them into society and the work force. It provided former prisoners with monthly stipends of 500,000 ID ($430) and was generally considered an effective organization. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The country has a legal framework, as well as an independent and impartial judiciary, for dealing with civil issues in lawsuits seeking damages for or cessation of human rights violations. Administrative remedies also exist. However, during the year the priorities of an understaffed judiciary and government administration focused on issues more directly related to security, and these procedures and remedies were not effectively implemented. Property Restitution.--There was a problem with serious delays in adjudicating claims for property restitution. The Commission for the Resolution of Real Property Disputes (CRRPD), formerly the Iraq Property Claims Commission, is governed by a 2006 law and is an independent governmental commission. Its purpose is to resolve claims for real property confiscated, forcibly acquired, or otherwise taken for less than fair value by the former regime between 1968 and 2003, for reasons other than land reform or lawfully applied eminent domain. The CRRPD process was intended primarily to benefit those whose land was confiscated for ethnic or political reasons as part of the former regime's ``Arabization'' program and other policies of sectarian displacements. The previously announced June 2007 deadline for filing claims was extended and remained open at year's end. By year's end the CRRPD had received more than 157,000 claims nationwide since its founding and reportedly reviewed and adjudicated more than 76,000 claims nationwide of which more than 12,000 related to Kirkuk. The claims were handled through a technically complex process, but most claims were resolved in a matter of months. There is a CRRPD appellate commission in Baghdad consisting of seven judges. Since 2003, the wafadin, Arabs previously settled in the Kirkuk region under Saddam Hussein's anti-Kurdish policies, have returned to their prior homes in the center and south of the country and applied for compensation. Since the CRRPD was established, 28,000 wafadin have applied for compensation to the Article 140 committee, which resolves claims for wafadin who seek compensation for returning to their original provinces. Approval for compensation has been given to 16,500, and 10,917 wafadin have received compensation and in theory have returned to their original provinces. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution mandates that authorities not enter or search homes except with a judicial order. The constitution also prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy. In practice security forces often entered homes without search warrants and took other measures interfering with privacy, family, and correspondence, although this happened less than in previous years. Under the constitution the COR may consent to a state of emergency upon the joint request of the president and the prime minister. Under this authority the prime minister may authorize authorities to detain suspects and search them, their homes, and their work places. The law provides that all such actions must be pursuant to an arrest or search warrant unless there are extreme exigent circumstances. The state of emergency lapsed in 2007 and was not renewed. There were reports that law enforcement activities sometimes continued as if the state of emergency was still in effect, but to a lesser degree than in the previous year. Police were instructed to comply with legal warrant requirements but sometimes reportedly entered homes without search warrants. In the KRG-controlled provinces, there was pressure on citizens to join the PUK party in the province of Sulaymaniyah and the KDP party in the provinces of Erbil and Dohuk. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution broadly provides for the right of free expression, provided it does not violate public order and morality. Despite this protection of freedom of expression, the law provides, if authorized by the prime minister, for fines or a term of imprisonment not to exceed seven years for any person who publicly insults the COR, the government, or public authorities. The law also restricts media organizations expressing support for the banned Ba'ath Party or for ``alterations to Iraq's borders by violent means.'' In practice the main limitation on the exercise of these rights was self- censorship due to fear of reprisals by the government, political parties, and insurgent and sectarian forces. There were several hundred daily and weekly publications, as well as dozens of radio and television stations at the national, regional, and local levels, broadcasting in Arabic, Kurdish (two dialects), Turkmen, and Syriac. Most media outlets were strongly influenced by political parties in their publications and broadcasts. The government acted to restrict media freedom in some circumstances. During the January 31 provincial elections, there were widespread reports of the ISF refusing to allow journalists to enter polling stations and in some cases detaining them until after voting had ended. In Basrah prison guards beat approximately 15 photographers and destroyed their equipment when they attempted to film inmates casting their votes at Minah Prison. On September 14, bodyguards from the Baghdad Provincial Council severely beat a group of 10 journalists and photographers from Al- Iraqiyah television channel as the media workers were on their way to cover a council meeting. The bodyguards forced the group out of their car and beat them with rifle butts, hands, and clubs. The law prohibits reporters from publishing stories that defame public officials. Many in the media complained that these provisions prevented them from freely practicing their trade by creating strong fears of persecution. There was widespread self-censorship. On May 22, a court ordered Internet news site Kitabat to pay one billion ID (approximately $867,000) in damages in a lawsuit Prime Minister Maliki filed. The suit, prompted by a Kitabat story alleging nepotism within the prime minister's senior staff, was later withdrawn by the prime minister. In May 2008 the Iraqi National Intelligence Service filed suit for 1.1 billion ID (approximately $1 million) in damages against the United Kingdom's Guardian newspaper for describing Prime Minister Maliki as ``authoritarian''; the agency also called for the closure of the paper's Baghdad bureau. On November 12, a court ordered the Guardian to pay damages to the prime minister. The news organization, which continued operating in the country, reported that it would appeal the ruling. Media workers often reported that politicians pressured them not to publish articles criticizing the government. They offered accounts of intimidation, threats, and harassment of the media by government or partisan officials. The government frequently used the threat of legal action against media workers. In a June letter to Prime Minister Maliki, the Journalistic Freedoms Observatory and CPJ called for an end to government agencies filing politically motivated lawsuits against journalists and publications, noting that ``high-ranking government officials have used lawsuits as a political tool to obstruct and silence the news media.'' In April the government threatened to close the Baghdad offices of Al-Hayat newspaper and Al-Sharqiya, a television station, based on charges of misinformation stemming from allegations that both media outlets inaccurately quoted a high-ranking general regarding the rearrest of recently released Sunni SOI members. A government-owned newspaper, Al-Sabah, also printed the quotes but did not face legal action. On April 13, the New York Times reported that security forces in Karbala confiscated satirical cartoons depicting Prime Minister Maliki and other government officials. The cartoons had been displayed as a part of a street exhibit in Karbala. Following a July 28 bank robbery involving members of vice president Adel Abdul al-Mahdi's security team, journalist Ahmed Abd al- Hussein wrote an article insinuating that an unnamed political party was behind the robbery and intended to use the stolen money to advance its political aims. The vice president's party, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq (ISCI), threatened legal action against al-Hussein's employer, Al-Sabah newspaper. During a widely broadcast Friday sermon, ISCI politician and religious leader Sheikh Jalal Eddin al-Saghir criticized the media's involvement in political matters and called for the journalist to be tried and put to death. Hussein went into hiding for a brief period but resumed work at Al-Sabah. The editor in chief of the paper, however, was relieved of his position in October in what many observers interpreted as a rebuke related to the coverage of the robbery. In compliance with regulations introduced in July, all book imports were subject to inspection by the Ministry of Culture (MOC). Books produced and published within the country required MOC approval before going on sale. According to the MOC, new vetting procedures applying to imports were established to stop the entry of literature promoting sectarianism. The threat of violence, targeted and indirect, continued against the country's media community, although less so than in previous years. Violence against the media, primarily by insurgent groups and government security forces, was common, and media workers reported that they engaged in self-censorship to avoid retaliatory attacks by government or elected officials. Despite multiple killings of journalists during the year, the CPJ noted that there were no convictions for these or previous killings of journalists. On May 1, Al-Baghdadia correspondent Alaa Abdel-Wahab was killed and another journalist wounded when a bomb attached to Abdel-Wahab's vehicle exploded in Mosul. On the same day, two employees of Al-Iraqiyah television station were severely injured when a bomb attached to their vehicle exploded in Baghdad. On November 23, Diyar TV journalist Emad Al-Ebadi survived an assassination attempt when unknown assailants shot him in the neck and head. It was widely believed that the attack was retaliation for Al-Ebadi's frequent televised criticism of parliamentary and government figures. MOI officials and judicial authorities continued investigating the circumstances of the shooting. Security forces frequently harassed local journalists. On July 8, three journalists working for satellite television station Ifaq were beaten and detained for five hours when police and SOI forces stopped them near the city of Ramadi. The journalists were riding in a vehicle clearly marked with press designators. The incident prompted journalists in Babil Province to hold a protest condemning the attack. Later that month SOI members stopped and beat a Radio Sawa reporter in Baghdad when he displayed his press identification card. According to NGO Reporters Without Borders, one of the SOI members involved in the assault berated the journalist for working for a foreign media agency. On July 4, government officials announced the arrest and confession of three men suspected in the 2006 abduction and killing of well-known Al-Arabiya journalist Atwar Bahat and two of her crew members near Samarra. In the Kurdistan region a 2008 law passed by the regional parliament provided for media freedom, but enforcement was not consistent. Under the 2008 law, imprisonment is no longer a penalty for publication-related offenses. Journalists continued to be tried, convicted, and imprisoned under the 1969 penal code. The Kurdistan Journalists Syndicate (KJS) documented 44 lawsuits against journalists during the year in the Kurdistan region, approximately one-third under the penal code. According to syndicate officials, the 2008 law is the sole basis for prosecution of journalists for publication offenses, but the law allows for prosecution on the basis of offending public morals and other crimes. Public officials regularly resorted to punitive fines through legal actions against individual media outlets and editors, often for publishing articles on alleged corruption. On April 23, the KRG official for martyrs and victims of Anfal, Chnar Sa'ad, filed four defamation lawsuits against Jihan magazine editor in chief Nabaz Goran seeking damages of one billion ID ($869,000) and imposition of a travel ban following an article reporting on the minister's two-month trip to London. The court ruled on the first of Goran's four defamation cases on December 7 and fined Goran seven million ID ($5,830). Goran filed an appeal with the higher court on December 8 and was awaiting the appellate decision at year's end. On December 7, the court ruled in the second of the four cases, and instead of imposing a fine, it permanently blocked Goran from traveling abroad. The third and fourth cases remained pending decisions by the lower court. Government and party officials filed five other defamation lawsuits against Goran during the year. At the beginning of August, the KRG human rights authorities filed a criminal lawsuit under the penal code seeking prosecution of the owner (a KRG employee) and the editor of the new Kurdish language magazine Balga. The magazine had published two partially blacked-out photographs of women journalists as part of an article questioning the standards of professionalism and workplace ethics of their employer, the Wusha Media Group. A ministry spokesman told news outlets that the publication of the photographs degraded the status of women in the Kurdish region and amounted to a violation of individual rights. In January 2008 President Talabani filed a defamation lawsuit against the editor in chief of Hawlati newspaper for reprinting an article appearing in the foreign press alleging that the president embezzled public funds. On March 15, a Sulaymaniyah court fined the newspaper 13 million ID ($48,700) and the editor in chief 3 million ID (USD $2,600) for defaming the president. The fines were upheld on appeal. Hawlati had three lawsuits brought against it during the year, including one by KRG human rights authorities. Libel remains a criminal offense in the Kurdistan region, and judges may issue pretrial arrest warrants for journalists on this basis. Journalists were sometimes imprisoned while police investigated the veracity of published information. When named in a lawsuit, journalists were typically detained at police stations and were not released until they posted bail. Police often keep journalists in custody during investigations. On March 18, local police arrested Soran Omar, a journalist with Rega magazine, after he was named in a libel lawsuit filed by the former director of the Chwarqurna District's Municipality. Omar had accused the former director of corruption and abuse of power. Omar was sent to Rania's main prison, where he posted bail of three million ID ($2,500) and was released. In June, Hawlati editor in chief Kamal Rauf was detained after a former KRG human rights official filed a defamation lawsuit against him. Hawlati had published an opinion article criticizing the MOHR for not strongly condemning the killing of Lvin journalist Soran Mama Hama in Kirkuk in July 2008. Rauf was taken into custody for two hours until he was released on bail. Journalists in the Kurdish region asserted that they routinely encountered personal intimidation by KRG officials, security services, tribal elements, and business leaders. Local estimates of the number of violations against journalists in the Kurdistan region ranged from a few dozen to more than 100. According to an April 14 AI report, most media outlets avoid criticizing the KRG, its internal security forces and intelligence agencies, and the two main political parties. Political parties owned or had significant influence over all but a few newspapers based in the region. The April Guidelines of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that criticism of the ruling PUK and KDP in the Kurdish region resulted in intimidation, beatings, arrest and detention, and extrajudicial killings, with journalists particularly at risk. On October 27, several armed men confronted and assaulted Nabaz Goran, the editor of the independent weekly Jihan, on the street outside his Erbil office. After the beating, Goran closed the magazine's Erbil office and fled to Sulaymaniyah. The directorate general of the Erbil internal security forces issued a statement after the attack but had not investigated the attack by year's end. In July 2008 Lvin magazine reporter Soran Hama was killed during the magazine's investigation of alleged criminal activity by KRG internal security forces operating in Kirkuk. Although the KRG reportedly opened an investigation, there was no tangible result by year's end. In October 2008 three men were arrested in a plot to assassinate Ahmed Mira, editor in chief of Lvin magazine. On April 29, the first court hearing of the trial of at least two suspects charged in the plot commenced. After six sessions ending August 9, a Sulaymaniyah criminal court sentenced two of the three suspects to six years' imprisonment and acquitted the third for lack of evidence. Mira claims the third was employed by the Parastin, the KDP intelligence apparatus. Before the trial judicial officials performed a limited investigation, and the trial judge refused Mira's request to admit the full evidence into court, including evidence the Asayish collected. The case was on appeal at year's end. During the period leading up to the Kurdistan region's parliamentary elections in July, media outlets not controlled by the major political parties raised credible allegations of incidents of violence and intimidation against them by government officials and party supporters. On July 27, supporters of the ruling KDP party surrounded the Erbil offices of KNN Television and Rozhnama newspaper (both belonging to the Wusha Media Group, affiliated with the opposition Change (Goran) movement) and fired gunshots into the premises. During the night of October 12, passengers in two cars opened fire with guns on the same offices. No prosecutions have been brought as a result of these actions or 15 other incidents against journalists, which the Kurdistan Institute for Human Rights recorded during the election campaign. The Kurdistan Journalists Syndicate registered five incidents during the same period. Internet Freedom.--There were government restrictions on access to the Internet. On August 2, in accordance with a directive from the Council of Ministers, the MOI announced efforts to block Web sites that ``negatively impact Iraqi society, values and security.'' According to MOI officials, Web sites that benefit the cultural, scientific, technical, social, economic, and tourism fields of knowledge will not be blocked. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including e-mail. Direct Internet access was generally low due to a lack of infrastructure in homes; however, the prevalence of Internet cafes contributed to extensive usage among youth. On August 4, the government announced it would require Internet cafes to officially register or be subject to closure. According to International Telecommunication Union 2008 data, there were an estimated 14,900 Internet subscribers and 275,000 users. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. Social, religious, and political pressures restricted the exercise of freedom of choice in academic and cultural matters. In all regions, various groups reportedly sought to control the pursuit of formal education and granting of academic positions. During the year extremists, insurgents, and terrorists targeted cultural figures such as doctors, academics, and scientists. The president of the University of Mosul received numerous threats and many faculty members from universities throughout the country departed for other locations within the country or abroad. Staff and students have intimidated other professors. In December 2008 the dean of the college of medicine at the University of Mosul was shot in the abdomen but survived. In the central and southern parts of the country, there were a number of reports of threats by extremists, or insurgent groups against schools and universities, urging them to modify activities, favor certain students, or face violence. Educational institutions often complied with the threats. On October 14, the prime minister closed Mustansiriya University for a week due to increased violence at the university by a student group, including alleged torture and rape of other students and killing of professors and administrators since 2005. According to the MOHR, insurgents killed 340 university professors and 446 students between 2005 and 2007. In 2007 the Ministry of Displacement and Migration (MODM) reported that at least 30 percent of professors, doctors, pharmacists, and engineers had fled the country since 2003. In the past year, improved security led to reports from some universities and hospitals in Baghdad, Basrah, Babil, Karbala, and Anbar that some professors and other professionals began to return to their jobs, but no comprehensive statistics were available. Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 1.b. and 1.d.). b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and peaceful demonstration, and the government generally respected this right in practice, although there were reports of abusive KRG practices against protestors. The emergency law was in effect until 2007, giving the prime minister the authority to restrict freedom of movement and assembly pursuant to a warrant or extreme exigent circumstances. In general this emergency law did not prevent peaceful assembly, although it was used often to impose curfews. Police in the central and southern parts of the country generally did not break up peaceful demonstrations except when participants violated a curfew. Following the lapse of the state of emergency, the government continued to claim the right to declare curfews in late evening and on holidays in response to security threats. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that KRG security forces killed or detained demonstrators protesting government acts. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the right to form and join associations and political parties and specifically mandates that this right be regulated by law. The government generally respected this right in practice, except for the legal prohibition on expressing support for the Ba'ath Party. Within the KRG provinces, some major labor unions and associations were directly affiliated with the PUK in Sulaymaniyah and the KDP in Erbil and Dohuk. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution proclaims Islam as the official religion of the state. The constitution provides for full religious rights for all individuals ``such as Christians, Yazidis, and Mandean Sabeans,'' but it stipulates that no law may be enacted that contradicts the established provisions of Islam. The constitution also states that no law may be enacted that contradicts principles of democracy or the rights and basic freedoms stipulated in the constitution, including freedom of thought, conscience, and religious belief and practice for Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Although the government generally endorsed these rights, violence by terrorists, extremists, and criminal gangs restricted the free exercise of religion and continued to exert pressure on other groups to conform to extremist interpretations of Islam's precepts. The government publicly called for tolerance and acceptance for all religious minorities and took steps to increase security at places of worship, especially during religious holidays and following security incidents. Frequent attacks on places of worship and religious leaders, as well as sectarian violence, hampered the ability of citizens to practice their religion freely. Regardless of religious affiliation, women and girls were often threatened for refusing to wear the hijab, for dressing in Western- style clothing, or for failing to adhere sufficiently to strict interpretations of conservative Islamic norms governing public behavior. Numerous women, including Christians, reported opting to wear the hijab after being harassed for not doing so. There were also allegations of religion-based employment discrimination during the year. Several ministries reportedly hired and favored employees who conformed to the religious preference of the respective minister. During the year there were allegations that KRG officials engaged in discriminatory behavior against religious minorities in the disputed territories. Christians and Yazidis living north of Mosul claimed that government officials confiscated their property without compensation and began building settlements on their land. Some Assyrian Christians alleged that the KDP-dominated judiciary in Ninewa Province routinely discriminated against non-Muslims and failed to enforce judgments in their favor. There were reports that Yazidis faced restrictions when they entered the KRG-controlled disputed internal boundary areas and had to obtain KRG approval for finding jobs in areas within Ninewa Province administered by the KRG or under the security protection of the Peshmerga. Yazidi and Shabak political leaders alleged that Peshmerga forces regularly committed abuses against and harassed their communities in Ninewa Province. Minority leaders alleged that Kurdish forces intimidated minority communities into identifying themselves as Kurds and supporting their inclusion in the KRG. Yazidi political representatives also reported that they were not allowed to pass through security checkpoints in areas controlled by Peshmerga as they traveled from Baghdad to their communities in the north. The KRG denied allegations that it ordered or condoned violent incidents directed at Christians and other minorities. Most of these allegations came from minorities living in the disputed territories. Many non-Muslims reside in northern disputed regions and the Kurdistan region, and many sought refuge there from other parts of the country where pressures to conform publicly to narrow interpretations of Islamic tenets were greater. In 2007 the MOI's Nationality and Passport Section canceled Regulation 358 of 1975, which prohibited the issuance of a national identity card to those claiming the Baha'i faith. In 2007 the government issued identity cards to a small number of Baha'is, but later in the same year the Nationality and Passport Section's legal advisor halted issuance, claiming that the Baha'is had been registered as Muslims since 1975 and citing a government regulation preventing the conversion of ``Muslims'' to another faith. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Conservative and extremist Islamic elements continued to exert pressure on society to conform to their interpretations of Islam's precepts. Although these efforts affected all citizens, non-Muslims were especially vulnerable to this pressure and violence because of their minority status and their lack of a tribal structure to provide protection. Sunnis also continued to claim general discrimination during the year, alleging an ongoing campaign of revenge by the Shia majority for the abuses of Shia under the former regime, and also because of a widespread perception that the insurgency was composed primarily of Sunni extremists and former regime supporters with whom the majority of Sunnis sympathized. Shia in Sunni-dominated neighborhoods, Sunnis in Shia-dominated neighborhoods, and religious minorities in both Sunni- and Shia- dominated neighborhoods reported receiving death threat letters demanding that they leave their homes, and in many cases individuals either complied or were killed. These incidents occurred less frequently than in the previous year, partially due to the increasing capabilities of the ISF and displacement of persons from mixed neighborhoods in previous years. In general, religious minorities played a small role in political life, especially at the national level, where they lacked much representation. At the provincial level, minorities have been elected to serve on the provincial councils in five governorates, although their influence on decisions concerning security and economic development was limited by the number of seats they controlled. The combination of discriminatory hiring practices by members of the majority Muslim population, attacks against non-Muslim businesses, corruption, and the overall lack of rule of law had a detrimental economic impact on the non-Muslim community and contributed to the departure of significant numbers of non-Muslims from the country. Many Yazidi towns in Ninewa lie in areas disputed between the KRG and the central government and suffered from poor municipal services. The KRG provided some services to these areas, including payment of salaries for Yazidi religious instruction at some state-funded schools. Religious extremists, including terrorist groups and Shia special group members, targeted places of worship and individuals because of their religious identity. Religious leaders, groups, and centers were targeted for killings. On July 12, a coordinated series of bombings at six Christian churches in Baghdad killed four persons and left more than 20 wounded. On July 31, five Shia mosques were bombed in Baghdad in a coordinated attack that resulted in at least 29 killed and 136 wounded. On October 16, a gunman attacked worshippers at the Taqwa mosque in the town of Tal Afar and then detonated an explosive vest, killing 15 people, including the mosque's imam, Abdual-Satar Hassan, and wounding approximately 100 others. On November 26, bomb attacks against St. Ephrem's Chaldean Church and St. Theresa's Convent in the city of Mosul caused extensive damage to the buildings, but no casualties. On December 15, bombs detonated outside the Syriac Catholic Church of the Annunciation and the Syriac Orthodox Church of the Virgin Mary in Mosul, killing five individuals and wounding 40. On December 24, a bomb targeting a procession to commemorate Ashura, an important Shia religious holiday, killed six persons and wounded 26 in Sadr City, and another explosion in the city of Karbala killed one and wounded 12 individuals. On December 27, a bomb killed five persons celebrating Ashura in the town of Tuz Khormato. During August and September, a wave of attacks targeted minority communities in the north. On August 7, a truck bomb in the village of Shirakhan killed 37 Shia Turkmen. On August 10, two truck bombs destroyed the village of Khazna near Mosul where approximately 10,000 Shabaks lived. The attack killed 34 and wounded 200. On August 13, a suicide bombing at a cafe in the village of Sinjar killed 21 Yazidis. On September 9, a truck bomb exploded in the Kakai village of Wardek in Ninewa Province, killing 20 persons and wounding 40 others. During the year Sabean-Mandaeans, who were few in number and lived in small groups spread across the country, continued to report criminal and extremist elements targeted them because of their religious identity and their perceived wealth. On April 19, three Sabean-Mandaean goldsmiths were among seven jewelers killed in a coordinated daytime robbery in Baghdad. Three other Sabean-Mandaeans were severely injured. Four suspects in the killings were arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. On August 6, a Sabean-Mandaean, We'am Abdul Nabi Lazem, was killed in his shop in the Iskan district of Baghdad. On September 19, four masked men using silenced pistols and knives killed two Sabean- Mandaean goldsmiths, Farqad Faiq Authman and Muhand Qasim Abdul-Razzaq, in their shops in the city of Basrah. According to a 2009 report published by the Hammurabi Human Rights Organization, a domestic NGO, 12 Christians were kidnapped during the year. On May 15, a Christian missionary was kidnapped in Kirkuk and held for eight days before mediation by tribal chiefs and local imams led to their release. On November 23, gunmen kidnapped a Christian oil industry worker on his way to work in the city of Kirkuk. On December 28, a Christian university student, Sarah Edmond Youkhana, was kidnapped in Mosul by an organization identifying itself as the ``Islamic State of Iraq'' (see also section 1.b.). Islamist militants continued to target stores that provided goods or services considered inconsistent with Islam. Islamic extremists bombed, looted, and defaced liquor stores in Baghdad and elsewhere. For example, on May 9, an alcohol merchant in the al-Shurta district of Baghdad was killed after storekeepers in the area received anonymous warnings to close their shops. Liquor store operators in Basrah received occasional threats from Islamist militants, but there were no recorded acts of violence during the past year. The country's Jewish population was virtually nonexistent as a result of both voluntary and forced emigration over decades. Even so, anti-Semitic sentiment remained a cultural undercurrent. Among other provisions, the citizenship law precludes Jews who emigrated from regaining citizenship. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report atwww.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/ . Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 2.d., 4, and 5). d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for the right of free movement in all parts of the country and the right to travel abroad and return freely. The government generally respected these rights. There were some limitations in practice, particularly regarding travel into and residence in the Kurdistan region. Restrictions by provinces on the entry of new internally displaced persons (IDPs) had little impact as there was little new displacement during the year. Some IDPs were unable to access the Public Distribution System in the governorate in which they were displaced. The World Food Program and the ICRC delivered food rations to these IDPs. The government generally cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to IDPs, refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern, although effective systems to assist these individuals were not completely established by year's end. Under the state of emergency, the prime minister can restrict movement pursuant to a warrant, impose a curfew, cordon off and search an area, and take other necessary security and military measures (in the Kurdistan region, only in coordination with the KRG). Although the state of emergency lapsed in 2007, the government invoked these powers in practice over the course of the year. In response to security threats, the government continued to declare curfews and to take other necessary military and security measures of limited duration after the state of emergency expired. There are no KRG laws that restrict movement across the areas administered by the KRG, but due to security procedures in practice this was not always the case. Citizens (of any ethnicity, including Kurds) crossing into the region from the south are obliged to stop at checkpoints, undergo personal and vehicle inspection, and receive permission to proceed. Officials from the Directorate of Checkpoints, who report KRG security authorities, take photographs of travelers and issue a temporary pass. Officials prevent individuals from entering into the region if deemed a security threat. Entry for Arab males was reportedly more difficult than for others. The officer in charge at the check point has the right to decline entry into the region. To accommodate increasing numbers of summer and holiday visitors, the KRG security authorities worked out agreements with other provinces whereby tourist agencies submitted names of visitors in advance for pre-clearance. Visitors must show where they are lodging and how long they intend to stay. The MOI's Passport Office maintained a policy of requiring women to obtain the approval of a close male relative before receiving a passport. On May 8, KRG prime minister Nechirvan Barzani declared that, unlike in the rest of the country, women older than the age of 18 would be able to obtain passports without obtaining the approval of a close male relative in the KRG-administered areas. The constitution expressly prohibits forced exile of all native- born citizens. The injunction also applies to naturalized citizens, unless a judicial decision establishes that the naturalized citizen was granted citizenship on the basis of material falsifications. Forced exile did not occur. There were no known government restrictions on emigration. There were few reports of citizens having difficulty obtaining passports. Exit permits were required for citizens leaving the country, but the requirement was not enforced. There were allegations during the year that some of the 3,400 members of the MEK terrorist organization located at Ashraf were denied the right to leave under threat of reprisal from MEK leaders. These allegations were corroborated by several former Ashraf residents who had fled the camp. Individuals claimed to have been subjected to psychological and physical abuse, including threats of reprisal against family members and solitary confinement in Ashraf to discourage defections. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--In 2006 and 2007, sectarian militia and terrorist actions provoked fear and chaos leading to large- scale movements of Sunni and Shia populations from mixed Sunni/Shia areas toward areas of greater sectarian homogeneity and to displacement inside and outside the country of members of the Christian and other religious minorities. With increased homogeneity, as well as improvements in security and a lessening of sectarian tensions in many areas, the flow of displacement reversed, with some 400,000 IDPs and refugees returning to their homes since 2008. The total number of displaced remained high, however. The UNHCR estimated that there were approximately 2.76 million IDPs in the country, an estimated 1.5 million of whom were displaced by sectarian violence following the 2006 destruction of the dome of Al-Askariya Mosque and Shrine in Samarra, a Shia holy site. Approximately 200,000 were displaced between 2003 and 2005, and the remainder were displaced prior to 2003, according to the UNHCR. At year's end the KRG hosted approximately 134,000 post-February 2006 IDPs, according to the UNHCR. Another 635,000 in the north were Kurds displaced from southern and central regions during the previous regime but were largely considered to have established permanent settlements in the KRG. Hygiene and sanitation for IDPs were generally better in the KRG than in other areas, but shelter, food, and other concerns remained critical. There were fewer reports than in 2008 of threat letters delivered to Shia and Sunni residents warning them to leave their homes or face death, but Christian residents in the disputed areas in the north and in Baghdad received continued threats during the year. Of the 1.4 million Christians included in the 1987 census, only 500,000 to 800,000 remained, according to media reports. Most IDPs lived with families or rented houses in the host community. Other IDPs occupied abandoned buildings, public buildings, or homes other displaced families had abandoned. Some lived in ad hoc ``clusters'' or settlements located throughout the country. The UNHCR identified 75 settlements in Baghdad, some 175,000 residents. Other IDPs rented homes or lived with friends or family members. According to the UNHCR, Baghdad hosted 572,000 post-2006 IDPs. A significant number of IDPs and a small number of refugees have begun to move back into former residences, particularly in Baghdad. According to information UNHCR collected, on average 14,085 IDPs and 3,168 refugees returned to their homes each month during the year. There is a legal and administrative process for restitution of property and eviction of squatters, along with a system of grants and stipends for returnees and evictees. The government offered stipends of one million ID ($870) to returning families who de-registered as IDPs or refugees. As of mid-November, according to the MODM, 37,739 families had received the grant and another 16,130 more claims were being processed. There were two returns assistance centers in Baghdad and one in Diyala where prospective returnees could present documents verifying their IDP status and property ownership and ask the ISF to evict illegal occupants. In districts where returns occurred, the ISF reportedly evicted several thousand squatters with minimal violence. The Council of Ministers also authorized a rent subsidy totaling 900,000 ID (approximately $780), paid in installments over six months, to all registered IDPs who vacated the homes of other displaced persons. According to UN and NGO sources, few families actually received the stipends, although the MODM claims that 230,000 families, 87 percent of the post-February 2006 Samarra-bombing caseload, received them. NGOs and other returnee families complained that the bureaucratic process involved in obtaining the returnee grants and the stipends was overly burdensome, requiring documents that many returnees no longer possessed and letters from authorities in both their locations of displacement and return. The expense and time of the process effectively deprived many families of authorized assistance. The government has no comprehensive policy for undoing sectarian cleansing, but it did encourage returns to secure areas where violence had occurred previously. Council of Ministers Decree 262 of July 2008 provided stipends to IDPs who vacate the homes of the displaced. Prime Ministerial Order 101, issued in August 2008, provided displaced persons with government resources to access their homes in Baghdad. Prime Ministerial Order 54 of July extended Order 101 to Diyala Province, the second-largest locus of returns after Baghdad. The government appointed Ambassador Sadiq Rikabi, an advisor to the prime minister, as coordinator of IDPs and refugee issues. Despite these measures, many humanitarian organizations and Sunni leaders, including deputy prime minister Rafi al-Issawi, cited the lack of steps to reverse the worst of sectarian cleansing, declaring that the government wished to discourage Sunni Arab refugees and IDPs from returning. Government officials vigorously denied these charges. Practical obstacles often discouraged greater numbers of returns. The government's property restitution policy depended on individual requests for restitution from property owners, and these requests often became bogged down in an overburdened legal system. There was no wholesale eviction of squatters from neighborhoods. The government, through the MODM, allowed IDPs access to domestic and international humanitarian organizations, collected information about IDPs, and provided some protection and assistance in the form of humanitarian supplies. Nonregistration limited IDPs' access to basic services and legal documentation to receive food rations from the public distribution system. The government did not target IDPs or forcibly return them under dangerous conditions. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. Its laws do not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice, the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of persons to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations to provide protection and assistance to 12,000 Palestinian refugees. Generally, refugee groups of Turkish and Iranian Kurds in the KRG reached a high level of integration. For the majority of the 9,173 Iranian Kurds whom the UNHCR registered as refugees in the north, local integration remained the best and most likely option. For the 15,758 Turkish Kurds whom the UNHCR registered as refugees, the UNHCR's strategies included voluntary repatriation and local settlement, subject to negotiations with Turkey and the government on a Tripartite Voluntary Repatriation Agreement and a Local Settlement/ Resettlement Protocol for those willing to remain and integrate. Refugee groups in central and southern regions, particularly refugees who were perceived to have been privileged by the former regime such as Palestinians, Ahwazis in the South, and Syrian Arabs in Baghdad and Mosul, had a lesser chance of integration and continued to face discrimination and protection problems. Since the end of 2007 there have been fewer reports of attacks and arrests of refugees in central and southern Iraq. Refugees were targeted periodically in attacks carried out by insurgents, extremists, and criminals. According to the UNHCR, general violence in central Iraq and targeted attacks against Palestinians decreased. Since the beginning of the year, there has been a marked decrease in the number of mortar attacks and raids on Palestinian residential areas of Al Baladiyat as well as arbitrary arrests and targeted killings. Notwithstanding improvements in security, Palestinian refugees continued to experience a deep level of uncertainty with regard to their place within the fabric of society. Economic challenges placed Palestinian refugees in the lowest socioeconomic rankings; their declining economic situation was in part attributable to a loss of employment opportunities due to ethnic discrimination. According to the UNHCR, approximately 50 Palestinian refugee families left Baghdad to seek refuge in Syria and Turkey during the year, but there were few Palestinians who tried to leave Baghdad for Al Waleed or other refugee camps. The UNHCR reported that it worked with MODM to provide identification cards to the 12,000 Palestinians remaining in the country. The MOI, in coordination with UNHCR, has issued approximately 10,000 identification cards to Palestinians, and approximately 2,000 more were in process. Sudanese refugees were relocated to the UNHCR's newly established Emergency Transit Center (ETC) in Romania for third country resettlement by the UNHCR. The 138 Sudanese, who could not return to Sudan after 2003, were subjected to violence in Baghdad in 2004 and 2005 and fled the capital to a makeshift camp in the Anbar desert. The Sudanese were transferred to the ETC over a two-month period beginning in December 2008. Threats against most refugees who had received favorable treatment under the previous regime subsided throughout the year. Nevertheless, lack of proper identification documentation compromised freedom of movement and personal security for certain refugee groups, namely Palestinians and Syrians in Baghdad and Ahwazis in Basrah. Other parts of this report contain related information (see sections 1.a., 1.d., and 2.c.). Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government In 2005 citizens voted in a referendum to adopt a permanent constitution that included protections of human rights including the right of citizens to change their government peacefully through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Citizens exercised this right in 2005 when they elected the 275 members of the COR. The Independent Electoral Commission of Iraq had sole responsibility for administering the 2005 referendum and elections. The Independent High Electoral Commission (IHEC) was established in 2007, with nine COR-appointed IHEC Commissioners. Elections and Political Participation.--The 2006 final report of the International Mission for Iraqi Elections stated that the 2005 national elections met internationally recognized electoral standards for free and fair elections and that the election results reflected the will of the voters. Political parties and candidates had the right to propose themselves or be nominated by other groups. The government did not restrict political opponents, nor did it interfere with their right to organize, seek votes, or publicize their views, apart from the legal prohibition on supporting the Ba'ath Party. The country's political parties tended to be organized along either religious or ethnic lines. Shia Islamist parties, such as the ISCI, al- Dawa al-Islamiyya Party, and Sadrist Trend, as well as Kurdish nationalist parties such as the KDP and PUK, were the predominant political forces. Other political players included the Sunni Iraqi Islamic Party and ethnic minority parties, such as the Assyrian Democratic Movement. Membership in some political parties conferred special privileges and advantages in employment and education. The KDP and PUK reportedly give preference in government employment to their respective members. A 2008 law on provincial, district, and sub-district elections provided for provincial council elections in the 14 provinces other than Tameem (Kirkuk) and the provinces of the KRG by January 31, and district and sub-district elections within six months of provincial elections. There was no specific quota for women, but entities were required to have 25 percent representation of women on their list of candidates, as the constitution required. In November 2008 the COR amended the law to grant six seats to minorities. Christians received three seats, one each in Baghdad, Ninewa, and Basrah; Yazidis and Shabaks received one seat each in Ninewa; and Sabean-Mandaeans received one seat in Baghdad. Some minorities, including Christians, expressed concern about the number of seats reserved for them at the provincial level in Baghdad and Ninewa. They claimed the number was far less than demographic weight would indicate. Minorities were also eligible to compete for general seats. Provincial elections took place on January 31. Approximately 14,600 candidates competed for 440 seats on 14 provincial councils. Candidates were elected through a hybrid open-list system under which voters could choose to vote for only a party or a candidate and his or her party. Approximately 7.5 million voters (51 percent of eligible voters) turned out at 39,000 polling stations in 14 provinces. Approximately 100,000 domestic observers, 400 international observers, 400 international media, and 1,200 domestic media members visited polling sites during the day. Election day was largely peaceful. The IHEC announced preliminary results on February 5. The IHEC reviewed approximately 2,000 electoral complaints. On March 26, the Electoral Judicial Panel ruled on 593 appeals, and the IHEC Board of Commissioners certified the final election results. Nationwide, Prime Minister Maliki's State of Law Coalition won 123 seats, the Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council loyalists (Shia) won 53 seats, followers of Muqtada al-Sadr (Shia) won 41 seats, former prime minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari's National Reform Trend (Shia) won 23 seats, former prime minister Ayad Allawi's National Iraqi List (secular) won 21 seats, the National Accordance Front (Sunni) won 21 seats, the National Hadba Gathering (Sunni Nationalist) won 19 seats, and Saleh al-Mutlaq's Iraqi National Project (Sunni) won 19 seats. The most common problems reported during the provincial elections related to voters who were unable to locate their names on the voter lists at the polling stations. Although some small parties and some minorities complained about the IHEC and the voter lists, and journalists reported mixed assessments of media freedom, the population broadly accepted the results of the January 31 provincial elections. The 2008 Law of Governorates Not Incorporated into a Region (Provincial Powers Law) went into effect when the new provincial councils were seated, granting them more discretion in coordinating with the national government to provide resources and services such as gasoline, security, health care, and education to the local population. On July 25, the Kurdistan region held closed-list parliamentary elections as well as a popular vote for the KRG presidency. The IHEC, working through the Kurdistan Regional Electoral Office in Erbil, administered the elections, which citizens and international observers alike viewed as successful and leading to a peaceful transition of power in the KRG. Incumbent KRG President Masoud Barzani won the Kurdistan region's first popular vote for the presidency with 69.6 percent of the vote. In the race for the 111-seat parliament, the KDP- PUK retained its majority of seats, but dropped from 104 to 59 seats. The Change List (Goran) political movement, headed by former PUK deputy secretary general Nawshirwan Mustafa, won 25 seats, and the four-party Service and Reform List won 13 seats. The Islamic Movement in Kurdistan won two seats. Eleven seats were allocated to minorities under a quota system: five seats for Christians, five seats for Turkmen, and one seat for Armenians. One Yazidi candidate was also elected. In the months following the July 25 elections, the Change movement documented hundreds of names of government employees, especially members of the security services (police, Asayish, and Peshmerga) whose employment was terminated, allegedly for supporting the Change List. President Barzani formed a committee authorized to investigate the allegations, but there were no tangible results by year's end. On December 4, an unknown gunman shot Sardar Qadir, a well known Change movement supporter and likely candidate in the national parliamentary elections, twice in the thigh while sitting inside the home of a close friend. The incident and ensuing recovery caused Qadir to withdraw his name as a Change candidate for national office. On December 6, the COR agreed to an amended national elections law to govern parliamentary elections in 2010. The law established a multidistrict, open-list election and expanded the number of seats in the parliament from 275 to 325. Of those seats, the law reserves five for Christians as well as one each for Yazidis, Shabaks, and Sabean- Mandaeans. In the 2005 election, female voter turnout was reportedly as high if not higher than male turnout. The 2005 national elections law provides for the election of women to the COR, aiming to achieve a minimum of one-quarter female representation. There were 75 women elected to the COR, which was more than 25 percent of the membership. Women chaired two of the 24 standing committees. There were five female ministers of 37 in the cabinet: the ministers of state for women's affairs and provincial affairs; and the ministers of human rights, environment, and housing and construction. Three cabinet members were from religious and ethnic minority groups: the minister of human rights, the minister of industry and minerals, and the minister of youth and sports. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency Although the law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, large-scale corruption pervaded the government, and public perception of government corruption and impunity continued to be strong. Intimidation and political influence were factors in some allegations of corruption, and officials sometimes used the ``de- Ba'athification'' process to pursue political and personal agendas. During the year prosecution of corruption cases increased, but officials combating corruption faced persistent political, social, and capacity restraints. Credible information on the nature and extent of corruption in the judiciary was lacking, but such corruption was widely believed to exist. Anti-corruption institutions were fragmented, and their interaction was hampered by a lack of consensus about their role, partly due to a lack of effective legislation as well as to insufficient political will to eliminate widespread corruption. Lack of accountability continued to be widespread, reinforced by several statutory provisions, unclear regulatory processes, and limited transparency. The law does not provide public access to government information for citizens or noncitizens, including foreign media. Government officials who were required by law to file financial disclosure reports, such as ministers, governors, and parliamentarians, increased their compliance from the previous year. By year's end 100 percent of the Council of Ministers and the Presidency Council had submitted their reports, and 35 percent of members of parliament had complied with the regulation. The government was not powerful enough to enforce required financial disclosure reports in all cases. The Commission of Integrity (COI), established in 2004 as the Commission on Public Integrity, is the government body charged with preventing and investigating cases of corruption in all ministries and other components of the government nationwide (except for the KRG). The COI, with a staff of approximately 1,300, reports to the commissioner of integrity, and the COR and has the authority to refer cases for criminal prosecution. According to a prime ministerial order, the COI may not initiate cases and has instructed the ministerial inspectors general (IGs) to perform all initial investigations. In practice this order has placed the ministers in control of any investigation of corruption within their own ministry. There are documented instances where the ministers have ordered major corruptions investigations to be dropped. The government also has a system of 36 IGs. There is an IG assigned to each ministry, as well as an IG for the municipality of Baghdad, the Property Resolution Commission, the Hajj and Omrah Commission, the Commission of Political Prisoners, and the country's multiple religious endowments. The mandate of the IGs, with approximately 1,800 total staff, is to audit, inspect, and investigate to reduce fraud, waste, and abuse. The country's oldest anticorruption agency, the Board of Supreme Audits (BSA), performs external audits of government ministries and agencies. The BSA also audits the offices of the prime minister, Presidency Council, and presidency of the COR, as well as expenses claimed by members of the COR. Aside from the three core institutions of the COI, the IGs, and the BSA, the COR maintains an Integrity Committee charged with oversight of executive branch and anticorruption agencies. By executive order, the prime minister created the Joint Anticorruption Council in 2007 to integrate anticorruption initiatives; it includes representatives of the COI, IGs, BSA, COR's Integrity Committee, and HJC, and is chaired by the Council of Ministers secretary general. The media also continued to cover corruption issues, exposing wrongdoing and promoting public awareness of anti-corruption institutions. NGOs worked to expose corruption, although their physical capacity to do so was limited. In June the COI launched a new antibribery campaign at the behest of the prime minister, consisting of public awareness efforts and administrative steps across ministries to reduce opportunities for low- level bribery. In August 2008 the KRG established a corruption committee, composed of government officials, to review levels of corruption and make recommendations on how to prevent corruption. The KRG contracted an international accounting firm to study KRG institutions and make recommendations on anticorruption measures. In July KRG prime minister Nechirvan Barzani announced the summary results of the accounting firm's report, including a recommended anticorruption strategy. Although the new cabinet, led by KRG prime minister Barham Salih, reaffirmed its intent to implement the anticorruption strategy, it had yet to do so by year's end. During the year 972 anticorruption cases were sent for prosecution as a result of COI investigations compared to 398 in 2008, and 150 in 2007. The number of convictions was approximately 285, compared to 98 for the previous year. At year's end the COI had issued 133 warrants against senior government officials of director general rank or higher. In May the COR questioned minister of trade Abd Falah al-Sudani regarding allegations of corruption and mismanagement within his ministry. Al-Sudani resigned from his post on May 14. He was then charged with corruption and arrested on May 30 while fleeing the country for Dubai. Al-Sudani's brother, Sabah al-Sudani, was also arrested after he was stopped with 170 million ID ($150,000) and attempted to bribe a police officer. Three ministry of trade officials involved in the case, including the director general of the Grain Importation Board, were convicted of negligence in their duties; one received a two-year prison sentence and the other two received a one- year sentence. Al-Sudani was awaiting trial at year's end. On September 6, the deputy minister of transportation, Adnan al- Obaidi, was arrested after investigators recorded him taking a 115 million ID ($100,000) bribe. According to reports, a foreign security firm had approached the COI alleging that al-Obaidi had asked for a bribe of 575 million ID ($500,000) to renew the firm's contract. Al- Obaidi's trial was held in December and he was sentenced to eight years on charges of soliciting a bribe. In November the head of the Baghdad Provincial Finance Office and several of her relatives were arrested for the theft of more than 23 billion ID ($20 million). Government authorities worked in coordination with neighboring countries to arrest the individuals involved in the theft, as well as recover a substantial portion of the stolen funds. The suspects remained in custody at year's end. The COI became increasingly active in vetting civil servants and candidates for public office. In September the COI began publishing names of public officials who relied on falsified educational credentials to gain government jobs. The commissioner of integrity and several IGs lacked full authority due to the fact that their names had not been submitted for parliamentary confirmation, as required by law. The constitution provides immunity from arrest to COR members unless the member is caught in a criminal act or charged with a felony and the COR overturns immunity by a majority vote. The law in practice permits ministers to halt corruption proceedings against their employees. As in previous years, ministries effectively stalled investigations by failing to provide information or not complying with requests for officials to appear in court. The prime minister's approval is required before corruption cases proceed against members of the Presidency or the Council of Ministers. Information on specific instances of the prime minister and ministers using these tactics during the year was not available. Judicial authorities reported that the practice constituted a significant obstacle to the prosecution of corruption cases. The central government and the KRG maintained inflated public payrolls. Ministries and public sector institutions employed nonexistent ``ghost'' employees, and political patronage was common at all levels of government. Ministries were beginning to establish automated payroll deposits and conduct workplace audits with the BSA to cut back on ``ghost'' employees. Rates of absenteeism and desertion among the ISF continued to decrease. During the year in the KRG there were roughly one million employees on the government payroll out of a total population of approximately 3.9 million. There were allegations in numerous provinces of politicization of personnel matters, including reports from Anbar, Babil, and Baghdad. In June the governor of Babil Province ordered the removal of 15 provincial employees from the government payroll, as they had been hired illegally. Allegations that he acted out of political motivations followed this action. There were also reports of dismissals in the KRG as reprisals for civil servants who were supporting opposition party Goran. These personnel cases had not been adjudicated at year's end. According to an external assessment, the MOI fired an estimated 3,000 employees on administrative corruption charges between 2006 and June 2009, although no information was available on how many had been prosecuted. Political parties subjected the COI to a number of high-level attempts to influence prosecutions. Members of the legislature also reportedly attempted to pressure the court on numerous occasions. There were reports in all 18 provinces, at the national and regional levels, of opaque public tender processes, favoritism in contracting, and excessive discretion of public officials in procurement decisions. Corruption along the country's borders existed as well; the GOI worked independently and with the international community to address structural and capacity issues. Local and foreign business organizations in the KRG complained that the KRG did not publicly tender contracts in sufficient time to allow local business owners to compete, and that political and personal favoritism determined the results. Anti-corruption, law enforcement, and judicial officials, along with members of civil society and the media, continued to face threats for vigorous pursuit of corrupt practices. There was widespread intimidation, but there were fewer killings and attacks than the previous year against COI employees, inspection personnel, witnesses, and family members involved with COI cases. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government extended minimal cooperation with NGOs and with the UN and its agencies on human rights issues, generally citing security restrictions. In May 2008 the government signed a headquarters agreement with the ICRC, granting it legal status and permanent representation in the country. The COR had not ratified the agreement by year's end, but the ICRC benefited nonetheless from all of its provisions. In comparison to previous years, the ICRC had greater access to visit detainees at central government detention facilities due to verbal agreements with the MOI, MOJ, and MOLSA that grant unrestricted ICRC access to all detention facilities except the Counter Terrorism Center (CTC) detention facility. The ICRC and central government did not formalize an agreement granting the ICRC unrestricted access to all sites during the year, but the ICRC was able to conduct inspections and the prime minister publicly declared that only the ICRC and the MOHR had unrestricted access to all detention facilities in the country except those of the KRG. The ICRC had a separate agreement with the KRG for unrestricted access to KRG detention facilities. They formally renewed the agreement on December 20. The previous authorization dated from 1992. All nongovernmental investigations of alleged human rights violations continued to be restricted. The government attributed restrictions to the security situation and its policy of allowing only the MOHR and the ICRC unrestricted access to detention facilities. The government generally did not permit detention center or prison visits by NGOs. The MOHR did meet with domestic NGO monitors and responded to their inquiries by opening MOHR investigations into alleged violations. The MOHR also initiated a program to train representatives of 32 domestic NGOs to visit and monitor prison conditions. During the year activity and advocacy by the country's relatively new NGOs remained weak overall. At the end of the year more than 6,000 NGOs were registered, although according to the director of the NGO Office, only approximately 1,800 were operational, including 235 human rights NGOs and 181 women's rights NGOs. The majority of domestic human rights NGOs were affiliated with a political party or with a particular sect and frequently focused human rights efforts along sectarian lines. Branches of international NGOs and NGOs serving women did not generally subscribe to this pattern. The Council of Ministers Secretariat (COMSEC) NGO Assistance Office continued to impede the activities of NGOs through onerous registration processes and excessive documentary requirements. Only one office in the country, located in Baghdad, accepted registrations for NGOs. During the year COMSEC NGO Assistance Office representatives continued unannounced and intimidating visits to some NGOs , demanding photographs, passport details, names, and addresses of all staff and their family members. The poor security situation continued to severely limit the work of NGOs. The Kurdish areas had a stronger NGO community, although many Kurdish NGOs were closely linked to the PUK and KDP political parties. The KRG and Kurdish political parties generally supported humanitarian NGO activities and programs. The KRG strongly criticized a report AI released in May assessing the human rights situation within the Kurdish areas. KRG officials denied that Kurdish internal security forces continued to hold detainees without trial and denied AI's reports of abuse within detention facilities. The KRG also criticized a November HRW report detailing its treatment of minority communities in disputed territories between the central government and KRG. Although no ombudsman existed, for the first half of the year the national MOHR and the KRG human rights authorities focused on raising awareness and knowledge of human rights and conducting prison visits. Each ministry reported to its respective prime minister. Following parliamentary elections in the Kurdistan region, the KRG MOHR was eliminated when the KRG reduced the number of ministries from 40 to 19, and the director general began to report to KRG judicial authorities. By year's end the KRG had introduced draft legislation to the Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament to create a separate department attached to the KRG Council of Ministers to assume the role of the former ministry. The MOHR published a report on prison conditions during the year. The KRG published no similar report. The national MOHR attempted to monitor human rights abuses and advocate for and assist victims, and it issued public reports on prisons and detention centers, minorities, and victims of terrorism. Limited resources and poor cooperation from other ministries limited the ministry's effectiveness. The effectiveness of KRG human rights authorities was limited by a lack of trained personnel and effective follow-up throughout the government on human rights issues. KRG human rights authorities and the KRG's Honor Killing Monitoring Commission, established in 2007, were active on women's issues, particularly on steps to end honor killings. KRG human rights authorities collated and published monthly data on honor killings. In November 2008 the COR's Committee on Human Rights passed legislation establishing an Independent High Commission on Human Rights. In December 2008 the legislation was ratified. As of December 31, a Committee of Experts to select the Commission's directors had been formed, but the COR had not ratified its membership. The government had not contributed any funds, and support from the international donor community was limited. The COR committee also advocated publicly for raising standards in government detention facilities and prisons. In 2007 the KRG's legislative body, the IKP, formed a special committee to deal with human rights and detainee issues, but did not issue any public reports. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides that all citizens are equal before the law without regard to gender, sect, opinion, belief, nationality, religion, or origin. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, disability, or social status. The government did not effectively enforce these provisions. Women.--The constitution provides for equal treatment before the law without discrimination based on gender; in practice, discrimination existed, and enforcement of equal treatment was uneven. The general lack of security in the country and increasingly conservative societal tendencies had a serious negative impact on women. The penal code prohibits rape, does not address spousal rape, and imposes a maximum sentence of seven years' imprisonment for rapists. It was difficult to estimate the incidence of rape or the effectiveness of government enforcement of the law. The constitution prohibits all forms of violence and abuse in the family, school, and society. Anecdotal evidence from local NGOs and media reporting indicated that domestic violence often went unreported and unpunished with abuses customarily addressed within the family and tribal structure. Harassment of legal personnel working on domestic violence cases, as well as a lack of police and judicial personnel, further hampered efforts to bring perpetrators to justice. There are no specific laws that concern domestic violence. Under the penal code, a husband is legally entitled to punish his wife ``within certain limits prescribed by law or custom.'' Existing laws were widely unenforced, including those on domestic violence. During the year NGOs reported that domestic violence against women remained a serious problem, although no reliable statistics existed. Domestic violence was also widespread in the Kurdistan region, including beatings, shootings, and burnings. Women have an unequal role in the family and in the social structure of the region. Although technology has made it easier for women to contact others outside their immediate family, this has led to sometimes violent disputes over whom a woman can talk to or what she can do outside the home. For the first eight months of the year, the domestic NGO Human Rights Data Bank recorded 363 incidents of battery against women, 295 reported threats, 40 murders, and 32 sexual assaults. Honor killings remained a serious problem. Legislation in force permits honor considerations to mitigate sentences. According to the UNHCR in April, honor killings were prevalent in all parts of the country. For the first nine months of the year, the domestic NGO Human Rights Data Bank recorded 314 burn victims (125 instances of self-immolation and 189 cases of burning), compared with 234 burn victim during the same period in 2008. A KRG human rights official reported in December 2008 that the KRG does not consider an honor killing legally different from murder, thus making punishment for an honor killing equal to punishment for murder. The nature of the crime makes it difficult for authorities to find sufficient evidence to prosecute cases. KRG human rights authorities reported that for the year 2008, 117 women died in honor killings, but for 200, the KRG reported a total of 528 honor killings. The UN Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) and civil society observers considered both figures to be low. In April 2008 KRG internal security forces arrested three persons accused of an honor killing in Sulaymaniyah but later released them, according to press reports. The suspects reportedly fled the country. In May 2008 the KRG Violence Against Women Commission, under the direct supervision of the prime minister and deputy prime minister, created monitoring boards to ensure that the courts uphold and enforce the region's existing laws to protect women. The commission also recommended that ``komalayati'' bodies, or traditional panels led by village elders to reconcile disputes, no longer play a role in deciding legal cases. Nonetheless, komalayati boards continued to play a role at year's end. Private shelters for women existed, but space was limited. Shelters closely protected information regarding their locations. Some NGOs worked with local community mental health workers, employed by the MOH, who provided assistance to victims of gender-based violence. Other NGOs worked to provide legal assistance to these victims. Victims of domestic violence received no substantive assistance from the government. Authorities frequently attempted to mediate between women and their families to try to work out a peaceful solution for the women to return home. Other than returning to their families, there were few options for women who were housed at shelters. Prostitution is illegal. During the year reports of prostitution increased. According to the NGO Organization for Women's Freedom in Iraq, some women resorted to prostitution to provide for their children. There was no evidence that ISF specifically targeted prostitutes for harassment. Since the fall of the Saddam regime in 2003, there have been no restrictions on reproductive rights, including number and spacing of children and access to both contraceptives and information on family planning. However, according to an August 2008 UNAMI report, a total of 10.8 percent of married women throughout the country had an unmet need for contraception. Many women who gave birth in public or private health institutions received inadequate medical care due to a lack of essential drugs, transport to referral institutions, and medical personnel lacking training in emergency obstetric care. Women were at increased risk of poor birth outcomes with high rates of anemia, short birth intervals, early marriage, and early pregnancy. There were no reliable statistics for on access to diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, due to cultural sensitivities. Although the constitution forbids discrimination on the basis of gender, in practice conservative societal standards impeded women's abilities to exercise their rights. Throughout the country women reported pressure to wear veils. Islamic extremists targeted women for undertaking normal activities, such as driving a car and wearing trousers, in an effort to force them to remain at home, wear veils, and adhere to a conservative interpretation of Islam. Islamic extremists also reportedly continued to target women in a number of cities, demanding they stop wearing Western-style clothing and cover their heads while in public. The Ministry of State for Women's Affairs, with an approximately 18-person professional staff, functioned primarily as a policy office without an independent budget or the ability to hire more employees. On February 3, the minister of state for women's affairs, Dr. Nawal Al'Samara'e, resigned, citing insufficient resources and limited authority to implement programs and policies to improve conditions for women. Weak labor laws and the lack of an equal opportunity employment law left women vulnerable to arbitrary dismissal. The security situation disproportionately affected women's ability to work outside the home. The MOLSA Social Care Directorate administered social care institutions, among them institutions for orphans and the elderly. Women who were heads of single-parent households received a moderate cash stipend from the ministry if they could prove they were widows. Bureaucratic challenges, including lack of a spouse's death certificate and confusion about how to obtain the stipend posed serious challenges for the women. In addition, the budget for this assistance did not meet the need. Children.--Article 18 of the constitution states that anyone who is born with at least one Iraqi parent shall be considered a citizen. The government in general was committed to children's rights and welfare, although it denied benefits to noncitizen children. Their families had to pay for services that were otherwise free, such as public schools and health services. Except for several hundred Palestinian families, they were not eligible for the national food rationing program. Primary education is compulsory for citizen children for six years, and 89 percent of students reached the fifth grade. Education is free for children at all levels. NGOs and international organizations noted increasing numbers of street children since mid-2007. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is not illegal and is a common practice, especially in the rural areas of the Kurdistan region. Several NGOs that work to halt FGM had anecdotal evidence that in rural villages as many as 90 percent of women have undergone the procedure, and in urban areas as many as 30 percent. The government offered no substantive assistance for victims of FGM. Although there were no statistics, a tradition of marrying young girls (14 or older) continued, particularly in rural areas. MOLSA operated 21 orphanages for older children in Baghdad and the provinces, housing a total of 376 children, as well as and 36 nurseries for young children. In 2007 a center in Baghdad for children with disabilities was discovered to be housing 24 severely malnourished boys from three to 15 years old. Arrest warrants were issued for three employees of the orphanage; two were arrested and one remained at large at year's end. Following the incident, the Office of the Inspector General at MOLSA conducted an investigation, which was referred afterward to the COI. Despite laws against child labor, children often worked illegally on farms or in street commerce. In accordance with the country's labor law, MOLSA established an inspection service to ensure compliance with the law as it relates to prohibitions on child labor in the private and public sector. In April 2008 the UN special representative for children in armed conflict issued a report that highlighted widespread child recruitment into armed insurgent groups throughout the country. During the year child recruitment into insurgent groups remained a problem, and insurgent groups increasingly recruited children through financial incentives to carry out attacks. There were no reports of the government engaging in this practice. The KRG runs children's homes that house approximately 300 orphans, most of whom are from rural areas. Trafficking in Persons.--The constitution prohibits forced labor, slavery, slave trade, trafficking in women or children, and the sex trade. There were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, and within the country. The government maintains a committee chaired by the MOHR with representatives from the MFA, MOI, and MOLSA to examine trafficking problems; this committee has no authority to implement its recommendations. Although reliable statistics did not exist, some government officials believed the country was a source and destination country for hundreds of men and women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary servitude. Children were trafficked within the country and abroad for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women were trafficked within the country, as well as to Syria, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and Iran, for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. The country is also a destination for men and women trafficked from Georgia, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Uganda, and Sri Lanka for involuntary servitude as construction workers, cleaners, and handymen. Women from the Philippines and Indonesia were trafficked into the Kurdish territory for involuntary servitude as domestic servants or were coerced into prostitution. Some of these foreign workers were offered fraudulent jobs in Kuwait or Jordan but were then tricked or forced into involuntary servitude in Iraq instead; others went to the country voluntarily but were subjected to conditions of involuntary servitude after arrival. There were also reports of trafficking in human organs to other countries. On August 18 and 30, 14 Ugandan women who had been trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation were repatriated with the assistance of the government. Criminal charges were brought against two individuals believed to be responsible. The case remained pending at year's end. Anecdotal evidence and media reports suggested that employees of orphanages and charitable institutions trafficked individuals from these institutions. MOLSA and the Ministry of State for Women's Affairs continued to accuse private orphanages of involvement in these activities and stated that a private orphanage in Sadr City trafficked young girls for forced prostitution. There were also reports that criminal gangs used threats and blackmail to exploit teenage boys sexually for commercial and other motives. Both the MOI and KRG security authorities have responsibility for trafficking-related issues. The demands of the security situation relegated trafficking to a lower priority. Trafficking crimes were not specifically enumerated in MOI statistics on criminal activity. International NGOs worked with the central government to develop antitrafficking legislation and to provide assistance to trafficking victims, particularly in the KRG. There is little information about trafficking in persons in the Kurdistan region. Third country nationals reportedly have been trafficked into the region to work as manual laborers, including garbage collectors, and women have been reportedly trafficked to work as prostitutes. According to the government, the MOHR presented a number of educational workshops on trafficking through the National Institute for Human Rights. Three workshops were held in Baghdad in cooperation and coordination with the Ministry of Youth and Sports. At the start of the 2009-10 school year, several instructional workshops were conducted for students in schools and colleges. These workshops focused on the effects of trafficking in persons, the processes the perpetrators use, and methods of prevention. Victims of trafficking reportedly were prosecuted for a number of crimes, including prostitution and document and passport fraud. There were also documented cases of female victims kept in ``protective custody'' in detention centers to deter violence against them by their families and traffickers. Few shelters existed in the country; most were run by NGOs. There were no reports of government officials participating in or condoning trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination in employment, education, access to health care, and other state services against persons with physical disabilities. The government enforced the law in the government sector, but not in the private sector. MOLSA operated several institutions for the education of children and young adults with disabilities. It also operated workshops and associations to provide employment opportunities to persons with mental disabilities. Eighteen institutes operated in Baghdad and the provinces outside the KRG for persons with mental and psychological disabilities and housed approximately 800 persons. There were 34 institutes assisting approximately 1,870 persons throughout the country for persons with physical disabilities, including homes for visually impaired and hearing impaired persons, vocational/rehabilitation homes, and homes for elderly persons. The government, through the prime minister's office and MOH, provided benefits for thousands of veterans with disabilities, many of whom supplemented their benefits with some employment. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Ethnically, the country's population includes Arabs, Kurds, Turkmen, Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Armenians. The religious mix is likewise varied. Many consider the Assyrians and Chaldeans to be a distinct ethnic group. These communities speak a different language, preserve Christian traditions, and do not define themselves as Arabs. The constitution identifies Arabic and Kurdish as the two official languages of the state. It also provides the right of citizens to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, or Armenian, in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines or in any other language in private educational institutions. During the year discrimination against ethnic minorities was a problem. There were numerous reports of Kurdish authorities discriminating against minorities in the disputed territories under the de facto control of the KRG, including Turkmen, Arabs, Yazidis, and Assyrians. According to these reports, authorities denied services to some villages, arrested minorities without due process, took them to undisclosed locations for detention, and pressured minority schools to teach in the Kurdish language. Ethnic and religious minorities in Tameem (Kirkuk) frequently charged that Kurdish security forces targeted Arabs and Turkmen. Within the three provinces of the KRG there was little evidence of KRG discrimination against religious and ethnic minorities. Minority communities operate their own schools and are represented both in the parliament and executive branch of the KRG. Palestinians reportedly experienced arrest, detention, harassment, and abuse by police, by individuals pretending to be police, and by the general public. A 2006 citizenship law prevents Palestinians from obtaining citizenship or Jews who emigrated to other countries from reclaiming citizenship. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--There was no law specifically prohibiting the practice of homosexuality, although paragraph 394 of the penal code prohibits the act of ``buggery.'' The law calls for imprisonment only if the ``victim'' is under the age of 18. There was no data on how often, if ever, persons were prosecuted for buggery. During the year there were reports of discrimination and violence against gay men and lesbians, mostly by nongovernmental actors. Press reports in April indicated that approximately 60 gay men had been murdered during the first four months of the year, most of them in Baghdad. According to UNHCR, during the year approximately 30 boys and men from Baghdad were murdered because they were gay or perceived to be gay. On April 4, local and international media reported the discovery of the bodies of nine gay men in Sadr City. Three other men were found tortured but alive. Numerous press reports indicate that some victims were assaulted and murdered by having their anuses glued shut or their genitals cut off and stuffed down their throats until they suffocated. The government did not endorse or condone these extra-judicial killings, and the MOI publicly stated that killing men or lesbians was murder. On May 29, Muqtader al-Sadr, leader of the JAM militia, ordered that the ``depravity'' of homosexuality be eradicated. Although he publicly rejected outright violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) individuals, reports attributed the killings of gay men to radical Shia militias, as well as to tribal and family members shamed by the actions of their LGBT relatives. Authorities had not announced any arrests or prosecutions of any persons for killing, torturing, or detaining any LGBT individuals by year's end. Other parts of this report contain related information; see sections 1.c, 2.c., and 6.d. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution provides the right to form and join unions and professional associations, subject to regulating law. Labor Law 150 of 1987, enacted by the Saddam regime and still in force, designated trade union organizations as ``playing an effective role in the organization of labor relations, in the protection of workers' rights, and in the development of their personalities.'' However, it declared virtually all public sector workers to be government ``executives,'' legally ineligible to form or to join unions. The provision in effect eliminated unions and the right of association from the large public sector. Although the number of formal unions and associations remains undefined, workers have generally been organized along sectoral lines stemming largely from state employment. The largest sectors with the most active unions or associations are oil/petrochemical, industrial and defense manufacturing, and education. In the private sector, the 1987 Trade Union Organization Law allows employees to form workers' committees, with limited rights of association, in private sector work sites employing more than 50 workers. Originally, this was also intended to remove the right of association from a majority of private sector workers because most private sector businesses employ fewer than 50 workers. Decree 8750 of 2005, which cancelled unions' leadership boards, froze their assets, and formed an inter-ministerial committee to administer unions' assets and assess their capacity to resume activity, also inhibited union activity. The legal and regulatory framework, combined with violence, insecurity, high unemployment, and maladapted labor organizational structures inhibited the exercise of labor rights. Nevertheless, labor organizations in the country's state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were active during the year, and there were no reports that the government attempted to stifle protests. There were reports of worker dissatisfaction during the year. In February and March, employees of a Kirkuk-based state-owned cement company refused the changes a foreign investor made in the plant operations. As a result of the protests, the investor walked away from the project. In July employees of a state- owned oil company in Basrah expressed dissatisfaction with a proposed oilfield service agreement with a foreign oil company. Despite remaining legal restrictions, MOLSA continued to work with the International Labor Organization (ILO) during the year to finalize a draft labor code to supersede the 1987 laws and the 2005 decree and conform to international statutes, as well as to retrain ministry staff in applying its provisions. The draft labor code--which is tied closely to proposed changes to the social safety net--remained under review in committee in the Shura Council at year's end. The MOLSA Labor Directorate has jurisdiction over the labor code, child labor, wages, occupational safety and health issues, and labor relations. Although the private sector only expanded modestly during the year, workers in the private sector continued to enjoy the right to form workers' committees at work sites employing fewer than 50 persons. In the public sector, workers in SOEs continued to enjoy the benefits of 2008 reforms and exercised their right to expression by speaking out publicly against perceived government or foreign investor threats to their livelihoods. Employees at moribund SOEs continued to draw state salaries, although they were in many cases underemployed or not engaging in work at all. While private sector unions have the right to seek government arbitration for labor disputes, but not the right to strike. There were no instances of private sector workers organizing or giving voice to concerns regarding labor practices during the year. MOLSA recognized private sector unions belonging to the General Federation of Iraqi Workers (GFIW). The GFIW formed in 2005 when the Iraqi Federation of Workers' Trade Unions, the General Federation of Trade Unions, and the General Federation of Iraqi Trade Unions merged. MOLSA continued to monitor workplace safety and workers' rights in coordination with these unions but could not register 11 new independent unions until the new ILO-compatible legislation is enacted. The constitution states that every citizen has the right to demonstrate and strike peacefully in accordance with the law; however the extant 1987 labor code rules out the existence of public sector labor unions capable of carrying out industrial action and prohibits striking in the public and private sectors. During the year workers at a government-owned oil company in Basrah continued to openly oppose the Ministry of Oil's plans to bring in private sector technical advisors to assist the government with more efficient extraction techniques. The same workers protested and publicly opposed the Technical Service Agreement between the government and a foreign oil consortium regarding the Rumaila oilfield outside Basrah. The workers' concerns were mollified when they learned that the terms of the proposed contract stipulated no change to employment numbers and mandated the percentage of citizens to be hired. There were no reported reprisals by the government against the labor leaders at the oil company. The government was the largest employer in the country; reliable estimates indicate the public sector accounted for approximately 30 to 35 percent of the total workforce. There were no government-sponsored prosecutions or attacks on trade union activists during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The extant 1987 labor code in practice ruled out the existence of labor unions able to carry out free and independent union activity and therefore effectively prohibited independent organizing and collective bargaining in the public and private sectors. Because unions have no legal power to negotiate with employers, proactive protection of workers' rights through collective bargaining and written collective contracts is not possible. Unions were able to play a supportive role in labor disputes, and they had the right to demand government arbitration, a process the government has only recently begun to address in its commercial courts and judicial training. The 1987 Trade Union Organization Law defined ``labor disputes'' as collective conflicts arising between workers and employers over the provisions of the labor code and/or individual employment contracts. Government labor courts were empowered to rule on labor code violations and disagreements. MOLSA officials, who were also charged with ensuring that public and private sector employers provided workers government-mandated social security, pension, health care, and other benefits regardless of company size, readily acknowledged that enforcing these social safety net laws was more difficult without the partnership and cooperation of strong unions. Foreign workers continued to experience resistance from municipal, provincial, and some national government elements. At the small Ahdab oilfield south of Baghdad, local officials and residents voiced opposition to the presence of legal Chinese guest workers conducting service work at the field. The absence of collective bargaining and collective contracts at national and local levels significantly diminished unions' power to defend workers' rights pertaining to their access to social protection. The laws and decree did not prohibit antiunion discrimination by employers or others. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor. According to press reports, foreign workers were sometimes subjected to abusive forced labor. Foreign workers were also reportedly induced, tricked, or forced to enter the country for work via nearby countries in the construction and household labor sectors. In some cases, they were the victims of involuntary servitude involving high indebtedness, passport confiscation, and virtual imprisonment, or fraud amounting to involuntary servitude and trafficking. The MOI, in coordination with MOLSA, reviews applications for special worker status. According to MOLSA, most applications are denied to protect domestic workers and industry. When the government uncovered cases of exploitation of foreign workers, it worked in conjunction with international organizations to repatriate the victims. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The constitution and law prohibited the worst forms of child labor. The government was not able to enforce these laws effectively. The law limits working hours for workers younger than 18 and prohibits their employment in dangerous occupations. The minimum age for employment was 15 years. Employment of anyone younger than 16 in work detrimental to health, safety, or morals is prohibited. The MOLSA Child Labor Unit continued to enforce child labor standards, but its work suffered from insufficient personnel and budget resources. The ISF continued to make slow but steady progress in its ability to pursue and interdict nonviolent crimes such as child labor violations. Poor families routinely used children to augment their income- earning potential. This work often took the form of seasonal labor in rural areas or begging or peddling in urban settings. There were anecdotal reports of children working in hazardous family-owned automobile shops or on construction sites. Recent unconfirmed reports alleged the sale of children for indentured servitude. The government introduced a targeted, means-tested social safety network program in 2005 to reduce poverty and to protect children against deteriorating living conditions in their households. By year's end one million families had received benefits and services administered by MOLSA. The package included a child allowance, conditional upon school attendance; the government also funded programs to assist former and current street children. International organizations and NGOs funded additional projects to enhance the protection of children. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--Wages are set by contract in the private sector and set by the government in the public sector. The national minimum wage for a skilled worker was less than 12,000 ID (approximately $10) per day and for an unskilled worker less than 5,250 ID ($4.50) per day. The standard workday is eight hours with one or more rest periods. Up to four hours of overtime work per day is permitted, and premium pay for overtime is required. The Central Organization of Statistics and Information Technology reported that the average salary was approximately 2,400,000 ID ($2,085) per year, an increase over the previous year's figure of 1,788,000 ID ($1,550). These earnings remained only marginally above poverty level and did not provide an adequate standard of living for a worker and family. According to international governmental organizations, NGOs, and press reports, some foreign workers in the country were subjected to abusive treatment, including confiscation of travel and identity documents, confinement, physical abuse, unwanted sexual advances, delayed or no pay, forced daily and weekly overtime, and hazardous working conditions; no legal action to protect works or bring perpetrators to justice was reported. The MOLSA occupational safety and health component had staff located throughout the country. The law provides that workers have the right to remove themselves from a situation endangering health and safety without prejudice to their employment. __________ ISRAEL AND THE OCCUPIED TERRITORIES Israel is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 7.5 million, including Israelis living in the occupied territories. Israel has no constitution, although a series of ``Basic Laws'' enumerate fundamental rights. Certain fundamental laws, orders, and regulations legally depend on the existence of a ``State of Emergency,'' which has been in effect since 1948. The 120-member, unicameral Knesset has the power to dissolve the government and mandate elections. The February 10 elections for the Knesset were considered free and fair. They resulted in a coalition government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces within Israel. (An annex to this report covers human rights in the occupied territories. This report deals with human rights in Israel and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.) The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens, although there were problems in some areas. There were several high-profile cases involving corruption by political leaders. Institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against Arab citizens, Palestinian Arabs, non-Orthodox Jews, and other religious groups continued, as did societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. Women suffered societal discrimination and domestic violence. The government maintained unequal educational systems for Arab and Jewish students. While trafficking in persons for the purpose of prostitution greatly decreased in recent years, trafficking for the purpose of labor remained a problem, as did abuse of foreign workers. Palestinian rocket and terrorist attacks killed four and injured 34 civilians in Israel during the year; such attacks killed three at the start of hostilities on December 27 and 29, 2008. There were 125 rockets and 70 mortar shells fired into Israel from Gaza since the end of Operation Cast Lead on January 21, and 850 rockets and mortar shells during the hostilities, compared with 1,750 rockets and 1,528 mortar shells in 2008. In response to a sharp increase in the number and frequency of rocket attacks into Israel prior to and following the expiration of Hamas' agreed period of ``calm'' on December 19, 2008, the Israeli Air Force launched Operation Cast Lead, consisting initially of airstrikes on December 27 against Hamas security installations, personnel, and other facilities in the Gaza Strip, followed on January 3 by ground operations. Hostilities between Israeli forces and Hamas fighters continued through January 18, and the Israeli withdrawal of troops was completed on January 21. Human rights organizations estimated the number of dead at close to 1,400 Palestinians, including more than 1,000 civilians, and the wounded at more than 5,000. According to government figures, Palestinian deaths totaled 1,166, including 295 noncombatant deaths. The discrepancy over civilian deaths largely centered on whether the 248 Hamas police officers killed were considered civilians. There were 13 Israelis killed, including three civilians. Further information on the human rights situation in Gaza and the West Bank is in the Annex. The President of the UN Human Rights Council (HRC) established the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict to investigate Israeli violations of international human rights and humanitarian law in the context of military operations in Gaza, whether before, during, or after Operation Cast Lead. On September 29, Justice Richard Goldstone, who headed the mission, presented the report (commonly known as the ``Goldstone report'') to the HRC in Geneva. The Goldstone report investigated 36 incidents of alleged violations by the IDF in Gaza, as well as alleged violations by Palestinians. This reflected an effort by Goldstone to broaden the scope of his report beyond the original mandate, which was limited only to violations by Israel. Among its many conclusions, the report claimed that members of the IDF were responsible for deliberate targeting of civilians, for the destruction of critical infrastructure in Gaza, and for using weapons such as white phosphorous in highly populated areas, all of which it deemed to be violations of international humanitarian law. The Goldstone report was widely criticized for methodological failings, legal and factual errors, falsehoods, and for devoting insufficient attention to the asymmetrical nature of the conflict and the fact that Hamas and other Palestinian militants were deliberately operating in heavily populated urban areas of Gaza. The government of Israel also sharply rejected the charge that it had a policy of deliberately targeting civilians. IDF military advocate general Mandelblit was responsible for reviewing all allegations relating to Operation Cast Lead, including those contained in the Goldstone Report. At the end of the year, Mandelblit's investigations were ongoing. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents did not commit politically motivated killings. On September 3, the Central District Court found Shahar Mizrahi, a police officer, guilty of manslaughter in the 2006 shooting of Mahmoud Ghanayem in the town of Baka El Gharbia. The court sentenced Mizrahi to 15 months in jail and a 15-month suspended sentence. Authorities did not suspend him from duty during the trial or after the conviction. Mizrahi claimed that he suspected Ghanayem of car theft; the car belonged to the victim's father. Mizrahi appealed, claiming that it was a life-threatening situation; the appeal was pending before the Supreme Court at year's end. An appeal was pending at year's end regarding the Department for Investigations against Police Officers' (DIPO) closure for lack of evidence of its inquiry into the March 2008 beating and subsequent coma and death of Sabri al-Jarjawi, a 25-year-old Bedouin from the Negev. A friend of al-Jarjawi, who was present during the incident, stated that two police officers attacked al-Jarjawi without provocation. According to a police statement, the two officers resorted to force after one of the two Bedouin men assaulted one of the officers. At year's end, an internal Israel Prison Service (IPS) investigation was ongoing into the 2007 killing of a Palestinian prisoner, Mohammed al-Askar, during a riot at Ketziot Prison. Prisoners alleged that security forces improperly used crowd-dispersal weapons, including rubber bullets and beanbag projectiles. The IPS investigation was on hold pending the outcome of legal proceedings in the Be'er Sheva Magistrate Court regarding the cause of death. On June 15, the Haifa District Court acquitted the border policeman involved in the 2006 killing of Nadim Milham, an Israeli Arab who was killed in his home during a weapons search. An investigation was ongoing at year's end into the charge filed November 12 against Yaakov (Jack) Teitel, a resident of the West Bank settlement Shvut Rachel, in an allegedly politically motivated 1997 killing of Samir Akram Balbisi, an Arab taxi driver in Jerusalem (see sections 1.c. and 6 and the Annex for other charges against him). Documents released in December showed the investigation had stalled in 2000 following an Israel Security Agency (ISA or Shin Bet) interrogation when Teitel passed a polygraph test, although the investigation had identified Teitel as the sole suspect since the day after the murder. Palestinian terrorists routinely fired rockets and mortars from the Gaza Strip into Israel. According to the government, Palestinians fired 125 rockets and 70 mortar shells into Israel from Gaza since the end of Operation Cast Lead in January and 850 rockets and mortar shells during the operation in Gaza, down from 1,750 rockets and 1,528 mortar shells in 2008. Rocket, mortar, and sniper fire from the Gaza Strip killed four civilians during the year. According to the nongovernmental organization (NGO) B'Tselem, Israeli military operations killed an estimated 1,003 Palestinians in Gaza throughout the year, including in January as a result of Operation Cast Lead. The campaign targeted Hamas security installations, personnel, tunnels, and other facilities in the Gaza Strip. IDF military advocate general Mandelblit was responsible for reviewing all allegations relating to Operation Cast Lead, including those contained in the Goldstone report. At year's end, field and military police investigations continued and the military advocate general had referred approximately 140 cases for criminal investigations (see Annex). The IDF killed 21 Palestinians in the West Bank during the year. During 2008 the Military Investigative Police launched 323 investigations with regard to cases of death, violence, and property damage against Palestinians. In these cases, the military advocate general filed 26 indictments against 31 soldiers suspected of committing criminal offenses against Palestinians. There were 18 convictions, two acquittals, the closure of three cases by the military advocate general, and three cases pending as of year's end (see Annex). b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances during the year. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--A 1999 High Court of Justice ruling held that, although torture and the application of physical or psychological pain are illegal, ISA interrogators may be exempt from criminal prosecution if they use such methods in extraordinary ``ticking bomb'' cases. On July 6, the High Court of Justice rejected a motion brought by three Israeli NGOs seeking to charge the ISA with contempt of court. The NGOs had argued that ISA interrogators applied more often than the court intended the exemption for use of such methods in extraordinary ``ticking bomb'' cases. During the year NGOs filed numerous complaints alleging that security forces tortured or abused Palestinians from the occupied territories, including after arrests during the Gaza operation (see Annex). On December 28, the NGO Public Committee Against Torture in Israel (PCATI) reported on the lack of investigations of torture allegations, noting that, since 2001, not one investigation had resulted from more than 600 complaints of torture by ISA agents. On July 5, PCATI filed a suit with the Supreme Court against the use of painful shackling, based on a report it released in June. The case was pending at year's end. On December 22, police arrested two border guards following a DIPO investigation into suspicions that they beat and stole 700 NIS (approximately $184) from a Sudanese man in Eilat. The case was pending at year's end at the Rishon Lezion Magistrates Court. On September 9, the Supreme Court dismissed the April 2008 petition of five human rights NGOs against the ISA's alleged psychological use of family members during interrogations. The court stated that it was forbidden to use threats, false promises, and charades relating to a detainee's family members as a form of pressure; additionally, the court noted that the attorney general clarified the ISA guidelines for interrogators as a result of the petition, explicitly forbidding such practices. The court dismissed the case because it found no evidence of such practices actually in use. Unlike the previous year, when it received four complaints, the NGO Hotline for Migrant Workers (Hotline) reported no complaints regarding immigration police violence. On October 7, Yaakov (Jack) Teitel, a radical member of the settlement movement, was arrested and remained in custody while other charges were under investigation. In September 2008 Teitel allegedly planted a pipe bomb at the doorstep of prominent Hebrew University professor and critic of the settlements Ze'ev Sternhell, who was wounded by the bomb. After the attack, police found flyers near Sternhell's home calling for the establishment of a new state in the West Bank based on Jewish religious law. The flyers, signed in the name of an unknown Jewish extremist group called the Army of the State Liberators, also offered 1.1 million NIS ($289,000) to anyone who killed a member of the NGO Peace Now. In November evidentiary hearings began following a DIPO investigation and a criminal indictment against three police officers. In June 2008 they reportedly detained and severely beat east Jerusalem resident Tareq Abu Laban. In November a military court acquitted the two soldiers involved in the July 2008 fight with two Druze families on a beach near Haifa. The court found that the soldiers' actions were taken in self-defense in response to being hit first and that hospital records did not substantiate the claimed injuries of the complainant. As of year's end, an evidentiary hearing had not been held on the case of two policemen, Iyad Huzeyl and Dani Havery, who were indicted in October 2008 for assault involving grievous injury against Fadi Darab'i, an undocumented Palestinian laborer, in April 2008 at a construction site in the town of Gan Yavneh. An evidentiary hearing was scheduled for October 2010 at the Beer Sheva Magistrate Court. As of year's end, there had not been an evidentiary hearing in the 2006 case of three border police officers--Eliran Levy, Moshe Yekutiel, and Almit Asarsa--indicted on charges of aggravated assault for abusing Abd Tareq Ahrub, a West Bank resident detained for being in Jerusalem without a permit. As of year's end, the Supreme Court had not ruled on a 2007 government appeal of a district court decision not to dismiss a lawsuit filed against the state by Lebanese citizen Mustafa Dirani, who charged that Israeli security forces tortured and raped him during interrogations between 1994 and 2004. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--The law provides prisoners and detainees the right to conditions that do not harm their health or dignity. While various organizations found deficiencies, conditions in IPS facilities for common criminals and security prisoners generally met international standards according to international and domestic NGOs. (Conditions in four facilities for detainees are covered in the Annex.) The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) regularly monitored IPS facilities, interrogation facilities, and the two IDF provisional detention centers. The Israel Bar Association (IBA) and public defenders were permitted to inspect IPS facilities. Overcrowding remained a problem in some sections of 11 out of 15 prisons, according to the June annual report of the Public Defender's Office that covered conditions in prisons and detention centers in 2008. Regulations require at least 48 square feet of living space per person, but spaces were as low as 19 square feet per person in one holding cell in one prison. The Public Defender's June report covering conditions in prisons and detention centers in 2008 noted some improvements but found grave deficiencies in the infrastructure of most prison facilities and the living conditions in many of them. In response to the 2008 report that convicts in one-third of the prisons visited complained of violent and humiliating treatment, the Warden's Investigation Unit within the National Police (which is independent of the IPS) found complaints to be unfounded. In 2008 the IPS created a permanent team to examine violence within the penal system, recommend treatment, and conduct training. The recommendations resulted in the renovation of 15 prison wings during the year. The government acknowledged the need to improve conditions for Palestinian security prisoners in response to an August 2008 IBA report on Sharon and Hadarim prisons that noted, among other points, poor health conditions for security prisoners. According to the government, the IPS renovated family waiting areas outside 15 prisons and upgraded rooms to meet lawyers in all IPS facilities during the year. Reports by the Public Defender's Office, official comptrollers, and other government authorities noted a significant improvement in prisoners' living conditions. In July the NGO Physicians for Human Rights-Israel (PHR-I) report noted that the Ministry of Health rejected NGO calls to publish procedural guidelines for medical staff to report observations of suspected physical abuse of prisoners. PHR-I also noted that the ministry refused to extend ``whistleblower'' protection to IPS doctors reporting possible instances of torture. According to the NGO Adalah, as of July, there were 7,731 Arab security prisoners and detainees out of a total of 12,990 Arab prisoners; there were 16 Jewish Israeli security prisoners out of a total of 6,552 Jewish prisoners. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions for all citizens. Non-Israeli residents of the Israeli- annexed Golan Heights were subject to the same laws as Israeli citizens. Noncitizens of Palestinian origin detained on security grounds fell under military jurisdiction even if detained in Israel (see Annex). Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The ISA under the authority of the prime minister combats terrorism and espionage in the country and the occupied territories (see Annex). The National Police, including the Border Police and the Immigration Police, are under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Security. Police corruption generally was not a problem. The DIPO reviews complaints against police officers and may impose disciplinary measures or recommend indictments. The DIPO hired and trained 15 civilian investigators in 2008, replacing the police investigators who staffed the former Police Investigations Department, which human rights groups had criticized for lacking the independence necessary for adequate investigation of allegations against police officers. The DIPO was staffed by 19 civil investigators and 25 police investigators. The police carried out training programs in coordination with academic institutions and human rights NGOs to promote human rights awareness and cultural sensitivity. During the year the National Police provided mandatory Arabic language and culture classes for all new cadets. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Suspects in nonsecurity cases are apprehended openly with warrants based on sufficient evidence and issued by an authorized official and generally were informed promptly of charges against them. The law provides that an arrested citizen is considered innocent until proven guilty and has the right to habeas corpus, to remain silent, to be represented by an attorney, to contact family members, and to receive a fair trial. The government may withhold evidence from defense lawyers on security grounds; however, the evidence must be made available to the court. A bail system exists, and a decision denying bail can be appealed. As a general practice, noncitizens of Palestinian origin detained for security violations were not granted bail. An individual suspected of a criminal offense may be held without charge for 24 hours before being brought before a judge, with limited exceptions allowing for up to 48 hours. Persons detained on security grounds may fall under one or more of the legal regimes described below. Under a 2006 ``temporary law'' on criminal procedures that has twice been renewed, the IPS may hold individuals suspected of a security offense for 48 hours without judicial oversight, with limited exceptions allowing up to 96 hours before being brought before a district court presiding judge. Administrative detention was used as an exception when intelligence sources could not be presented as evidence in regular criminal proceedings. The law, which was set to expire again in December 2010, allows the court to authorize holding a detainee for up to 20 days without an indictment and, by barring access to a lawyer, to hold a detainee incommunicado for up to 21 days with the approval of the attorney general. The court may decide to impose further extensions without the detainee being present or informed of the hearing. An administrative detainee has the right to appeal any decision to lengthen detention. In another legal regime for administrative detention, the 1979 Emergency Powers Law allows the Defense Ministry (MOD) to detain persons administratively without charge for up to six months, renewable indefinitely. Such detainees, almost all of whom were Palestinians in the West Bank, were permitted legal representation within seven days, with limited exceptions for up to 21 days with the attorney general's approval. If necessary, the government provided free legal representation. The military court may rely on classified evidence denied to detainees and their lawyers. Detainees can appeal their cases to a military court of appeals and ultimately to the Supreme Court. The third legal option for pretrial detention relies on the 2002 Illegal Combatant Law, which permits holding a detainee incommunicado for 14 days without review by a district court judge, denying access to counsel for up to 21 days with the attorney general's approval, and indefinite detention subject to twice-yearly district court reviews and appeals to the Supreme Court. In June 2008 the government extended for an additional four years a ``temporary provision'' that exempts law enforcement personnel from the law requiring them to film and audio record all interrogations of detainees suspected of security offenses. Amendments to the law in 2008 expanded its internment powers, which may be exercised in the event of ``widespread hostilities, ``an occurrence which has not happened to date. In October the Israeli NGOs HaMoked and B'Tselem jointly published a study called Withholding Trial, Administrative Detention of Palestinians by Israel and the Internment of Unlawful Combatants Law, released in October, on the situation of security detainees. The study, which included comments by the Ministry of Justice (MOJ), found that the authorities held in detention nine residents of the Gaza Strip under this law as of September. Human rights groups alleged military commanders in the occupied territories used administrative security detention orders based on ``security reasons'' even when the accused posed no clear danger. The NGO PCATI complained these laws removed the standard procedural safeguards from security suspects, who were the most vulnerable to torture and mistreatment. At year's end, according to the NGO B'Tselem, there were 278 administrative detainees in IPS detention centers. The government reported 286 such detainees on December 20; none was a minor. Most administrative detainees were held for less than one year, with 26 administrative detainees held consecutively for more than two years. Mahmoud Azan, whom the government considered an al-Qa'ida member, had been imprisoned according to a deportation order, not administrative detention, for more than 10 years. He was released during the year to the Gaza Strip because the government found no country to accept him. On March 24, PCATI, the Israeli NGO the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), and Adalah withdrew their 2008 petition to the Supreme Court that called for the cancellation of the 2006 temporary law on detaining security suspects. The organizations withdrew the petition to protest the court's January 14 decision to hear secret evidence provided by the state on the constitutionality of a law in the absence of the petitioners and the public. The petitioners argued that the court's unprecedented decision to hear secret evidence had no legal basis, contradicted previous Supreme Court judgments, and set a precedent that could harm future judicial review of laws that violate human rights. At year's end, a separate 2008 challenge to the law by the Public Defenders' Office remained pending. According to MOJ figures at the end of the year, administrative detainees constituted 3.8 percent (286) of the 7,522 security related detainees. In 2008 the Military Court of Appeals reviewed 1,880 detainee appeals and accepted 273, for which the length of detentions were either reduced or eliminated. There were 443 appeals by the military prosecution of which 354 were accepted. The law provides that a foreign national suspected of immigration violations be afforded a hearing within four days of detention. They have the right to, but no guarantee of, legal representation. According to Hotline, interpreters in Ketsiot, where most asylum seekers were detained, were rarely present during hearings despite a 2002 written commitment by the government to the Supreme Court to provide interpreters. According to Hotline, persons held in immigration detention rarely were released pending judicial determination of their status. Moreover, if the detainee's country of origin had no diplomatic or consular representation, the individual could remain in detention for months. According to Hotline, at the end of 2008, more than 1,000 detainees (more than 100 of them children) were waiting for determination of their asylum claims. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government respected this provision in practice. The judiciary has ruled against the executive, including in security cases. For example, on November 19, the Supreme Court voided amendment 29 to the Prisons Ordinance that allowed privately operated prisons. On December 29, the Supreme Court ruled against an IDF prohibition on all non-Israeli vehicles on highway 443, a major West Bank highway on which approximately 40,000 Israeli vehicles commute between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. The court gave the IDF five months to reply with an alternative security solution for the road that was closed to non-Israeli vehicles in 2002 following multiple Palestinian terrorist attacks that killed five Israelis in 2001. The judicial branch comprises magistrate courts, six district courts, and the Supreme Court, which also sits as the High Court of Justice. Magistrate courts adjudicate misdemeanors and lesser civil disputes. District courts adjudicate felonies, serious civil cases, appeals from the magistrate courts, and several other largely administrative matters. There are also military, religious, labor relations, and administrative courts. The High Court of Justice exercises judicial review over the other branches of government and can exercise power on matters that are not within the jurisdiction of any other court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice is a court of first instance for claims against the government. Its members also sit as the Supreme Court and hear appeals of lower court rulings, Knesset elections, administrative detentions, prisoners' petitions, and rulings of the Civil Service Commission and bar association. Religious courts have jurisdiction over matters of personal status for their adherents; there are no civil courts for marriage or divorce for the hundreds of thousands of citizens for whom religious courts are not a legal option. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. However, administrative detainee hearings are not trials and do not follow trial procedures. By law, an arrested citizen is considered innocent until proven guilty. There are no trials by jury. Trials are public except when the court determines that a closed trial is required to protect state security, foreign relations, a party's or witness's right to privacy, or a sexual offense victim. Security or military trials may be open to independent observers at the discretion of the court but not to the general public. All indigent defendants facing trial and imprisonment receive mandatory representation. According to the government, counsel represented all defendants in district and Supreme Court trials and in approximately 80 percent of cases in the magistrate courts. Defendants have the right to question witnesses against them, to present witnesses on their behalf, to access evidence (except when the court determines such access would compromise state security), and to appeal. Military courts provide some, but not all, of the procedural rights granted in civil criminal courts. The 1970 evidentiary rules governing trials under military law of Palestinians and others applicable in the occupied territories are the same as evidentiary rules in criminal cases. According to the MOJ, the law does not permit convictions to be based solely on confessions, and in order to convict the prosecution must present additional, often secret evidence to the court. Secret evidence is often used in military trials and is not available to the defendant or counsel. Counsel may assist the accused in such trials, and a judge may assign counsel to defendants. Indigent detainees do not automatically receive free legal counsel for military trials, but in practice almost all detainees had counsel even in minor cases. The defendant and the public are read the indictment in Hebrew and, unless the defendant waives this right, in Arabic. In past years, many indictments were translated into Arabic, but since, according to the government, no requests for translations were made, the practice during the year was to provide written translations of indictments into Arabic only upon request. At least one interpreter is present for simultaneous interpretation in every military court hearing, unless the defendant waives that right. Defendants can appeal through the Military Court of Appeals and petition the High Court of Justice. In the past military courts treated Palestinian minors who were 16 and 17 years old as adults, but a juvenile court began operating in the West Bank on September 29, following a July 29 security directive to separate minors from adult detainees. According to the government, legal counsel is provided in all cases, and pretrial detention is minimized. The chief of military prosecution in the West Bank must approve in advance each arrest of a minor. Sentencing of minors is similar to that implemented in courts in Israel. As of December 20, the IPS held 7,144 security prisoners, of whom 43 were under the age of 16, and 254 were between 16 and 18 years old. No administrative detainees were minors. There are also custodial courts and four deportation courts to address the removal of illegal immigrants. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of citizen political prisoners or detainees (see Annex). Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--An independent and impartial judiciary adjudicates lawsuits seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. Administrative remedies exist, and court orders were usually enforced. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law provides for protection of privacy of the individual and the home. In criminal cases the law permits wiretapping under court order; in security cases, the MOD must issue the order. Under emergency regulations authorities may open and destroy mail on the basis of security considerations. The law provides for police officers and other public investigators to request court orders to obtain personal information from private communications companies, including landline and cellular telephones and Internet service providers. To access private communications records, investigators must demonstrate that their goal is to save or preserve life, investigate or prevent crime, or seize property in accordance with the law. Separate religious court systems adjudicate personal status, such as marriage and divorce, for the Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Druze communities. Jews can marry only in Orthodox Jewish services, although the great majority of Jewish Israelis are not Orthodox. Civil marriages, marriages of some non-Orthodox Jews, marriages in non- Orthodox ceremonies, or marriage to a non-Jew must take place outside the country to be legal. According to the NGO New Family Organization, more than 5,000 couples married in civil ceremonies abroad each year, most in Cyprus, and then registered in Israel's population register. Procedures for divorce from such marriages and changing one's personal status in the population register were unclear; a divorce must take place abroad, as the Supreme Court has ruled that the Rabbinical Court cannot dissolve such marriages, since they were not performed according to Halachic law. The government allows consular marriages as long as both parties have no religion or belong to a religious community that the state does not recognize. Many Jewish citizens objected to exclusive Orthodox rabbinic control over aspects of their personal lives. Approximately 310,000 citizens who immigrated, either as Jews or as family members of Jews, are not considered Jewish by the Orthodox Rabbinate. They cannot be married, divorced, or buried in Jewish cemeteries within the country. The estimated 20,000 Messianic Jews, who considered themselves to be Jews, also often experienced this infringement in their personal lives due to the Orthodox Rabbinate not considering them as Jewish. A 1996 law requiring the government to establish civil cemeteries has not been fully implemented, although eight civil cemeteries exist. The authority to grant status (citizenship and residency) to a non- Israeli spouse, including Palestinian and other non-Jewish foreign spouses, resides with the Ministry of Interior (MOI). On July 27, the Knesset extended for another year the temporary 2003 Citizenship and Entry Law, which prohibits a citizen's Palestinian spouse from the occupied territories not only from acquiring citizenship by marriage, but also from residing in the country. Palestinian male spouses who are 35 or older and female spouses who are 25 or older may apply for temporary visit permits. The Mossawa Advocacy Center for Arab Citizens in Israel (Mossawa) claimed the law affected more than 21,000 families, including couples with long-standing marriages. The government originally enacted the law following 23 terrorist attacks involving suicide bombers from the occupied territories who had gained access to Israeli identification through family unification. After the Supreme Court upheld the law, the Knesset expanded it to bar family reunification in cases where one spouse is a non-Jewish citizen of Iran, Iraq, Syria, or Lebanon. During the year Israeli human Rights NGOs and international organizations continued to criticize this ban, which primarily affects Palestinian spouses of Arab citizens of Israel, who constitute the majority of Israelis married to residents of the occupied territories. On June 24, in response to a petition by Kayan (an Arab Israeli NGO), PHR-I, and ACRI, the Supreme Court demanded an explanation within six months from the government for its refusal to grant social and health insurance to an estimated 5,000 Palestinian spouses of citizens who were granted ``staying permits'' to reside legally in Israel. In December the court ordered the government to provide a temporary solution within a month that would be in place until an official policy could be formulated. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; while the government generally respected these rights, in practice there were some restrictions. Individuals may criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, but the law prohibits hate speech and incitement to violence, and the 1948 Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance prohibits expressing support for illegal or terrorist organizations. The government imposed a blanket ban on foreign journalists entering Gaza during the offensive, which ended on January 23. The country has 13 daily newspapers, at least 90 weekly newspapers, more than 250 periodicals, and a number of Internet news sites. All newspapers were privately owned and managed. Laws dating from the British mandate require MOI licenses for newspapers and allow the minister, under certain conditions, to close a newspaper. The state-owned Israel Broadcast Authority controls the Hebrew- language Israel Television and an Arabic-language channel, as well as Kol Israel (Voice of Israel) radio, which airs news and other programming in Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages. The Second Television and Radio Authority, a public body, supervises the two privately owned commercial television channels and 14 privately owned radio stations. In 2007 a cable company, HOT, dropped the Christian network Daystar TV following complaints about proselytizing. After legal challenges, HOT restored Daystar TV in early 2008 to subscribers. All media organizations must submit to military censors materials that deal with specific military issues as well as strategic infrastructure issues, such as oil and water supplies. The censor's decisions may be appealed to the High Court of Justice, and the censor cannot appeal a court judgment. The MOI has no authority over the military censor. All foreign journalists operating in the country need Government Press Office accreditation. News printed or broadcast abroad is subject to security censorship. The government did not fine newspapers or other mass media for violating censorship regulations during the year. However, on June 14, a Jerusalem court sentenced journalist Khader Shaheen and Muhammad Sarhan under a plea bargain to two months in prison and a six-month suspended sentence for breaching the military censorship law during the Gaza offensive and ``neglectfully delivering information'' to the enemy. Police arrested the two men, a correspondent and a producer, for the Arabic-language Iranian satellite news channel Al-Alam, on January 5 and held them for 10 days on charges of divulging secret information and transmitting information to the enemy in wartime. The charges were filming and broadcasting live to Iran the IDF movements toward Gaza a half hour before the January 3 start of the ground offensive in spite of censorship restrictions. According to the international NGO Committee to Protect Journalists, dozens of other news outlets reported similarly on troops and equipment at the time, but authorities prosecuted only Shaheen and Sarhan. Their appeal to the Supreme Court was pending at the end of the year. The government prohibited all citizens, including journalists, from entering Gaza; those who entered were subject to legal penalties such as fines and restraining orders. The Supreme Court reviewed and upheld this policy, based on the ongoing, armed conflict between Israel and the terrorist organizations. On May 12, authorities detained Haaretz reporter Amira Hass as she returned to Israel after repeatedly entering and spending four months in the Gaza Strip. She was not arrested but was released on condition that she would not reenter Gaza. Several other journalists were warned, but none were arrested or indicted. Beginning in November 2008, the government prevented foreign journalists from entering the Gaza Strip. In November 2008 the Foreign Press Association in Israel filed a petition to the High Court of Justice requesting that it overturn the ban. On six occasions in December 2008, 54 journalists were allowed to cross. In December 2008, the court requested the state to put in place a procedure for entry, but with the start of the land operation on January 4, the government decided it could not implement the procedure due to the change in security circumstances. All restrictions on movement were removed on January 23, immediately following the conclusion of Operation Cast Lead. On February 2, Syrian journalist Atta Farhat, editor of the Arabic Web site Golan Times and the Golan Heights correspondent for Syrian television and for the Syrian daily Al-Watan, was sentenced after 18 months in detention to a three-year jail term for ``contact with a foreign agent.'' The Nazareth District Court convicted him along with Yosef Shams, who was additionally convicted of delivering information to the enemy with intent of harming state security, according to a plea bargain and admission following a hearing of the prosecution's evidence. The court found that Shams and Farhat had, for more than a year prior to their 2007 arrest, communicated knowingly with a Syrian army officer, delivering messages to each other and working to fulfill his requests. Shams was also fined 25,000 NIS (approximately $6,600) and given a three-year suspended sentence. He was reportedly arrested at his home in the Golan Heights village of Buq'ata after covering a peaceful demonstration in the Golan Heights by Israeli peace activists. His articles in the Syrian press and on the Web site described living conditions in the Golan Heights. Internet Freedom.--There were generally no restrictions on Internet access. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, although the government monitored cellular and landline telephones and Internet service providers for security purposes. The International Telecommunication Union reported that approximately 50 percent of the country's inhabitants were Internet users in 2008. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were generally no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events. Universities are required to justify to the IDF acceptance of Palestinian students from the occupied territories. According to revised government criteria submitted in response to a 2007 High Court of Justice order, as many as 70 students from the West Bank may pursue graduate studies in Israeli universities at any given time, provided there is no practical alternative and the chosen program is not in a field that could provide knowledge or skills that could be employed to harm the country. Students from Gaza are not eligible to apply (see Annex). b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected this right in practice. According to data collected by Mossawa, police arrested or invited for questioning approximately 700 Arab citizens of Israel during and directly after the Gaza war. Although most were invited by the police, the ISA allegedly often conducted the questioning. Although the arrests ranged from disturbing the traffic to being a security risk, no charges were filed, and they were all released, usually the same day, although some were held as long as four days. Israeli Arab NGOs claimed that the police made selective arrests that limited freedom of peaceful assembly and expression for Arab citizens of Israel and human rights activists. For example, on January 6, according to Mossawa, police units arrested peaceful protesters in Wadi Nisnas and students at the University of Haifa, allegedly for making statements against the war in Gaza. Police sent the arrested Israeli Arab students immediately to the Haifa district regional jail. Some students complained, according to Mossawa, that special counterterror police units called ``Yassam'' treated them violently, humiliated them, made racist statements, and threatened to damage their academic and future careers. The Haifa District Court released all the students and reportedly criticized the commander of the police district for limiting the freedom of expression of the students. In at least one case, the court released the suspect on bail on condition of not attending unauthorized or unlicensed demonstrations. Haifa Police arrested Mossawa Center Director Jafar Farah and others at a February 8 protest organized against political party Yisrael Beitenu chairman Avigdor Lieberman. They were protesting his attendance at a conference in Haifa due to his derogatory remarks against Arab Israelis during the election campaign. A judge rejected the police request to detain Farah in custody for 24 hours and put him under house arrest instead. At year's end, a DIPO investigation continued into a September 2008 complaint by the NGOs Adalah and the Arab Association of Human Rights concerning police behavior during clashes with 15,000 Arab Israeli demonstrators in May 2008 in the former Arab village of Safouriya, now a Jewish community. There were conflicting claims about responsibility for violence during the ``Nakba'' (catastrophe in Arabic) demonstration that marked the anniversary of the establishment of the State of Israel. The NGO Adalah released video footage that, according to press reports showed police beating or kicking some demonstrators in the head and face as they sat handcuffed on the ground. According to press and NGO reports, police attacked several local and international journalists, including a CNN correspondent, and in some cases confiscated cameras and erased footage. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for the right of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The Basic Law and Declaration of Independence identify the country as a ``Jewish and democratic state,'' while also providing for full social and political equality, regardless of religious affiliation. In practice the government recognized only Orthodox Jewish religious authorities in personal and some civil status matters concerning Jewish persons. The government implemented policies including marriage, divorce, education, burial, and observance of the Sabbath based on Orthodox Jewish interpretation of religious law, and allocations of state resources favored Orthodox Jewish institutions. According to government figures, during the year the budget for religious services and religious institutions for the Jewish population was 96 percent of total funding. Religious education amounted to more than 1.1 billion NIS ($263 million) of the approximately 1.5 billion NIS ($405 million) of the overall budget. Religious minorities, comprising slightly more than 20 percent of the population, received approximately 55 million NIS ($14.5 million). On May 19, the High Court of Justice ruled that the government, which supports private conversion schools, must fund private conversion classes operated by the Reform and Conservative movements. The court acted on a petition by the Israel Religious Action Center of the Movement for Progressive Judaism (Reform) in Israel. On November 18, police detained Nofrat Frankel, a 25-year-old female medical student, for two hours but banned her from the Western Wall for 15 days for praying while wrapped in a prayer shawl, an act reserved for men alone in Orthodox tradition. In 2003 the Supreme Court upheld the 1981 Protection of Holy Places law, effectively legalizing the prohibition on women's prayer at the Western Wall and ordering the government to construct an additional separate prayer area along the Western Wall where women may pray wearing prayer shawls. Construction began in 2004. The law confers recognition on some religious communities, granting them some authority over their members in personal status matters. Recognized communities are: Eastern Orthodox, Latin (Roman Catholic), Gregorian-Armenian, Armenian-Catholic, Syrian (Catholic), Chaldean (Uniate), Greek Catholic Melkite, Maronite, Syrian Orthodox, the Evangelical Episcopal Church, Orthodox Jewish (both Ashkenazic and Sephardic rites), Muslim, Druze, and the Baha'i. The status of several Christian denominations is defined by arrangements with government agencies. Legislation enacted in 1961 afforded Muslim courts exclusive jurisdiction in matters of personal status concerning Muslims, although the state regulates judicial appointments to these courts. Secular courts have primacy over questions of inheritance, but parties may bring cases to religious courts by mutual agreement. Muslims also may bring alimony and property division matters associated with divorce to civil courts. Many religious communities were not recognized. Unrecognized communities generally practiced their religion freely and maintained communal institutions but were ineligible to receive government funding for religious services. Since 1970 no additional religions or Christian denominations have been recognized. Major Protestant denominations that have been in the country for many years, such as the Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptists, and Lutherans, among others, were not recognized. Four religious communities have applied for state recognition, but their applications have been pending for years: the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Coptic Orthodox, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and the United Christian Council in Israel, an umbrella organization for many Protestant churches in the country. Both recognized and unrecognized religious communities complained of difficulties receiving clergy visas for their representatives. Until 2007 clergy were granted five-year resident visas; since then, many were either denied visas altogether or granted only one-year visas. While there was no official regulation limiting religious visa holders to 10 years of residency within the country, the MOI has refused the renewal of visas before 10 years; after 10 years of residency, one may apply for permanent residency. While recognized religious communities only needed visa approvals through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), unrecognized religious communities' visas had to be approved additionally through the MOI to justify stays longer than five years. During the year the MOI refused to renew religious visas for a Protestant denomination's primary representative and for the director of the Garden Tomb, a major Protestant pilgrimage site, despite MFA approvals in both cases, simply due to the length of time they had lived in the country, although no such regulation regarding period of residence existed. Under the Law of Return, the government grants immigration and residence rights to individuals who meet established criteria defining Jewish identity. Included in this definition is a child or grandchild of a Jew, the spouse of a Jew, the spouse of a child of a Jew, and the spouse of a grandchild of a Jew. The government uses a separate, more rigorous standard based on Orthodox Jewish criteria to determine the right to full citizenship, entitlement to government financial support for immigrants, the legitimacy of conversions to Judaism performed within the country, and Jewish status for purposes of personal and some civil status issues. The 1967 Protection of Holy Sites Law protects all holy sites, but the government implemented regulations only for 137 Jewish sites, leaving Muslim and Christian sites neglected, inaccessible, or threatened by property development. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other well-known sites have de facto protection as a result of their international importance; however, community mosques, churches, and shrines faced threats from developers and municipalities that Jewish sites did not face. Christian pilgrimage sites around the Sea of Galilee faced regular threats of encroachment from government planners who wanted to use parts of the properties for recreational areas. The law provides for a hearing of objections to any plan or construction, including submissions by representative bodies such as the NGO Arab Center for Alternative Planning. On March 16, the Supreme Court rejected Adalah's 2004 petition requesting that the government promulgate regulations for the protection of Islamic holy sites. The government maintained that the promulgation of specific regulations, including determining how to expand the list of holy sites, was not necessary to preserve and protect the holy sites of any religion since the law provided for the protection of all holy sites of all religions. Offering or receiving material inducements for conversion, as well as converting persons under 18 years of age, remained illegal unless one parent was of the religion to which the minor wished to convert. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints refrained from proselytizing under an agreement with the government. While officially legal, missionaries faced harassment and discrimination by some Haredi (ultra-Orthodox Jewish) activists and organizations and certain local government officials. The legal defense NGO Jerusalem Institute of Justice (JIJ) alleged that MOI officials denied services to certain citizens based on their religious beliefs. The JIJ had 70 such cases during the year, including many dealing with MOI attempts to revoke citizenship or failure to process immigration applications from persons entitled to citizenship under the Law of Return, if it was determined such persons held Messianic or Christian beliefs. The JIJ's petitions to the Supreme Court in two such cases for a finding of contempt of court against the MOI continued at year's end. The MOI refused to implement the April 2008 Supreme Court decision according to which 12 Messianic Jewish immigration applicants, born to Jewish fathers and non-Jewish mothers, are entitled to receive citizenship. The MOI has also revoked citizenship due to religious belief. On July 30, the Supreme Court overturned the MOI's 2008 decision to revoke the citizenship of a family who immigrated in 1997 under the Law of Return. The court found no evidence of falsified information regarding Jewish identity although the wife was Christian and the husband a Messianic Jew. The MOI's 2008 interrogation centered on the couple's religious convictions. Foreign tourists suspected of being Messianic Jews, belonging to religious minorities, or of being ``missionaries'' were detained and sometimes refused entry into the country at the airport. The JIJ and some religious leaders claimed that many cases involved direct questions of religious affiliation and beliefs. There were a number of press reports that the MOI inserted notations into its border control computers to identify alleged ``missionaries,'' influenced by Yad L'Achim's antimissionary work. According to JIJ, the MOI has forced some visitors to sign a pledge to abstain from missionary activity as a precondition of release, and on March 13, required in addition a 189,199 NIS ($50,000) bail from a Christian family visiting from Hong Kong. The petition of Barbara Ludwig, a German graduate student whom the MOI denied a visa renewal based on its determination that she was a Messianic Jew, was still pending at the end of the year. She was arrested in April 2008 for two days for failing to maintain a valid student visa and was criticized by the MOI for alleged ``missionary'' activity. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice. Relations among religious groups were often strained. Non-Orthodox Jews complained of discrimination and intolerance by members of ultra-Orthodox Jewish groups as did persons who consider themselves Jewish but who are not considered Jewish under Orthodox law. As in past years, ultra-Orthodox Jews in some neighborhoods of Jerusalem and other ultra-Orthodox enclaves periodically harassed or assaulted women whose appearance they considered immodest. The public bus service operated sex-segregated transportation for some Haredi Jews. Some Haredi passengers also tried to impose sex segregation on some mixed buses. According to press reports, women who refused to sit in the rear of such buses were regularly harassed. Following a petition against the legality of sex-segregated public buses and a High Court of Justice recommendation, the government established a committee that recommended on October 27 the end of compulsory gender segregation on the bus lines, emphasizing that the segregation entailed discrimination and coercion. The Supreme Court ordered the transportation minister to respond to the report within two and half months. During the year Haredi Jews threw rocks at passing motorists to protest driving on the Sabbath and soccer fans from some teams chanted ``death to Arabs'' and anti-Muslim slogans during games between Israeli Jewish and Arab teams. On January 26, 10 young Jewish men in Tiberius beat Mohammad Mansour with sticks and sharp objects because he was Arab. The attack was videotaped, and the young men confessed. There was no further information available on the incident. On June 24, the Israel Football Association disciplined football club Beitar Jerusalem player Amit Ben-Shushan for making racist remarks during State Cup celebrations in May. Ben-Shushan was filmed singing lyrics including, ``I hate all the Arabs'' with Betar fans. Dozens of ultra-Orthodox demonstrators threw stones at Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat on August 9, following large ultra-Orthodox protests in June and July against his opening of a parking garage on Saturdays near the Old City. Following police investigations, several indictments were served. On November 14, approximately 1,500 ultra-Orthodox demonstrators protested against the Jerusalem office of the firm Intel for conducting business on the Sabbath, which it had been doing for 20 years. By year's end, a police investigation resulted in several indictments for violence and vandalism. On November 28, several thousand religious and secular Israelis protested against Haredi violence and protests. On December 27, Haredi protesters threw stones and firecrackers, injuring two police officers in front of the Intel office. On December 31, the Jerusalem Post reported on Haredi insulting and spitting at priests and nuns, and defacing with graffiti and throwing garbage and dead cats at monasteries. Haredi representatives agreed in a meeting with Christian representatives and the Jerusalem municipality to curb the attacks and started putting up notices discouraging such behavior. Small groups of Haredi youth damaged police cars in attacks on December 23, while the police were responding to a break-in, and on December 24, while responding to a complaint regarding a Haredi ``modesty'' patrol of a Haredi woman. The ultra-Orthodox antimissionary organization Yad L'Achim, led by Rabbi Shalom Dov Lifschitz, continued to harass individuals whom it identified, often incorrectly, as ``missionaries.'' The JIJ received more than 30 complaints during the year from Messianic Jewish and Christian leaders regarding posters displayed in their neighborhoods containing their photographs, names, and addresses, warning the public to ``avoid the dangerous missionaries.'' Yad L'Achim posted such antimissionary notices regarding David Ortiz, a Messianic Jewish leader in Ariel. In March 2008 explosives left on his doorstep seriously injured his son, 15-year-old Ami Ortiz. Following the attack, Rabbi Lifschitz defended the practice of actively publicizing the identities of alleged missionaries, and the organization's Web site continued to state, ``we fight the missionaries in a variety of ways, some of which, due to their sensitive nature, can't be described in detail.'' On October 7, 18 months after receiving security video evidence of the person who delivered the package, police arrested Yaakov Teitel, an Orthodox settler who confessed that he targeted the Ortiz family due to their religious beliefs. On December 2, Beit She'an police arrested two Haredi suspects for burning the car of Eliav Levine, a Messianic Jewish leader, on December 1; Levine had moved houses to avoid repeated harassment by ultra- Orthodox men. The JIJ reported that in April 2008 Levine's 11-year-old daughter was summoned to her school principal's office, where the principal allowed a rabbi and two Yad L'Achim antimissionary activists to elicit information about her family and congregation. Two weeks later, the girl's father's car was firebombed for the first time. Fearing the interrogation at school was linked to the bombing, the girl revealed the details of her interrogation, contrary to her principal's instructions. The police were notified, but no investigation took place. Following a public complaint filed with the Ministry of Education, the school dismissed the principal. On April 2, the State Attorney's Office indicted Shmuel Wispish, a member of the ``modesty patrols,'' for rioting, blackmail, and assault causing serious injury. Between June and August 2008, Wispish frequently went to a computer shop in Jerusalem that was open during the Sabbath and demonstrated against the shop, threatening employees and customers, damaging property, and beating the shop owner. While it is illegal to destroy books or icons deemed holy by a religious community or to incite religious prejudice, there were no indictments as of year's end in the May 2008 public burning of hundreds of Christian Bibles by residents of the Tel Aviv suburb of Or Yehuda. Deputy mayor Uzi Aharon organized the event, reportedly after he received complaints about the Messianic Jewish presence from residents. Aharon told the newspaper Maariv that the municipality operated a team of activists devoted entirely to uprooting missionary activity, including the burning of New Testaments, and that their activities were a fulfillment of the commandment to ``burn the evil from your midst.'' On October 20, the Nazareth District Court sentenced Ashad Shibli to nine years in prison for running over a nine-year-old girl in the northern town of Kfar Tavor in 2007 during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, when driving is prohibited. Witnesses said that he had previously tried to run over two other residents on the same day. The court also sentenced Muhammad Shibli to two years imprisonment for assisting in abandoning a person after causing injury. On June 29, the Supreme Court ordered the Ashdod Rabbinate and the Chief Rabbinate Council to restore the kosher license that rabbinical authorities had torn down from the Pnina Pie Bakery in Ashdod in June 2006 after seeing a sign warning that the owner of the bakery was a Messianic Jew. The court noted that the removal of the license, which significantly affected the bakery's business, was solely due to the owner being a Messianic Jew and had nothing to do with Kashrut Law. By the end of the year, the Chief Rabbinate Council had not restored the kosher license and a contempt of court lawsuit was pending. In November 2008 two defendants were given suspended sentences of two months imprisonment and 150 hours of community service for their part in a 2006 riot during which approximately 100 ultra-Orthodox Jews assaulted approximately 50 Christian tourists and a policeman in Jerusalem. No one else was ever charged and no one served any time in prison. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for these rights, and the government generally respected them in practice for citizens (see Annex). Citizens generally were free to travel abroad and to emigrate, provided they had no outstanding military obligations and no administrative restrictions. The government may bar citizens from leaving the country based on security considerations. In addition, no citizen is permitted to travel to any state officially at war with the country without government permission. All Israeli citizens required a special permit to enter area A (the area, according to the Interim Agreement, in which the Palestinian Authority exercises security responsibility), although the government allowed Arab citizens of Israel some access without the permits. Arab citizens of Israel regularly complained of discrimination and degrading treatment by airport security officials. A Supreme Court decision in a 2007 petition by ACRI and Adalah regarding alleged ethnic profiling was still pending at year's end. In February the court ordered the government to present a comparative legal analysis of its security screening methods. The law prohibits forced exile of citizens, and the government respected this prohibition in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. The country has not enacted any legislation implementing the 1951 convention or 1967 protocol, but in practice it has established a system for the reception and consideration of asylum claims. A number of formal and informal arrangements provide for the protection of asylum seekers. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, and other persons of concern, although at year's end there was no memorandum of understanding governing procedures and cooperation between the UNHCR and the government. The MOI's Authority for Immigration and Border Crossings implements government policy and has authority over foreign nationals and population issues. The authority consolidates all relevant bodies dealing with immigration issues, including asylum seekers. During the year the MOI opened an office in Lod for asylum seekers to register to receive documents allowing legal residence; without such documents, asylum seekers were subject to arrest. On July 1, the government took over from the UNHCR the process of registering and conducting refugee status determinations for all asylum seekers. Hotline reported that many refugees and asylum seekers complained of harsh and racist treatment at the office, inefficiency, refusals to renew papers, and lost documents. For example, on July 28, an MOI Asylum Seekers Division official attacked an Eritrean national, according to a complaint by Hotline. There was no further information available on the incident. At the office in Lod, 25 officers registered newly arrived asylum seekers, conducted a nationality determination, and provided temporary visas. Those with disputed nationalities are not given temporary status. Eritreans and Sudanese are given temporary protection and are not required to undergo refugee status determinations; all others are expected to report to the MOI's Refugee Status Unit (RSD) for determination of their refugee claim. According to the UNHCR, approximately 300 asylum seekers who claimed to be Eritrean were determined by the government to be Ethiopian. The UNHCR reported that approximately 10 of these disputed cases were deported to Ethiopia in December. The UNHCR noted that there is no appeals process for cases of disputed nationality and has advocated that these persons go through the RSD asylum procedure. Until July 1, when the MOI took responsibility, the UNHCR conducted refugee status determination interviews and made recommendations to the National Status Granting Board (NSGB). The NSGB is the agency responsible for deciding refugee status. Some NGOs, including the Tel Aviv University Refugee Rights Clinic, did not consider the NGSB procedures transparent and complained that the board met infrequently and approved very few cases. The asylum seekers had access to the UNHCR and NGOs, and the government reported that they were also able to approach police and the courts regarding any claims. Health services were provided for minors who stayed continuously in the country for a period of six months and were not insured by the National Health Insurance Law; there is a monthly fee of 185 NIS ($48.60). Those services do not apply to previous health conditions or to children of parents who are residents of the Palestinian Authority. By law the government should provide education to all children living in the country, regardless of their status in the MOI's population registry. NGO and media reports cited instances in which children of asylum seekers allegedly were not provided access to the country's educational system due to decisions by local school and government officials. According to the state comptroller's annual report to the Knesset in May, between 2000 and 2007, 8,377 Africans requested refugee status and political asylum, and 109 were granted refugee status. At year's end, the government estimated there were approximately 18,000 asylum seekers in the country, of whom approximately 4,000 were Sudanese, and between 5,000 and 7,000 were Eritrean. As of October, 2,525 asylum seekers had registered as Eritreans or Sudanese and received temporary status; 948 had completed the RSD interview but had not yet been referred to the NSGB; 520 had been considered by the NSGB, with five under appeal procedures; and 284 had turned to the courts after the NSGB rejected their appeals. On June 30, the number of refugees and asylum seekers registered with the UNHCR was 14,117. The largest groups were Eritrean (4,726), Sudanese (4,588), Ivorian (1,000), Nigerian (867), Ethiopians (808), and others (2,128). The UNHCR reported that in 2008 new arrivals were estimated at 500 per month, but through May such arrivals had decreased to approximately 200 per month. Most asylum seekers entered through Egypt. As of year's end, the Supreme Court had not decided the question, raised in 2007, of whether it was safe to return asylum seekers to Egypt. Domestic and international NGOs and the UNHCR protested ``coordinated returns'' or ``hot returns'' of some asylum seekers to Egypt because of allegations that those individuals were later sent back to their countries of origin in violation of international agreements against refoulement. On July 2, several NGOs petitioned the High Court of Justice requesting an interim injunction to halt the ``Coordinated Immediate Return Policy,'' claiming it violated the principle of nonrefoulement. Among other complaints, the NGOs charged that, according to international law, soldiers conducting the assessments at the border were not qualified to identify asylum seekers or to conduct asylum procedures without external supervision. Hotline reported that, between January and September, there were 23 incidents of ``coordinated return'' during which 217 asylum seekers were deported, with 1,626 persons detained and sent to the Ketsiot facility. In its petition on July 2, Hotline submitted the testimony of an IDF soldier to the Supreme Court describing alleged incidents of ``hot returns'' he had witnessed at the Egyptian border in June. According to the testimony, officially Egypt refused to accept asylum seekers back into its territory but there was a field-level understanding between the border forces that the Egyptians would receive persons captured at the border or soon after crossing. NGOs asserted that these arrangements were ad hoc agreements between Egyptian and Israeli border commands and not a uniform policy. Hotline charged that the government failed to answer 250 requests that the UNHCR had reviewed, leaving the asylum seekers either in jail or residing in the country. These individuals were subject to possible deportation as long as their status in the country remained undetermined. In some instances the government took swift action to reject asylum claims. For example, on August 4, the MOI's Infiltrator Identification Unit rejected claims by 600 persons claiming to be Sudanese or Eritrean. Of those persons, 150 reached UNHCR offices shortly thereafter with letters from the MOI stating their procedures were complete and they had to leave the country within seven days. Refugees recommended by the UNHCR or the MOI and recognized by the NSGB received six-month, renewable visas. A refugee's status is evaluated after one year. No legal option exists for a refugee to become a naturalized citizen. Those denied asylum and unwilling to leave may remain in immigration detention indefinitely. Some newly arrived illegal migrants were placed in hotels, kibbutzim (cooperative communities), and other work situations. The UNHCR reported that the MOI released an unknown number of asylum seekers from detention in 2008 without reference to the Immigration Tribunal and the UNHCR. Hotline reported that most asylum seekers who entered during the year were taken to the Ketziot facility and released after several months under geographically restricted conditions. In July the MOI rescinded its 2008 ``Hadera-Gadera'' decision that restricted asylum seekers' movement through the country. Asylum seekers now receive a visa without movement restrictions that does not explicitly permit or prohibit employment. The government did not grant asylum to persons from states with which it was officially at war, such as Sudan, but stated that it attempted to find a third country to accept them. With the assistance of a Christian faith-based NGO, approximately 30 Sudanese were voluntarily returned to their homes in Southern Sudan. The UNHCR verified the voluntariness of the process. The UNHCR estimated that the majority of asylum seekers do not enjoy the right to work or access to some health services, although employment is often tolerated. Refugees without the formal right to work were not protected by law. Children of asylum seekers were permitted to attend school. Refugees and asylum seekers were not, as a group, the target of xenophobic violence. On June 18, Yaakov Ganot, head of the Immigration Administration, said in an interview regarding refugees and asylum seekers that ``99.9 percent of them are here for work,'' are ``not asylum seekers,'' and ``not at any risk.'' Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage. Elections and Political Participation.--The country is a parliamentary democracy with an active multiparty system. Relatively small parties, including those primarily supported by Arab Israelis, regularly win Knesset seats. The law requires that a party obtain 2 percent of the vote to win Knesset seats. Prime Minister Ehud Olmert resigned after declining to run in a Kadima Party primary election in September 2008. When Kadima Party head Tzipi Livni was unable to form a government, Olmert remained as caretaker prime minister until a new government was formed after free and fair February 10 elections. On March 31, following protracted negotiations, Benjamin Netanyahu became prime minister of a Likud-led coalition government. The Basic Law prohibits the candidacy of any party or individual denying the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people or the democratic character of the state, or that incites racism. Otherwise, political parties operated without restriction or outside interference. At year's end, the 120-member Knesset had 22 female members. The Knesset included 10 Arabs, including one woman, and three Druze. The 22-member cabinet included two women, but no Arabs; four women were deputy ministers, including one Druze. Five members of the 15-member Supreme Court, including its president, were women. An Arab Christian was on the Supreme Court, but no Muslim or Druze citizens have served. On January 21, the Supreme Court overturned a January 12 Central Elections Committee (CEC) decision to ban the Knesset's two Israeli Arab political parties, the United Arab List-Ta'al and Balad, from participating in the February elections on the grounds that they do not recognize the state and call for armed conflict against it. The CEC is comprised of 30 members of all party factions, chaired by a Supreme Court judge. Israeli Arab and other human rights NGOs argued before the Supreme Court that the ban was part of a trend to undermine the political legitimacy of Arab citizens of Israel. Throughout 2008 and during the climax of the national election campaign in February, there was continuing political incitement reflected in the media against the Arab community in the country. Incitement came from members of the Knesset and high profile party leaders. Some Arab members of the Knesset also incited the Arab public against the Jewish majority. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally sought to implement the law. Impunity was not a problem. Media routinely reported on corruption. The national police, the state comptroller, the attorney general, and the finance ministry accountant general were responsible for combating official corruption. Senior officials were subject to comprehensive financial disclosure laws. There were no reports of judicial corruption during the year. During the year the government investigated and prosecuted several senior political figures for alleged misconduct. On June 24, the Tel Aviv District Court sentenced former finance minister Abraham Hirchson to five years and five months in prison for stealing 1.8 million NIS (approximately $460,000) from the National Labor Federation. Hirchson was convicted by the Tel Aviv District Court of larceny, executive theft, fraud, breach of trust, illicitly obtaining funds, money laundering, and falsifying corporate documents. On September 24, while serving the sentence, Hirchson began an appeal process. On August 2, police recommended to the attorney general that he indict Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman on bribery, money laundering, obstruction of justice, and other charges. There was no decision at year's end. On August 30, Attorney General Menachem Mazuz indicted former prime minister Ehud Olmert along with his former chief of staff, Shula Zaken, on three charges involving breach of trust, falsifying corporate documents, and fraudulent conduct. Olmert was also charged with tax evasion, and Zaken was charged with illegal eavesdropping. At year's end, two other charges were dropped, while one investigation regarding Olmert's political appointments remained pending. Olmert and Zaken both pled not guilty to all charges. At year's end, the trial continued. An additional six persons were indicted on related charges, including former tax authority chief Jacky Matza, three tax authority officials and two businessmen. On September 1, former minister Shlomo Benizri began serving a four-year prison term after his conviction in 2008 on charges of bribery, fraud, and breach of trust for crimes committed between 1996 and 2001, when he was minister of health and minister of social affairs. The court initially fined Benizri 80,000 NIS ($20,000) and sentenced him to 18 months in prison, but the government appealed and the High Court of Justice increased the fine to 250,000 NIS (approximately $66,000) and increased his sentence to four years. At year's end, former president Moshe Katsav's trial continued for obstruction of justice, rape, and sexual assault (see section 6, women). At year's end, the trial of Knesset member Tzachi Hanegbi continued. Hanegbi was on trial for fraud, breach of trust, election bribery, and politically motivated civil service appointments of members of the Likud party headquarters and their relatives while he was environmental protection minister. Hanegbi was indicted, together with his former director general, Shmuel Hershkovitz. Courts concluded the trials of members of the Knesset (MKs) Yaakov Edri and former MK Yitzhak Ziv due to lack of evidence. Investigations of MKs Ruhama Avraham, Roni Bar On, and Haim Katz ended in 2008 without criminal charges or civil penalties. The government did not effectively implement its 1998 Freedom of Information Law. Many government bodies did not disclose their internal regulations as required, and others failed to publish annual reports. The 2008 state comptroller's report found that approximately half of government authorities investigated did not make available to the public their administrative directives or procedures for requesting information or services. At year's end, consideration of a 2005 freedom of information ACRI petition remained ongoing. In 2007 the High Court of Justice began deliberations on the ACRI petition, demanding that the IDF and the MOD make their unclassified archives available to a journalist for research purposes. In May 2008 the IDF and MOD responded by annulling part of the procedures in dispute and shortening the limitation periods on archival materials. On February 25, the Jerusalem District Court ordered the MOJ to provide PCATI with details on how it handled torture allegations against the ISA; on April 30, the MOJ provided PCATI with the information relating to complaints filed from 2005-07. The Ministries of Interior and Housing began publishing at mid-year their administrative directives and procedures for requesting information and services. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Numerous domestic and international human rights groups operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative to varying degrees, and routinely invited domestic NGOs, including those critical of the government, such as ACRI, Mossawa, Adalah, PHR-I, and Gisha, among others, to participate in Knesset hearings on proposed legislation. An MFA unit maintained relations with certain international and domestic NGOs. The government responded publicly to criticisms that it believed to be unfounded. Under the 1980 Law of Associations, NGOs must register and pay annual fees. Some registered NGOs were eligible to receive funding from government ministries. According to government figures, such funding amounted to approximately 2.5 billion NIS ($715 million) per year. Government funding for NGOs disproportionately favored Jewish NGOs, especially those that promote ``traditional and religious Jewish activities.'' During the year the MOI, operating under a 2002 order, barred entry to all foreign nationals affiliated with certain Palestinian human rights NGOs and solidarity organizations (see Annex). The government claimed this was done on an individual basis, not according to the activities or platform of the NGOs with which they were affiliated. The government did not permit the NGOs B'Tselem, Human Rights Watch (HRW), or Amnesty International to enter the Gaza Strip through any of the border crossings Israel controlled during Operation Cast Lead. Following the July 15 release of the NGO Breaking the Silence's report of 26 soldiers' testimonies alleging human rights violations during Operation Cast Lead in Gaza, the government publicly announced its intention to wage an ``aggressive battle against NGOs'' which it deemed ``biased against'' the country. The government asked the United Kingdom, Spain, and the Netherlands to stop providing funding to Breaking the Silence. No country ceased funding. Ten human rights groups protested the government's raising the issue of foreign financing of some NGOs, releasing a joint statement on August 2 demanding that the government ``cease all activity meant to instill fear and silence or harm vital organizations that operate legitimately, and allow them to engage freely in public discourse and various activities.'' In September the Israeli Gaza District Coordination Office informed three Israeli human rights organizations that inquiries regarding petitions for Palestinians to leave the Gaza Strip would only be accepted from the Palestinian Civil Affairs Committee, which originated the petitions. The human rights organizations characterized this action as an attempt to impede the activities of human rights organizations and registered their protest with state and military authorities, particularly as they related to appeals for urgent medical treatment. In November, the decision was effectively reversed when the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories issued its new guidelines. The government cooperated fully with a UN Board of Inquiry investigation into incidents that affected UN personnel, premises, and operations during the conflict in the Gaza Strip. It did not cooperate with UN Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict led by Richard Goldstone. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender, marital status, political beliefs, disability, or age. Women.--Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the law doubles the penalty if the perpetrator assaults or rapes a relative. The government reported 770 rape cases and 122 indictments during the year. At year's end former president Moshe Katsav's trial for rape, sexual assault, and obstruction of justice was ongoing (see section 4). Although the Equality of Women Law provides equal rights for women and protection from violence, harassment, exploitation, and trafficking, domestic violence against women was a problem. As of September. women had filed 10,871 domestic violence complaints with the police, of which 2,403 were still being investigated, 4,368 were transferred to the State Attorney's Office, 353 were heard by courts, and 3,747 were closed. The Social Affairs Ministry provided a battered women's shelter and operated a hotline. The police operated a call center to inform victims about their cases. Women's organizations provided counseling, crisis intervention, legal assistance, and shelters. Women's rights NGO Kayan and PHR-I petitioned the Supreme Court to require the Ministry of Health to provide health care to battered women living in shelters and to those who were without legal status in the country. According to Kayan, the two organizations' aim was to provide an alternative for women who opted to return to abusive partners to obtain the health care refused by the state. At year's end, the government reported that the charges against Mahmoud Abu-Ghanem concerning the December 2008 killing of his sister Dalia were likely to be dismissed due to insufficient evidence. According to Kull al-Arab newspaper, human rights activist Ayidah Tuma- Sulayman, head of the Association of Women Against Violence, charged that at least three women were the victims of honor killings Kayan staged a wide public protest against the publication of a user's question on Panet, the fourth most popular Arabic-language Web site in the country. The user asked whether it was acceptable to murder his cousin, who had compromised the ``family honor.'' Kayan and eight other women's organizations demanded that the question be removed from the site and that police become involved in the case. Police took no action. Prostitution is not illegal and was widespread but not highly visible. The law prohibits operation of brothels and organized sex enterprises, but there were numerous media reports of Russian-connected prostitution operations. Sexual harassment is illegal. The Prevention of Stalking Law and the Prevention of Family Violence Law require that suspected victims be informed of their right to assistance. As of September, authorities opened 209 sexual harassment files, of which 81 were still under investigation, 42 cases had been transferred to the State Attorney's Office, two had been heard by courts and 84 were closed. Of the closed cases, 27 were closed for lack of evidence, 23 for lack of public interest, four for lack of guilt, and 30 because the offender was unknown. ``Modesty patrols'' harassed Haredi women in Haredi communities. On March 15, the Jerusalem District Court sentenced Elhanan Buzaglo to four years' imprisonment and required him to pay 10,000 NIS ($2,600) in compensation to the victim. The ``modesty patrols'' had paid Buzaglo 8,000 NIS ($2,100) to assault and threaten a woman who had divorced her husband and abandoned her religious way of life. Buzaglo and four other persons beat the woman at her home and threatened to kill her if she did not move out of the house. The court condemned the ``modesty patrols'' organization and urged the organization to prevent its members from committing such crimes. The suspected senior member of the ``modesty patrols'' was also arrested in August 2008 but was not indicted due to a lack of evidence. Couples and individuals had the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children, and had the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Access to information on contraception and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care was widely available. Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. In the secular judicial system, women and men enjoyed the same rights, but religious courts restricted the rights of Jewish and Muslim women. A Jewish woman is allowed to initiate divorce proceedings, but her husband must give his consent to make the divorce final. Because some men disappear or refuse to grant the divorce, thousands of so- called ``agunot'' (chained women) may not remarry or give birth to legitimate children. Rabbinical tribunals may, and sometimes did, sanction a husband who refused divorce but still did not grant a divorce without his consent. Jewish women married to Jewish men do not have redress to civil courts; only religious courts can rule on personal status issues. A Muslim woman may petition for and receive a divorce through the Shari'a courts without her husband's consent under certain conditions, and a marriage contract may provide for other circumstances in which she may obtain a divorce without her husband's consent. A Muslim man may divorce his wife without her consent and without petitioning the court. During the year the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation (OECD) reported that only 23 percent of Arab women were part of the formal labor force. Arab and Haredi Jewish women were concentrated in low paid employment. A May 6 Yediot Aharanot article described a new regulation at the ultra-Orthodox Shas' Maayan Torah education network that prohibits female workers from working without a head covering that completely covers their hair. Many Haredi women expressed disagreement with the new regulation that also bans the use of wigs as head coverings. According to its Web site, the Yad L'Achim's antiassimilation department receives approximately 1,000 calls per year identifying Jewish women who become involved with foreign workers or Arab men. Yad L'Achim responded in some cases by what it termed ``launching military- like rescues from hostile Arab villages and setting the women up in 'safe' houses around the country, where they can build new lives for themselves.'' A December ``rescue'' from Gaza of Oshrit Ohana and her four children, reportedly coordinated with the IDF and Interior Minister Eli Yishai, was widely popular among the public, but critics claimed such ``rescues'' sometimes disregarded the will of the women involved. Although the law prohibits discrimination based on gender in employment and wages and provides for class action suits, complaints of significant wage disparities between men and women persisted. The government enacted a number of programs to improve the status of women in the work place and society. The Authority for the Advancement of the Status of Women in the Prime Minister's Office approved 200 scholarships for higher education for Druze, Bedouin, and Circassian female students in the north. The Authority held professional training courses in Arab, Druze, and Circassian localities. The Ministry of Education established a department dedicated to the promotion of gender equality within the school system. In August women comprised 43.5 percent of officers of government corporations. During the year Haneen Zoabi became the third female Arab citizen of Israel to serve in the Knesset and the first to serve on behalf of an Israeli Arab political party (Balad). Children.--Citizenship is derived by birth within or outside of the country to at least one Israeli citizen parent. There were 2.4 million children in the country, comprising 33 percent of the population. The number of children without citizenship was increasing, according to the National Council for the Child (NCC). As of April, there were 145,855 children without citizenship, a 17 percent increase since 2001. Three-fourths of them were Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, who had blue identity cards but not Israeli citizenship. Another 38,000 were children of legal work migrants. Children of illegal immigrants were not included nor were more than 1,000 child asylum seekers. According to an NCC report published on February 8, social services described 309,141 children as at risk of abuse in 2008; 2,000 children were hospitalized due to physical or sexual abuse within the family. Education is compulsory through the ninth grade. The government operated separate school systems for Hebrew-speaking children, Arabic- speaking children, and Orthodox Jews. Ultra-Orthodox Haredi political parties continued to oppose government regulation of their government- funded school systems. In the Arabic school system, Arabic, English, Hebrew, and Jewish studies are compulsory courses from elementary school through matriculation. In the Hebrew school system, Arabic, one of the country's official languages, is required from grades seven to nine, but according to the NGO Abraham Fund Initiatives, this requirement was not enforced in most schools. Trafficking in Persons.--Trafficking in persons for the purposes of both prostitution and labor is prohibited under the law. The country was a destination for trafficking for the purposes of labor and prostitution. Neither the government nor NGOs could quantify accurately the extent of the problem. The NGO Hotline was critical of the lack of enforcement of the trafficking law regarding forced labor in agriculture; the MOI unit responsible for reducing human trafficking did not provide information leading to a single criminal investigation in the June to October period. Some NGOs and media reports expressed concern that internal sex trafficking of citizens for the purposes of prostitution was on the rise. The government focused on illegal alien cases that were often classified as prostitution rather than trafficking. The government reported that most victims of trafficking for prostitution in the country came from the former Soviet Union, primarily from Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, and Uzbekistan. Antitrafficking and women's advocacy NGO Isha L'Isha also reported trafficking of women from China, the Philippines, Mongolia, Belarus, and Lithuania for prostitution. Organized crime groups trafficked women for prostitution, luring them with promises of service sector jobs. Some reportedly sold women to brothels. Hotline reported it did not see new women trafficked for prostitution from the countries cited above during the year, but it remained concerned about possible sex trafficking of female migrant workers and refugees. A Knesset Research and Information Center report released on October 20 stated that police had opened more trafficking related cases than in the previous year, which resulted mostly in the closing of brothels, pandering, and some trafficking cases. Although investigations increased, the report did not state that trafficking increased. The report also criticized the Immigration Administration for failing to locate trafficking victims or prosecute exploiting employers. On March 7, following a two-year investigation that included cooperation with Belarus authorities, Tel Aviv police arrested 12 persons suspected of operating an international human trafficking ring. The newspaper Haaretz reported that, among those arrested, was the person suspected of operating the ring that had smuggled hundreds of women from the former Soviet Union into the country in recent years, forcing the women under threat of violence to engage in prostitution in clubs and brothels. On March 29, eight Israelis were indicted for operating a multimillion dollar international human trafficking ring over the previous decade involving hundreds of women. The chief suspect in the case, Rami Saban, was charged with 23 felony offenses, including conspiracy to commit a crime, operating a brothel, managing a brothel, solicitation, forcing a person to leave the country of residence to work as a prostitute, assault, forgery, money laundering, and harassing witnesses. The penal code stipulates that coercion to engage in prostitution is a criminal offense, punishable by four to 20 years' imprisonment, depending on the specific crime. Civil law verdicts have begun to favor the victims, and most verdicts involved compensation, although NGOs expressed a need for larger compensation awards. Hotline charged that the law does not cover some forms of trafficking, including ``trafficking to obtain financial advantage'' or a ``flying visa,'' whereby a worker pays a commission to an agency in the home country to get a work permit but arrives to find there is no job. In such cases, the worker does not have a valid permit under the law and is subject to arrest and deportation. The government responded that such cases were financial fraud offenses, rather than trafficking, because the freedom of the migrant worker was not restricted. During the year police conducted nine criminal investigations on trafficking in persons for the purpose of engaging them in prostitution and arrested 13 suspects. Police opened 269 cases of managing a property for the purpose of engaging in prostitution. Police also opened 82 pandering cases, some of which were originally trafficking cases that were filed as pandering charges due to a lack of evidence. Police opened 10 cases of causing a person to leave the country for the purpose of prostitution, 20 cases of abduction for the purpose of trafficking or a sexual offence and 16 cases of publication of prostitution services. Between January and August, authorities closed 18 Tel Aviv brothels, opened 331 cases for trafficking or related offenses, and arrested 69 suspects. Victims of labor trafficking varied by sector. The largest groups were Thai agricultural workers, Chinese construction workers, and domestic and nursing care workers from the Philippines, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Hotline noted that workers employed as caregivers were particularly vulnerable to having their visa status revoked when their employers failed to arrange their visas. The labor law criminalizes trafficking for slavery, forced labor, prostitution, pornography, sexual abuse, and organ selling, and provides a maximum sentence of seven to 20 years' imprisonment depending on the offense. In 2008 the State Attorney's Office and the Immigration Administration jointly filed the first indictment for forced labor under the new amendments to the trafficking law. The case remained pending at year's end. Authorities opened 61 cases for trafficking in persons for labor and forced labor, 28 cases of withholding passports, and eight cases of exploitation of vulnerable populations. The Tel Aviv shelter Maagan, the only government-operated shelter for victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation, had a capacity for 50 women and housed 26 women and seven children during the year. The Atlas shelter for male victims of slavery and forced labor housed 21 men. At year's end, there were 13 women, five children, and one man in these shelters. The government reported that all trafficking victims in the shelters received temporary visas and work visas if requested. Although there was some improvement in the situation, Isha L'Isha reported it was difficult to admit trafficked women into a shelter if they had children, and that trafficking victims living outside the shelter remained without medical insurance. The Legal Aid Law provides free legal aid to every victim of trafficking and slavery. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other state services. Legislation mandates access to buildings and transportation, as well as accommodations for persons with disabilities in services and the work place. The government effectively enforced the laws with limited success but had not formulated specific regulations. Societal discrimination, segregation in many areas, and lack of accessibility persisted in employment and housing. The Commission for Equal Rights of People with Disabilities (CERPD) within the MOJ is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. It receives public inquiries, provides legal advice and represents clients, educates, and promotes best practices. It took legal action in the areas of accessibility and employment and issued regulations to ensure disabled access to services and public sites. However, improvements were slow, according to Bizchut, a domestic NGO that advocates for the rights of persons with disabilities. The CERPD's annual report showed a 53 percent employment rate for persons with moderate disabilities and an employment rate a 31 percent rate for persons with severe disabilities. Various ministries and agencies maintained responsibility for persons with disabilities. The Division for Integrating Persons with Disabilities in the Labor Market, within the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Labor, examines and promotes employment for persons with disabilities. On August 1, an amendment to the National Insurance Law came into effect that allows persons who receive a disability pension to earn more by permitting a combination of income and pension, rather than requiring the total forfeiture of the disability pension. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services provides out-of- home placement and sheltered employment for persons with cognitive, physical, and communication disabilities. It also handles criminal investigations when persons with certain disabilities, either victims or offenders, are referred by the police. In 2008 police referred 668 persons with disabilities for such special investigations. The National Insurance Agency provides financial benefits and stipends, the Ministry of Health provides mental health and rehabilitation services, and the Ministry of Education provides special education services. However, Bizchut criticized the lack of services actually provided to mainstreamed pupils, which effectively limited their integration into regular class settings. Television stations include subtitles or sign language, and the courts accommodate testimony from persons with intellectual disabilities or mental illness. The law mandates accessibility to public transportation, but it was not always available. Most train stations maintained access for persons with disabilities; however, as of September, approximately 40 percent of buses did not have such access. There were approximately 1.2 million persons with self-reported disabilities in the country, according to Bizchut. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Arab citizens of Israel continued to suffer various forms of discrimination in public and private life. Tensions between Arabs and Jews also remained high in areas where the two communities overlap, such as Jerusalem, the Galilee, and Negev, and in some mixed cities with historically separate Jewish and Arab neighborhoods. On November 30, the Jerusalem Magistrates Court indicted two Border Guard officers for assaulting an Arab resident of Jerusalem. Officers Maor Malianker and Yossi Dahan allegedly beat Muhtaseb Muqtada with a baton in a cemetery on November 17. Malianker was also indicted on two other counts for allegedly using a radio device to hit a Jerusalem resident and falsely reporting he was attacked during a search. In March 2008 a police officer from the town of Kfar Saba reportedly attacked two Arab citizens of Israel while shouting, ``death to Arabs.'' Another police officer who witnessed the attack intervened to prevent injury. No further information was available. The Tel Aviv District Court had not issued its verdict at year's end in the case against Eliyahu Aharoni, who had been indicted for conspiracy to commit arson out of a racist motive. In October 2008 police arrested six young Jewish men in Tel Aviv for allegedly firebombing three Arab apartments in a Jewish neighborhood in Tel Aviv to incite anti-Arab sentiment and rioting from Acre (Akko) to Jaffa and other mixed neighborhoods around Tel Aviv. The other five men were not indicted due to lack of evidence. During the year the Israel Land Fund NGO continued its program to purchase Arab land throughout Israel and market it to Jewish buyers, including in the diaspora; the organization claimed that all the land belonged to Jewish people and described as a ``danger'' the purchase of Jewish-owned lands by non-Jews. Throughout 2008 and during the climax of the national election campaign in February, media and political incitement against the Israeli Arab community continued from members of the Knesset and high- profile party leaders, including Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman, whose election campaign appeared to polarize relations between Arabs and Jews. Lieberman called one Israeli Arab member of Knesset a terrorist. Public debate continued over the suggestion of some Jewish politicians of ``transferring'' communities of Arab citizens from Israel to the Palestinian territories (in return for transferring Jewish settlements in the West Bank to Israel) as part of a negotiated solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Arab citizens of Israel overwhelmingly condemned the proposal, while Jewish opinion ranged from support to condemnation. Members of Yisrael Beiteynu, a right-wing party headed by Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman, advocated the idea in media interviews at public gatherings throughout the year. The High Court of Justice ruled on January 7 that the National Insurance Institute (NII) should provide forms in Arabic in addition to Hebrew, and accepted the state's notification that applications submitted in Arabic would be processed. The NII provides a wide variety of assistance programs, such as old-age and survivors, maternity, children, work injury, general disability, and more. Prior to the January ruling, documents submitted for claims had to be translated into Hebrew. In July the transport minister decided to Hebraicize all road signs, applying uniform rules to the appearance of approximately 2,500 destinations in Hebrew, Arabic, and English. Adalah claimed this was contrary to a 2002 Supreme Court judgment that obliged mixed cities to add Arabic to the traffic, warning, and informational signs. The transport minister's decision would entail the replacement of all road signs with new signs that show the Hebrew names of places in Arabic letters, regardless of the common and historical Arabic or English name of the place. For example, ``Jerusalem'' would become ``Yerushalayim'' in Hebrew, English, and Arabic, and ``Al-Quds'' (the Arabic name for Jerusalem) would cease to exist on the road signs. As of year's end, the attorney general had not replied to the July 15 letter Adalah sent demanding the cancellation of the transport minister's decision, but the Ministry of Transportation was inspecting claims regarding the policy. Approximately 93 percent of land was in the public domain, and the Jewish National Fund (JNF), whose statutes prohibit sale or lease of land to non-Jews, owned approximately 12.5 percent. In 2005 the attorney general ruled the government cannot discriminate against Arab citizens of Israel in marketing and allocating lands it manages, including those of the JNF. As an interim measure, the government agreed through the Israel Lands Administration (ILA) to compensate the JNF for any land leased to an Arab by transferring an equal amount of land from the ILA to the JNF. Legal petitions against the JNF policy of leasing public land only to Jews were ongoing at year's end. On August 3, the Knesset passed the Israel Land Administration Law. The new law institutes broad land privatization; permits land exchanges between the state and the JNF, the land of which is exclusively reserved for the Jewish people; allows lands to be allocated in accordance with ``admissions committee'' mechanisms and only to candidates approved by Zionist institutions working solely on behalf of the Jewish people; and grants decisive weight to JNF representatives in a new Land Authority Council, which would replace the ILA. Competing claims to ownership of land provoked conflicts during the year, particularly in the East Jerusalem neighborhood of Sheikh Jarrah. A joint 1956 project of the UN Relief and Works Agency and the Jordanian government gave houses in the neighborhood to 28 Palestinian 1948-refugee families. Court decisions have upheld settler organizations' claims to the property dating from the Ottoman era. Demonstrations organized by the advocacy groups Israeli Committee Against House Demolition, Rabbis for Human Rights, and the International Solidarity Movement have occurred on a weekly basis, resulting in arrests and court orders barring some activists from the area for 30 days, according to press reports. Advocacy organizations defending the rights of Arab citizens of Israel have challenged the demolition of illegal buildings in the Arab sector on grounds that the government unfairly restricted building permits and rezoned open space areas to exclude Arabs from expanding built-up areas. The controversy has been acute in East Jerusalem, particularly in Sheikh Jarrah, where land zoning restricted the development of new residences near Arab neighborhoods and height restrictions limited buildings to six stories. Arab areas near the Old City were restricted to two stories to preserve the historic nature of the area, whereas authorities permitted six- and eight-story structures in predominantly Jewish areas equally near the Old City. New construction is illegal in towns that do not have an ``authorized detailed plan'' for development, which is the legal responsibility of local authorities. In the country's 46 unrecognized Bedouin villages, all buildings were illegal, since there were no recognized local authorities to promote an authorized detailed plan. In 2004 the Supreme Court ruled, in a case regarding priority areas for education, that omitting Arab towns from specific government social and economic plans was discriminatory. At year's end, according to the government, master plans were completed for 62 of the country's 128 Arab communities, while 58 communities were engaged in the process of developing master plans. According to the Harvard International Human Rights Clinic, between January and August, authorities demolished 97 Bedouin homes. On December 15, authorities demolished the entire Bedouin ``village'' of al-Atrash, consisting of at least 12 structures, under a 1996 Beer Sheva Magistrate Court decision that removed Abdulla al-Atrash and his family for trespassing near an IDF firing range. The Al-Atrash family had withdrawn their appeal in 2002. On December 13, the government adopted a new national priorities area map, complying with a 2006 Supreme Court ruling that government policy was discriminatory because it included only four Arab communities among the 539 communities slated for special funding for development. The new national priority plan provides special funding for approximately two million Israelis and includes communities constituting 40 percent of Israeli Arabs. However, the national priority plan now includes areas in the West Bank, encompassing approximately 110,000 Jewish settlers who would receive the special funding as well, although funding for their housing was specifically excluded. The law exempts Arab citizens of Israel from mandatory military service. Citizens who do not perform military service enjoy fewer social and economic benefits. Arab citizens of Israel generally were ineligible to work in companies with defense contracts or in security- related fields. Arab citizens were underrepresented in most fields of employment, including government, despite an affirmative action program begun to promote their hiring (including Druze and Bedouin) in the civil service. According to the government, 6.67 percent of government employees in August were Arab citizens. The law requires that minorities have ``appropriate representation'' in the civil service and on the boards of government- owned corporations. As of August, Arabs (including Druze and Circassians) filled 8.7 percent of the board seats of state-run companies. Of the 55,000 persons working in government-owned companies, 1 percent were Arab. On March 29, Israel Railways dismissed 40 Arab crossroads safety inspectors because they had not served in the military. On April 7 and 19, the Tel Aviv Regional Labor Court suspended implementation of the dismissals and, on September 6, issued an injunction, finding discrimination against workers who had not served in the military. In June 2008 the government started a National Civil Service program for citizens not drafted for military service, giving Arab citizens, Haredi Jews, and Orthodox Jewish women the opportunity to serve in their own communities for more than a year and be eligible for the same benefits accorded military veterans. Of the 12,000 volunteers during the 2008-09 academic year, more than 1,000 were Arab citizens, half or whom served in education, a quarter in welfare, 22 percent in health, and the remainder in road accident prevention and legal and environment work. Resources devoted to the education of Arab children were inferior to those devoted to Jewish children in the public education system. The OECD estimated that public spending on children in Arab localities was at least one-third lower than for children in Jewish municipalities. There was an average of 25 Jewish schoolchildren per classroom, while Arab children averaged 29 per classroom. There was a growing need for Arabic-speaking classes, as Arab students comprised 23 percent of high school students, 27 percent of junior high students, and 28 percent of elementary students. The Israeli Druze community comprised approximately 8.3 percent of the minority population, and the Circassian community numbered some 3,000. Males of both communities were subject to the military draft, and the majority accepted willingly. Some Bedouin and, to a much lesser degree, other Arab citizens not subject to the draft also served voluntarily. The Bedouin population was the most disadvantaged. Half of the 160,000 Bedouin lived in poverty, but with basic state services, in seven state-planned and eight recognized communities. The seven state- planned townships were among the eight poorest communities in the country, according to a March 2008 HRW report. The other half of the country's Bedouin lived in at least 46 unrecognized villages, which did not have water and electricity and lacked educational, health, and welfare services. The unrecognized villages, made up mostly of tents and shacks, evolved as a result of the government's refusal to recognize Bedouin land claims based on traditional usage prior to the establishment of the state. Government planners noted there were insufficient funds to relocate Bedouin living in unrecognized villages to new towns and that the average Bedouin family could not afford to purchase a home in existing towns; however, the government maintained a program to encourage such movement by providing low-cost land and compensation for demolition of illegal structures for those willing to move to designated permanent locations. Many Bedouin complained that moving to government-planned towns required giving up claims to land they had lived on for generations, while the government claimed it was difficult to provide services to clusters of buildings throughout the Negev that ignored planning procedures. On January 18, the government accepted the December 2008 report of the Goldberg Committee for Regulation of Bedouin Settlements in the Negev, which urged the government to regularize the situation where possible and increase services and assistance. As of year's end, the Supreme Court had not ruled on a 2006 Adalah appeal of the Haifa District Court decision not to overturn a Water Tribunal decision denying water services to unrecognized villages. The approximately 20,000 non-Israeli residents of the Golan Heights are subject to Israeli authority and Israeli law. Israel accords them permanent resident status, but most of them are Druze and citizens of Syria who largely have refused or have been denied Israeli citizenship. As legal residents, they received Israeli travel documents and held identity cards that entitled them to many of the same social benefits as Israeli citizens. Druze communities in the Golan Heights received support for municipal services and infrastructure maintenance The four Druze local authorities received a total of 25.7 million NIS ($6.8 million) in general financial grants for local authorities, as set by the Public Committee for Reform within the Israel Land Administration, and were allocated 1.3 million NIS ($348,000) from the MOI for development (see Annex for discussion of Palestinian residents of East Jerusalem). The government prohibits Druze citizens, like all citizens, from visiting Syria. The government allowed noncitizen Druze from the Golan Heights to visit holy sites in Syria through the ICRC-managed pilgrimage program, but it has prevented family visitations since 1982. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation, and the government generally enforced these laws. Gay Pride rallies occurred peacefully in Tel Aviv on June 12 and in Jerusalem on June 25, with only one incident in which police arrested an egg-throwing protester in Jerusalem. There was police authorization and protection for the marchers. There were demonstrations in an ultra- Orthodox section of Jerusalem against the march. On August 1, a masked gunman killed Nir Katz, 26, and Liz Trobishi, 16, and wounded 15 others in the offices of the NGO GLBT Israel in Tel Aviv. At year's end, a high priority police investigation continued. High-level politicians, including the president and prime minister, were quick to condemn the attacks. Settler Yaacov Teitel (see sections 1.a., 1.c., 6, and the Annex) was arrested on October 7 after posting signs in Hebrew in an ultra-Orthodox community in Jerusalem praising the attack in Tel Aviv, but police did not charge him with these killings. A number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) organizations operated freely. They included Jerusalem Open House, which runs an LGBT Health Awareness Campaign, and Aswat, a lesbian advocacy organization of Arab citizens of Israel that works to promote LGBT rights and to combat homophobia in the Arab community. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Societal violence and discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS existed in isolated cases. In August several media reported on three national-religious ``private'' schools in Petah Tikvah that refused to admit some 30 Ethiopian Jewish students. Despite a court order, 11 recent immigrants from Ethiopia had yet to be admitted to the schools by the end of the year. These unofficial, but state-recognized schools received as much as 75 percent of their funds from the state, which guaranteed in principle, but did not effectively enforce equality. The president and prime minister quickly condemned the refusal to admit the students, and Education Minister Gideon Saar threatened to cut off funding from the schools if they did not accept the students by the first day of school. Mayor Itzik Ohayoun made a deal with the city's religious schools for expanded integration of more than 100 Ethiopian students, but did not exercise his power to force the schools to accept all the students by the end of December, four months into the school year. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Effectively implemented laws concerning the right of association provide that citizens may join and establish independent labor organizations. Most unions belong to Histadrut (the General Federation of Labor) or to a smaller rival federation, the Histadrut Haovdim Haleumit (National Federation of Labor). Both are independent. There were no restrictions on collective bargaining agreements, and no prior government approval was required. The law provides for protection for workers from discrimination resulting from their membership in or activity with a labor organization. The government reported that litigation stemming from discrimination of this kind was negligible. Labor laws also apply to noncitizens, although with modifications, and enforcement was not adequate, according to Hotline. A legally resident migrant worker may join Histadrut, may vote in the elections, and is eligible for all its services, as long as the employee pays membership fees. In an organized workplace, one who does not want to be a member must pay a trade union fee of 0.8 percent of salary. The government sets annual quotas for foreign workers. Through October 50,000 permits had been issued for nurses, bringing the number of permits issued for foreign workers to approximately 88,500 in the year. This number constituted 38 percent of the foreign work force. Nonresident Palestinians may join Israeli trade unions and organize their own unions in Israel. As of September 30, the government issued 25,661 working permits for nonresident Palestinian employees. Unions have the right to strike, and workers exercised this right. If essential public services are affected by a strike, the government may appeal to labor courts for back-to-work orders during continued negotiations. Worker dismissals and the terms of severance arrangements traditionally have been the central issues of disputes. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively, and these laws are enforced. Collective agreements cover approximately 58 percent of all workers. The law specifically prohibits antiunion discrimination, and none was reported. The Collective Agreements Law was amended in August to include a provision that obligates an employer to negotiate with an employee organization. Collective bargaining agreements extend to nonunion workplaces in the same sector. To obtain a job, foreign workers usually paid agency fees, collected overseas, that reportedly ranged from 12,000 NIS ($3,000) to 80,000 NIS ($20,000) per worker. Chinese construction workers paid the highest fees. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and criminalizes gradations of labor exploitation. According to the OECD review, the laws concerning minimum employment conditions and foreign workers were not effectively enforced. The law provides that foreign laborers have legal status, decent working conditions, health insurance, and a written employment contract; nonetheless, some employers forced individual laborers who entered the country, legally and illegally, to live under conditions that constituted involuntary servitude. In a major reorganization of the immigration and employment law-enforcement functions during the year, responsibility for noncitizen workers was moved from the Immigration Police in July to the new Population, Immigration, and Border Crossings Authority under MOI oversight. This office has the authority to arrest and detain workers, but not the authority to enforce labor or trafficking laws against employers. As a result, according to Hotline, even in cases when an illegal worker was detained when working, inspectors were not able to charge the employer with labor law violations, or even illegal employment. There were numerous documented cases, but few resulting employer prosecutions, concerning foreign laborers living in harsh conditions, subject to debt bondage, and restricted in their movements. On July 14, Kav LaOved provided legal representation at the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court on behalf of an Indian migrant worker, employed as a caregiver, who had been ordered by the court to remain at her job. The caregiver had informed her employer that she wanted to leave her job and gave him due notice. The employer's son argued that the worker had committed to take care of his mother for a year from the date of her arrival, with no option of leaving earlier, and asked the court to order the worker to continue working until at least December 21. The court agreed to the request and issued a temporary court order forcing the worker to continue but annulled the order after Hotline objected. In August, following a complaint by Kav LaOved, a criminal indictment was filed in the Be'er Sheva Magistrate's Court against the agricultural company Katif Venture and Development Ltd. and some of its employees, charging them with employing Thai and Nepalese agricultural workers in inhumane conditions. The charges included making the employees work for 15-20 hours each day, seven days per week, paid well below the minimum wage with no overtime compensation; constantly threatened to accelerate their work pace lest they be returned to their countries; and prohibition from using a telephone. The workers were also required to live in extremely crowded conditions in temporary buildings that were completely exposed to the elements. The employers were charged with exploitation, fraud, and causing injury by negligence. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--Laws provide for protection of children from exploitation in the workplace and prohibit forced or compulsory labor; the government generally enforced these laws. Children at least 15 years of age, who have completed education through grade nine, may be employed as apprentices. Those who are 14 may be employed during official school holidays in light work that will not harm their health. Working hours for those 16 to 18 years old are restricted in all sectors. During the year the Labor Laws Enforcement Division in the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Labor (MITL) initiated 230 investigations, investigated more than 600 employers for allegedly violating the Youth Employment Law, filed 43 indictments against employers, and imposed 757 administrative fines, totaling approximately 10 million NIS ($2.6 million). The Labor Law Enforcement Division also conducted national campaigns regarding employment terms of youth to promote the implementation of youth labor laws, especially during summer vacation. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The Labor Inspection Service, along with union representatives, enforced labor, health, and safety standards in the workplace. Resource constraints affected overall enforcement, and according to the OECD, the country had a general problem of failing to enforce its labor laws. The minimum wage is updated on April 1 of each year and is set at 47.5 percent of the average monthly wage. The minimum wage during the year was 3,850 NIS (approximately $1,000) per month for a 43-hour week. There are reduced minimum wages for youths and persons with disabilities. The government considered the minimum wage, supplemented by special allowances for citizens, to provide a citizen worker a decent standard of living. Some union officials, NGOs, and social commentators disputed this claim. Noncitizen workers did not receive the special allowances. Histadrut reported that enforcement by the Labor Inspection Service in the MITL improved during the year. Resource constraints limited inspections, particularly of conditions in the settlements where many Thai work. The law allows a maximum 43-hour workweek at regular pay. Premium pay was 125 percent for the first two hours and 150 percent for any additional hours, with a limit of 15 hours of overtime per week. Histadrut reported that Israeli and foreign workers operated under the same rules. Documented foreign workers were entitled to many of the same benefits as citizens but not to national health care. Employers were legally required to provide such insurance, and most employers did so. All labor laws also apply to undocumented foreign workers. Enforcement of labor law in the home health care sector, which employs numerous foreign workers, was particularly difficult because caregivers live and work in isolated, individual settings. An employer must obtain a government permit to hire non-Israeli workers who live in the occupied territories. Most Palestinians from the occupied territories working legally in the country were employed on a daily basis and, unless employed on shift work, were not authorized to spend the night in the country. According to Histadrut, there were approximately 50,000 legal nonresident Palestinian workers during the year. The government required Palestinians to have permits to travel from the occupied territories to Israel, including for employment. According to the government, there were 23,873 Palestinians who possessed valid work permits at the end of the year, of whom an estimated 5,000 had permits to stay long-term while the rest were supposed to commute daily. There were unknown numbers of Palestinians who worked in Israel without permits and thousands who had daily permits, who remained overnight without permission. According to the government, foreign workers can remove themselves from a dangerous work situation and seek alternate employment. Kav LaOved maintained that particularly in the case of agricultural workers, no comprehensive system for such removal existed by year's end. During the year the MOI changed procedures so that employees no longer received work permission through a specifically named employer. All workers could challenge unsafe work practices through government oversight and legal agencies. Through November the Enforcement Division of the Foreign Workers Department in the MITL imposed 1,662 administrative fines on employers of foreign workers for violating the Foreign Workers Law, totaling 14,605,958 NIS ($3,844,000). Through September, 849 indictments had been filed regarding violation of the Foreign Workers Law by employers, and 196 fines totaling 1,923,000 NIS ($506,000) had been imposed on employers of foreign workers for violating the Minimum Wage Law. Thai agricultural workers, Chinese construction workers, and nursing care workers from India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines--particularly women--were at greatest risk for abuse. On September 1, the government recertified private nursing companies' caregiver licenses, giving special attention to capacity of dealing with the widespread employment of foreign workers in the field. In February the MOI assumed responsibility from MITL for possible cancellation of health care workers' residence permits. Brokers and employers collect hiring fees from migrant workers. The government limited such fees to 3,135 NIS (approximately $895) per worker, but NGOs claimed that many foreign workers continued to pay as much as 80,000 NIS ($23,000). Through September, the government held 124 hearings on canceling or restricting permits to employ foreign workers, resulting in 51 restricted or canceled permits. The government reported that, during 2008 and up to October 15, 47 permits to recruit foreign workers in the nursing field were completely revoked. Investigations and administrative hearings led to the closure of some recruitment agencies. Workers may contest deportation orders, but lack of fluency in Hebrew placed them at a considerable disadvantage. Interpreters were provided when available, but no court-appointed attorneys were provided. According to Hotline, the lack of interpreters in various governmental agencies continued to be a ``grave problem,'' and public information in languages other than Hebrew was hard to obtain. ______ THE OCCUPIED TERRITORIES (INCLUDING AREAS SUBJECT TO THE JURISDICTION OF THE PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY) Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem during the 1967 War. During the year, the Palestinian population of the West Bank was approximately 2.4 million, and Gaza's population totaled 1.6 million. There were an estimated 260,000 Arabs living in East Jerusalem with residency permits rather than Israeli citizenship. Approximately 190,000 Israeli citizens, including a small number of Arab citizens of Israel, also lived in East Jerusalem; Israelis in the West Bank numbered approximately 300,000. The Palestinian Authority (PA) has a democratically elected president and legislative council. The president appoints the prime minister who forms a cabinet in consultation with the president; the PA exercised varying degrees of authority over the Palestinian population in the West Bank because of the Israel Defense Force's (IDF) continuing presence, little authority in Gaza, and none over Israeli residents of the West Bank or Arab residents of East Jerusalem. In 2005 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Mahmoud Abbas won 62 percent of the vote in a presidential election regarded as generally free and fair. In 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, Hamas, a terrorist organization, backed candidates under the ``Reform and Change Movement'' ticket and won 74 of 132 seats in elections that generally met democratic standards. In March 2007 Hamas formed a national unity government (NUG) with the Fatah party, but after three months Hamas staged a violent takeover of PA government installations in Gaza and killed hundreds in the Fatah movement and PA security forces. President Abbas then dismissed the NUG and appointed a cabinet of independents led by Prime Minister Salam Fayyad that has governed the West Bank, while elements of the former Hamas government formed the ruling authority in Gaza where it selectively applied the laws and legal structures of the PA. President Abbas and his subordinates controlled PA security forces in the West Bank. Armed militias and terrorist organizations were still active in some areas. In Gaza, Hamas controlled security forces. Other armed factions and terrorist organizations were active in Gaza. The Israeli government maintained effective control of its security forces. International and Palestinian nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported PA torture, arbitrary and prolonged detention, poor prison conditions, impunity, corruption, and lack of transparency. Domestic abuse of women, societal discrimination against women and persons with disabilities, and child labor remained serious problems. In Gaza there were reports that Hamas security forces continued to kill, torture, kidnap, arbitrarily detain, and harass Fatah members and other Palestinians with impunity. Hamas and other Palestinian factions in Gaza shelled civilian targets in Israel. In Gaza there were reports of corruption, abuse of prisoners, and failure to provide fair trials to those accused. Hamas also strictly restricted the freedom of speech, religion, and movement of Gaza residents, and promoted gender discrimination against women. Residents of Gaza continued to be denied the right to political participation and to choose their government. Hamas and other Palestinian factions in Gaza launched rockets and mortars against civilian targets in Israel. International, Palestinian, and Israeli NGOs severely criticized Israeli military operations in Gaza for conflict abuses in similar terms. Concerning the West Bank, Israeli and Palestinian NGOs reported that Israeli authorities used excessive force, abused civilians and detainees, tortured Palestinian detainees, failed to take proper disciplinary actions, improperly applied security internment procedures, maintained austere and overcrowded detention facilities, imposed severe restrictions on internal and external freedom of movement, and limited cooperation with NGOs. A partially completed Israeli-built separation barrier isolated portions of the West Bank and restricted Palestinian movement and access to West Bank land west of the barrier. In response to a sharp increase in the number and frequency of rocket attacks into Israel from Gaza shortly prior to and following the formal expiration of the ``calm'' on December 19, 2008, the IDF launched Operation Cast Lead, consisting initially of airstrikes December 27, targeted against Hamas security installations, personnel, and other facilities in the Gaza Strip, followed on January 3 by ground operations. The operation concluded in mid-January. Human rights organizations estimated the number of dead at 1,400 Palestinians, including more than 1,000 civilians, and the wounded at more than 5,000. According to Israeli government figures, Palestinian deaths totaled 1,166, including 295 noncombatant deaths. The president of the UN Human Rights Council (HRC) established the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict to investigate Israeli violations of international human rights and humanitarian law in the context of military operations in Gaza, whether before, during, or after Operation Cast Lead. On September 29, Justice Richard Goldstone, who headed the mission, presented the report (commonly known as the ``Goldstone Report'') to the HRC in Geneva. The Goldstone report investigated 36 incidents of alleged violations by the IDF in Gaza, as well as alleged violations by Palestinians. This reflected an effort by Goldstone to broaden the scope of his report beyond the original mandate that was limited only to violations by Israel. Among its many conclusions, the report claimed that members of the IDF were responsible for deliberate targeting of civilians, for the destruction of critical infrastructure in Gaza, and for using weapons like white phosphorous in highly populated areas, all of which it deemed to be violations of international humanitarian law. The Goldstone report was widely criticized for methodological failings, legal and factual errors, falsehoods, and for devoting insufficient attention to the asymmetrical nature of the conflict and the fact that Hamas and other Palestinian militants were deliberately operating in heavily populated urban areas of Gaza. The government of Israel also sharply rejected the charge that it had a policy of deliberately targeting civilians. IDF Military Advocate General Mandelblit was responsible for reviewing all allegations relating to Operation Cast Lead, including those contained in the Goldstone Report. At the end of the year, Mandelblit's investigations were ongoing. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--Killings by Palestinian security forces occurred infrequently compared to previous years. Palestinian terrorist groups' killings remained a serious problem, particularly in the Gaza Strip, as did killings by Hamas- controlled security forces. Israeli military actions in Gaza in January caused significant civilian casualties. According to statistics maintained by the Israeli government and by the United Nations Office for the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA), 27 Palestinians in the West Bank and East Jerusalem died in clashes with Israeli security forces during the year. B'Tselem reported that 22 Palestinians in the West Bank (excluding East Jerusalem) were killed by Israeli security. Of them, four were killed while participating in hostilities, 13 were killed while not participating; B'Tselem did not know whether the remaining five were killed while participating in hostilities. According to Israeli government figures, Palestinian deaths resulting from Israeli military operations in the Gaza Strip in December 2008 and January 2009 totaled 1,166, including 295 noncombatant deaths. Human rights organizations estimated the number of dead at 1,400 Palestinians, including more than 1,000 civilians, and the wounded at more than 5,000. Palestinian factional violence resulted in 12 Palestinian fatalities and 29 Palestinian injuries in the West Bank over the period from January until September 28. Killings by Palestinian security forces occurred infrequently compared to previous years. Palestinian terrorist groups' killings remained a serious problem, particularly in the Gaza Strip, as did killings by Hamas security forces. Palestinian factional violence resulted in 12 Palestinian fatalities and 29 Palestinian injuries in the West Bank over the period from January until September 28. According to Israeli government statistics, Palestinian terrorist acts emanating from the West Bank killed five Israeli civilians, including two policemen. No Israeli civilians died in violence emanating from the Gaza Strip, although the Israeli government attributed the death of 10 IDF soldiers killed during and immediately after IDF military operations in Gaza in January to terrorist action. In the West Bank, four prisoners held in PA correctional facilities died in custody during the year. Mohammad Jamil al-Haj died on February 8 in Preventive Security Organization (PSO) custody, and Fadi Hamadneh died on August 10 in the custody of the General Intelligence (GI) Service. An internal PA investigation ruled both deaths suicides by hanging. In two other cases, that of Majd al-Barghouti, who died on February 24 of heart failure while in the custody of the GI, and Haitham Amre, who died of injuries sustained during detention on June 15 in GI custody, an internal PA investigation found PA security forces culpable. The deaths of these two prisoners resulted in an internal PA investigation that led to the jailing, demotion, or disciplining of 43 PA security officials. According to local media and to the quasi-governmental Independent Commission on Human Rights (ICHR), masked gunmen affiliated with Hamas unlawfully executed at least 32 persons during the year. In most cases, allegations that the victims had collaborated with Israel accompanied the killings. There were 20 documented cases of masked gunmen shooting and killing escaped prisoners from December 28, 2008 to the end of January, during the unrest accompanying the Israeli military operations in Gaza; at least 12 of the victims were imprisoned for allegedly ``collaborating with the enemy.'' On April 16, Hassan al-Sayfi, general inspector in Gaza's Interior Ministry, told Human Rights Watch (HRW) that a committee he heads had completed investigations into two deaths in detention and authorities accepted recommendations, suspending from duty and filing charges against the police officers involved. In two other cases, the committee was continuing its investigations, but no further information was available at year's end. There were no updates on investigations into the 2008 deaths of Taleb Mohammed Abu Sitta in Hamas police custody or Bassam Anani, who died of injuries after Hamas police detention. Israeli human rights organizations reported a lack of protection for civilians during the Israeli incursion into Gaza. Among the 1,385 estimated casualties in Israel's military operations in Gaza at the beginning of the year, B'Tselem reported that civilians accounted for 773, or more than half, of those killed. According to the Israeli government, Hamas operated within civilian populations. The government of Israel reported that 295 deaths in the operation were civilians. Four Israeli civilians and 10 soldiers were killed in combat or as a result of rocket and mortar fire. HRW documented allegations in seven cases that Israeli soldiers shot and killed 11 Palestinian civilians, including five women and four children, who were in groups waving white flags to convey their civilian status. According to HRW, on January 7, Israeli tanks stopped at the house of Khalid 'Abd Rabbo. According to three family members who witnessed the incident, an Israeli soldier fired on two women and three girls who had come out of the house holding makeshift white flags, killing two and wounding two seriously. At year's end, the Israeli military police were conducting an investigation into the incident. In a January 13 incident reported by both HRW and B'Tselem, IDF soldiers shot and killed several members of the al-Najar family in Khuza'a village, east of Khan Yunis. Reportedly, while waving a white flag Rawiya al-Najjar attempted to lead a group of family members, several of whom also carried white flags, out of their neighborhood, following orders from soldiers in tanks and militarized bulldozers. She was shot first, then other members of the al-Najar family were shot and killed. On January 20, two days after hostilities ended, IDF Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Gabi Ashkenazi ordered five special command investigations to focus on five types of alleged violations of the Law of Armed Conflict: incidents harming multiple civilians, damage to UN and international facilities, firing on medical facilities, destruction of private property and infrastructure, and use of weaponry containing phosphorus. At least 60 of these investigations are operational debriefings held by the army under the Military Justice Law. The operational debriefing delays a criminal investigation; the information provided cannot be released or used as evidence in a court of law. On July 29, the government released preliminary findings from some of the IDF investigations into approximately 100 complaints that it received from all sources, including NGOs, international organizations, and the media. The field investigations concluded that many allegations were false; all conclusions remained to be reviewed by the military advocate general who could order additional field investigations and whose decisions would be subject to review by the attorney general and the Supreme Court. At year's end the government had convicted one soldier, sentencing him to seven months in prison for the theft of a credit card. Field and military police investigations continued and the military advocate general had referred approximately 140 cases for criminal investigations. According to a September 2008 Yesh Din study, the Israeli Military Police Criminal Investigation Division (CID) launched 1,246 criminal investigations between September 2000 and 2007 into cases in which soldiers were suspected of killing, injuring, and committing criminal offenses against Palestinian civilians. Of the 1,246 investigations opened, 6 percent (78) led to indictments against a total of 135 soldiers. Only 13 of those indictments charged soldiers with killing civilians. As of September 2008, five soldiers had been convicted for the deaths of four civilians, 113 had been convicted of at least one offense, four had been acquitted of all charges, eight had their cases dismissed, and 10 cases were still pending. Of 1,805 criminal investigations opened by the MPCID into suspected offenses of all kinds by soldiers against Palestinian civilians and their property, approximately 6 percent (105 cases) resulted in indictments against 180 defendants. Thirteen of those indictments charged soldiers with killing civilians. From 2000 through year's end, Israeli military courts convicted one soldier of manslaughter and four soldiers of negligence in the deaths of three Palestinians and one British national, according to Yesh Din. At year's end Yesh Din reported that 143 defendants were convicted of various offenses, eight defendants were acquitted of all charges, and 10 had their indictments dropped by the prosecution. Proceedings regarding five defendants were still underway. Human rights organizations complained the IDF-through the military judge advocate general--initiated investigation often many months (at times more than a year) from the time of the incident, making it difficult to find evidence or identify witnesses and victims, and that the unit responsible for investigations had very few Arabic speakers to take testimonies from witnesses. In July 2008, in one of several incidents connected to protests against construction of the separation barrier near Na'alin village, 11-year-old Ahmed Moussa was shot with live fire by an IDF soldier responding to demonstrations near the village. On August 4, Yousif Ahmed Amira died after being shot by IDF soldiers in the head with two rubber-coated bullets on July 30. In August 2008 an internal affairs unit at the Ministry of Justice (MOJ) informed B'tselem it had opened an investigation into Amira's death. In 2006 the High Court ruled that targeted killings were not per se illegal, but each case must be meticulously examined through an independent investigation. During the year Israeli forces targeted and killed two Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. A missile fired from a helicopter killed Khaled Harb Khaled Sh'alan, a 23-year-old resident of Gaza City on March 4. In January 2008 Hussein Faiz Hussein Shameyah, a 25-year-old resident of Khan Yunis, was injured while riding a motor scooter and died 12 days later in February 2008. During the year reports continued of Palestinians being killed in the Gaza perimeter zone, as in previous years. Israel declared this area off-limits to Palestinians in response to attacks against Israelis originating in those areas. In May 2008 Israeli aircraft dropped leaflets warning Gazans to stay 300 meters from the boundary or risk being shot, doubling the size of the buffer zone. According to OCHA, Israeli soldiers have prevented Gazan farmers from accessing areas as far as 1,000 meters from the border by firing warning shots. Several civilians have been killed when they entered this Gaza Strip perimeter zone. In July 2008 Israeli fire killed a mentally impaired 15-year-old boy, and in August 2008 injured a 60-year-old. No information regarding investigations into either case was available at year's end. IDF prosecutors informed B'tselem that the 2007 cases of the deaths of 14-year-old Ahmed Sabri Suliman Ali Abu Zubeida and 13-year-old Zaher Jaber Muhammad al-Majdalawi were pending, and there were no developments in investigations into the deaths of 11-year-old Yahya Ramadan Atiyyah Abu Ghazala, eight-year-old Sarah Suliman Abdallah Abu Ghazala, or Nafia Abu Musaid. In 2007 10-year-old Abir Aramin died from a wound to the back of the head as she was leaving school during clashes between Israeli Border Police and Palestinians. The Jerusalem district prosecutor closed the investigation for lack of evidence. In June 2008 Yesh Din filed a petition with the Israeli High Court of Justice challenging the government's decision to close the case without filing an indictment. In the hearing held in October a panel of judges ordered the government to submit all investigation material collected for the court's review. At year's end there was no decision from the court. There were no developments in the 2007 killings of the following Israelis in the West Bank: Erez Levanon, Ahikham Amihai, David Rubin, or Ido Zoldan. b. Disappearance.--There were fewer reports of politically motivated kidnappings and disappearances in connection with internal Palestinian conflict than in previous years, largely due to improved security conditions in the West Bank. Hamas security operatives in the Gaza Strip carried out extrajudicial detentions based on political affiliation during the year; information about the whereabouts and welfare of those detained was not consistently or reliably available, nor were those detained offered due process or access to family and legal counsel. There were no developments in the 2007 abduction and killing of Maher Halim Daoud Juri. In 2006 Popular Resistance Committee (PRC) and Hamas militants tunneled from Gaza to Israel, killed two soldiers, and abducted a third, Gilad Shalit. At year's end Shalit had not been released. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The PA Basic Law prohibits torture or use of force against detainees; however, international human rights groups reported that torture was a problem. During the first part of the year abuse of prisoners by PA security forces was widespread. Following the deaths of four prisoners in PA custody during the year, Prime Minister Fayyad ordered security commanders to stop the practice of torture and abuse in Palestinian jails. The PA also made public statements to the effect that mistreatment of prisoners would no longer be considered acceptable in PA detention facilities. In October the PA launched an investigation into prisoner abuse in PA facilities, dismissed or disciplined 43 security officers for prisoner abuse, and invited international NGOs and media to investigate PA detention facilities. At year's end international and local media and NGOs reported improved conditions and a significant reduction in physical abuse of prisoners in PA facilities. Torture by Gaza Hamas Executive Force was not restricted to security detainees but also included persons associated with the Fatah political party and those held on suspicion of ``collaboration'' with Israel. Hamas took no action to investigate reports of torture. Documentation of abuses was limited, due partly to fear of retribution by victims and the lack of access to Gaza prisoners for PA officials and many NGOs. Palestinian NGOs alleged in previous years that the PA pressured individuals not to communicate allegations of abuse to NGOs. However, during the year, the PA provided all security forces with written guidelines for interrogation and detention, including a section on prisoner's rights. The PA Military Intelligence (MI) organization in a number of cases reportedly exceeded its legal authority to investigate other security services' officers and detained civilians suspected of ``security offenses'' such as terrorist activities. Local human rights NGOs claimed that PA security forces used disproportionate force during arrest and capture operations, causing unnecessary injury. A July 29 HRW report documented abuses by Hamas security forces against Fatah-affiliated officials in Gaza and by Fatah against Hamas members and supporters in the West Bank. During and after the conflict in Gaza, masked gunmen beat and maimed by shooting dozens of known Fatah members, especially from the PA security services. The ICHR said masked gunmen deliberately inflicted bullet wounds to the legs of at least 49 people between December 28, 2008 and January 31. In January and February, HRW interviewed three men who had been shot in the legs, reportedly by Hamas security forces. Two were Fatah supporters; one was a former member of the Preventive Security Force of the PA, who had been overheard on the street criticizing Hamas. Abductions and severe beatings are another major concern. According to ICHR, unidentified perpetrators physically abused 73 Gazan men from December 28, 2008 to January 31, breaking legs and arms. HRW documented one case of what appeared to be a politically motivated house arrest. Israeli actions in Gaza and in the West Bank resulted in serious nonlethal injury and property and infrastructure destruction, as well as deaths as noted in section 1.a. At least 1,168 Palestinians were injured, the vast majority by the IDF in Gaza, but some by the IDF and Israelis who lived in West Bank settlements. Between January 1 and September 28, the IDF conducted 1,199 incursions into West Bank Area A, according to UN agencies. During the same period, the IDF conducted 262 incursions into West Bank refugee camps in areas A, B, and C. (See below under ``Role of the Police and Security Apparatus'' for definitions of Areas A, B, and C.) Israeli law, as interpreted by a 1999 High Court decision, prohibits torture and several interrogation techniques but allows ``moderate physical pressure'' against detainees considered to possess information about an imminent terrorist attack. The decision also indicates that interrogators who abuse detainees suspected of possessing such information may be immune from prosecution. Human rights organizations reported that ``moderate physical pressure'' has been used in practice to include beatings, requiring an individual to hold a stress position for long periods, and painful pressure on shackles and restraints applied to the forearms. Israeli NGOs, including B'Tselem and HaMoked, continued to criticize what they termed abusive Israeli detention practices, including isolation, sleep deprivation, protracted handcuffing, and psychological abuse. In May the UN Committee Against Torture (CAT) issued its Concluding Observations on Israel. In its report, the CAT raised questions about what it categorized as ``numerous, ongoing and consistent allegations'' of torture and mistreatment by Israel of Palestinians. Israeli authorities reported that the IDF thoroughly investigated all events in which IDF soldiers allegedly used unjustified force. At year's end two policemen from the Ma'ale Adumim police station who were arrested in March 2008 for severely abusing a Palestinian from Bethany remained under house arrest, and investigations continued, according to the Israeli NGO the Public Committee Against Torture in Israel (PCATI). The Israeli High Court ruled on July 1 in favor of changing the indictments filed against the soldier and commander who were involved in the 2008 shooting of Ashraf Abu Rahma, so as to reflect the gravity of the offenses. The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) and partner human rights organizations, who had filed the petition to change the indictments, expressed satisfaction with the decision, saying it conveys a crucial message that protection of human rights must be a primary consideration for law-enforcement agencies. In July 2008 in Na'alin village, an IDF soldier shot Ashraf Abu Rahma in the foot at close range with a rubber-coated bullet, while Abu Rahma was handcuffed and blindfolded. The soldier who fired the shot alleged that the battalion commander, Lt. Col. Omri Borberg, ordered him to shoot. In August 2008 Borberg was charged with conduct unbecoming an officer and reassigned by the IDF chief of staff from his duties as commander of the 71st Armored Battalion. Later in August 2008 ACRI filed a petition with the High Court seeking to compel the judge advocate general to file a more serious charge. In October 2008 the High Court asked the IDF to consider charging a more serious crime, and in November the military advocate general announced that the original charge would not be changed. Israeli and Palestinian NGO and press reports stated the IDF was insufficiently responsive to violence perpetrated by Israeli settlers in the West Bank against Palestinians. Advocacy group Yesh Din reported that 90 percent of Israeli police investigations into cases in which Israeli citizens were accused of committing offenses against Palestinians were closed without being solved. Settlers committed violent acts against civilian Palestinians with reportedly little or no intervention by Israeli security forces. Throughout the year, settlers attacked shepherds living in Um al- Khayr close to Karmel and Ma'on settlements in the southern West Bank. On April 10, two male settlers attacked an eight-month-pregnant woman near Ma'on settlement. The men, whose faces were covered, pushed her to the ground, kicked her, and beat her with sticks. B'Tselem reported that Hebron police in May said three suspects were interrogated, but the complainant could not identify any of them. B'Tselem had not received further updates. There were no updates in the 2007 attacks on the following Palestinians(: Amin Saud Mahmoud Hasuna, his brother Yasser, and Jalal al-Batsh. In 2007 the Hebron police opened an investigation into Jewish Quarter resident Yifat Alkobi's verbal and physical assault on the Abu Aysha family, which was documented on video and broadcast on the media. At year's end there was no information available on the status of the investigation. There were no developments in the 2007 beating of children from the Abu Hatah family in Hebron by settlers from Kiryat Arba or in the 2007 case of 15 Israelis from Ma'on settlement, who attacked two shepherds from Mufaqara. There were no further developments or investigations had not concluded in the following 2006 claims of beatings and other abuse: of an the Israeli Security Agency (ISA or Shin Bet) detainee from the village of Koud at Kishon Detention Center, or by IDF soldiers at al- Fawar checkpoint, in Ramin Plain, and in Bil'in village. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--PA prison conditions were poor, and the PA prison system remained significantly inadequate for the prison population it served (many prisons were destroyed during the Second Intifada and not rebuilt). Conditions of detention and imprisonment varied widely. PA Civil Police prisons remained severely overcrowded during the year, due to a lack of facility spaceSpace and capacity issues also negatively affected the availability of medical care and vocational and other programs for inmates in civil police prisons. During the year the PA generally permitted the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) access to detainees and allowed regular inspections of prison conditions; however, the PA denied access to some detainees within 14 days following their arrests as the law provides. The PA also permitted monitoring of its prisons by the ICHR and by Palestinian NGOs. Human rights groups, humanitarian organizations, and lawyers in past years reported difficulties gaining access to specific detainees varied, depending on which security organization managed the facility. The PA Civil Police held as many as 700 prisoners in its eight prisons during the year; juveniles were approximately 4 percent of the prison population, and women less than 2 percent, according to PA statistics. Women and juveniles were housed separately from male prisoners. At the end of the year, PA intelligence services, including the PSO, GI, and MI, held an estimated 230-240 security detainees separately from the general population. Persons held by the intelligence services were detained according to the same legal framework as those in civil police prisons, and their cases were subject to review by civilian and military courts, depending on the case. Gaza prison conditions were reportedly poor, and little information was available. Detention facilities were reportedly inferior compared to international legal or humanitarian standards. The ICRC conducted monitoring visits to some prisoners in Gaza but was denied permission by Hamas authorities to visit captured IDF soldier Gilad Shalit. IDF detention centers were reportedly less likely than Israeli Prison Service (IPS) prisons to meet international standards, with some, such as the Offer detention center, providing living space as small as 15 square feet per detainee. The Israeli MOJ stated that the IDF is continuously maintaining and improving the living conditions in two detention centers for the temporary holding of detainees in the West Bank. For example, the Ethicon detention facility was recently renovated. A 2007 petition filed by PCATI before the High Court that asked for improved holding cells, regular toilet access, drinking faucets, three daily meals, and improved ventilation for detainees was still pending in November. HaMoked reported that the IDF held dozens of Palestinians captured during hostilities in Gaza in January in newly-dug pits, exposed to winter weather, without sanitary facilities, and with insufficient food and blankets. Some of these pits were allegedly located in or near combat zones. After removing prisoners from pits, the IDF failed to inform families of the detainees of their whereabouts. Israel permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by the ICRC. The Israeli Bar Association and NGOs sent representatives to meet with prisoners and inspect conditions in prison, detention center, and IDF facilities. Human rights groups reported delays and difficulties in gaining access to specific detainees, frequent transfers of detainees without notice, and the limited ability of families of Palestinians imprisoned in Israel to visit. According to the NGO Palestinian Prisoners Club, Israel held 24 Palestinian prisoners in some form of solitary confinement in 2008. Palestinian prisoners in Israeli custody 16 years and older were treated and housed as adults. Legislation requires that detained minors under the age of 16 must be separate from adult detainees. The government stated that the IPS held 318 security prisoners under the age of 18, of which 285 were between the ages of 16-18 (168 detained and 117 convicted), and 33 were under the age of 16 (18 detained and 15 convicted). According to B'Tselem, as of December 31, the IPS detained 299 prisoners, 42 of whom were under the age of 16. Of the 299 detainees, 128 had been sentenced, 18 of them under the age of 16. The NGO Defense for Children International--Palestine Section (DCI- Palestine) estimated that 700 Palestinians under the age of 16 were arrested and prosecuted in military courts in 2008 (the most recent year for which data were available). Of the 265 cases that DCI- Palestine represented in 2008, 229 were before the military courts, 26 were appeals before the Israeli Military Court of Appeals, and 10 involved administrative detention orders. Since 2004 Israel has authorized several private doctors to visit prisons and has increased medical attention; however, prisoners continued to claim inadequate medical care. According to B'Tselem, approximately 6,800 Palestinians were held in Israeli civilian prisons and military detention facilities at year's end. The overwhelming majority of them were in facilities operated by the Israeli Prison Service. Approximately 5,000 were serving criminal sentences. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--Palestinian law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. It allows police to hold detainees without charge for 24 hours and with court approval for up to 45 days. A trial must start within six months or the detainee must be released. In practice the PA detained a number of prisoners without charge for more than 24 hours, and prisoners regularly failed to reach trial within the six-month limit. PA officials rejected Hamas' charges that the PA detained individuals during the year solely on the basis of their Hamas affiliation, and presented evidence that many of these individuals had been charged with criminal offenses under civil or military codes. Reportedly Hamas widely practiced arbitrary detention in Gaza. Israeli law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. However, some reports suggested security services did not always observe these prohibitions. Palestinian security internees were under the jurisdiction of military law, which permits 10 days' detention without allowing access to a lawyer or appearing before court. There is no requirement that a detainee have access to a lawyer until after interrogation, a process that may last weeks. The ICRC must be notified of arrests within 12 days after they occur and be allowed to visit detainees within 14 days after an arrest. In East Jerusalem and in the West Bank, Palestinian protesters or activists alleged arbitrary detention by Israeli security officials at public demonstrations in several instances, including at weekly protests against the separation barrier held in the West Bank village of Bil'in. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--In PA-controlled areas of the West Bank, Palestinian police were normally responsible for law enforcement for Palestinians and other non-Israelis. In the Gaza Strip, forces under Hamas's control maintained security. Press and NGO reports suggested Hamas enforced strict control across all sectors of society. Hamas police reportedly facilitated and benefited from illegal activity in some cases, such as the operation of smuggling tunnels. Six PA security forces operated in the West Bank. The PA Civil Police have primary responsibility for civil and community policing. The National Security Force (NSF) conducts gendarmerie-style security operations in circumstances which exceed the capabilities of the Civil Police. The Military Intelligence agency, which is a sub-unit of the NSF, handles intelligence and criminal matters involving PA security force personnel, including accusations of abuse. The General Intelligence service is responsible for external intelligence gathering and operations; the Preventive Security Organization is responsible for these matters internally. The Presidential Guard protects facilities and provides dignitary protection. The Civil Defense service provides emergency services. PA security services are under the operational control of the minister of the interior. The National Security Force's Military Intelligence wing is responsible for investigations into allegations of abuse and corruption involving PA security forces, and can refer cases to court. Foreign observers and West Bank residents considered PA security forces more effective than in previous years in both counterterrorist operations and provision of public securityand law and order. Hamas exercised control in Gaza, including over police and security forces. Israeli authorities maintained a West Bank presence through Israeli security forces that consisted of the IDF, the Israeli Security Agency (ISA or Shin Bet), the Israeli National Police (INP), and the Border Police. Israeli authorities investigated and punished abuse and corruption, although there were reports of failures to take disciplinary action in cases of abuse. In West Bank Palestinian population centers (mostly ``Area A'' by the Oslo-era agreements), the PA has formal responsibility for security and civil control, while Israeli security forces have the right of ``hot pursuit.'' In practice Israeli military authorities have since 2002 conducted regular security operations in Area A cities. In Area B territory in the West Bank, which is comprised mostly of small villages and farmland, the PA is assigned civil control--including civil policing--but Israel retains responsibility for security control. In Area C, which contains Israeli settlements, military installations, and open countryside, Israel retains full civil and security control. d. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--PA law provides for prompt judicial determination of the legality of detention, and this provision was largely but not uniformly observed in practice. PA law allows police to hold detainees without charge for 24 hours and with court approval for up to 45 days; it requires that a trial must start within six months, or the detainee must be released. In several reported cases, PA security forces detained persons without warrants and without bringing them before judicial authorities within the required timeframe. Due largely to limited judicial capacity, those detained rarely saw their cases go to trial within the six-month limit, and were not generally released when this limit expired. Bail and conditional release were available in cases in which judicial authorities deemed it appropriate. Suspects were in some cases denied access to lawyers, families, or doctors. Authorities informed detainees of the charges against them, although sometimes not until interrogation. In a number of security-based cases, the PA sought military judicial review and court orders for detention for civilians suspected of terrorist activity. In several of these cases, the PA disregarded civilian court orders requiring the release of these suspects, citing countervailing military court orders. In Gaza, Hamas reportedly detained a large but unverifiable number of persons during the year, largely without recourse to legal counsel, judicial review, or bail. Many of these detentions were apparently politically based, and targeted former PA officials or Fatah party members, according to various sources. Abusive conditions were widespread, as were allegations of torture. Israeli Military Order 1507 permits detention for 10 days before detainees are allowed to see a lawyer or appear before court. Israeli Military Order 1369 provides for a seven-year prison term for anyone not responding to a summons in security cases. Suspects in Israeli military custody are entitled to an attorney, but authorities can defer access to an attorney during interrogation, which can last up to 90 days. Israeli authorities stated that policy is to post notification of arrests within 48 hours, but senior officers may delay notification for up to 12 days. A military commander may request a judge to extend this period indefinitely. Evidence for administrative detentions in security cases was often unavailable to the detainee or his attorneys due to security classification, but available to the court. A military judge can issue administrative security detention orders for up to six-months, renewable indefinitely. B'Tselem and HaMoked released a report in October asserting that military judicial authorities were holding 335 Palestinians under ``administrative detention'' without charging them with a crime. They called this an abuse of the administration detention status for detainees, and called on the military authorities to charge or release them. As of 2008, 37 of the 132 members of the PLC remained in jail in Israel, including 33 from the terrorist group Hamas, three from Fatah and one from the terrorist group Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Of those, 20 were awaiting trial, four remained in administrative detention, and 13 were serving sentences. Addameer Prisoner Support and Human Rights Association reported that, as of year's end, 18 PLC members were imprisoned, although they did not specify their political affiliations. Palestinian lawyers representing Palestinians held in Israeli military custody inside Israel were generally provided access to their clients, although impediments to movement and access on West Bank roads and/or at crossings often made consultation difficult and caused trials and hearings to be postponed. The government frequently delays notification to foreign government officials after detaining their citizens in the occupied territories. During the year HaMoked reported the continuation of an ISA practice that B'Tselem noted two years previously, specifically, isolation from the outside world whereby detainees are prevented from meeting with attorneys, ICRC representatives, and their families during the initial interrogation or for its duration. They also reported sleep deprivation, protracted handcuffing, insults and humiliation, threats, and naked body searches. According to the MOJ, in some cases the IPS will keep the person interrogated separate for a few days in order to prevent leakage of information that may disrupt the interrogation. In such cases, according to the Justice Ministry, the detainee meets with representatives of the ICRC, IPS personnel and, if required, medical personnel. The MOJ states that ISA interrogations are conducted according to clear directives, which prohibit sleep deprivation and insulting behavior. According to the government, the IPS does not hold detainees in separate detention punitively or to induce confessions, but rather only when a detainee threatens himself or others and only when other options have been exhausted. Israeli human rights organizations reported that Israeli interrogators used psychological abuse more frequently in recent years, including threats of house demolition or of questioning elderly parents, and kept prisoners in harsh conditions, including solitary confinement for long periods. Of the more than 600 complaints filed in recent years which the Official in Charge of Interrogees' Complaints investigated, PCATI reported none were forwarded for a Police Investigation Department (PID)criminal investigation. For example, PCATI reported that an investigation had not been completed into the case of Jalal Sawafta, whom the ISA arrested in February 2008 and whose parents were brought to the interrogation room and asked to convince Sawafta to confess to involvement in rigging a car to explode. The ISA interrogator allegedly threatened to demolish the family home if Sawafta's parents did not convince Sawafta to confess. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The Palestinian Basic Law of 2002, amended in 2005, provides for an independent judiciary. Both Hamas authorities in Gaza and the PA in the West Bank apply a Palestinian legal code that is composed of elements of Ottoman, Egyptian (in Gaza), Jordanian (in the West Bank), British Mandate, Israeli military, and modern Palestinian law. In the West Bank, a High Judicial Council maintained authority over most court operations. Military courts, established in 1995 and guided by the 1979 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Penal Code, have jurisdiction over security personnel and crimes by civilians against security forces. There is a nine-judge court for election issues. The High Judicial Council maintained authority over most legal proceedings. The PA generally respected judicial independence and the autonomy of the High Judicial Council in practice. Prior to the Hamas takeover of Gaza in 2007, Palestinian law in the Gaza Strip was administered by judges affiliated with the Palestinian High Judicial Council, whose head is appointed by the PA President. In 2007 Hamas Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh replaced PA-appointed prosecutors and judges in Gaza with Hamas appointees. The PA declared the action illegal; however, courts operated by Hamas appointees continued to function in Gaza throughout the year. In some cases involving investigations by PA intelligence services, civilian defendants were presented to the PA's military court system. Palestinian NGOs have criticized the practice of trying civilian defendants in military courts, while the PA has defended the practice based on the security nature of the crimes involved. PA courts were inefficient, lacked staff and resources, and often did not ensure fair and expeditious trials. A severe shortage of funds and judges and an absence of lawyers and witnesses, due in part to restrictions or delays on the movement of judges, lawyers, defendants, witnesses, and evidence, resulted in significant backlogs in both criminal and civil cases. Progress was made in some areas, notably in prosecutorial record- keeping and judicial coordination, but significant shortfalls remained. Israeli law provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected civil court independence in practice. The IDF tried Palestinians accused of security offenses (ranging from rock throwing to membership in a terrorist organization to incitement) in military courts. Israeli law defines security offenses as including a range of charges. Israeli military courts rarely acquitted Palestinians charged with security offenses; sentences occasionally were reduced on appeal. Israeli civil law, as applied to the Palestinian residents of East Jerusalem, provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected the independence of the civil courts in practice. Trial Procedures.--The Independent Judiciary Law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public, except when the court determines privacy is required by PA security, foreign relations, a party's or witness's right to privacy, or protection of a victim of a sexual offense or ``honor'' crime. The law provides for legal representation, the right to question and present witnesses, to review government-held evidence, and to appeal. Authorities generally observed these rights in practice. PA law allows the death penalty for certain offenses, including types of treason and murder. In recent years, a number of PA death penalty convictions have been issued by military courts applying the PLO Revolutionary Penal Code of 1979. In April 2008 a PA military court in Hebron sentenced Imad Saad to death for collaboration with Israel. At year's end his sentence had not been carried out because it had not been ratified by PA President Abbas. Israelis living in settlements in the West Bank and in East Jerusalem were tried under Israeli law in the nearest Israeli district court. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--As of 2008 Palestinian sources estimated the PA imprisoned 22 persons suspected of collaboration with Israel During the year seven persons were arrested on charges of collaboration and other charges. Hamas detained several hundred individuals allegedly because of their political affiliation and held these individuals for varying periods of time. Numerous allegations of denial of due process were associated with these detentions. Many of those held in Gaza as Israeli collaborators reportedly were released in 2007 after Hamas took over (see section 1.d.). Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The PA civil and magistrate courts handled civil suits. A citizen can file a suit against the government including on matters related to alleged abuses of human rights. The execution of court orders was not systematic. In Gaza civil suits may be filed, but the judiciary was reportedly not impartial and independent. Israeli law permits Palestinians residing in the occupied territories to seek compensation for death, injury, or property damage at the hands of the IDF, but a 2002 law denies Palestinians the possibility of obtaining compensation in most cases for injuries resulting from illegal acts by Israeli security forces. Amendments in 2005, which the High Court in 2006 partially overturned, added obstacles to Palestinian plaintiffs seeking compensation. Property Restitution.--In the West Bank, Israeli military officials continued to demolish homes and other buildings constructed by Palestinians in areas of the West Bank under Israeli civil control on the basis that these buildings lacked Israeli planning permission. Compensation was generally not offered in these cases. Properties 300 meters from the separation barrier or IDF military installations also remained subject to demolition or confiscation. When the IDF offered opportunities for compensation, subject to an appraisal, verification, and appeals process, Palestinians generally refused, citing a desire not to legalize the confiscation. Due to documentation uncertainties dating from the Ottoman period, a traditional land tenure system with communal, family, and individual rights commingled, and Israeli-imposed definitions of land ownership, Palestinians have had difficulty verifying ownership in Israeli courts (see section 1.f.). During the year Jerusalem municipal officials demolished 65 Palestinian homes and other buildings constructed without municipal permits. Inhabitants of the demolished properties were not compensated, and in many cases were required to pay the cost of the demolition. Israeli NGOs, including Ir Amim and Bimkom, and Palestinian NGOs argued that in both the West Bank and Jerusalem, Israeli authorities placed often insurmountable hurdles on Palestinian applicants for construction permits, including the requirement that they document land ownership in the absence of a uniform post-1967 land registration process, high application fees, and requirements that new housing be connected to often-unavailable municipal sewage, water, and electric lines. Most demolitions targeted Bedouin and herder communities, and East Jerusalem homes. In these areas, Israeli policies prevent most Palestinians from obtaining building permits, according to OCHA. In 2008 the Israeli planning rights NGO, Bimkom, reported that official data between 2000 and September 2007 showed 1,626 buildings were demolished and 4,820 buildings received demolition orders in Area C, which is designated under the Oslo accords as West Bank land under full Israeli civil and military authority. In the same time frame in Area C, 5.6 percent of Palestinian applications for building permits in were approved (91 of 1,624). From January to August, Israeli authorities demolished 180 structures in Area C, including 56 residential structures, which affected 711 persons, including 421 children. Demolished residences in East Jerusalem also included Bedouin and herder communities. On June 4, the IDF demolished 68 structures, including 20 inhabited residential structures, in the herding community of Ras al-Ahmar in the Jordan Valley, displacing 139 persons, including 72 children. A water tank, tractor, and a trolley were confiscated. Some of the families whose homes and property were destroyed had been living in their village since at least the 1950s. In another incident, on May 31, 19 households in the village of al-Hadidiya received evacuation and stop work orders, affecting 151 Palestinians, including 80 children. Of these, the IDF gave 49 persons 48 hours to implement the orders. On June 1, 14 persons, including eight children, were displaced after carrying out demolition orders for their own structures. On September 29, the IDF delivered seven new demolition orders to al-Hadidiya. In March 2007 the Israeli Ministry of Finance transferred to the government ownership of 7.5 acres of olive orchard known as ``Mufti's Grove'' in East Jerusalem's Shaykh Jarrah neighborhood. In April 2007 the government leased the land to the Ateret Cohanim settler group. In December 2007, responding to a petition submitted by Arab Hotels Company Limited contesting ownership of Mufti's Grove, the High Court of Justice set a September 26 hearing date, which was subsequently delayed. At year's end no hearing had taken place. In August the court ruled against two Palestinian families living in the East Jerusalem neighborhood of Shaykh Jarrah and ordered the families to be evicted, affecting a total of 53 persons, including 20 children. The properties were turned over to the Nakhalat Shimon group, which international human rights organizations described as a settler association. Jewish families moved into the properties immediately. In July the Jerusalem Municipality approved plans to construct two apartment buildings on the East Jerusalem site of the historic Shepherd Hotel, owned by the Husseini family from 1945 to 1967, confiscated as absentee property by the government of Israel in 1967, and privately purchased in the 1980s. The plans require the demolition of portions of the hotel. At year's end construction had not begun, although NGO sources stated that no legal hurdles remained. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The PA required the attorney general to issue warrants for entry and searches of private property; however, Palestinian security services often ignored these requirements. Hamas authorities in Gaza often interfered arbitrarily with personal privacy, family, and home, according to reporting from local media and NGO sources. Palestinian gunmen fired on Israeli forces and booby trapped homes and apartment buildings. In response, the IDF raided and often destroyed buildings allegedly harboring militants. These actions often resulted in civilian casualties. Under occupation orders, only IDF officers of lieutenant colonel rank and above could authorize entry into Palestinian private homes and institutions in the West Bank without a warrant, based upon military necessity. Authorities stated that violating this order entailed punishment, but there were no reported cases of IDF soldiers punished for acting contrary to this requirement. The law, High Court rulings, and an IDF order prohibit Israeli forces from using ``human shields,'' but the prohibition reportedly was not always observed. When complaints are registered, according to the MOJ, the Investigative Military Police (IMP) open investigations. According to Amnesty International, Israeli soldiers used civilians, including children, as human shields, endangering their lives by forcing them to remain in or near houses which they took over and used as military positions. Amnesty International also reported that some were forced to carry out dangerous tasks such as inspecting properties. At year's end the IDF was investigating alleged use of human shields, including in Jabaliya and Beit Lahiya. According to Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs July report, Hamas used human shields by hiding behind civilian facilities and endangering civilians, including women and children by using them to protect military sites from IDF attack. In 2008 one human shield complaint against the IDF was submitted; an investigation followed. There was no information concerning any disciplinary action taken. After a 2007 complaint about use of a human shield caught on television, there was no information on what punishment the IDF personnel received. In January the IDF permanently sealed portions of the home of the parents of the person who attacked the Mercaz Harav yeshiva (religious seminary) in Jerusalem in 2008. The parents were not suspected of association with the crime. As in previous years, settlers vandalized Palestinian olive groves numerous times. In October, in one of a series of similar incidents, local media reported that residents of the West Bank settlement of Yitzar used chainsaws to cut down approximately 150 olive trees in the Palestinian village of Burin. According to the NGO Rabbis for Human Rights, IDF restrictions on Palestinian movement and access aimed at preventing settler violence against Palestinians and their property during the olive harvest in many cases prevented farmers from accessing their fieldsto harvest their crops. Palestinian villages in the south Hebron hills and south of Nablus were particularly affected by settler violence. On December 11, settlers are believed to have set fire to a mosque in the West Bank village of Yasuf. Prosettlement graffiti was spraypainted at the site of the arson, which damaged the prayer hall and destroyed a number of religious texts. Israeli authorities made a number of arrests in the arson, but at year's end all suspects had been released from custody. There was no update on the investigation into the June 2008 attack on Tamam al-Nawaja and the proceeding against Daniel Avraham, who was arrested in 2008 and charged with possession of weapons and endangering lives when a large stone thrown at a vehicle injured three Palestinians. In September 2008 Yesh Din reported that police regularly failed to bring charges in cases of alleged settler violence against Palestinians. A continuing review of 205 cases determined that 163 files had been closed, with 13 resulting in indictments and 149 closed without charges; the most common reasons cited were lack of evidence and unknown identity of the attacker. According to asurvey by the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) and the UN Development Program (UNDO) citing the UN OCHA August report, during military operations in Gaza in December 2008 and January, 6,400 homes were destroyed and 52,900 sustained minor damage. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The Basic Law for the PA provides every person the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and expression, orally, in writing, or through any other form. The PA does not have laws providing for freedom of press. In 1995 a press law was approved by then PA president Yasser Arafat. Although never ratified by the Palestinian Legislative Council, PA institutions have applied aspects of it as de facto law. Self-censorship continues to occur as a result of continued imposed social, political, and security pressures. Both the PA security forces in the West Bank and members of the Hamas security apparatus in Gaza continued to restrict freedom of speech and press. In the West Bank, PA security forces closed media offices, confiscated equipment, and prevented the delivery of newspapers and reportedly assaulted journalists during demonstrations. In Gaza individuals publicly criticizing authorities risked reprisal, and Hamas affiliates assaulted journalists during demonstrations. Three Palestinian daily and several weekly newspapers, monthly magazines, and three tabloids were published in effectively one media market. Several official and independent news agencies and online news websites functioned. The PA operated one television and one radio station. There were approximately 30 independent television and 25 independent radio stations. Since 2008 several factional satellite stations have been launched, including the pro-Hamas Al-Quds, started in November 2008, and pro-Fatah Al-Filastiniya, which closed at year's end. Violence between Hamas and Fatah resulted in polarization of the Palestinian press. Working conditions for journalists in Gaza deteriorated noticeably during the year; however, some international news outlets maintained offices in Gaza. Since the Hamas military takeover of the Gaza Strip in June 2007, the PA has maintained a distribution ban in the West Bank on the pro- Hamas Al-Risala twice-weekly and Filistin daily, both Gaza-based publications. Since that time pro-Hamas journalists in the West Bank continued to be exposed to threats by PA security services. Prime Minister Salaam Fayyad also ordered the suspension of Al Jazeera's West Bank bureau on July 15, the day after it aired allegations against President Abbas. On the July 14 edition of Al Jazeera's ``Behind the News'' (Ma Wara' al-Khabar), high ranking PLO and Fatah official Faruq al-Qaddumi accused Abbas and his adviser Muhammad Dahlan of participating in what he said was an Israeli plot to assassinate former Palestinian leader Yassir Arafat. PA authorities lifted the suspension order several days later. In July 2008, Hamas banned distribution of the three West Bank dailies in Gaza. In August 2008, the ban was lifted against independent daily Al-Quds but remained in place against independent daily Al-Ayyam and the official PA daily, Al-Hayat Al-Jadida. According to officials from those newspapers, Hamas demanded that its own newspapers, Al- Risalah and Filistin, be allowed to circulate in the West Bank before it would lift the ban against the two West Bank-based papers. In February 2008 a Hamas-run court in Gaza ruled in support of banning the distribution of the independent daily Al-Ayyam, while sentencing the paper's editor and its main political cartoonist (both resident in the West Bank) to suspended jail terms. The decision was the result of a court case alleging defamation filed by several Hamas legislators over a political cartoon published in the paper in 2007. On February 12, Hamas once again permitted Al-Ayyam to distribute its daily while keeping its ban on Al-Hayat Al-Jadida, the official PA daily. Hamas closed down all Fatah-affiliated broadcast outlets in Gaza. The Fatah-allied Palestinian TV and Voice of Palestine radio buildings in Gaza City were taken over by Hamas gunmen and closed. Both stations have since continued operating from Ramallah. Two other Fatah- affiliated radio stations in Gaza, Al-Hurriyah and Al-Shabab, were forced off the air by Hamas at the same time and did not resume operations during the year. Only pro-Hamas broadcast media and PFLP-affiliated radio outlet Voice of the People have operated in Gaza since June 2007. In 2007 Hamas closed Voice of the People for two and a half months and again between August 2 and August 6. It has since resumed broadcasting. According to Reporters Sans Frontieres (RSF), since 2006 at least nine news media outlets ceased operations in Gaza, three of which were state owned and six privately owned. Hamas security personnel broke into the Ramattan News Agency office in Gaza on October 10, prompting the agency to close its West Bank and Gaza offices in November. A Ramattan spokesperson stated that such practices violate the law and freedom of the press and speech. Citing continued harassment, Ramattan said they would be unable to operate. A young man told HRW that in January he had criticized a Hamas leader in a conversation on the street. He believed his remark was overheard by someone in the area. That evening, more than a dozen armed men with black masks took him from his home and shot him three times in the lower legs and ankles. Israeli authorities placed limits on certain forms of expression, ordering that in East Jerusalem displays of Palestinian political symbols were punishable by fines or imprisonment, as were public expressions of anti-Israeli sentiment and of support for terrorist groups. Authorities reviewed Arabic publications for security-related material. As a general rule, Israeli media covered the occupied territories, except for combat zones where the IDF temporarily restricted access, but closures, curfews, and checkpoints limited the ability of Palestinian and foreign journalists to do their jobs (see section 2.d.). The IDF forbade all journalists from entering Gaza during military operation in December and January. In 2007 IDF soldiers shot al-Aqsa television cameraman Imad Ghanem while he was filming an IDF operation in al-Bureij Camp in Gaza; he subsequently lost both legs. As of December the case was pending. On July 10, the IDF closed the independently owned Afaq TV in the West Bank city of Nablus. According to press reports, the IDF closed the station for one year, accusing it of affiliation with a terrorist entity. Internet Freedom.--There were no PA restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the PA monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.No information was available on restrictions on access to the Internet in Gaza. The IDF central military censor began to monitor blogs, according to a March 25 IDF announcement. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union data, there were nine users per 100 Palestinians. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--In the West Bank, the PA did not place restrictions on academic freedom and cultural events. During the year Palestinian authorities did not interfere with education; however, restrictions on movement adversely affected academic institutions in the West Bank and Gaza and violence affected them in Gaza (see section 2.b.). In Gaza, Hamas continued to remove Fatah-affiliated employees from all sectors, including firing several principals and teachers. On October 7, Hamas authorities seized control of al-Aqsa University while the university's president was in the West Bank. Hamas reportedly collected information about faculty and students at other Gaza-based universities. In August Hamas authorities ordered female students to wear conservative Islamic clothing, including a headscarf and long- sleeved dress. School faculty was ordered to maintain gender segregation in the workplace. Israeli authorities continued to prohibit Palestinians from undergraduate university study in Israel and did not permit students from Gaza to attend West Bank universities. Israel's High Court of Justice on December 9 ruled to prohibit Berlanty Azzam, a 22-year-old Palestinian student at Bethlehem University, from returning to Bethlehem to complete her studies. According to the Israeli NGO Gisha, the High Court upheld the government's and the army's decision to deport Azzam to Gaza, despite failing to provide evidence for their claims regarding Azzam's status in the West Bank. According to OCHA, Israeli authorities prevented many Palestinian cultural events they perceived to be associated with Palestinian political ambitions. Several times during the year, the Ministry of Public Security closed the Palestinian National Theater, al-Hakawati, for lack of proper licenses. The theater and event organizers claimed the performances did not require a license and that the closures were intended to reduce Palestinian cultural activity in Jerusalem. Also on September 11, Israeli police shut down a traditional Muslim holiday meal at the Seven Arches Hotel in Jerusalem, citing the attendance of PA officials . Israeli authorities banned events in Jerusalem related to the Arab League's designation of Jerusalem as the 2009 ``Capital of Arab Culture.'' On March 21, Israeli police closed down eight events in Jerusalem and arrested 20 individuals. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--Palestinian law permits public meetings, processions, and assemblies within legal limits. It requires permits for rallies, demonstrations, and large cultural events, but authorities rarely denied them. The PA prohibited calls for violence, displays of arms, and racist slogans, although it rarely enforced these provisions. Following 2007 Fatah-Hamas clashes in Gaza, Hamas banned rallies and impeded freedom of assembly for Fatah members. In April 2008 Hamas decreed that any public assembly or celebration in Gaza required prior permission, in contradiction to the PA Basic Law. Israeli security forces used force against Palestinians and others involved in demonstrations, and military orders banned public gatherings of 10 or more persons without a permit. Since 2005 Palestinian, Israeli, and international activists demonstrated each week in Bil'in and other Palestinian villages to protest the construction of the separation barrier. On several occasions, soldiers tear gassed, beat, or injured demonstrators with rubber bullets. Israeli forces detained activists, holding some of them without charge for periods of up to three weeks. In the last six months of the year, the IDF detained at least 31 residents of Bilin, and in neighboring Nilin, 91 persons were arrested since mid-2008. In addition, five members of the Palestinian NGO Bil'in Popular Committee Against the Wall were arrested late in the year on suspicion of incitement. Among them, Abdullah Abu Rahma was arrested on December 10 and charged with illegal possession of weapons based on his possession of spent tear gas canisters that Israeli forces fired on demonstrators during the weekly demonstrations. Freedom of Association.--In the West Bank, the PA law allowed for freedom of association, but it was sometimes limited in practice. In July 2008, after an explosion on a Gaza beach, Hamas closed at least 45 NGO offices. Most of the NGOs were Fatah-affiliated, but a number were politically independent. Prominent Palestinian institutions in East Jerusalem, such as the Chamber of Commerce and Orient House, remained closed by Israel on grounds they operated under PA supervision, in contravention of Oslo Agreements. c. Freedom of Religion.--The PA Basic Law states that Islam is the official religion and that the principles of Islamic law shall be the main source of legislation, and also calls for freedom of belief, worship, and performance of religious rites, unless they violate public order or morality. In PA-administered areas, religion must be declared on identification documents, and personal status legal matters must be handled in ecclesiastical courts. Unlike in previous years in Gaza, there were no reports of discrimination against residents based on their religion during the year. In the West Bank, the PA's Ministry of Religious Endowments and Religious Affairs (Awqaf) constructed and maintained mosques and paid salaries of imams. Christian clergymen and charitable organizations received limited financial support. The PA did not provide financial support to any Jewish institutions or holy sites in the occupied territories; these areas were generally under Israeli control. The PA required that religion be taught in PA schools and provided separate instruction for Muslims and Christians. Jerusalem religious courts only handled personal status issues such as marriage and divorce involving Jerusalem legal residents or Israeli citizens. In cases of inheritance, custody, and division of property as a result of a divorce, the parties to a suit have the option of seeking a judgment from the civil courts. There were no developments in the 2007 kidnapping and killing in Gaza of Rami Khader Ayyad, or the arson at a synagogue near the settlement of Dolev in the West Bank. Israeli authorities generally respected religious freedom and permitted all faiths to operate schools and institutions; however, security-based restrictions and societal abuses and discrimination contributed to non-Jews' inability to exercise freedom of worship during the year, according to Palestinian and Israeli human rights organizations. Security-based access restrictions requiring a permit to enter Jerusalem prevented many Muslim and a small number of Christian worshippers from reaching holy sites in the city, especially during religious holy days. For security reasons, the Israeli government required West Bank Palestinians to obtain permits to enter Jerusalem, a policy which, in practice, prevented virtually all West Bank Palestinians and male Muslim worshippers with Jerusalem identification cards under a certain age (usually 50) from attending Friday prayers at the Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount, the third holiest site in Islam. An ongoing dispute between the Muslim administrators of the Haram al- Sharif/Temple Mount over Israeli restrictions on the Muslim administration's attempts to carry out repairs and physical improvements on the compound and its mosques remained unresolved at year's end. Israeli authorities restricted many West Bank and virtually all Gaza residents from entering Jerusalem during Ramadan. At times, the Israeli government made efforts to lessen the impact of security impediments on the religious communities. Religious workers from Christian organizations in Jerusalem and the West Bank found it increasingly difficult to obtain or renew visas. Since 2007 clergy who left the occupied territories and wished to return to or visit their parishes were required to apply for new, single-entry visas at Israeli consulates abroad, a process that often took months and caused some clergy to prefer to remain rather than risk leaving their congregations without pastoral guidance. Volunteers at religious institutions in Jerusalem began reporting in July that the Israeli Ministry of Interior refused to renew their visas, instead offering them ``receipts'' to indicate that their visas were under review. At the end of the year, the Ministry of Interior had not explained the new practice. As in past years, the shortage of foreign clergy impeded the functioning of Christian congregations and other religious and educational institutions. Many national and municipal policies on residential zoning, demolitions, and confiscations disproportionately affected non-Jewish residents. According to the NGO Ir Amim and others, the intent of this disparity was to limit or diminish the non-Jewish population of the city. Israel's construction of the separation barrier, particularly in and around Jerusalem, and strict closure policies severely limited access to mosques, churches, and other holy sites. The barrier also inhibited the population's ability to practice their religious rites, and seriously impeded the work of religious organizations that provided education, healthcare, and other humanitarian relief and social services to Palestinians, particularly in and around Jerusalem. Israeli law also restricted the ability of Israeli Jews to reach places of worship under Palestinian control. Israeli police escorted persons to the Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount in Jerusalem; these personsreportedly wished to assert the right of Jews to worship at the site. However, non-Muslims were not permitted to worship at the shrine. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--In both the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, unofficial Palestinian media frequently published and broadcast material that included anti-Israeli content. Rhetoric by Palestinian terrorist groups included expressions of anti-Semitism, as did sermons by some Muslim religious leaders. Some Palestinian religious leaders rejected the right of Israel to exist. Hamas's al- Aqsa television station carried shows for preschoolers extolling hatred of Jews and suicide bombings. Israeli settler radio stations broadcasting from the West Bank often depicted Arabs as subhuman and called for expulsion of Palestinians from the West Bank. Some of this rhetoric contained religious references. The PA Ministry of Education and Higher Education completed the revision of its primary and secondary textbooks in 2006. International academics concluded the textbooks did not incite violence against Jews, but showed imbalance, bias, and inaccuracy. Some maps in Palestinian textbooks did not depict the current political reality, showing neither Israel nor the settlements. Palestinian textbooks, used in Palestinian schools, as well as in Jerusalem municipality-administered schools in East Jerusalem, inconsistently defined the 1967 borders and failed to label areas and cities with both Arabic and Hebrew names. Israeli police arrested five settlers on suspicion of having committed arson at a mosque in the West Bank village of Yasuf on December 11, and questioned several others. The investigation continued at the end of the year, although no suspects remained in custody. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state/g/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The Basic Law provides for freedom of movement, and the PA generally did not restrict freedom of movement. The IDF restricted the movement of Palestinians and heightened these restrictions at times, citing military necessity. Barriers to movement affected virtually all aspects of life, including access to places of worship, employment, agricultural lands, schools, hospitals, and the conduct of journalism and NGO activities. During the year the IDF relaxed restrictions at several checkpoints that had posed significant barriers to movement. During the year the Israeli government continued to ease restrictions on movement and access within the West Bank, resulting in an increase of freedom of movement for Palestinians between West Bank urban centers. However, there has not been a significant improvement in access to land and resources in Area C, areas where Israel had full civil and security control, or to areas affected by construction of the separation barrier. According to OCHA there were 578 obstacles to movement inside the West Bank (excluding crossing points located along the 1967 border, but including 69 fully manned checkpoints, 21 occasionally manned checkpoints, and 488 ``unstaffed obstacles,'' including earth mounds, cement roadblocks, road gates, earthen walls, trenches, and road protection fences, as of November. During the year, of the 71 gates or checkpoints along the separation barrier, 40 were accessible only to Palestinians with permits. Operating hours of the accessible gates were limited and erratic, although announced. Palestinians saw closures as erratic and harmful to reaching workplaces, schools, places of worship, and health services. For example, during the last six months of the year, the IDF removed two staffed checkpoints that controlled access into Qalqiliya and Nablus. The IDF also reduced staffing at four checkpoints that control access into Ramallah, Jericho, Qalqiliya, and Salfit. Crossing procedures were relaxed at some checkpoints to the east of the separation barrier, lifting permit requirements, extending operating hours, and performing fewer searches and random checks on documentation. OCHA reported that the IDF removed 46 earth mounds and roadblocks that had prevented vehicular access to main routes from various communities, mostly in the southern West Bank. Between January and October, OCHA recorded 3,078 ``temporary'' checkpoints in the West Bank, a weekly average of 76.2, due to arrests or other operations. On March 11, the Israeli High Court barred human rights defender Shawan Jabarin, director of Al-Haq, a Palestinian Human Rights NGO, from traveling outside the West Bank without holding a hearing. Based on evidence that Jabarin and his lawyer were not allowed to see, the court refused to lift a travel ban imposed on him by military order in 2006. The Israeli government continued construction of a separation barrier along parts of the Green Line (the 1949 Armistice line) and in the West Bank, albeit at a slower pace than in earlier years. According to OCHA, approximately 58 percent of the 709-kilometre-long (441 mile- long) barrier was complete at year's end. When completed, approximately 85 percent of the route will run inside the West Bank and in Jerusalem. The route of the barrier will separate approximately 9.5 percent of the West Bank, totaling 135,000 acres, including parts of Jerusalem, from the remainder of the West Bank. Areas near the barrier or its projected route are designated military zones where Palestinians were not able to obtain building permits. A 2004 International Court of Justice advisory opinion concluded that construction of the barrier was in a number of aspects contrary to international law. Israeli government policy was to build the barrier on public lands where possible, and where private land was used, provide opportunities for compensation. On September 9, the Supreme Court ordered the state to dismantle and reroute sections of the separation barrier near the villages of Far'un, Khirbet Jabara, al-Ras, Sur, Jayyus, and Falamiah, effectively returning an estimated 1,500 acres of land to the Palestinian side of the barrier. ACRI, an Israeli NGO that submitted the petition, reported that the court ruled that serious flaws marred Israel's determination of the barrier's route. According to ACRI, instead of the stated goal of defending security concerns, the barrier often followed the interests of expanding settlements and yet-to-be-built neighborhoods near Jerusalem. By the end of the year, work was ongoing to implement a 2006 high court ruling to change the route of the barrier near al-Nabi Elias village. The government had not begun work to implement court rulings from 2005 and 2007 to reroute the barrier near Alfe Menashe settlement and Bil'in village. Palestinians filed a number of cases with the High Court challenging the route of the barrier, several of which remained active at year's end. In November the Jaba'a village council filed a petition to the High Court demanding the removal of the security barrier constructed near their land, claiming that it has prevented villagers from working their land for years. According to the petitioners, the fence annexed a significant portion of land into Neve Ya'akov settlement. During the year thousands of Palestinian schoolchildren who resided on the eastern side of the barrier had to cross gated checkpoints to attend school in Jerusalem. For example, students from Bir Nabala, which is surrounded by the barrier, were prohibited from crossing near their homes; instead, they were forced to take hour-long detours of seven to 10 miles to pass through the Rafat/Masyion and Qalandiya checkpoints to reach school. In December the High Court ruled that barring Palestinians from using Highway 443, which crosses the West Bank southwest of Ramallah near Jerusalem, was disproportionate to security needs and ordered the IDF to find suitable alternative security arrangements within five months. Since 2006 a military order has prohibited nearly all Palestinians from using Highway 443. Human rights organizations said that land for Highway 443 had originally been expropriated to improve transportation for Palestinians between Ramallah and outlying villages, but that the road was eventually closed to Palestinians based on security justifications. At year's end no decisions had been publicized on how and when Highway 443 would open to Palestinians. Palestinians residing in the closed area (the ``seam zone'') between the barrier and the Green Line numbered approximately 50,000 and required IDF permanent resident permits to live in their homes. In the northern West Bank, a military order closed the seam zone in 2003. Those living in the seam zone faced restricted access to health and education services and were cut off from family and social networks which were located on the West Bank. UN agencies reported difficulty accessing seam zone communities in the northwestern West Bank, particularly Barta'a al-Sharqiya in the Jenin Governorate. Private security companies employed by the Israeli government controlled points of access through the barrier, and international organizations and local human rights groups claimed these companies did not respond to requests to move goods and officials through the barrier. UN agencies have been unable to directly access this area since late 2007 due to excessive demands for searches of UN officials based on their nationality. The barrier also affected a number of farmers whose land and water resources were located between the barrier and the Green Line. Since 2003 Palestinians in the northern West Bank require visitor permits to reach and cultivate their land in the closed area. Access is channeled through particular gates designated on the permit. Restricted allocation of these permits and the limited number and opening times of the gates have severely curtailed agricultural practice and undermined rural livelihoods, including for farmers from the Palestinian villages of Biddu and Beit Ijza. Lack of access resulted in a significant deterioration in harvest quality and quantity, adversely affecting the livelihoods of the farmers concerned. Israeli authorities frequently prohibited travel between some or all West Bank towns. Such ``internal closures'' were supplemented, during periods of potential unrest and during major Israeli, Jewish, and Muslim holidays, by ``comprehensive, external closures,'' which precluded Palestinians from leaving the West Bank. The IDF imposed temporary curfews confining Palestinians to their homes during arrest operations. Since 2007 Israel has enforced a strict blockade of Gaza, seriously impeding persons and goods from entering or leaving. Following hostilities in Gaza in January, Israel severely tightened restrictions at crossings into the Gaza Strip. International and Israeli human rights organizations described this action as ``collective punishment'' of the residents of Gaza, as it restricts access to basic goods and restricts civilians desiring to go abroad temporarily or change their place of residence permanently. Following its December 2008-January 2009 combat operations in the Gaza Strip, Israel enforced a near-total blockade on the entrance of reconstruction materials to repair damaged homes, schools, and civilian infrastructure. A limited supply of fuel and spare parts to fix and maintain the electrical system were allowed into Gaza, including industrial diesel for Gaza's only power plant and cooking gas. By November only one-third of needed cooking fuel was entering Gaza. The sewage and water systems were also frequently inoperable due to lack of spare parts and fuel, and ensuing power outages. The IDF prevented demining teams from bringing in explosives to destroy unexploded ordnance into Gaza. In the last quarter of the year, the IDF allowed more materials into Gaza. For example, in late December the IDF announced that 100 truckloads of window glass would be permitted entry to Gaza for the commercial market. The IDF also allowed cement to be brought in. In response to Qassam rocket fire, the IDF announced in 2005 that Palestinians should keep a distance of 140 meters (450 feet)from the Gaza perimeter fence and declared the former northern settlement block a ``no-go'' zone. Entry into this area for the 250 Palestinian residents requires prior coordination with the IDF. Although the official buffer remained 140 meters, Palestinians were in some instances prevented from approaching areas as far as one kilometer (0.62 mile) from the fence. According to OCHA, due to continuing IDF military activities, Palestinian farmers have been unable to reach their fields in the former northern settlement block since 2007. According to the ICRC, at least 30 percent of the arable land in Gaza lies within this buffer zone, which can extend up to one kilometer from the fence. Locals reported that farmers fear to work in this area. Gazans' access to Israel and Egypt for medical treatment remained highly restricted, although Israel did allow thousands of medical cases to be treated in its hospitals during the year. IDF soldiers at checkpoints sometimes subjected Palestine Red Crescent Society (PRCS) ambulances from the West Bank to delays or refused entry to Jerusalem. Patients were moved across checkpoints from one ambulance to another. The PRCS reported 440 incidents of delay or denial of access by the IDF in the West Bank from January to September. The MOJ stated that reports of physical or verbal attacks against PRCS employees were investigated. PRCS employees reported being objects of verbal or physical abuse on 30 occasions through October. Palestinians not resident in the Jordan Valley generally were unable to drive on the main north-south route, Highway 90. They have been prohibited from driving across the four main access points since 2007, after the killing of two Israeli policemen, but can travel by public transportation, in cars belonging to residents, or in cars that receive specific permission. West Bank and Gaza residents can enter Jerusalem only with an Israeli-issued travel permit. During the year Israeli authorities prohibited passage between Gaza and the West Bank, except for a very limited number of Palestinians holding Israeli permits. During the month of Ramadan, only Palestinian men over 50 and women over 45 were permitted to enter Jerusalem without a permit. Palestinians under the age limit were required to seek a permit. During the year students were allowed to leave Gaza only when escorted by foreign diplomats or contractors of the country accepting them for study. From January to October, Gisha, the Israeli NGO Legal Center for Freedom of Movement, estimated that western diplomats have escorted a few hundred students from Gaza through Israel and the West Bank to Jordan, whence they traveled to third countries to study. Egypt also began allowing students to travel through Rafah Crossing. From January to October, Gisha estimated that 895 students traveled out of 1,896 who registered to do so. A handful of students from Gaza accepted for university study abroad were prevented from traveling to Jerusalem to apply for visas and were therefore prevented from leaving for further education abroad. The IDF since 2000 has banned Gazan students from studying in the West Bank or Israel, and limited West Bank Palestinians from university study in East Jerusalem and Israel (see section 2.a.). The PA issued passports for Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza. Because there were no commercial flights from the occupied territories and permits to use Ben Gurion airport were not available, travelers departed by land to Jordan or Egypt. Foreign citizens of Palestinian ethnicity had difficulty obtaining or renewing visas permitting them to enter Israel from either Ben Gurion airport or land entry points. Palestinians with Jerusalem identification cards issued by the Israeli government needed special documents to travel abroad. Upon the individual request of Palestinians, the Jordanian government issued them passports. In 2000 Israel stopped updating changes in address for Palestinians who moved from the Gaza Strip to the West Bank. As a result, thousands of Palestinians, originally from Gaza but living in the West Bank for many years, continued to hold ID cards with home addresses in Gaza. Israel has taken the position that Palestinian residents with home addresses registered in the Gaza Strip are forbidden to be in the West Bank without special permits, which it began issuing under exceptional circumstances in 2007. Israel has declared those who do not hold a permit are subject to arrest for illegal presence in the West Bank, and during the year arrested and forcibly transferred some of them to Gaza. In March, in response to court petitions submitted by the HaMoked to the Supreme Court on behalf of Palestinians who had been prohibited from relocating to the West Bank, the government announced a new procedure, setting stringent conditions for those wishing to change their registered address from Gaza to the West Bank. Criteria include that the applicant be an orphan, invalid, or elderly person with no remaining family members in Gaza to care for them. As of October thousands of Palestinians living in the West Bank whose registered addresses were in Gaza remained in danger of being forcibly expelled to Gaza, and hundreds of families living in the two areas remained divided. Residency restrictions affected family reunification. Israeli authorities did not permit Palestinians who were abroad during the 1967 War, or whose residence permits the government subsequently withdrew, to reside permanently in the occupied territories. It was difficult for foreign-born spouses and children of Palestinians to obtain residency. Palestinian spouses of Jerusalem residents must obtain a residency permit and reported delays of several years in obtaining them. Palestinians in Jerusalem also reported delays in registering newborn children. In September 2007 the Israeli High Court ordered reconsideration of the freeze on family unification in the West Bank. There were no further developments or response by the government by year's end. The Basic Law prohibits forced exile, and the PA under President Abbas did not use forced exile. In practice Israeli revocations of Jerusalem identification cards amounted to forced exile and have continued in recent years. According to HaMokedin 2008 the Ministry of the Interior revoked the Israeli residency status of 4,577 residents of East Jerusalem, including 99 minors. The number of cases of revocation of residency in 2008 alone is equal to approximately one half the total number of cases of residency revocation between 1967 and 2007. Reasons for revocation include having acquired residency or citizenship in a third country, living abroad for more than seven years, or, most commonly, being unable to prove a ``center of life'' in Jerusalem. The Displacement Working Group chaired by OCHA estimated during the year that at least 619 persons were displaced as a result of 108 residential structure demolitions in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Internal displacement in the West Bank was primarily the result of actions by the government, including home demolitions, land expropriation, and revocation of Jerusalem residency rights. Planning in the West Bank also left Palestinian homes vulnerable to demolition, particularly in Area C where Israel had full civil and security control. On January 26, ACRI and the Israeli NGO Rabbis for Human Rights submitted a petition to the Israeli High Court of Justice on behalf of the Palestinian residents of Khirbet Tana, defending against a government decision which allowed the state to destroy all of the village's houses but one. At year's end, the IDF had not implemented orders to demolish most of the structures in Aqaba village, another Area C village without a town plan. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--Internal displacement in Gaza was significant, resulting from damage to housing and flight from conflict areas during combat operations in December 2008-January 2009. During that period, UNRWA provided direct protection to civilians through the provision of emergency shelter for approximately 50,000 displaced persons in UNRWA facilities, and distributed food and nonfood relief items and first aid care to the wounded. Throughout the year, UNRWA continued to provide financial assistance to approximately 17,000 refugee families whose homes were destroyed or damaged, as well as its continued food assistance to 750,000 refugees. UNRWA continued to provide psychological support and counseling, including to children traumatized by the conflict, through its community mental health program. The PA provided some assistance to those displaced through rental subsidies and financial assistance to reconstruct demolished houses. International response and assistance to those affected by the Gaza conflict improved significantly during the course of the year under the direction of OCHA and with coordination from UNRWA and the ICRC. During the year neither Israel nor the PA forcibly returned IDPs to their original residences under dangerous conditions. According to UNRWA, the Israeli government obstructed IDP access to UNRWA-provided humanitarian assistance in refugee communities in Gaza and parts of the West Bank. UNRWA's mandate is to provide education, health care, relief, and social services to registered Palestinian refugees, who comprise 70 percent (1.1 million) of Gaza's population and 30 percent (770,000) of the West Bank's population. From January to September, UNRWA recorded 465 incidents in which Israeli security forces completely blocked access. In addition to reported incidents, lengthy detours to reach affected areas were necessary to overcome Israeli obstacles. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government Elections and Political Participation In 2006 the 132-member Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) was elected in a process under the Basic Law that international observers concluded generally met democratic standards in providing citizens the right to peacefully change their government. Hamas-backed candidates participated in the 2006 PLC elections under the name ``Reform and Change Movement,'' rather than ``Hamas,'' and won 74 of 132 seats. Fatah won 45 seats; independents and candidates from third parties won the remaining seats. The PLC lacked a quorum and did not meet during the year (see section 1.d.). In 2005 Palestinians elected Mahmud Abbas as PA president. Seven candidates competed in a vigorous election campaign. In both the 2005 presidential election and the PLC election, the Israeli government and the PA followed mutually agreed guidelines for Palestinians residing in Jerusalem to vote, but not all Palestinians were allowed to vote in East Jerusalem, and those who could were required to do so via the Post Office, complicating their efforts to vote. During the year there were 17 women in the 132-member PLC (which was not called into session) and three women in the 16-member cabinet. There were seven Christians in the PLC and two in the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency Palestinian law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. In Gaza local observers and NGOs alleged instances of Hamas complicity in corrupt practices, including involvement by the Hamas Executive Force. Greater transparency existed in the West Bank, where PA ministers were subject to financial disclosure laws, and the PA attorney general's office had official responsibility for combating government corruption. PA law requires official PA institutions to ``facilitate'' acquisition of requested documents or information by any Palestinian, but it does not require PA agencies to provide such information. Reasons for denial generally referred to privacy rights and security necessity. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Palestinian human rights groups and several international organizations generally operated without PA restriction, and officials cooperated with their efforts to monitor the PA's human rights practices. According to the PA Ministry of Interior, approximately 4,700 NGOs are registered and 1,700 were active in the West Bank at the end of the year. PA officials usually cooperated with and permitted visits by UN representatives or other organizations such as the ICRC. Several PA security agencies, including the General Intelligence Service and the Civil Police, appointed official liaisons with human rights groups. The quasi-governmental ICHR serves as the PA's ombudsman and human rights commission. The ICHR issued monthly and annual reports on human rights violations within Palestinian-controlled areas. ICHR also issued formal recommendations to the PA, including a public letter in December calling on the PA to reconsider the use of the death penalty. PA security forces in the West Bank entered UNRWA facilities four times. In Gaza, Hamas authorities increasingly required international and local aid organizations providing emergency assistance to coordinate relief efforts with the Hamas-controlled ``Ministry of Social Affairs.'' Several Gaza-based NGOs reported that Hamas prevented aid groups from distributing assistance after they refused to comply with Hamas regulations. Gaza-based NGOs reported that Hamas representatives appeared at their offices to ensure compliance and summoned NGO representatives to police stations for questioning. In December the Hamas-controlled ``Ministry of National Economy'' in Gaza confiscated several shipments of aid entering Gaza, although in most cases Hamas authorities returned the shipments to the distributing organization within days. On December 16, Hamas authorities detained an international NGO staff member for six hours. In the last few months of the year, Hamas authorities began harassing Mercy Corps' Gaza office about the status of Mercy Corps programs. On June 17, Hamas authorities took direct control of the Patients' Friends Benevolent Society. Gaza-based contacts reported that Hamas has effectively taken control of approximately two dozen Gaza-based development and civil society organizations. Israeli, Palestinian, and international NGOs monitored the Israeli government's practices in the Occupied Territories and published their findings, although restrictions on freedom of movement in the West Bank, fighting, and access restrictions in Gaza made it difficult to carry out their work. The Israeli government permitted some human rights groups to publish and hold press conferences and provided the ICRC with access to most detainees. PA security forces in the West Bank entered UNRWA facilities four times. Palestinian militants entered UNRWA installations on three occasions in Gaza from January to June. The IDF entered UNRWA facilities seven times between January and October, usually in the course of arrest operations in the West Bank. The Israeli MOJ stated any interference in UN facilities was based on an examination by appropriate authorities. UNRWA recorded multiple incidents during the year of IDF soldiers at checkpoints harassing or pointing weapons at UN staff. Israeli forces damaged a number of UNRWA facilities during hostilities in December-January in the Gaza Strip. Three installations suffered direct hits from Israeli ordnance causing death or injury to those in the installations, and two installations were struck by debris or the effect of Israeli ordnance landing adjacent to the installation, killing six persons and injuring 35. On January 5, an IDF aerial strike killed three men who had sought shelter at the Asma Elementary Co-Ed A School. On January 6, eight persons were injured when mortar rounds struck near the Jabalia Preparatory Boys C School, which was in use as a temporary emergency shelter. On January 15, artillery struck the UNRWA Gaza Training Centre and Field Office compound, injuring one staff member and two men who had sought shelter in the compound, and causing a fire that destroyed the warehouse containing food, medicine, and other supplies. On January 17, IDF ordnance struck the Beit Lahia Elementary School while the school was being used as an emergency shelter, killing two young boys and injuring 13 persons. During the period from January 1 to January 19, a further 23 UNRWA installations suffered property damage from Israeli strikes on or near the UN installations. In September the IDF Gaza District Coordination Office informed three Israeli human rights organizations that petitions for Palestinians to leave the Gaza Strip would only be accepted from the PA Civil Affairs Commission, the official PA body responsible for coordination with Israel on civilian issues. Israeli human rights organizations characterized this action as an attempt to impede the activities of human rights organizations and registered their protest with the Israeli government and military authorities, citing the right of Palestinians to choose an advocate to represent their interests. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons Women.--Rape is illegal under PA law, but the legal definition does not address spousal rape. PA law does not explicitly prohibit domestic violence, but assault and battery are crimes. According to HRW, few cases were successfully prosecuted. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, violence against wives, especially psychological violence, was common in the West Bank and Gaza. A woman must provide two eyewitnesses (who are not relatives) to initiate divorce on the grounds of spousal abuse. According to the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), conditions in Gaza were associated with increased levels of violence against women. In 2007 two in five women in Gaza reported being victims of violence, up from one in five in 2006. There were a handful of NGO-funded women's shelters in the West Bank; there were no shelters in Gaza. Women generally approached village or religious leaders for assistance. ICHR reported nine ``honor'' killings in the Palestinian territories during the year. Prostitution is illegal and it was not openly practiced. A December report by the Palestinian organization SAWA (All Women Together Today and Tomorrow) based on interviews conducted in 2008 claimed that a small number of Palestinian women were forced into prostitution. SAWA said they found no evidence of an organized human trafficking network; rather, they found small, private initiatives by Palestinians. The law provides for equality of the sexes, but personal status law and traditional practices discriminate against women. Palestinian labor law states that work is the right of every capable citizen and regulates the work of women. However, during the year the rate of female participation in the workforce did not exceed 14 percent compared to 67 percent for males in the West Bank. Women endured prejudice and, in some cases, repressive conditions. Cultural restrictions associated with marriage occasionally prevented women from completing mandatory schooling or attending college. Families often disowned Muslim and Christian women who married outside their faith. Local officials sometimes advised such women to leave their communities to prevent harassment. For Muslims in the West Bank and Gaza, personal status law is derived from Shari'a (Islamic law), as set out in the governing 1976 Jordanian Status Law, which includes inheritance and marriage laws. Women can inherit but not equally. Men may take more than one wife but rarely do in urban areas (the practice is more common in small villages). Women may add conditions to marriage contracts to protect their interests in divorce and child custody but rarely did so. Children often stayed with the mother; according to local practice, men were considered responsible for paying child support and alimony. Ecclesiastical courts rule on personal status issues for Christians. Couples and individuals in the West Bank and East Jerusalem had access to contraception, although there were unmet resource needs with regard to information and means regarding timing and spacing of children. Among married women of reproductive age in Gaza and the West Bank, 28 percent of births occurred in less than an 18-month interval following a previous birth. The most recent data available, gathered by the Palestine Demographic Health Service in 2004, estimated that approximately one-third of Palestinian women in the Gaza Strip and West Bank used contraception. High workload, poor compensation, and resource shortages continued to affect skilled attendance during labor and postpartum care (much of which was provided by midwives) in the Occupied Territories. While both governmental authorities and community and international NGOs operated HIV/AIDS education, prevention, and screening programs, limited information was available about the gender breakdown of these efforts. Children.--Israel registers births of Palestinians in Jerusalem. The PA registers Palestinians born in the West Bank and Gaza, and Israel requires that the PA pass this information to the Israeli Civil Administration. As the PA does not constitute a state, the PA does not determine ``citizenship'' alone. Children of Palestinian parents can receive a Palestinian ID (issued by the Israeli Civil Administration) if they are born in the occupied territories to a father who holds a Palestinian ID. The PA Ministry of the Interior and the Israeli Civil Administration both play a role in determining a person's eligibility. Education in Palestinian-controlled areas is compulsory from age six through the ninth grade. Education is available to all Palestinians without cost through high school. Statutory rape is considered a felony by the PA, based on the Jordanian penal code of 1960, which also outlaws adultery and all forms of pornography. The minimum age for consensual sex is 18. Palestinian judges reportedly issued harsher sentences to persons involved in pornography if the images included children. Punishment generally consists of prison time, which can last up to seven years. Child abuse was reported to be a widespread problem. A 2006 HRW study cited a Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics survey indicating high levels of domestic violence, aggravated during times of political violence. There were no updated statistics during the year. The Basic Law prohibits violence against children; however, PA authorities rarely punished perpetrators of familial violence. International and domestic NGOs promoted educational, medical, and cultural services for children in the Gaza Strip, West Bank, and East Jerusalem, and other groups specialized in the needs of children with disabilities. OCHA reported that between January 1 and October, eight Palestinian minors were killed in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. An armed settler killed one minor and unexploded ordnance killed another. A total of 119 children were injured in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Of this number, 64 injuries were due to settler violence. According to the IDF, 89 children under the age of 16 were killed in Gaza. B'Tselem reported that 318 of the 762 civilian fatalities were minors under age 18. Trafficking in Persons.--Palestinian law does not specifically prohibit trafficking in persons, and there were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the occupied territories. Persons With Disabilities.--The Basic Law states all Palestinians are equal. There is no reference to discrimination or disability. Access to public facilities was not mandated. There was societal discrimination against Palestinians with disabilities. Poor quality care for Palestinians with disabilities continued to pose problems. The PA depended on NGOs to care for those with physical disabilities and offered substandard care for mental disabilities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender IdentityPalestinian law, based on the Jordanian Penal Code of 1960, prohibits homosexual activity, although in practice the PA did not prosecute individuals suspected of homosexuality. Cultural and religious traditions reject homosexuality, and Palestinians alleged that PA security officers and neighbors harassed, abused, and sometimes arrested homosexuals because of their sexual orientation. Israeli press reported that an unidentified homosexual Palestinian male from the West Bank petitioned the State of Israel for protection, due to fear that his community would reject and possibly harm him. Israeli courts were reviewing the case at the end of the year. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--The PA Ministry of Health provided treatment and privacy protections for patients with HIV/AIDS; however, societal discrimination against affected individuals was high. The High Court on August 6 ruled that an ultra-orthodox school in the West Bank settlement of Emmanuel must stop separating students based on their ethnicity and remove all signs of discrimination. Since 2007 the school had separated students of different ethnic backgrounds and required them to wear different uniforms. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law permits workers to form and join independent unions of their choice, and this was respected in practice. Labor unions in Gaza continued to operate despite a severely weakened economy. However, Hamas in many cases replaced Fatah- affiliated union leaders with Hamas members or sympathizers, and during the year a number of non-Hamas-affiliated labor union activists were detained by Hamas. The two most active unions were the General Union for Palestinian Workers and the Palestine General Federation of Trade Unions (PGFTU). The PGFTU was a member of the International Trade Union Confederation. Both were registered with the PA Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Workers in Jerusalem may establish unions but may not join West Bank federations. Despite this, the West Bank-based PA Employees' Union and Teachers' Union counted East Jerusalem members among their ranks, and Israeli authorities rarely took steps to enforce this restriction unless high-profile events or senior PA officials were involved. Workers holding Jerusalem identity cards may belong to the Israeli General Federation of Labor (Histadrut), although they may not vote in Histadrut elections. PA law provides for the right to strike. In practice, however, strikers had little protection from retribution. Prospective strikers must provide written warning two weeks in advance of the basis for the strike (four weeks in the case of public utilities), accept Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) arbitration, and are subject to disciplinary action if they reject the result. If MOLSA cannot resolve a dispute, it can be referred to a special committee and eventually to a court. Accordingly, in practice the right to strike remained questionable. PA employees organized fewer strikes than in the previous year, in large part because the PA had been able to pay salaries during the past year in the West Bank. In general PA employees staged strikes over nonpayment of wages or to demand payment of arrears. There were no reports of private sector strikes during the year. Individual offices within the PA ministries in Gaza conducted strikes and work stoppages against Hamas-led public offices in Gaza throughout the year. Public sector health care workers and teachers held extended strikes against Hamas for reported discrimination against non-Hamas-affiliated PA employees. At year's end these types of strikes continued in Gaza with reduced rates of participation compared to earlier strikes. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law protects collective bargaining, and this has been enforced in certain cases. However, there were reports that PA enforcement of collective bargaining rights for unions serving other than PA employees was limited in recent years. Collective bargaining agreements covered 20 percent of workers. Antiunion discrimination and employer interference in union functions are illegal, and the government enforced these prohibitions. Most unions in the West Bank and Gaza served PA employees, and negotiations on labor issues occurred between union leadership and the prime minister's office. Trade unions of non-PA employees have had good relations with the PA and have received PA permission to operate and negotiate on PA contracts. According to the NGO United Civilians for Peace, Palestinians working in West Bank settlements reported hostile responses to their efforts to organize unions. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law states that work is a right and that the PA will strive to provide it to any capable individual. MOLSA interpreted this statement to prohibit forced and compulsory labor, including by children. PA labor law prohibits forced or compulsory labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age of Employment.-- Children under the age of 15 are not permitted to work in PA- administered areas, and this prohibition is enforced through PA Ministry of Labor factory visits and inspections. Hiring of children aged 15-18 for limited types of employment is permitted under set conditions, including limited hours and a prohibition on operating certain types of machines and equipment. The law states that children shall not be allowed to perform work that might damage their safety, health, or education, and prohibits working at night, hard labor, and travel beyond their domicile. However, many underage children worked on family farms and in shops, as street vendors, or in small enterprises. The UN estimated that hundreds of children were forced to find work, particularly in Gaza, as the declining economy made it difficult for families to find adequate resources. The PA had eight child labor inspectors for the West Bank. Information on respect for child labor laws in Gaza was not available at the end of the year. MOLSA stated that Palestinian children working in Israeli settlements faced security problems, exploitation, and harassment since there was no enforceable law to monitor and protect child laborers, and there were no Israeli inspectors in West Bank settlements and industrial zones. The Israeli MOJ stated that permits for Palestinians to work in Israeli settlements are not issued to residents of the West Bank who are younger than 18, except in the Jordan Valley, where work permits may be issued to persons age 16 and above. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There was no minimum wage in Palestinian-controlled areas. Prior to 2000, average wages for full- time workers provided a decent living standard; however, living standards dropped significantly over the past nine years due to increases in cost of living that outpaced salary increases. Average wages in the occupied territories were approximately$1,100 per month. The NGO United Civilians for Peace and the Israeli NGO Kav laOved reported that the Israeli minimum wage was generally the highest wage paid to Palestinians working in settlements, and that they complained of receiving much lower wages than Israelis working in the same areas. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the unemployment rate in the third quarter of the year was 36 percent in Gaza and 17 percent in the West Bank. In September the World Bank reported that two-thirds of Palestinians lived below the official poverty line and were unable to support themselves and their families without international assistance. In October OCHA reported that 88 percent of the Gaza population lived in poverty and depended on international assistance. MOLSA reported that most employees work at least 50 hours each week; the maximum official work week is 48 hours. There were reports that PA employees were pressured to work additional hours to be promoted. Employers are required to allow Christians to attend church on Sunday if the employee desires. Some employers offered Christians the option of taking Sunday off, rather than Friday. Palestinians reported that they continued to receive wages lower than the Israeli minimum wage, despite a 2007 high court ruling that Israeli labor laws apply to relations between Palestinian workers and Israeli employers in settlements in the occupied territories. The ruling granted Palestinian workers the same rights and benefits as workers in Israel. However, several cases brought by Palestinians against Israeli employers who offered less than the minimum wage were still pending in Israeli courts. The Municipality of Ma'ale Adumim applied a 1965 Jordanian labor law to Palestinian employees, which denied them some social benefits that are part of Israeli labor law, such as rehabilitation pay, pensions, travel expenses, and education funding. MOLSA was responsible for safety standards, but its enforcement ability was limited. The ministry stated new factories and workplaces met international health and safety standards, but older ones did not. Employees of small construction and service firms were at greatest risk for work place injuries, according to union officials. Unions complained that the PA did not effectively monitor smaller worksites which were at times below legal standards for safety. Palestinians who work in Israel must contribute to the National Insurance Institute and are eligible for limited benefits. __________ JORDAN The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy ruled by King Abdullah II bin Hussein. It has a population of approximately six million. The constitution concentrates executive and legislative authority in the king. The multiparty parliament consists of the 55- member House of Notables (Majlis al-Ayan), appointed by the king, and a 110-member elected lower house, the Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al- Nuwwab). The 2007 Chamber of Deputies and municipal elections by and large went smoothly; however, local observers alleged some irregularities. Authorities effectively controlled the security forces, but there were some instances in which domestic and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) accused members of the police and security forces of using unnecessary force and committing human rights abuses. The government respected human rights in some areas, but its overall record continued to reflect problems. The government restricted citizens' right to change their government, and the electoral law led to significant underrepresentation of urban areas and citizens of Palestinian origin in the Chamber of Deputies. Domestic and international NGOs reported cases of arbitrary deprivation of life, torture, poor prison conditions, impunity, arbitrary arrest and denial of due process through administrative detention, prolonged detention, and external interference in judicial decisions. Citizens continued to describe infringements on their privacy rights. Restrictive legislation and regulations limited freedom of speech and press, and government interference in the media and threats of fines and detention led to self-censorship, according to journalists and human rights organizations. The government also continued to restrict freedoms of assembly and association. Religious activists and opposition political party members reported a decline in government harassment; however, legal and societal discrimination remained a problem for women, religious minorities, converts from Islam, and some persons of Palestinian origin. Local human rights organizations reported widespread violence against women and children. The government restricted labor rights, and local and international human rights organizations reported high levels of abuse of foreign domestic workers. On March 31, a new trafficking-in-persons law came into effect, followed on August 25 by new domestic worker regulations; the government used both during the year to investigate and prosecute a limited number of trafficking-in-persons cases. On July 28, the judiciary established a special honor crime tribunal that subsequently sentenced two perpetrators to 15 year murder sentences in both cases tried before the court. These were the first honor killing cases in which the judge did not significantly reduce the sentence due to claims of mitigating circumstances. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were reports during the year that the government or its agents committed unlawful killings. On November 8, Saddam Al Saoud died of injuries allegedly sustained in police custody at the Al Hussein Police Station. On October 17, police arrested Al Saoud during a fight between street vendors in Amman. On October 18, authorities transferred an unconscious Al Saoud to a private hospital. Al Saoud's family said police caused Al Saoud's injuries when they hit him on the head with a gun. The Public Security Department (PSD) investigated the case, arrested six police officers, and charged them with two felonies: death caused by hitting and abuse of PSD regulations. At year's end cases against the officers were ongoing. On November 14, Fakhri Kreishan died of injuries sustained during an altercation with police two days earlier in the southern city of Ma'an. A police officer reportedly hit Kreishan in the head with a baton as he prevented the arrest of a fugitive wanted for theft by worthless check who had taken refuge in his house. Police prosecutors investigated the case, arrested the police officer, and charged him with two felonies: death caused by hitting and abuse of PSD regulations. At year's end the case before the police court was ongoing. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, international NGOs continued to allege that torture and mistreatment in police and security detention centers remained widespread. Nevertheless, some domestic NGOs claimed that recent reform efforts had reduced cases of torture and mistreatment in police and security detention centers. Article 208 of the penal code prohibits torture by public officials, including psychological harm, and provides penalties of as long as three years' imprisonment for the use of torture, with hard labor if serious injury occurs. The PSD interpreted hard labor to mean a three- to 15-year sentence. Human rights lawyers found the law ambiguous and supported amendments to better define ``torture'' and strengthen sentencing guidelines. During the year there were no prosecutions for torture under this article. Local and international NGOs criticized the use of special police prosecutors and courts to try PSD personnel accused of torture and police misconduct. As part of the reform process, the government gave civilian prosecutors authority to assist in investigation of torture allegations, although such cases were tried in a police court. The February 9 report by the National Center for Human Rights' (NCHR) on prison conditions cited a decrease in the number of complaints of torture and mistreatment in the country's correctional and rehabilitation centers (CRCs). The NCHR reported nine complaints in 2008 of mistreatment or torture in CRCs. One complaint was stayed at the plaintiff's request, one was closed for lack of evidence, one was referred to the police court, four resulted in administrative punishment, and two were pending. As of September 1, the PSD's human rights office had received 28 complaints of mistreatment in CRCs. Six complaints were stayed at the request of the plaintiffs, six were referred to the unit commander, and 16 were referred to the police court. International organizations continued to claim that torture remained a widespread practice. On April 15, the Arab Organization for Human Rights (AOHR) released its 2008 report on the country, describing continued beating and torture of prison inmates. An October 2008 report by Human Rights Watch (HRW) cited interviews with prisoners alleging mistreatment, which HRW concluded often amounted to torture. Treatment detailed in the interviews included beatings with cables and sticks and suspension in metal cuffs for hours at a time. Political prisoners, including Islamists convicted of crimes against national security, reportedly received greater abuse than other prisoners. The report also documented the severe lack of punishment and failure to investigate abusive guards. The 2007 report by the UN special rapporteur on torture described police and security forces as practicing ``widespread'' torture based on ``consistent and credible allegations.'' Three prominent local organizations claimed reductions in cases of torture and mistreatment in the country's prisons, crediting government efforts to create incentives to attract qualified prison personnel, provide personnel with human rights and antitorture training, and increase investigation of complaints. However, the organizations maintained that the government should undertake additional reforms, including stronger antitorture legislation, increased monitoring, and eliminating police courts. On February 9, Islamist prisoners and their families alleged that prison guards tortured and abused the prisoners in the Swaqa and Jweideh Prisons. Two reputable local human rights organizations found no evidence that such beatings or other harsh treatment occurred and claimed that the prisoners had alleged torture to stop transfers based on prisoner classification. The PSD reportedly conducted an investigation and agreed with this assessment. Unlike in prior years, there were no new public claims of torture by defendants before the State Security Court. On April 15, three of five men who claimed to have been tortured from 2007 to May 2008 received five-year sentences. The other two men were acquitted due to lack of evidence. The government found their torture claims baseless, as they also found the January 2008 torture claims of two men accused of exporting weapons to the West Bank whose criminal cases were ongoing at year's end. On May 14, the State Security Court sentenced Nidal Momani, Tharwat Draz, and Sattam Zawahra to death for plotting to kill a foreign leader while visiting the country in 2006, but it immediately commuted their sentences to 15 years' imprisonment. In 2007 and 2008, the defendants claimed they had been beaten and psychologically pressured to confess. A police investigation of Ali Utoum's alleged 2007 abduction and beating concluded that no such abduction or beating occurred. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Local NGOs maintained that prison and detention center conditions improved during the year but concluded that significant problems remained, including overcrowding, understaffing, inadequate food and health care, and ineffective prerelease and postrelease programs. During the year the PSD increased the number of visits prisoners can receive. In an August 21 statement, HRW cited prisoner complaints about small cell size, extreme heat, seizure of books and personal belongings, and lack of a mosque or exercise area. Some detainees reported abuse and mistreatment at the hands of guards during the year. Hunger strikes remained common, but prison riots and allegations of mistreatment reportedly decreased. The PSD and the NCHR were two organizations that received prisoner complaints of poor prison conditions. The PSD reported that some prisoners went on hunger strike during the year to protest mistreatment, poor prison conditions, and a prisoner classification system under which some prisoners had been moved to different wards or prisons based on the type of crime, number of offenses, and other factors. According to HRW authorities sometimes denied water to hunger strikers, placed them in solitary confinement, and prevented family visits; however, domestic human rights organizations that met with the prisoners contradicted the HRW reports. On February 24, the Institute of Forensic Medicine, part of the Ministry of Health, issued a report stating that prison clinic conditions were unsuitable and deteriorating and that inmates did not have access to basic health services. The report also criticized the lack of psychiatric treatment and follow-up. An investigation committee, led by the PSD and including a civilian prosecutor, found no evidence of wrongdoing by prison personnel during the April 2008 Muwaggar Prison riot in which three inmates died when rioters set mattresses on fire. As of December 1, there were approximately 8,500 inmates in CRC facilities roughly estimating full capacity. The government generally held men, women, and juveniles in separate prison and detention facilities; however, pretrial detainees were often held in the same detention facilities as convicted prisoners. The General Intelligence Directorate (GID) held some persons detained on national security grounds in separate detention facilities. According to the NCHR, GID detainees are generally held in solitary confinement and are not allowed to meet unsupervised with visitors. Islamist prisoners in Jweidah were held in a separate wing and kept in small-group isolation. International and domestic NGOs also reported that in some instances Islamist prisoners faced harsher prison conditions than other inmates. The government permitted local and international human rights observers to visit prisons and to conduct private interviews in prisons. During the year the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) visited prisoners and detainees in all prisons, including those the GID and the military intelligence directorate held, according to standard ICRC modalities. The NCHR conducted routine and unannounced prison inspections during the year, including visits to GID facilities. In July parliament passed an amendment enabling all Ministry of Justice (MOJ) personnel to visit detention centers at any time. The government initiated a process of large-scale prison reform during the year and started the process to transfer CRC management from the PSD to the MOJ. The PSD also instituted an incentive program, including additional leave and financial incentives, to attract the best potential candidates for a range of CRC personnel, and it worked with the NCHR and ICRC to develop a training program for all CRC staff. At year's end the government was constructing five new CRCs with cells that meet international standards, raising the number of prisons from 13 to 18. The government also began providing minimum wage and social security benefits for inmates working in prison, no-cost medical days with a range of specialists, a rehabilitation program for newly incarcerated high-risk prisoners, and increases in frequency of family visits. In 2008 the NCHR noted the GID had begun providing better psychological care to detainees. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. According to local and international human rights groups, the government did not always observe these prohibitions in practice. The governors of the country's 13 provinces continued to use the Crime Prevention Law routinely to detain individuals administratively without due process. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The PSD controls general police functions. The PSD, GID, gendarmerie, Civil Defense Directorate, and military share responsibility for maintaining internal security. The gendarmerie, established in 2008 from elements of the PSD, assists police in emergencies, provides diplomatic security, and responds to riots, protests, and demonstrations. The Civil Defense Directorate is responsible for public safety during natural disasters and civil disturbances. The PSD and gendarmerie report to the interior minister with direct access to the king when necessary, and the GID in practice reports directly to the king. Civilian authorities maintained control over security forces. The government uses mechanisms to investigate abuse and corruption, but some allegations of impunity remained. Citizens may file complaints of police abuse or corruption with the PSD's human rights office or with one of 50 police prosecutors stationed throughout the country. Complaints of abuse and corruption by the gendarmerie may be filed directly with the gendarmerie. A GID liaison officer receives complaints against the GID and refers them to GID personnel for investigation. Complaints against the PSD, gendarmerie, and GID may also be filed with the NCHR or several other NGOs. The PSD's preventive security office is tasked with investigating allegations of police corruption. The PSD and gendarmerie tries their personnel internally with their own courts and prosecutors. Allegations of torture and mistreatment continued, according to numerous credible observers. From January 1 to December 20, citizens filed 376 complaints against PSD personnel, of which 42 related to police abuse. Of the 42 cases, 12 were sent to the police court for prosecution and 22 resulted in internal discipline. In 2008 citizens filed 454 complaints against PSD personnel, of which 91 related to police abuse. Of the 91 cases, 18 were sent to the police court for prosecution, and nine resulted in internal discipline such as firing, demotion, or leave without pay. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law allows suspects to be detained for up to 24 hours without a warrant in most cases. The criminal code requires that police notify authorities within 24 hours of an arrest and that authorities file formal charges within 15 days of an arrest. Human rights observers claimed that police continued to make arrests before obtaining warrants and prosecutors did not file charges or seek extensions in a timely manner. The period to file formal charges can be extended as long as six months for a felony and two months for a misdemeanor. Local NGOs stated that prosecutors routinely requested extensions and judges granted them. This practice generally lengthened pretrial detention for protracted periods. At year's end approximately 800 persons were reportedly being held in prison without formal charge. Bail is allowed under the penal code and used in some cases. Some detainees reported not being allowed timely access to a lawyer, but authorities generally permitted family member visits. Authorities appointed lawyers to represent indigent defendants charged with felonies although legal aid services remained minimal. There were allegations of long periods of incommunicado detention in GID facilities; however, in 2008 the NCHR noted the GID had improved its practices in informing families of detentions and detainees' whereabouts. The State Security Court gives judicial police, charged with conducting criminal investigations, authority to arrest and keep persons in custody for 10 days; this authority includes arrests for alleged misdemeanors. In cases purportedly involving state security, the security forces arrested and detained citizens without warrants or judicial review, held defendants in lengthy pretrial detention without informing them of the charges against them, and did not allow defendants to meet with their lawyers, at times until shortly before trial. Defendants before the State Security Court usually met with their attorneys at the start of a trial or only one or two days before. A case may be postponed for more than 48 hours only under exceptional circumstances determined by the court. In practice cases routinely involved postponements of more than 10 days between sessions with proceedings lasting for several months. In most cases the accused remained in detention without bail during the proceedings. Several inmates were in detention without charge at year's end. Under the Crime Prevention Law, provincial governors may detain individuals suspected of planning to commit a crime or those who allegedly shelter thieves, habitually steal, or constitute a danger to the public; those accused are subject to imprisonment or house arrest as ``administrative detention'' without formal charges. A detention order may be for as long as one year, but governors can impose new orders to prolong detentions. Governors routinely abused the law, imprisoning individuals when there was not enough evidence to convict them, prolonging detentions of prisoners whose sentences had expired, and incarcerating women at risk of being honor crime victims. The NCHR and other human rights organizations called for the abolishment of the Crime Prevention Law, noting that 16,050 administrative detentions occurred during the year. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judiciary's independence in practice was compromised by allegations of nepotism and the influence of special interests. An international organization also reported interference by senior judges in junior judges' cases. The Judicial Council, a committee led by the president of the Court of Cassation, comprises other high-ranking judges from various courts and the MOJ. The council approves judicial appointments after initial nominations by the MOJ, and it assigns and evaluates judges. The executive branch, through the MOJ, controls most judicial functions, giving the government the ability to influence judicial decisions. The Judicial Council continued to lack the internal capacity to effectively manage judicial administrative and financial matters that would ensure its independence. There were allegations during the year that the former council's head reassigned judges or forced them to retire early for personal instead of policy reasons. The judicial system consists of civil, criminal, commercial, police, security, military, and religious courts. Most criminal cases are tried in civilian courts, which include administrative courts; courts of first instance; courts of appeal; the High Court of Justice, convened for specific cases; and the Court of Cassation, the highest court. The State Security Court, headed by two military officers and one civilian as judges, has jurisdiction over offenses against the state and drug-related crimes by civilians and military personnel. Defendants convicted in the Security Court may, in some instances, appeal the verdict to a civilian appellate court. The PSD and gendarmerie have internal police courts that have jurisdiction over all cases involving their personnel. Either party in a police court verdict may appeal the decision to a civilian appellate court. The religious courts are subdivided into Shari'a courts and tribunals for non- Muslims. Shari'a courts have jurisdiction over all matters relating to the personal status of Muslims, including marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Christian courts have jurisdiction over marriage and divorce cases among Christians, but Shari'a is applied in inheritance cases. Trial Procedures.--The law presumes that defendants are innocent. All civilian court trials, including state security court trials, are open to the public unless the court determines otherwise. Juries were not used. Defendants are entitled to legal counsel (at public expense for the indigent only in cases involving the death penalty or potential life imprisonment). In July the government passed an amendment that made court rulings legally binding without the presence of the defendant, although an attorney for the defendant must be present for the verdict to be valid. The law was being implemented at year's end. Defendants could present witnesses on their behalf and question witnesses presented against them. Defense attorneys were generally granted access to government-held evidence relevant to their clients' cases. Defendants can appeal verdicts; appeals were automatic for cases involving the death penalty. In the State Security Court, defendants convicted of felonies had the right to appeal their sentences to the Court of Cassation, which is authorized to review issues of both fact and law. All citizens were accorded these rights. Civil, criminal, and commercial courts accord equal weight to the testimony of men and women; however, in Shari'a courts the testimony of two women was equal to that of a man in most circumstances. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Citizens and NGOs alleged that the government continued to detain a few individuals during the year, including political opposition members, for political reasons, and that governors continued to use administrative detentions for what appeared to be political reasons. In a few cases, the media or human rights organizations reported that authorities kept detainees in solitary confinement and denied them access to lawyers. On September 9, the court of conciliation acquitted Hassan Abu- Shawer of his remaining charge of dishonoring the flag. In 2007 police arrested Abu-Shawer, a 19-year-old student, during a protest by the Islamic Action Front (IAF), the political wing of the Muslim Brotherhood. In April 2008 the State Security Court acquitted him of ``fueling national discord'' and released him two months later. Authorities released the five IAF members arrested in Zarqa and Aqaba in 2007 without charge shortly after their arrest. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent judiciary in civil matters. Individuals may bring lawsuits related to human rights violations and did so during the year. The High Court of Justice hears administrative complaints. The courts are open to all residents. Courts also have jurisdiction over any person in a civil or criminal matter, including lawsuits in which the government is a plaintiff or a defendant. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits arbitrary interference in private matters. In practice the government did not respect this prohibition. Citizens widely believed that security officers monitored telephone conversations and Internet communication, read private correspondence, and engaged in surveillance without court orders of persons deemed threats to national security. The law requires that security forces obtain a warrant from the prosecutor general or a judge before conducting searches or otherwise interfering with these rights. During the year foreign migrant workers with valid work and residency permits reported police forcibly entered their homes without warrants as part of a joint police and labor inspection campaign to verify the legal status of workers. A few religious activists reported that the GID withheld certificates of good behavior required for job applications or to open a business, or threatened not to allow their children to enter or graduate from university. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, in practice the government imposed some restrictions on these rights. Journalists reported that the threat of detention and imprisonment under the penal code for a variety of offenses and stringent fines of as much as 20,000 dinars ($28,000) under the press and publications law for defamation led to self-censorship. The government's use of ``soft containment'' of journalists, such as financial support, scholarships for relatives, and special invitations, led to significant control of media content. Citizens generally were able to criticize the government, although they reported exercising caution in regard to the king, the royal family, the GID, and other topics deemed sensitive, such as religion. On October 25, a group of men beat opposition figure Layth Shbeilat in an Amman bakery. Shbeilat and many local observers connected the assault to a lecture he presented at the Socialist Thought Forum two days earlier in which he called for increased efforts to fight government corruption and the need to question and hold officials accountable. The government denied the linkage and the alleged involvement of security forces in the assault. The PSD reportedly initiated an investigation; no findings had been released by year's end. In December 2008 authorities prevented Egyptian citizen Gamal Eid, executive director of the Arabic Network for Human Rights Information, from entering the country, detained him for six hours at the airport, and returned him to Cairo. Eid claimed he was targeted for his 2006 criticism of the government. The government restricted media freedom. Media organizations and journalists reported that the government influenced the appointment of editors in chief at some major publications, whether by virtue of officials' positions on the boards of directors of government- affiliated publications or through undisclosed contacts. The government has a majority share on the board of directors for one major daily newspaper and a minority share in another. Independent print media existed, including several major daily newspapers; however, such publications must obtain licenses from the state to operate. To work legally for government-affiliated publications, journalists must be members of the Jordan Press Association (JPA), which reportedly has denied membership to some practicing journalists. The JPA prevented several leading columnists from establishing an independent columnists' club during the year. The JPA sued the club, stating it violated the JPA law, which grants the JPA sole authority to regulate and oversee media affairs. Club founders, some of whom were not JPA members, stressed that the club was not regulatory in nature but would instead serve as a forum for members to discuss news developments and engage with political figures. The JPA dropped the lawsuit after the columnists agreed to come under the JPA umbrella, but the columnists subsequently ceased to pursue the club's formation. According to a survey during the year, 70 percent of journalists thought the government used ``soft containment'' to control the media at a medium to high degree. The governmental Audiovisual Commission has authority to recommend rejection of a broadcast license without a stated reason. When covering controversial subjects, government-owned Jordan Television and Radio reported only the government's position. International satellite television and Israeli and Syrian television broadcasts were available and unrestricted. On June 30, the government closed the Arabic-language Al-Alam and English-language Press TV satellite television stations, both of which were funded by a foreign government. The government claimed it closed the stations due to lack of accreditation and registration. The law provides foreign media operations freedom of expression; however, there was at least one report of government violence against foreign journalists during the year, as well as reported instances of government harassment and court actions against journalists and other writers based on their work. On January 9, gendarmerie officers reportedly attacked an Al Jazeera television crew of citizens, including Amman bureau chief Abu Hilala, and cameramen Malik al-Laham, Muhammad al-Huwaiti, and Safwan al-Awawida. According to the journalists, after police dispersed a crowd protesting near the Israeli embassy, a group of plainclothes men assisting with dispersing the demonstration threatened Hilala when he attempted to interview them. Hilala allegedly sought protection from a nearby group of uniformed officers, but they responded by beating him and the other journalists with their batons. The government condemned the attack and established an investigation committee, headed by the PSD; however, the government had not released any investigation results by year's end. On June 21, a court sentenced poet and Al Arab Al Yawm reporter Islam Samhan to one year in prison and a fine of 10,000 dinars ($14,200) on charges of slandering Islam and insulting ``religious sentiment'' for his use of Koranic verses and prophets in his poetry. Samhan was arrested in October 2008, two weeks after the Grand Mufti, the country's highest religious authority, issued a fatwa (religious opinion) calling him an ``infidel'' and an ``apostate.'' At year's end Samhan was free on bail pending an appeal of the court's ruling. Journalists claimed the government used informants in newsrooms and that intelligence officials monitored reporting. Editors reportedly received telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or events, although this practice reportedly declined during the past year. Government officials also reportedly bribed journalists to influence their reporting. The annual report by the Amman-based National Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) stated that the government used detention and prosecution or the threat of prosecution to intimidate journalists. According to a CDFJ survey during the year, 94 percent of 1,200 journalists interviewed practiced some sort of self-censorship due to government interference or the threat of fines or detention. Ninety-eight percent of the journalists stated they would not criticize the armed forces; 54 percent, the government; 77 percent, tribal leaders; and 81 percent would not raise religious issues. Sixty-eight percent of respondents believed that government interference in the media has increased in recent years. The government requires the media to obtain approval prior to any filming or photographing. Journalists reported during the year that intelligence personnel confiscated photos of public events they were covering. The law provides punishment of as long as three years' imprisonment for insulting the king, slandering the government or foreign leaders, offending religious beliefs, or stirring sectarian strife and sedition. The government fined journalists for such crimes during the year. According to the CDFJ, more than 45 journalists had cases pending before a Jordanian court having been charged with a range of violations, including slander, contempt of court and violating laws, such as the penal code, press and publications law and state security law. On August 5, a court fined a journalist Ali Sneid from the Al Anbat daily newspaper 8,000 dinars ($11,400) for criticizing a former minister of health in an article about water pollution in Manshyet Bani Hassan, in Mafraq Governorate. Four of the five Ad-Dustour, Al-Arab Al-Yawm, and Al-Rai editors and reporters sentenced to three months in jail in March 2008 for contempt of court and defamation paid fines in order not to serve their three-month sentences, which were upheld by an appellate court during the year. The other reporter's case was still pending in the court system at year's end. Four of the journalists were indicted after publishing commentary on a Higher Judicial Council ruling, and the fifth was indicted for defamation after criticizing a government official. El-Ekhbariya editor in chief Fayez Al-Ajrashi, arrested in October 2008 on criminal charges of ``inflaming sectarian strife'' and ``sowing national discord,'' remained on bail pending a court decision at year's end. Ajrashi alleged both complaints were linked to his articles criticizing Amman governor Sa'ad Al-Manaseer's record and exposing cases of corruption. The government continued to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons. Some foreign films were edited prior to release. On December 24, the Council of Ministers approved a code of conduct to guide the government's relationship with the media. According to the government, the code is designed to guarantee a free, independent media without government interference and influence. For instance, under the code the government may not use advertisement revenue to influence reporting, officials may not give financial incentives or gifts to journalists, practicing journalists may not simultaneously hold government positions, and all media subscriptions by the government were cancelled in favor of direct purchase. The media largely viewed the code as a positive step, although critics raised some concerns, such as the adverse impact on small weekly papers that rely significantly on government subscriptions. Internet Freedom.--The government controlled access to certain Internet content during the year, but Internet access remained largely unfettered. Citizens and activists widely believed that the government monitored electronic correspondence and Internet chat sites and, therefore, they practiced self-censorship over such media. According to 2009 International Telecommunications Union data, approximately 28 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. In 2008 the Ministry of Interior (MOI) issued instructions for monitoring Internet cafes for reasons of security, including the installation of cameras in Internet cafes to monitor users. The new measures, which reportedly were enforced during the year, require cafe owners to register users' personal data, hand over records of Web sites users visit, and prevent access to questionable Web sites, as defined by the MOI. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government placed some limits on academic freedom. Members of the academic community claimed there was an ongoing intelligence presence in academic institutions, including monitoring of academic conferences and lectures. On September 7, the National Campaign for Defending Students' Rights criticized the interference of security bodies in student activities, especially in university student council elections. Security personnel reportedly told students for whom to vote. The group also noted that universities had punished or expelled students for distributing literature expressing solidarity with Palestinians. The AOHR concurred with the group's findings and demanded that students be allowed to express opinions freely. On July 29, the Chamber of Deputies approved an amendment giving university boards of trustees and their search committees the authority to choose and hire a university president. Previously, this authority lay with the state. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly, but the government restricted this right. The Public Gatherings Law, as amended in 2008, stipulates that organizations do not need approval to hold routine internal meetings and activities but that routine public meetings--including workshops and training sessions--require approval. Governors are not required to provide a legal reason for denial of permission to hold an event, and there is no standard in the law for what constitutes an impermissible public gathering. If an organization fails to apply for permission for an event, its members face imprisonment from one to six months and a fine of as much as 3,000 dinars ($4,300). The government's response period was shortened from 72 to 48 hours and, if a governor does not issue a response within 48 hours, applicants are entitled to hold the event without legal liability. From early January--at the outbreak of the military operation in Gaza--until January 29, the government suspended the requirement for advance approval of demonstrations and protests. More than 600 protests and demonstrations, including more than 80 by the Muslim Brotherhood, were held throughout the country during the suspension. Throughout the year several civil society organizations and political parties accused the government of being stringent in issuing permits for public gatherings based on political factors rather than security concerns. Governors sometimes denied requests for peaceful demonstrations and civil society gatherings. In some cases the government granted approval at the last moment, making it difficult for organizers to plan events. On multiple occasions during the year, the Amman governor reportedly denied the IAF permission to hold rallies, protests, or other events, including a rally in Al-Muqabalayn to thank citizens for their support of Gaza, a protest in front of the Egyptian embassy to denounce the closing of the Rafah crossing and the conflict in Gaza, activities to celebrate Jerusalem as the 2009 Arab Culture Capital, a protest in support of Al Aqsa Mosque, and a protest regarding the murder of an Egyptian woman by a German national. On April 25, the Irbid governor reportedly denied a small political party permission to hold a festival to celebrate Jerusalem having been named the 2009 Arab Culture Capital. On at least three occasions during the year, including the response to a sit-in by port workers in Aqaba (see section 7.a.), government forces allegedly used excessive force to break up protests and demonstrations. On January 9, gendarmerie forces used batons, tear gas, and water cannon to disperse protesters throwing rocks and shouting harsh language outside the Israeli embassy. The gathering was to protest Israeli operations in Gaza. The gendarmerie maintained a neutral stance throughout most of the protest but eventually used aggressive tactics to disperse the protesters. The government formed an investigation, headed by the PSD, but it had released no information by year's end. On July 5, gendarmerie forces used batons to disperse a sit-in at the Ministry of Agriculture to protest the import of Israeli fruit and vegetables. During altercations with gendarmerie forces, several protesters were reportedly injured, and the gendarmerie briefly detained four protesters. The police stated the sit-in was illegal, as organizers had not obtained the required approval to hold the event. The government indicated it would investigate the gendarmerie's tactics, but no results of any investigation had been made public by year's end. Twenty IAF supporters imprisoned during a licensed protest in 2007 were released without charge shortly after their arrest. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the right of association, but the government limited this freedom in practice. The law gives a newly formed registrar's office in the Ministry of Social Development (MSD) the right to reject applications to register a organization or to receive foreign funding for any reason, and it prohibits the use of associations for the benefit of any political organization. The law also gives the registrar significant controls over the internal management of associations, including the ability to dissolve associations; appoint new boards of directors; send government representatives to any board meeting; prevent associations from merging their operations; and appoint an auditor to examine an association's finances for any reason. The law requires associations to inform the registrar of board meetings, submit all board decisions for approval, disclose members' names, and obtain MOI security clearances for board members. The law includes severe penalties, including fines of as much as 10,000 dinars ($14,200). The registrar's advisory board is chaired by the minister of social development and includes representatives from seven other government bodies and four civil society representatives. At year's end the prime minister had not appointed the civil society representatives. The government introduced, and the parliament passed, amendments to address a few of the restrictions resulting from the 2008 revised law, which began implementation on September 17. The amendments abolished the use of prison sentences as a penalty for violating the associations' law. The amendments also established the registrar's office and required the cabinet to respond within 30 days to an association's request to receive foreign funding; absent a response, the funding is considered approved. Civil society leaders worried that the amendments did not sufficiently address the oversight powers granted to the government in 2008. During the year the government did not deny any organizations permission to register or to receive foreign funding. Although the government proposed amending the law during the year to allow all religious groups to provide social and volunteer services in the country, the Chamber of Deputies changed the language in the amendment to permit only Muslim and Christian groups such rights. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom to practice the rites of one's religion, provided that religious practices are consistent with ``public order and morality,'' and it stipulates that there be no discrimination in the rights and duties of citizens based on religion. The government continued to impose some restrictions on religious freedom in practice, and the constitution also requires that Islamic law, which forbids the conversion of Muslims to another religion, govern citizens' personal status. The state religion is Islam, which effectively restricted the religious freedom of members of other denominations, especially in terms of family law. The king appoints the Grand Mufti, the country's most influential religious authority, who has the authority to issue religious fatwas. The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Trusts appoints imams, provides mosque staff salaries, manages Islamic clergy training centers, and subsidizes certain activities sponsored by mosques. Christian denominations and other religions must be accorded legal recognition by the government to own land and administer sacraments, including marriage. For the recognition of Christian denominations, the prime minister confers with the Council of Church Leaders, a group of the leaders of recognized Christian churches. The denomination must have citizens among its constituency and must be recognized by the Middle East Council of Churches. Christian religious leaders stated that the MOI conducted background investigations of church leaders. On January 21, the cabinet officially made the Council of Church Leaders the government's reference point for all Christian affairs. The council serves as the administrative body for all Christian churches to facilitate official business with the government. Unrecognized Christian denominations, although they do not have full membership on the council, must also conduct business with the government through the council. The government did not recognize (but registered as ``associations'') the Baptists, Free Evangelicals, the Church of the Nazarene, Assemblies of God, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Nonrecognition meant these denominations were not allowed to form their own courts to govern the personal status matters of its members, but were granted benefits of societies, such as tax-exempt status. Christian denominations such as the United Pentecostal Church and Jehovah's Witnesses did not have society status; however, these nonrecognized denominations conducted most religious services and activities without interference. Several Christian denominations operated schools in several cities that were open to adherents of all religions, such as the Baptist, Orthodox, and Latin schools. The government also did not recognize the Druze or Baha'i faiths, and it discriminated against Baha'is. The government did not recognize marriages conducted by the Baha'i Assembly, although Baha'is could receive documentation, such as passports, on the basis of such marriages. Baha'is were not permitted to register properties or endowments in the name of the Baha'i community. The government also continued to stigmatize the Baha'is by recording dashes in the religion field of their national identity cards. It categorized Druze as Muslims on these documents and required that atheists associate themselves with a recognized religion for official identification purposes. There are no restrictions on collective worship as long as worship practices do not violate the law. Unlike in 2008 no religious workers or pastors stated that authorities prevented them on security grounds from conducting meetings or conferences in hotels or public venues during the year. Public schools provide Muslim students mandatory religious instruction, during which Christian students are allowed to leave the classroom. Christian students in private and public schools must learn verses from the Koran and Islamic poetry in Arabic and social studies classes in preparation for mid-year and end-of-year exams. The constitution provides that congregations have the right to establish schools for the education of their own communities, ``provided that they comply with the general provisions of the law and are subject to government control in matters relating to their curriculums and orientation.'' The application of Shari'a law on personal status matters prohibits conversion from Islam to another religion. In apostasy cases decided by the Shari'a court, converts from Islam have lost their inheritance, children, spouse, and civil rights. Conversion to Islam is allowed. A few converts from Islam to Christianity reported the GID questioned them after family members complained to authorities about the conversion. These converts reported that the GID withheld certificates of good behavior that are required for job applications or to open a business, or threatened to not allow their entry into or graduation from university. Other converts reported no harassment by authorities and, in at least one case, officials positively intervened to mediate an understanding between a convert and family members. Neither the constitution nor the law explicitly prohibits proselytizing; however, the government restricted efforts to proselytize Muslims. A few religious leaders reported the GID summoned them during the year for questioning on their church's activities and church membership, although this practice reportedly decreased during the year. The government monitored sermons at mosques and required that preachers refrain from commentary that ``might instigate social or political unrest.'' Some Christian churchgoers reported the presence of security police outside churches on several occasions during the year. Security officials reportedly did not state a reason for their presence but reportedly questioned some churchgoers. Some churches welcomed the presence for security reasons. The publication of material that slanders or insults religion is prohibited with fines of as much as 20,000 dinars ($28,400). Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Some Muslims who converted to other religions reportedly faced societal discrimination, threats, and abuse from their families and Muslim religious leaders. There were also reports that interfaith romantic relationships led to ostracism. Unrecognized religious groups, such as the Baha'is, also reported societal discrimination. Iraqi Mandaeans residing in the country complained that individuals who did not understand their faith interfered in their baptismal rituals in prior years, causing them to change baptism locations. During the year, the government required that Mandaeans give authorities one month's notice prior to a baptism for the government to provide security. Anti-Semitism was present in the media, and editorial cartoons, articles, and opinion pieces sometimes depicted negative images of Jews without government response. Aside from expatriates, there was no resident Jewish community in the country. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/ index.htm d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; however, there were some restrictions. The government generally cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees and asylum seekers. The law requires that a minor obtain written permission from the father to apply for a passport. Consular officers and activists encountered cases of mothers who reported that they were prevented from departing with their children because authorities enforced requests from fathers to prevent their children from leaving the country. The GID sometimes withheld passports from citizens for alleged security reasons. Employers or authorities sometimes held the passports of foreign workers. Some persons of Palestinian origin living in the country were citizens and received passports; however, the government reported that there were approximately 165,000 Palestinian refugees, mostly of Gazan origin, who did not qualify for citizenship. Approximately half of these persons received two-year passports that do not connote citizenship. West Bank residents without other travel documentation were eligible to receive five-year passports that do not connote citizenship. Local and international human rights organizations continued to charge that the government did not consistently apply citizenship laws, especially in cases in which passports were taken from citizens of Palestinian origin, citing cases where national identification numbers were revoked. The government maintained this policy was in line with its efforts to implement the government's disengagement from its former claims to the West Bank. For example, government officials stated that a national number may be revoked if an individual obtains Palestinian travel documents, works for any part of the Palestinian Authority, or does not renew a family reunification permit. Activists complained that the disengagement regulations did not outline such procedures, that the process was not transparent, and that the MOI appeal process was virtually nonexistent. Claimants reported that appeals were not resolved to their satisfaction. Human rights activists also claimed that former residents of Palestinian origin remained outside the country and the government refused to renew their passports at embassies overseas. The law prohibits internal and external forced exile, and the government did not use forced exile in practice. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. Its laws do not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has not established a formal system of providing protection to refugees'' and does not have any national legislation pertaining to the status and treatment of refugees)). The government respected the UNHCR's eligibility determinations regarding asylum seekers, including those who entered the country clandestinely. A 1998 memorandum of understanding between the government and the UNHCR contains the definition of a refugee, confirms the principle of nonrefoulement, and allows recognized refugees a maximum stay of six months, during which period the UNHCR must find a durable solution. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The UNRWA and the government continued to provide basic services, such as limited health, education, and social services, to Palestinian refugees during the year. At year's end approximately two million Palestinian refugees were registered with the UNRWA. The government granted nationality to approximately 700,000 persons displaced from former territories of the country during the 1967 war. An additional 120,000 persons displaced during the 1967 war held temporary residency permits, and an additional 200,000 Palestinian refugees were also estimated to be living in the country without any direct assistance. The government generally recognized the UNHCR's requests to grant temporary protection for all Iraqi asylum seekers, including new arrivals, rejected asylum or resettlement cases, and recognized refugees whose cases had been suspended by resettlement countries. In May 2008 the government began requiring Iraqis to obtain visas before entering the country. The government estimated there were 450,000 to 500,000 Iraqi refugees in the country, whereas some NGOs estimated 100,000 to 200,000. As of October 31, a total of 46,656 Iraqi refugees in the country were registered with the UNHCR. Most registered refugees received legal and material assistance from the UNHCR and other international and nongovernmental humanitarian organizations. The government provided education and health care to Iraqis and tolerated the prolonged stay of many Iraqis beyond the expiration of the visit permits under which they entered the country. During the year the government also decided to waive any overstay fines and exit fees for those returning to Iraq. Few Iraqi refugees received work permits due to bureaucratic hurdles and significant overstay fines they would have to pay prior to applying for such permit. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law does not provide citizens the right to change their monarch or government. The king appoints and dismisses the prime minister, cabinet, and the House of Notables; dissolves parliament; and establishes public policy. Citizens may participate in the political system through their elected representatives in the Chamber of Deputies. The cabinet, based on the prime minister's recommendation, appoints the mayors of Amman, Wadi Musa (Petra), and Aqaba, a special economic zone. The mayors of the other 93 municipalities are elected. The king proposes and dismisses extraordinary sessions of parliament and may postpone regular sessions for as long as 60 days. For example, the king decreed the start of an extraordinary session on June 11 and dismissed the session on August 10. On November 23, the king dissolved parliament when he called for parliamentary elections in the final quarter of 2010. If the government amends or enacts a law when parliament is not in session, it must submit the law to parliament for consideration during the next session; however, such ``provisional'' laws do not expire. Although they are technically subject to action by parliament when it returns to session, in practice they remain in force in the absence of legislative action. For example, on October 15, the king issued a royal decree approving amendments to the Social Security Law and placing them in provisional status. Previous parliaments have largely ignored controversial temporary legislation, indefinitely extending the life of several temporary laws. Elections and Political Participation.--The country held nationwide multiparty parliamentary and municipal elections in 2007. The NCHR, the opposition IAF, and other local observers alleged a number of irregularities, including vote buying, multiple voting, transfer of votes, and exploiting armed forces personnel to vote en masse for progovernment candidates. There were no local or international observers present for the municipal elections, and a limited number of local observers for the parliamentary elections. On December 16, the newly formed government, two days after being sworn in, formed an interministerial committee, headed by the prime minister, to revise the electoral law ahead of parliamentary elections scheduled for 2010. On the same date, the government formed another interministerial committee under the direction of the prime minister to finalize and implement a decentralization plan. At year's end, the two committees had not yet completed their work. The constitution states that elections must be held within four months of parliament's dismissal or the previous parliament is reinstated. The king, however, has the authority to extend this period based on special circumstances. Upon dissolving parliament, the king called for elections past the four months in order for the government to first amend the electoral law and complete a decentralization plan. The government routinely licensed political parties and other associations but prohibited membership in unlicensed political parties. The High Court of Justice may dissolve a party if it concludes that the party violated the constitution or the law. The law stipulates that a political party must have a minimum of 500 founding members from five governorates. Opposition parties, including small parties dissolved in 2007 after the law's enactment, complained that the law was unconstitutional and obstructed political dynamism. Political analysts and opposition parties also called on the government to take active measures to promote party development, including amendments to the electoral system that would place greater emphasis on parties. Political parties, NGOs, and independent candidates found the registration process onerous and costly. Parties criticized the GID's annual screening process of founding members. Political parties complained that the mandated public funding of 50,000 dinars ($71,100) was insufficient to operate effective campaigns. The electoral law led to significant underrepresentation in urban areas. Amman's second district has more than 200,000 constituents and was granted four representatives, but Karak's sixth district has approximately 7,000 constituents and was granted three representatives. Many analysts asserted that the current electoral system is unfair and creates a weak, unrepresentative parliament that is intended to reduce the representation of areas heavily populated by citizens of Palestinian origin in favor of tribal interests. The law allows voters to choose one candidate in multiple-seat districts. In the largely tribal society, citizens tended to cast their vote for members of the same tribe. Citizens of Palestinian origin, estimated to be more than half of the total population, are underrepresented at all levels of government and the military. The law reserves nine Chamber of Deputies seats for Christians and three for either the Circassian or Chechen ethnic minorities, constituting an overrepresentation for these minorities. No seats were reserved for the relatively small Druze population, but they were permitted to hold office under their government classification as Muslims. The law also stipulates that Muslims must hold all seats not reserved for specified minority religions. In 2007 King Abdullah appointed four Christians to serve in the House of Notables. Christians served as cabinet ministers and ambassadors. The government traditionally reserves some positions in the upper levels of the military for Christians (4 percent); however, Muslims held all senior command positions. Women have the right to vote. Seven women served in the House of Notables, four in the cabinet, and one as governor. Seven women also served in the Chamber of Deputies (six seats are reserved for women) until its dissolution on November 23. The law provides a 20 percent quota for women in municipal council seats. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government increased investigations of alleged corruption; however, there were few convictions for corruption during the year, raising criticisms that officials enjoyed impunity. The use of family, business, and other personal connections to advance personal business interests was widespread; there were allegations of lack of transparency in government procurement, government appointments, and dispute settlement. A study by the Jordan Transparency Forum released on December 9 found that 81.3 percent of citizens believed favoritism was still rampant despite government efforts to curb corruption. In March the Audit Bureau released its annual report, which highlighted instances of corruption and violations of handling public money. As of June 30, the Anticorruption Commission had investigated 432 cases of corruption, referring 67 for legal action. The cases dealt with fraud, misuse of public office, forgery, bribery, and embezzlement, as well as cases related to food and drug laws. Despite increased investigations, some local observers questioned the commission's effectiveness due to the dearth of investigations involving senior officials or large government projects, despite allegations. In one high-profile case, the commission investigated employees at the Greater Amman Municipality accused of forging signatures to obtain unauthorized changes in job titles and bonuses. Four employees were charged with forgery. In another high-profile case, the government formed an ad hoc committee to investigate the embezzlement of 1.2 million dinars ($1.68 million) from the Ministry of Agriculture; the investigation was ongoing at year's end. Citizens filed more than 2,400 complaints against public agencies with the governmental Ombudsman Bureau from the office's opening in February until December 10. The bureau rejected 1,071 of the complaints because they did not fall under its mandate, but it resolved 86 complaints through reconciliation and provided 59 citizens with advice about how to proceed with their cases; the remainder of the complaints remained under investigation. The Bureau is charged with investigating complaints regarding any decision or action by public offices or their employees. On December 29, the government also established an office in the Ministry of Public Sector Development to receive citizen complaints. The law requires certain government officials to declare their assets privately; in the event of a complaint, the chief justice may review the disclosures. Under the law failure to disclose assets could result in prison sentences from one week to three years or fines from five to 200 dinars ($7 to $280). At year's end officials failing to submit a disclosure had not been punished. The law provides for public access to government information that is a matter of legal record but allows requests to be denied for reasons of ``national security, public health, and personal freedoms.'' Journalists criticized the law, claiming it permits the government to deny requests without justification. A December 2008 study by the Al Urdun Al Jadid Research Center showed that 58 percent of journalists were unaware of the law, and nearly 85 percent did not know they had the right to request information. Fifty percent of journalists who had attempted to obtain government information characterized the government's response as inadequate, and 13.8 percent said their requests triggered verbal abuse. In a Higher Media Council survey released in July 2008, nearly half of the journalists surveyed reported difficulty accessing information or said their requests had been denied outright. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Domestic and international human rights groups operated in the country with some restrictions. The 2008 Associations Law gave the government the ability to control NGOs' internal affairs, including acceptance of foreign funding. NGOs were generally able to investigate and report publicly on human rights abuses throughout the year although government officials were not always cooperative or responsive. Senior government officials accused local human rights organizations of having ``Western'' or foreign agendas and focusing only on the negative aspects of an issue. Major local human rights observers included the NCHR and several independent organizations, such as the MIZAN Law Group for Human Rights, the Amman Centre for Human Rights Studies, the AOHR, the CDFJ, and the Adaleh Center for Human Rights Studies. Government entities met with and participated in many projects these organizations undertook. The government generally cooperated with international NGOs, the UN, and other international governmental organizations. Unlike previous years no observers reported being unable to meet with security detainees held incommunicado. Senior government officials accused some international human rights organizations of paying local citizens to overstate human rights abuses. Although the government provided the NCHR most of its funding, the NCHR's reporting was largely regarded as objective and critical. Some local human rights groups and activists complained that the NCHR did not speak out sufficiently during the year on some controversial issues, including students' rights, citizenship, and religious freedom. The prime minister appoints the NCHR board chair and commissioner general. On May 3, the NCHR issued its fifth annual report on the state of human rights in the country, highlighting positive developments and a range of continuing human rights problems, including excessive use of administrative detention; new restrictions on the right to establish associations; limitations on media freedom, including legal action against journalists; poor protection of foreign workers, especially domestic workers; and insufficient mechanisms to prevent torture. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution states that all citizens are equal under the law and prohibits discrimination based on race, language, and religion; however, discrimination on the basis of gender, disability, and social status is not specifically mentioned. The penal code does not address discrimination, thereby severely limiting judicial remedies. Women.--Violence and abuse against women continued, including widespread domestic violence, numerous honor crimes, and spousal rape. In rural areas violence against women was reported more frequently than in major cities, but women's rights activists speculated that many incidents in cities went unreported. In a survey of women in rural southern areas that the Higher Population Council and Ministry of Health released on January 16, 30 percent of women 15 to 49 years old reported psychological abuse and 20 percent reported physical abuse. A 2007 demographic health survey conducted by an international organization showed that 32 percent of women older than 15 years of age had suffered physical violence. NGOs reported similar numbers and, in some cases, slightly higher numbers. The law stipulates a sentence of at least 10 years' imprisonment with hard labor for rape of a girl or woman age 15 years or older. Spousal rape is not illegal. The PSD Family Protection Unit (FPU) treated and investigated 243 cases of sexual assault as of December 20. A woman may file a complaint against her spouse for physical abuse with the FPU, certain NGOs, or directly with judicial authorities; however, in practice familial and societal pressures discouraged women from seeking legal remedies. The 2007 demographic health survey showed that only 22 percent of domestic violence victims sought any form of assistance. In 2008 the Jordan Center for Social Research conducted a survey indicating that women often did not admit they were subjected to violence and did not seek help because they were afraid of breaking up or damaging the reputation of their families. The results also showed some degree of acceptance of abuse, particularly among less educated women. Of the respondents who reported a case of violence, 83 percent identified their husband, father, or brother as the perpetrator. Most women are not aware of services available to victims of such violence. From January 1 to December 20, the FPU forwarded 767 complaints of domestic violence for prosecution. Spousal abuse is technically grounds for divorce, but husbands can claim religious authority to strike their wives. Violators of protection orders may face as long as six months in prison. The government-run shelter, Dar al-Wafaq, assisted approximately 806 victims of domestic abuse during the year; it provided reconciliation and counseling services to victims and their families and worked with NGOs to provide services such as legal and medical assistance. The FPU continued to operate a domestic violence hotline during the year and received inquiries and complaints via the Internet and e-mail. The NGO Jordanian Women's Union maintained a hotline for victims of domestic violence and provided shelter to abuse victims. The Jordanian River Foundation operated a child and family center in East Amman that provided shelter and assistance to domestic violence victims. On February 11, the quasigovernmental Jordanian National Commission for Women launched a women's complaint office to receive gender-related complaints from domestic violence to discrimination. Authorities prosecuted the 24 reported instances of homicides related to honor crimes that occurred during the year. Activists reported that additional honor crimes likely went unreported. An Information and Research Center study released on October 1 on the causes of honor crimes in the country showed a high correlation between poverty and education with honor crimes. The study found that 73 percent of victims since 2000 were classified as poor, a group that constituted only 30 percent of the country's population. The brother of the victim was the perpetrator in 76 percent of the cases and the father in 13 percent. On July 28, the chief judge of the criminal courts announced the establishment of a special criminal court tribunal to hear all honor crime cases. In its first ruling on October 12, the tribunal issued a 15-year murder sentence to a 21-year-old man, convicted of stabbing and killing his married sister in the Jordan River Valley in 2008, because she allegedly slept with a man other than her husband. This sentence marked the first time a lower court issued a full murder sentence in an honor crime case without granting some form of leniency. On December 8, the tribunal issued the same sentence in its second honor crime case. Prior to the tribunal's ruling, some lower courts handed down 15- year sentences for second-degree murder during the year; in every case the court immediately cut the sentence in half. Judges have the discretionary right, but not obligation, to reduce sentences by as much as half if the victim's family does not press charges, even if the perpetrator and victim are from the same family. In previous years the courts usually found perpetrators of honor killings guilty of a ``crime of passion,'' which merited a maximum sentence of three years. Although defendants were almost always found guilty, they often received token sentences of no more than six months. The maximum sentences for first- and second-degree murder are death and 15 years' imprisonment, respectively. Despite judicial efforts the government had no plan or program to change public attitudes toward honor crimes or to deter future killings, and it had made no legislative changes to strengthen sentencing guidelines. For instance, the penal code still allowed judges to use the ``crime of passion'' Article 98 when ruling on honor crime cases even when the crime was premeditated. On March 20, in Zarqa a man beat to death his 19-year-old daughter with the assistance of two of her brothers. The woman's uncle reportedly had seen her wearing make-up in a location other than where she was supposed to be running errands. The father was charged with premeditated murder; the case was pending at year's end. On October 17, in the Jordan River Valley, a man publicly stabbed his 24-year-old daughter 16 times on a main street and prevented passersby from approaching until the police arrived. Before the murder the man reportedly had his daughter examined by a doctor who determined she was pregnant out of wedlock. The father was charged with premeditated murder; the case was pending at year's end. On January 28, a court sentenced the man who reportedly killed his 23-year-old sister in March 2008 in Azraq to six months in prison, the penalty applicable for a misdemeanor. The court concluded the act was committed in a ``moment of rage.'' The man had seen her walking in a forested area with a houseguest. Because the man had already been detained more than six months, he was released immediately after the verdict. Through the administrative detention authority granted to governors under the Crime Prevention Act, authorities continued to place potential victims of honor crimes in involuntary protective custody in Jweideh Correctional and Rehabilitation Center, a detention facility where some women have remained for more than 20 years. A woman detained in protective custody can be released only after her family signs a statement guaranteeing her safety and both the local governor and woman agree to the release. Despite the safety guarantee, some women were killed after their release from protective custody. For example, on July 9, a man killed his sister in East Amman shortly after she was released into his care. A human rights organization estimated that at year's end approximately five women were in protective custody. One NGO continued to work for the release of these women through mediation with their families. The NGO also provided a temporary but unofficial shelter for such women as an alternative to protective custody. Prostitution is illegal, but police and citizens reported its occurrence in certain restaurants and nightclubs throughout the country. According to the law, sexual harassment is strictly prohibited. The law does not make a distinction between sexual assault and sexual harassment; both carry a minimum prison sentence of four years with hard labor. Women's groups stated that harassment was common, but victims were often hesitant to file a complaint and rarely did so because they often were blamed for inciting it, they feared losing their job, or they faced pressure to keep silent. Couples have the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Contraceptives were generally accessible to all men and women and provided free of charge in public clinics. Almost 99 percent of births in the country take place in hospitals with trained professionals. Comprehensive essential obstetric, prenatal, and postnatal care is provided throughout the country in the public and private sectors. There is no discrimination against women for the diagnosis and treatment of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Women experienced legal discrimination in pension and social security benefits, inheritance, divorce, ability to travel, child custody, citizenship, and (in certain limited circumstances) the value of their Shari'a court testimony. Under Shari'a as applied in the country, female heirs receive half the amount that male heirs receive, and non-Muslim widows of Muslim spouses have no inheritance rights. A sole female heir receives half of her parents' estate; the balance goes to designated male relatives. A sole male heir inherits both of his parents' property. Male Muslim heirs have the duty to provide for all family members who need assistance. The existing temporary divorce law allows women to seek divorces in return for waiving financial rights, alimony, or the retention of financial rights under specific circumstances, such as spousal abuse. In these cases the woman has the burden of proof. Special courts for each denomination adjudicate marriage and divorce for Christians. The government provided men with more generous social security benefits than it gave women. The government continued pension payments of deceased male civil servants, but it discontinued payments of deceased female civil servants to their heirs. Laws and regulations governing health insurance for civil servants do not permit married women to extend their health insurance coverage to dependents or spouses. However, divorced and widowed women may extend coverage to their children. Women's rights activists complained that the law granting women equal pay for equal work was not enforced. Many women said traditional social pressures discouraged them from pursuing professional careers, especially after marriage. During the year the official unemployment rate for women was 24 percent, compared with 13 percent for the country as a whole. A Jordanian National Council for Family Affairs study released on April 22 found that women were often denied basic labor rights, such as pay equality and working hours and conditions, as outlined in the labor law. The study called for legislative changes and awareness campaigns to inform women of their rights. The law states that women have the right to obtain passports without the written permission of their husbands; unlike previous years there were no reports that authorities required a husband's permission. Married women do not have the legal right to transmit citizenship to their children. Female citizens married to noncitizen men may pass citizenship to their children only with the permission of the cabinet; however, the public was widely unaware of this mechanism, and permission was usually not granted in cases in which the father was of Palestinian origin. Women may not petition for citizenship for their noncitizen husbands. The husbands must apply for citizenship after fulfilling a requirement of 15 years' continuous residency. Once the husbands have obtained citizenship, they may apply to transmit citizenship to their children. However, in practice such an application may take years, and the government may deny the application. Such children become stateless and lose the right to attend public school or to seek other government services if they do not hold legal residency, which must be applied for every year and is not guaranteed. In one case during the year, a female citizen whose Egyptian husband died after falling at a construction site had to reapply annually for a residency permit for her three Egyptian citizen children to continue to live legally in the country with their mother and to access education and health services. The cost of applying for residency every year was a significant burden, and the government's approval was not a given. Children.--Only male citizens have the legal right to transmit citizenship to children. Children of female citizens and noncitizen husbands become stateless and lose the right to attend public school or to seek other government services if they do not hold legal residency, which must be applied for every year and is not guaranteed. The government did not issue birth certificates to all children born inside the country during the year. The government deemed some children-- including children of unmarried women, certain interfaith marriages, and converts from Islam to another religion--illegitimate and denied them proper registration, making it difficult or impossible for them to attend school, access health services, or receive other documentation. In one such case during the year, a single mother had to bury illegally her baby who died during childbirth because she was unable to obtain a birth or death certificate. Education is compulsory from ages six through 16 years and free until age 18; however, no legislation exists to enforce the law or to punish guardians for violating it. During the year authorities received and investigated complaints of physical and sexual abuse of children. A February UN Children's Fund report stated that 71 percent of children were subjected to verbal abuse and 57 percent had experienced some form of physical abuse in school. On November 18, the Council of Ministers approved amendments to civil service regulations that placed stiffer disciplinary measures, including salary deductions and termination, on those who used corporal punishment on children, including those in schools and juvenile centers. Statistics on child abuse within households were not available. During the year two deaths caused by child abuse resulted in extensive media coverage of the issue, widespread community outrage, and calls for action. In February two-year-old Qusay died of a brain hemorrhage due to shaken baby syndrome. On April 8, a woman allegedly tortured and killed her five-year-old nephew, Yazan. Authorities were reportedly aware of the cases of both children before the injuries that caused their deaths. The PSD investigated both deaths, arrested suspected family members, and tried them for premeditated murder. The defendants remained in jail at year's end, pending the outcome of their court cases. During the year former and current residents and parents of children in several MSD-operated juvenile rehabilitation centers and orphanages reported verbal and physical abuse of children by supervisors. For example, parents of children in an Irbid juvenile center and former residents of an orphanage in Madaba reported physical abuse of children. At year's end the MSD was investigating the complaints. The law specifies punishment for abuses against children; for example, conviction for rape of a child younger than 15 years potentially carries the death penalty. However, local organizations working with abused children pointed to gaps in the legal system that regularly resulted in lenient sentencing. For example, the penal code gives judges the ability to halve a sentence when the victim's family does not press charges. In child abuse cases, judges routinely accorded leniency per the wishes of the family. Activists continued to call for stronger minimum penalties. On July 28, the chief justice of the Higher Judicial Council announced the formation of a child abuse tribunal consisting of existing criminal court judges that would hear all cases involving child abuse. On November 24, the tribunal sentenced a repeat child molester to 14 years in prison for molesting a 15-year-old boy in August 2008. The 24-year-old man used a gun and switchblade to threaten the child. The National Council for Family Affairs and other local organizations stated that current legislation does not provide children sufficient protection from abuse, specifically citing the legal authorization for parents to discipline their children using force. The government continued to fund a child protection center that provided temporary shelter, medical care, and rehabilitation for abused children between the ages of six to 12 years old. During the year the shelter housed 74 abused children, of which 46 were new cases. By year's end the FPU handled 81 cases of child abuse and 435 cases of sexual assaults. The current minimum age for marriage is 18 years old. With the consent of a judge and a guardian, a child as young as 15 years old, in most cases a girl, may be married, and this was a fairly common practice. In 2008 judicial statistics indicate that judges granted consent in 9,014 cases in which at least one person was between 15 and 18 years old. Instances of forced marriage as an alternative to a potential honor killing were reported in rural areas during the year. Trafficking in Persons.--On March 31, a new antitrafficking law came into effect, prohibiting trafficking in persons for both forced labor and sexual exploitation. Other statutes governing kidnapping, assault, rape, and fraud may also be used to prosecute trafficking offenses, including withholding passports and nonpayment of wages. International and local observers maintained that trafficking and forced labor of domestic workers remained a serious problem. The country was a destination and transit point for men and women from South and Southeast Asia trafficked for forced labor, as well as a destination for women from Eastern Europe, Morocco, and Tunisia for prostitution. There were some reports of women from Morocco and Tunisia subjected to forced prostitution after arriving to work in restaurants and nightclubs. Registered recruitment agencies that worked with agencies in source countries generally recruited domestic workers and foreign workers in the garment factories The new antitrafficking law prescribes penalties of up to 10 years' imprisonment for forced prostitution or trafficking that involves aggravating circumstances such as trafficking of a child or trafficking involving a public official. Penalties for labor trafficking offenses that do not involve aggravating circumstances are limited to a minimum of six months' imprisonment and a maximum fine of 5,000 dinars ($7,100). The government did not actively encourage victims to pursue investigation or prosecution of offenses, but the government investigated and prosecuted a few egregious cases during the year. The National Committee for the Prevention of Human Trafficking is the primary body responsible for combating trafficking. The Committee is headed by the minister of justice and includes representatives from the MOI, PSD, NCHR, NCFA, MFA, and ministries of labor (MOL), industry and trade, and health. During the year the ministries of justice, interior, and labor established antitrafficking units to coordinate their efforts. Within the PSD the Borders and Residency Department led efforts to identify and investigate trafficking. A small office in the PSD Prostitution Department focused on forced prostitution and forced labor in restaurants and nightclubs. The government approved a joint police-labor inspector trafficking in persons investigation unit during the year, but it was not fully operational at year's end. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides equal rights to persons with disabilities, who numbered around 200,000, according to government and NGO estimates. The Higher Council for the Affairs of People with Disabilities works with government ministries, the private sector, and NGOs to formulate and implement strategies to assist persons with disabilities. On July 23, the council issued national accreditation standards for rehabilitation centers for persons with disabilities. According to the council there are more than 15,000 students with disabilities attending 255 specialized centers and schools. Citizens and NGOs universally reported that persons with disabilities faced problems accessing education, transportation, and other services in rural areas. The Special Buildings Code Department is tasked to enforce accessibility provisions and oversees retrofitting of existing buildings to comply with building codes. Many private and public office buildings continued to have limited or no access for persons with disabilities. The law mandates that public and private sector establishments with between 25 and 50 workers employ at least one person with disabilities, and establishments with more than 50 workers must reserve 2 percent of their positions for persons with disabilities. Local organizations received complaints from persons with disabilities regarding employers who discriminated against them. The government provided monetary assistance to citizens with severe mental and multiple physical disabilities whose families earned less than 250 dinars ($360) per month, and the Higher Council and local NGOs operated assistance programs. For example, the council pays a portion of education, training, or rehabilitation expenses for persons with disabilities. National/Ethnic/Racial Minorities There were three groups of Palestinians residing in the country, many of whom faced some discrimination. Those who migrated to the country and the Jordan-controlled West Bank after the 1948 Arab-Israeli war received full citizenship, as did those who migrated to the country after the 1967 war and hold no residency entitlement in the West Bank. Those still residing in the West Bank after 1967 were no longer eligible to claim full citizenship but were allowed to obtain temporary passports without national identification numbers, provided they did not also carry a Palestinian Authority travel document. These individuals had access to some government services but paid noncitizen rates at hospitals, educational institutions, and training centers. Refugees who fled Gaza after 1967 were not entitled to citizenship and were issued temporary passports without national numbers. These persons had no access to government services and were almost completely dependent on UNRWA services. Several human rights organizations stated that the MOI revoked national numbers of many longtime citizens of Palestinian origin during the year despite codified passport issuance procedures (see section 2.d.). Palestinians were underrepresented in parliament and senior positions in the government and the military, as well as in admission to public universities. They had limited access to university scholarships. During the year there were reports of societal discrimination against Iraqis living in the country. Some employers reportedly refused to pay or underpaid Iraqis working illegally, and some landlords reportedly would not rent or sell to Iraqis. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexuality is not illegal in Jordan; however, societal discrimination against homosexuals existed. There were reports of individuals who left the country out of fear their families would punish them for their sexual orientation. In March the municipality of Amman reportedly denied an application to establish a gay rights organization. In October 2008 security forces arrested four gay men in a park in West Amman for ``lewd acts'' following a targeted operation by the police. The individuals were placed in solitary confinement in Jweidah Prison until they promised they would not carry out any such acts in the future. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--HIV/AIDS was a largely taboo subject. Lack of public awareness remained a problem; many citizens believed the disease exclusively affected foreigners and homosexuals. The government continued efforts to inform the public about the disease and to eliminate negative attitudes against persons with HIV/AIDS, including a media strategy launched in September. The government continued to test all foreigners annually for HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B, syphilis, malaria, and tuberculosis, and deported foreigners who tested HIV positive. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides citizens working in the private sector, in some government-owned companies, and in certain professions in the public sector the right to form and join unions, but in practice this right was restricted. According to official figures, more than 10 percent of the workforce was organized into 17 unions. Foreign workers were not permitted to join unions, excluding the country's more than 300,000 registered foreign workers from any right of association. Some unions represented the interests of foreign workers informally; for example, the textile union provided medical and legal services to both migrant workers and citizens in textile factories. Government influence in union policies and activities reportedly continued. The government required unions to be members of the General Federation of Jordanian Trade Unions (GFJTU), the sole trade union federation, and new unions must be approved by the MOL. The government subsidized and audited the GFJTU's salaries and activities, and it monitored union elections in the event of a complaint to ensure compliance with the law. Observers claimed the government continued to exercise influence over the GFJTU during the year. The law permits workers to strike only under certain conditions, including a minimum 14 days' notice to the employer and the government. Strikes are prohibited if a labor dispute is under mediation or arbitration. In practice workers generally went on strike without notifying the government in advance, and the union or workers requested penalty waivers for the illegal strike as part of subsequent labor negotiations. During the year employees lodged 47 collective disputes, not all of which resulted in strikes; the parties resolved 33 through direct negotiation, and the remainder were resolved by a single mediator, a council, the Ministry of Labor (MOL), or a court. During the year the gendarmerie broke up several strikes deemed illegal due to lack of prior notice and briefly detained some strikers. On July 31, gendarmerie forces used excessive force to break up a sit-in by workers at the general cargo port in Aqaba. Workers held the two-day sit-in to protest job losses and a housing compensation agreement connected to the sale of the port. One worker was severely injured and three suffered minor injuries. The gendarmerie briefly detained 65 protesters and in mid-August detained the protesters' official spokesman for one day. The Aqaba governor, responsible for security matters in the governorate, said the sit-in was illegal because the government had not previously approved the event, and he maintained that the gendarmerie used force only when protesters began to violate public safety. Other observers indicated that the protesters were peaceful. A joint PSD and gendarmerie investigation was launched after the incident and continued at year's end. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Unions have the right to bargain collectively, and in practice the government respected this right, although observers stated that unions did not use such practices as often or as effectively as they should. The constitution prohibits antiunion discrimination, and the MOL received no complaints of antiunion discrimination during the year. Nearly 76 percent of the workers in the Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZs) were noncitizens and thus were not permitted to form or participate in unions or to engage in collective bargaining. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The constitution prohibits forced or compulsory labor, except in a state of emergency such as war or natural disaster, but there were reports of forced labor, particularly of domestic workers. With the passage of new domestic worker regulations in August (see section 6, Trafficking in Persons), labor inspectors have the authority to inspect a labor complaint in a private home only after receiving the employer's permission or with a court order. Domestic workers can file complaints with the MOL's Domestic Workers Directorate or the PSD. Women, including minors with forged documents, from countries including Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines migrated to work as domestic servants, but some were subjected to conditions of forced labor, such as withholding of passports, restrictions on movement, nonpayment of wages, threats, excessively long working hours, and physical or sexual abuse. During the year the government of the Philippines continued to enforce a ban on new workers migrating for domestic work because of a high rate of abuse of domestic workers from the Philippines by employers in the country. At year's end an estimated 400 domestic workers from the Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka were sheltered at their respective embassies in Amman; most had reportedly fled some form of forced labor. Some Chinese, Bangladeshi, Indian, Sri Lankan, and Vietnamese men and women encountered conditions of forced labor in a few garment factories, including unlawful withholding of passports and late or nonpayment of wages and overtime. However, reports of forced labor conditions in garment factories continued to decrease substantially from previous years, and the government actively inspected factories and investigated allegations of forced labor in garment factories. The MOL required violators to resolve the problem satisfactorily per the labor law and other governing legislation and to pay fines when it deemed appropriate. The MOL also publicized the outcomes of its findings. On August 25, the cabinet approved two new sets of regulations establishing rights and working conditions for foreign domestic workers and governing the operation of recruitment agencies; both measures were intended to assist in combating trafficking. The domestic worker regulations established the rights and working conditions for domestic workers, including working hours, annual and sick leave, contact with family in the source country, and freedom of religion. The regulations also include employer protections. Local activists, while recognizing the regulations as a step to protect the rights of domestic workers, questioned the government's ability to enforce the rights due to insufficient personnel in the labor inspectorate and employers' right to refuse investigations. Some activists also questioned the provision requiring domestic workers to obtain permission from their employer to leave the home for any reason. Labor inspectors had authority to investigate complaints only with the employer's permission; absent permission, inspectors must obtain a warrant. Recruitment agency regulations allow for greater monitoring and enforcement by labor inspectors and place more stringent registration requirements on agencies, including a minimum of six employees (including a manager with a university degree), a 100,000 dinar ($142,100) bank guarantee, and a 30,000 dinar ($42,600) capital requirement. The government provided no formal protective services specifically for victims of trafficking. A few local NGOs and embassies offered limited services. During the year the MSD women's shelter housed a small number of sexually assaulted domestic workers. Some foreign workers who fled from abusive employers or faced sexual assault were falsely charged with crimes by their employer or put into ``protective custody.'' Some source country embassies operated their own shelters for domestic workers fleeing their employers. Government efforts to increase awareness of trafficking in persons, especially of domestic workers, were minimal during the year. The MOL continued a few initiatives to prevent trafficking efforts, including distribution of a guidebook for domestic workers on their rights and operation of a multilanguage abuse prevention hotline. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The labor law forbids employment for children younger than 16 years of age, except as apprentices, but there were reports of child labor. Children worked in mechanical repair, agriculture and fishing, construction, and hotels and restaurants, as well as in the informal sector as street vendors, carpenters, blacksmiths, domestic workers, and painters, and in small family businesses. Child labor was reportedly concentrated in larger cities, such as Amman, Zarqa, and Irbid. A 2008 Department of Statistics study estimated the number of working children between the ages of five to 17 years old at more than 32,000. Activists estimated the number to be higher, as many businesses and families tended to hide the practice. Children younger than 18 years old may not work for more than six hours per day, between the hours of 8 p.m. and 6 a.m., or during weekends, religious celebrations, or national holidays. Children younger than 18 years old may not work in hazardous occupations. The law provides that employers who hire a child younger than 16 must pay a fine of as much as 500 dinars ($710), which is doubled for repeat offenses. A 2007 MOL study estimated that 13 percent of working children in the country were subjected to some form of forced labor, and 16 percent earned 50 dinars ($71) or less per month. The average monthly salary was 81 dinars ($115). The study stated that heavy machinery, noise pollution, poor lighting, and exposure to chemicals were common risks working children faced. The government's capacity to implement and enforce child labor laws was not sufficient to deter the practice. The MOL's Child Labor Unit coordinates government action regarding child labor and receives, investigates, and addresses child labor complaints. The unit had two employees and was unable to carry out its responsibilities effectively. During the year the government reinstated the National Committee to Combat Child Labor and initiated development of a new national strategy. During the year a foreign NGO trained 48 MOL inspectors on child labor issues, including identification of child labor. Labor inspectors have issued fines for child labor violations, but stated they often attempted alternative approaches first, such as ensuring safe work conditions and cooperating with employers to permit working children to attend school concurrently e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--On January 1, the national minimum wage increased from 110 dinars ($156) to 150 dinars ($213) per month, which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. A tripartite committee, composed of government, private sector, and employee representatives, determined the minimum wage after taking into consideration a range of economic and social factors. The increased minimum wage did not apply to workers in the garment sector, whether they were citizens or foreigners, or to domestic workers; however, the MOL and the garment exporters association agreed to a nonbinding understanding that textile workers would receive a 40 dinar ($57) monthly allowance, in addition to company-provided housing and food. MOL inspectors enforced the minimum wage but due to limited resources were unable to ensure full compliance. In some cases the law requires overtime pay for hours worked in excess of the 48-hour standard workweek. The law prohibits compulsory overtime but allows the employer to require the employee to work more than 48 hours a week for specific purposes such as annual inventory, closing accounts, preparing to sell goods at discounted prices, avoiding loss to goods that would otherwise be exposed to damage, and receiving special deliveries. In such cases actual working hours may not exceed 10 hours per day, the employee must be paid overtime, and the period may not last more than 30 days. Employees can lodge a complaint directly with the MOL or through organizations such as their union or the NCHR. Employees are entitled to one day off per week. Provisions for domestic and agricultural workers, placed under the labor law in 2008, were similar. A study by the Phoenix Center for Economic and Information Studies released on September 7 revealed that many workers in the private sector worked excessive hours and did not receive sick and annual leave as stipulated in the labor law. The law specifies a number of health and safety requirements that the MOL is authorized to enforce. Workers do not have a statutory right to remove themselves from hazardous conditions without risking the loss of their jobs. Foreign workers were more susceptible to dangerous or unfair conditions (see section 6.c.). __________ KUWAIT Kuwait is a constitutional, hereditary emirate ruled by the Al Sabah family. The country has a population of 3.44 million, of whom 1.1 million are citizens. Local observers and the press considered the May 16 parliamentary election generally free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government limited citizens' right to change their government and form political parties. There were a few reports of security forces abusing prisoners and at least one investigation and prosecution related to prisoner abuse. The government limited freedoms of speech, religion, and movement for certain groups and, although widely regarded as allowing considerably free media, occasionally limited media freedom. The status of stateless Arab residents (called ``Bidoon'') remained unresolved. Government corruption and trafficking in persons remained problems. Women did not enjoy equal rights, although some advances were made. Expatriate workers faced difficult conditions in the domestic and unskilled service sectors. On October 20, the Constitutional Court ruled that a woman can obtain a passport without her husband's permission. On October 28, the same court ruled that female members of parliament (MPs), female candidates for parliament, and female voters are not legally required to wear the hijab, a headscarf worn by some Muslim women, thereby settling a contentious issue of how to interpret the 2005 women's suffrage amendment to the 1962 election law. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--Articles 53, 159, and 184 of the criminal law code prohibit torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; however, some police and members of the security forces reportedly abused detainees during the year. Police and security forces were more likely to inflict such abuse on noncitizens, particularly non-Gulf Arabs and Asians, and there were several reported accounts of police abuse of transgender persons. The government stated that it investigated all allegations of abuse and punished some of the offenders; however, in most cases the government did not make public either the findings of its investigations or any punishments it imposed. In late January a court sentenced three police officers accused of torturing a young man to two years in prison. The case was appealed on February 10, but the Court of Appeals had not returned a verdict at year's end. There were no further developments concerning the allegations that security officials abused hundreds of Bangladeshi workers in the wake of July 2008 labor strikes. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--The Central Prison Complex houses the country's only three prisons: a low-security men's prison, a high-security men's prison, and a women's prison. The prison complex slightly exceeded its 4,000-person capacity; there were 211 inmates in the women's prison and 3,834 inmates in the men's prisons. The country also has a 1,000-person capacity deportation center in Talha that is not part of the prison complex. The 2006 construction of new men's prisons resulted in an improvement in prison and detention center conditions; however, some detention facilities lacked adequate sanitation and sufficient medical staff. Authorities reportedly mistreated prisoners and failed to prevent inmate-on-inmate violence. While the Ministry of Interior (MOI) gave some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Al-Takaful Prisoner Care Society unfettered access to prisons, the Kuwait Human Rights Society (KHRS) issued a statement August 1 criticizing the MOI for barring KHRS representatives from visiting the low-security prison. On July 7, the parliamentary Human Rights Committee visited the Central Prison Complex following up on an earlier visit. The committee chair expressed his satisfaction that the MOI had dealt with sanitation problems and a lack of medical staff observed during previous visits. During the year the KHRS visited the Talha Deportation Center (used as a holding facility for expatriate laborers) and stated that the center provides detainees sufficient food and adequate medical services. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. There were a few reports that police sometimes arbitrarily arrested nonnationals. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The police have sole responsibility for the enforcement of laws not related to national security, and State Security oversees intelligence and national security matters; both are under the purview of civilian MOI authorities. The military is responsible for external security. The police were generally effective in carrying out core responsibilities; however, there were frequent reports of corruption, especially when one party to a dispute had a personal relationship with a police official involved in a case. There were reports that police showed favoritism towards citizens. On September 7, police arrested and briefly detained a foreign citizen after three Kuwaiti men beat him for interfering in a dispute between a domestic worker and an employer; the three Kuwaitis involved were not arrested. There were also reports that some police stations did not take seriously the requests of complainants, especially foreign nationals. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports that police sometimes obstructed foreign nationals' access to the justice system. In cases of alleged police abuse, the district chief investigator examines abuse allegations and refers cases to the courts for trial. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--A police officer generally must obtain an arrest warrant from a state prosecutor or a judge before making an arrest, except in cases of hot pursuit. There were few reports of police arresting and detaining foreign nationals without a warrant during the year. The courts generally do not accept cases without warrants issued prior to arrests. According to the penal code, a suspected criminal may be held at a police station without charge for as long as four days, during which authorities may prevent lawyers and family members from visiting. In such cases lawyers are permitted to attend legal proceedings but are not allowed to have direct contact with their clients. If charges are filed, a prosecutor may remand a suspect to detention for an additional 21 days. Prosecutors also may obtain court orders for further detention pending trial. There is a functioning bail system for defendants awaiting trial. The bar association provides lawyers for indigent defendants; in these cases defendants do not have the option of choosing which lawyer will be assigned to them. Of the 4,035 persons serving sentences or detained pending trial, an estimated 150 were held in the ``state security ward'' on security grounds, including some held for collaborating with Iraq during the 1990-91 occupation. Arbitrarily lengthy detention before trial was a problem, and approximately 10 percent of the prison population consisted of pretrial detainees. During the year foreign nationals at the Talha Deportation Center were generally incarcerated between 10 days and two months awaiting deportation. Some prisoners were held for longer periods, due to court delays. On July 7, due to pressure from the parliamentary Human Rights Committee, the MOI released Ahmad Al-Shammari, a Bidoon, from the Talha Deportation Center, where he had been detained for five years. Amnesty.--On February 28, holding to an annual tradition, the emir freed and pardoned 99 prisoners. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary and the right to a fair trial and states that ``judges shall not be subject to any authority''; however, the emir appoints all judges, and the renewal of judicial appointments is subject to government approval. Judges who are citizens have lifetime appointments; however, many judges are noncitizens who hold one- to three-year renewable contracts. The Ministry of Justice (MOJ) may remove judges for cause but rarely does so. Foreign residents involved in legal disputes with citizens frequently claimed the courts showed bias in favor of citizens. The secular court system tries both civil and criminal cases, all of which originate with the Court of First Instance, composed of a three-judge panel. Both defendants and plaintiffs may appeal a verdict to the High Court of Appeals, with a three-judge panel that may rule on whether the law was applied properly as well as on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. These decisions may be presented to the Court of Cassation, where five judges review the cases to determine only whether the law was properly applied. The emir has the constitutional authority to pardon or commute all sentences. Shari'a (Islamic law) courts have jurisdiction over family law cases for Sunni and Shia Muslims. Secular courts allow anyone to testify and consider male and female testimony equally; however, in the family courts the testimony of a man is equal to that of two women. The Constitutional Court, whose members are senior judges from the civil judiciary, has the authority to issue binding rulings concerning the constitutionality of laws and regulations and also rules on election disputes. A martial court convenes in the event the emir declares martial law. The law does not specifically provide for a military court or provide any guidelines for how such a court would operate. The military operates tribunals that can impose punishments for offenses within the military. Trial Procedures.--By law criminal trials are public unless a court or the government decides ``maintenance of public order'' or ``preservation of public morals'' necessitates closed proceedings. There is no trial by jury. Defendants enjoy a presumption of innocence and have the right to confront their accusers and appeal verdicts. Defendants in felony cases are required by law to be represented in court by legal counsel, which the courts provide in criminal cases. The bar association is obligated upon court request to appoint an attorney without charge for indigent defendants in civil, commercial, and criminal cases, and defendants used these services. Defendants have the right to confront witnesses against them and present their own witnesses. Defendants and their attorneys generally have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases and to appeal their cases to a higher court. The law affords these protections to all citizens. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters; however, rulings occasionally were not enforced. Administrative punishments, such as travel bans, are also available in civil matters. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law provides for individual privacy and the sanctity of the home, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. Security forces occasionally monitored individuals' private communications and activities. The law forbids marriage between Muslim women and non-Muslim men and requires male citizens serving in the police force or military to obtain government approval to marry foreign nationals. In practice the government offered only nonbinding advice in such matters and did not prevent any such marriages. The government may deny a citizenship application by a Bidoon resident based on security or criminal violations committed by his or her family members. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press ``in accordance with the conditions and in the circumstances defined by law.'' In practice the government sometimes did not respect these rights, and journalists and publishers practiced self-censorship. According to Freedom House's annual Freedom of the Press report, the country has a considerably free press, including electronic media. Individuals were able to criticize the government freely in private and informal gatherings but could incur jail time and/or fines for attacking Islam, the emir, or the crown prince. Pointed criticism of ministers and other high-ranking government officials continued to be widespread, even though authorities arrested and detained individuals, including opposition political candidates, for incitement or criticism of the emir. On April 17, police detained former MP Dhaifallah Bu Ramiya for telling an election rally that Defense Minister Shaykh Jaber Mubarak Al Sabah, a senior member of the ruling family, was not fit to become prime minister. The former MP faced charges of disparaging the powers of the emir, who has the right to appoint the prime minister. After being detained for three days, Ramiya was released on bail and continued his ultimately successful election campaign. On April 19, police arrested and detained parliamentary candidate Khalifa Al-Kharafi overnight; Al-Kharafi had said during a television interview that neither the emir nor the defense minister possessed the faculties needed to run the state. No charges were brought against him. On June 12, authorities released an Australian woman sentenced in April to two years in prison for insulting the emir and allowed her to return home. The woman, arrested in December 2008, allegedly insulted the emir while arguing with airport security guards. The country had 14 Arabic and three English-language daily newspapers, all of which were privately owned. Print media generally exhibited independence and diversity of opinion, although there were reports that media outlets sometimes practiced self-censorship to avoid unnecessary conflict with the government. In late 2008 the government lifted a ban dating from 2007 on the import and circulation of several Egyptian newsletters. The government owned nine local radio and five television stations, and there were more than 16 privately owned television stations. In July 2008 media workers united to form an independent journalists' union. The law prohibits the publication of material criticizing Islam, the emir, the constitution, or the neutrality of the courts or public prosecutor's office. The law also mandates jail terms for anyone who ``defames religion,'' and any Muslim citizen may file criminal charges against an author the citizen believes has defamed Islam, the ruling family, or public morals. The number of such cases filed against journalists and television stations continued to increase; more than 100 were filed during the year, most of which resulted in fines. On November 22, police arrested journalist Mohammad Abdulqader al- Jassem on charges that he made slanderous remarks against the prime minister during a ``diwaniya,'' an informal weekly social and political gathering. Diwaniyas have generally been considered a space for free and open political discourse. At year's end Al-Jassem was free on bail and awaited trial. On December 24, upon his return into the country, police arrested former parliamentary candidate Mohammed Al-Juwaihel on charges of unlicensed broadcasting, making false claims, and compromising national security. The government filed charges for public remarks broadcast by Al-Juwaihel on his satellite outlet in which he reportedly insulted certain MPs and made derogatory comments about Kuwaitis with dual citizenship and those of tribal and Bidoon origin. He was released on a 5,000-dinar ($17,400) bail on December 31. Fuad al-Hashem of the daily newspaper Al-Watan continued to refuse to pay a 2008 fine of 7,190 dinars ($25,000) for defamation as a result of three cases brought to court by the Qatari prime minister, who accused Al-Hashem of harming his reputation in articles dealing with his relations with Israel. The MOI censored all books, films, periodicals, videotapes, and other imported publications deemed morally offensive, although satellite dishes were widely available and allowed some citizens to receive unfiltered media. The MOI controlled the publication and distribution of all informational materials. On August 25, the MOI ordered the cancellation of the television series Sawtik Wossel (Your Voice Has Been Heard). The show featured parodies of various prominent political figures, including the prime minister and the speaker of parliament. During the year columnists and editors used their publications to discuss, and in some cases criticize, the MOI's decision, without government interference. The law requires a newspaper publisher to obtain an operating license from the MOI. Publishers may lose their license if their publications do not appear for three months in the case of a daily newspaper, or six months in the case of a less frequent publication. Internet Freedom.--According to 2008 International Telecommunications Union statistics, approximately 34 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The government monitored Internet communications, such as blogs and discussion groups, for defamation and security reasons. The Ministry of Communications (MOC) continued to block Web sites deemed to ``incite terrorism and instability'' and required Internet service providers to block other Web sites, some political. Internet cafe owners were obligated to obtain the names and civil identification numbers of customers and to submit the information to the MOC upon request. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The law provides for freedom of opinion and of research; however, academic freedom was limited by self-censorship, and the law prohibits academics from criticizing the emir or Islam. The MOI reserved the right to approve or reject public events and rejected those it deemed politically or morally inappropriate. There were no updates in the Commercial Attorney's Office's investigation of a hotel owner and party organizers for sponsoring a mixed-gender dance in August 2008. The MOI censored films for profanity, nudity, sexual contact, kissing, and extreme violence. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, and the government generally respected the right in practice. Organizers of public gatherings of more than 20 persons must inform the MOI of their plans. The law also protects diwaniyas. Many adult male citizens, including members of the government and of the National Assembly, and increasing numbers of female citizens hosted or attended diwaniyas to discuss current economic, political, and social issues. A few women held female-only diwaniyas, and a small number of diwaniyas were open to both sexes. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association; however, the government restricted this right in practice. The law prohibits officially licensed groups from engaging in political activities. The government used its power to license associations as a means of political control. There were 73 officially licensed NGOs in the country, including a bar association, professional groups, and scientific bodies. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor (MOSAL) did not license any new NGOs during the year. There remained 149 NGOs pending licensing by the MOSAL; many had been waiting years for approval. The 45 NGOs licensed prior to 2004 continued to receive an annual government subsidy of 12,000 dinars ($41,800) for their operating expenses, including travel to international conferences. NGOs licensed since 2004, when the MOSAL resumed issuing licenses after a long period of refusing to do so, received no financial assistance. The MOSAL rejected some license requests on the grounds that established NGOs already provided services similar to those the petitioners proposed. The MOSAL can also reject an NGO's application if it deems that the NGO does not provide a public service. The minister has discretion to change a proposed NGO's name prior to licensing and sometimes did so on the grounds that the name was too close to that of an already existing NGO. Members of licensed NGOs must obtain permission from the MOSAL to attend international conferences as official representatives of their organization. There were dozens of unlicensed civic groups, clubs, and unofficial NGOs in the country. These unofficial associations did not receive government subsidies and had no legal status. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the government limited this right. The constitution protects the freedom to practice religion in accordance with established customs, provided it does not conflict with public policy or morals. The constitution declares that Islam is the state religion and that Shari'a is ``a main source of legislation.'' Non-Muslim religious groups unanimously reported that the government respected freedom of belief, but non-Muslim religious organizations had more difficulty operating due to registration requirements. The government did not recognize some Christian churches, and those churches could not operate openly. Some recognized churches complained that their quota of visas allotted by the government did not meet their needs for clergy and other staff. Shia faced some disadvantages in comparison with Sunnis. Members of religions not sanctioned in the Koran, such as Baha'is, Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs, may not operate official places of worship, but they were allowed to worship in their homes without government interference. There is no specific law banning the establishment of other non-Muslim places of worship; however, in practice the government denied permission to the few groups that applied for licenses to build new places of worship, deterring some religious groups from applying. Islamic religious instruction is mandatory in all government schools and in any private school that has one or more Muslim students. The law prohibits organized religious education other than Islam; however, in practice the government allowed non-Muslim religious instruction as long as no Muslim students were taking part in the education. The government did not interfere with religious instruction inside private homes. Muslims who wished to convert from Islam to another religion faced intense societal pressure and generally had to hide their new religious affiliation. The law prohibits naturalization of non-Muslims and forbids marriage between Muslim women and non-Muslim men; these prohibitions effectively coerced individuals to convert to Islam. The government prohibited non-Muslim missionaries from proselytizing to Muslims, although they may serve non-Muslim congregations. The Islamic Presentation Committee, under the authority of the Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs (MAIA), actively proselytized to non-Muslims. The government does not permit the establishment of non-Islamic religious publishing companies, and only one private company had an import license for non-Muslim religious materials. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Although discrimination based on religion reportedly occurred on a personal level, most observers agreed it was not widespread. During the year there were markedly fewer instances of anti-Jewish rhetoric by the media than in previous years. There were no known Jewish citizens and an estimated few dozen Jewish foreign resident workers. The MAIA's ``moderation'' project, which aimed to discourage extremism among Muslims and improve the image of Muslims among non- Muslims, has been dormant since the end of 2008. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution generally provides for freedom of movement within the country; however, numerous laws constrain foreign travel, and the government placed some limits on freedom of movement in practice. Although the government contributed 575,000 dinars ($2 million) to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) during the year, it was uncooperative with most UNHCR efforts to provide implementation of protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. In contrast with 2008, there were no reports of laborers claiming they were not allowed to leave the residential camps where they lived. Women, persons younger than 21, and Bidoon faced problems with or restrictions on foreign travel. Although not sanctioned by law, MOI regulations mandate that all persons younger than 21 obtain permission from their father or another male relative to receive a passport and travel abroad and that a married woman obtain her husband's permission to apply for a passport. However, on October 20, the Constitutional Court issued and began enforcing a final ruling confirming a woman's right to obtain a passport without her husband's approval. A husband may still request that immigration authorities prevent his wife's departure from the country for 24 hours, after which a court order may extend the travel ban. The government restricted the ability of the Bidoon population to travel abroad. It permitted some Bidoon to travel to Saudi Arabia for the annual hajj and continued to issue increasing numbers of ``Article 17'' passports (temporary travel documents that do not confer nationality) for Bidoon, including more than 18,000 in 2008 and more than 2,500 in January 2009. The law also permits the government to place a travel ban on any citizen or foreigner accused or suspected of violating the law, and it allows citizens to petition authorities to do so. In practice this resulted in citizens and foreigners arbitrarily being prevented or delayed from departing the country. The law prohibits the deportation or forced exile of citizens, although the government can revoke citizenship of naturalized citizens for various causes, including felony conviction and subsequently deport individuals. The government cannot revoke the citizenship of individuals who are born citizens. During the year several hundred Bidoon emigrated from the country to Australia, the United States, New Zealand, and Canada. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967. The laws do not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status, there is no system for providing protection to refugees, and the government did not grant refugee status or asylum during the year. The country's immigration regulations prohibit local settlement for asylum seekers. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The constitution prohibits the extradition of political refugees; the government often kept such persons in detention until they agreed to return to their home country or made alternative travel arrangements, and it rarely granted them permission to live and work in the country. Stateless Persons.--According to the law, Kuwaiti citizenship is derived entirely from the father; children born to citizen mothers and nonnational fathers do not inherit citizenship unless the mother is divorced or widowed. The law further fails to provide nonnationals, including Bidoon and non-Muslims, the opportunity to gain nationality on a nondiscriminatory basis. Although the exact number of Bidoon residents was unknown, the Ministry of Planning estimated there were more than 100,000 Bidoon in the country at the end of 2006, the last year the government collected those statistics. The government continued to discriminate against Bidoon in areas such as education, employment, medical care, and freedom of movement. Bidoon children may not attend public schools. Although the government accepted Bidoon in an increasing number of government positions, it barred them from enlisting in the armed forces. Bidoon generally did not qualify for the subsidized health care that citizens received, and the government also made it difficult for Bidoon to obtain official documents necessary for employment or travel, such as birth certificates, civil identification cards, driver licenses, and marriage certificates. There were at least two developments in Bidoon rights during the year. On March 25, the Court of First Instance decided to issue a marriage certificate to a Bidoon woman married to a Kuwaiti citizen. Based on this precedent, on April 5 and again on May 26, the same court affirmed a Bidoon man's right to receive a marriage certificate and birth certificates for his children. Neither the justice nor health ministries had complied with these court orders by year's end. On May 21, the Ministry of Health passed a resolution allowing free access to government health clinics for any Bidoon child who had a Kuwaiti mother (free access would end once a child turns 18, whereas Kuwaiti citizens receive free clinic access for life). This resolution also allows free health clinic access for life for all Bidoon whom the Ministry of Health deemed to have disabilities. During the year the government did not grant citizenship to any Bidoon, despite having granted citizenship in 2008 to 573 Bidoon on the basis of sufficient ties to the country. More than 80,000 Bidoon citizenship requests were pending at year's end. Many Bidoon were unable to provide documentation proving sufficient ties to the country or present evidence of their original nationality. However, the government maintained that the vast majority of Bidoon were concealing their true identities and were not actually stateless. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their representatives in the legislative branch of government, and citizens exercised this right in practice. Citizens had only a limited, indirect impact on control of the executive branch, as the constitution stipulates that the country is a hereditary emirate. The elected National Assembly must approve the emir's choice of crown prince (the future emir) and may remove the emir from power if it declares him unfit. Elections and Political Participation.--On May 16, two months after the emir dissolved the National Assembly, tribal candidates gained seats in a parliamentary election that was generally considered free and fair. It was the third election in three years, due to the emir's constitutional dissolution of parliament in May 2006, March 2008, and March 2009. Although there is no formal law banning political parties, the government did not recognize any political parties or allow their formation. Nevertheless, tribal affiliations and several well- organized, unofficial blocs closely resembled political parties in National Assembly elections. Assembly candidates must nominate themselves as individuals and may run for election in any of the country's electoral districts. Tribes dominated two of the five constituencies and exerted influence on the other three. Tribal leaders excluded women from the tribal primaries. On April 12, police arrested trade unionist Khalid Al-Tahous, a parliamentary tribal candidate, for ``incitement against the state'' after he told an election rally that tribes would oppose any attempts to enforce the law prohibiting tribal primaries. After being detained for eight days, he apologized for his statements and was released on bail to continue his ultimately successful election campaign. In addition to the four women elected to the National Assembly in May, the emir appointed a woman as minister of education. There has been a female minister in every cabinet since 2005. There were nine Shia members in the parliament, the most ever elected to the National Assembly since its 1962 founding. There were also two appointed Shia members of the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law mandates criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Twenty percent of the respondents in a Transparency International poll released June 3 claimed to have paid a bribe or to know someone in their household who had done so in the past year. Respondents believed public officials and civil servants were the most corrupt entities, and they perceived the judiciary and parliament as less corrupt. According to the poll, respondents thought corruption was less prevalent in the country than experts believe it is. The Audit Bureau is the government agency responsible for combating government corruption. The MOSAL and MOI continued to discover dozens of cases during the year of ministry employees forging documents to enable the importation of foreign workers. Violations were referred to investigative bodies within the ministries and then sent to the Attorney General's Office for action. Courts rarely took rigorous action against the violators; however, on October 30, a court sentenced three officials charged with embezzlement to seven years in prison and a 3.4 million dinar ($12 million) fine. Public officials were not subject to financial disclosure laws. The law provides for public access to unclassified government information by citizens and noncitizens alike. The government enforced this law. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The law permits the existence of NGOs; however, the government continued to deny licenses to some NGOs. NGOs may not engage in overtly political activity and are prohibited from encouraging sectarianism. They must also demonstrate that their existence is in the public interest. The only local independent NGOs dedicated specifically to human rights were the KHRS and the Kuwaiti Society for Fundamental Human Rights. Other local licensed NGOs devoted to specific groups, such as women, children, foreign workers, prisoners, and persons with disabilities, were permitted to work without government interference. An unknown number of local unlicensed human rights groups operated without government restriction during the year. The government and various National Assembly committees met regularly with local NGOs and responded to their inquiries. The government permits international human rights organizations to visit the country and establish offices, although none operated in the country. The International Office for Migration regional director visited the country during the year. The government permitted visits by international governmental organizations and continued to cooperate fully with the work of UN special rapporteurs for Iran and Iraq and the high-level representative of the UN secretary-general on the issue of Kuwaiti citizens missing in Iraq since the end of the 1991 Gulf War. The National Assembly's Human Rights Committee is an advisory body that primarily hears individual complaints of human rights abuses. Committee members also visited the Central Prison during the year (see section 1.c.). Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, origin, disability, or language; however, in practice the government did not uniformly or consistently enforce laws against discrimination, and a number of laws and regulations discriminated against women, noncitizens, and domestic workers. Women.--Violence against women continued to be a serious and underreported problem. Rape carries a maximum penalty of death, which the country occasionally imposes for the crime; however, spousal rape is not a crime. The media reported hundreds of rape cases during the year. Many of the victims were noncitizen domestic workers. Police occasionally arrested alleged rapists, and several were tried and convicted during the year; however, laws against rape were not always enforced effectively. According to foreign diplomatic sources, victims reported that the majority of police stations and hospitals handled their cases in a professional way, but others did not. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence; cases are tried instead as assault, and a victim of domestic violence may file a complaint with police requesting formal charges be brought against the alleged abuser. Each of the country's 83 police stations reportedly received weekly complaints of domestic abuse. However, even with documented evidence of the abuse, such as eyewitness accounts, hospital reports, and social worker testimony, police officials rarely arrested perpetrators of domestic violence. Noncitizen women married to citizens reported domestic abuse and inaction or discrimination by police during the year. A woman may petition for divorce based on injury from abuse, but the law does not provide a clear legal standard as to what constitutes injury. In addition, a woman must provide at least two male witnesses (or a male witness and two female witnesses) to attest to the injury. The courts have found husbands guilty of spousal abuse; however, most domestic abuse cases were not reported, especially outside the capital, and individuals reportedly bribed police officials to ignore domestic abuse charges. Abusive husbands, if convicted, rarely faced severe penalties. There were no shelters or hotlines specifically for victims of domestic violence, although a temporary shelter for domestic workers housed victims during the year. Honor crimes are prohibited; however, the penal code reduces penalties for such crimes to misdemeanors. The law states that a man who sees his wife, daughter, mother, or sister in the act of adultery and immediately kills her and/or the man with whom she is committing adultery faces a maximum punishment of three years' imprisonment and a 225 dinar ($784) fine. There have been no reported cases of honor crimes in recent years. Police actively enforced laws against pandering and prostitution, reporting 632 arrests and 351 convictions. During the year police also uncovered numerous prostitution rings. However, according to reports the prostitution rings were largely made up of women who were not being forced or held captive against their will. The police Criminal Investigation Division determined whether prostituted women were being held against their will based on evidence of coercion, such as doors that locked from the outside and barred windows. The government generally deported prostituted persons to their countries of origin; however, some were released after signing a pledge of good conduct. Pimps, usually nonnationals, received lengthy jail terms. Some unemployed runaway foreign domestic workers were recruited or kidnapped and forced into prostitution. There is no specific law that addresses sexual harassment; however, the law criminalizes ``encroachment on honor,'' which encompasses everything from touching a woman against her will to rape, and police strictly enforced this law. Perpetrators face fines and jail time. Human rights groups characterized sexual harassment against women in the workplace as a pervasive but unreported problem. Women enjoyed the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Oral contraceptives were available over the counter. A 2004 study found the contraceptive needs of 90 percent of nonpregnant, married Kuwaiti women were being met despite the absence of a formal family planning program. Women have some political rights; however, they do not enjoy the same rights as men under family law, property law, or in the judicial system, and they continued to face discrimination in many areas. Nevertheless, women attained prominent positions in government and business. A parliamentary committee for women's and family affairs exists, and female MPs made up four of its five members. Women continued to experience legal, economic, and social discrimination. Shari'a discriminates against women in judicial proceedings, freedom of movement, and marriage. Inheritance is also governed by Shari'a, which varies according to the school of Islamic jurisprudence the different populations in the country follow. In the absence of a direct male heir, a Shia woman may inherit all property, while a Sunni woman inherits only a portion, with the balance divided among brothers, uncles, and male cousins of the deceased. When the children of a divorced woman reach age 18, she loses her right to live in housing purchased through the government loan program, regardless of any payments she may have made on the loan, and a female citizen married to a noncitizen cannot, by law, qualify for the loan program. Female citizens married to noncitizens are also required to pay annual residence fees of 217 dinars ($756) for their husbands and children; the law grants residency only if the noncitizen husband is employed. Citizen women cannot pass citizenship to their noncitizen husbands or their children. Male citizens married to female noncitizens did not face such discrimination in law or practice. The law provides for a woman to receive ``remuneration equal to that of a man provided she does the same work''; however, it prohibits women from working in ``dangerous industries'' and in trades ``harmful'' to health. In June 2008 the Constitutional Court ruled that the housing benefits package outlined in a resolution by the Council of Ministers for judges, attorneys general, and counselors in the legal advice and legislation department was unconstitutional. According to the resolution, married employees of both genders received a housing allowance of 323 dinars ($1,125), single male employees received 217 dinars ($756), and single female employees received nothing. Educated women maintained that the conservative nature of society limited career opportunities, although there were limited improvements. Women made up 50 percent of the 263,000 citizens working in the public sector, 39 percent of the 57,000 working in the private sector, and 70 percent of college graduates. The law requires that classes at all universities, private and public, be segregated by gender. Public universities enforced this law more rigorously than private universities. On March 26, the first female police officers graduated from the Support Authority Institute at the Saad Al-Abdallah police academy. On October 28, the Constitutional Court ruled that female MPs Rola Dashti and Aseel Al-Awadhi did not violate the Shari'a requirement of the electoral law by going uncovered (not wearing a hijab) and, as a consequence, would not have their National Assembly seats revoked. The ruling also determined that female candidates for parliament and female voters are not legally required to wear the hijab. Children.--The government is generally committed to the rights and welfare of citizen children, although noncitizen children received less support and attention. The government did not issue birth certificates to Bidoon children despite several court decisions against the government during the year (see section 2.d.), and many Bidoon children could not receive free public services. The government automatically granted citizenship to orphaned or abandoned infants, including Bidoon infants. For citizen children, education is free through the university level and compulsory through the secondary level. Education is neither free nor compulsory for Bidoon and expatriate children. Some Bidoon children attended private schools, and some did not attend school at all. The Charity Fund to Educate Needy Children, administered by the MOI, MAIA, and Ministry of Education, paid school fees for more than 11,000 Bidoon children since its creation in 2003. There was no societal pattern of child abuse. The legal age for girls to marry is 15, but younger girls continued to marry within some tribal groups. The MOJ estimated the prevalence at 2 to 3 percent of total marriages. Trafficking in Persons.--The law does not explicitly prohibit trafficking in persons, although it prohibits transnational slavery and forced prostitution. Trafficking in persons was a serious problem. The country was a destination and transit point for men and women for forced labor. Female migrant workers were sometimes victims of sexual exploitation. Victims came from South and East Asia, including Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Indonesia, and the Philippines, although individuals from other countries such as Ethiopia and Eritrea also reportedly were trafficked. Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians worked in the country, and some were subjected to trafficking, particularly in the form of debt bondage. There were reports that foreign workers younger than 18 were employed in homes in the country, but most trafficking victims were adults. Principal traffickers were sending-country labor-recruitment agencies and host-country sponsors (employers) of foreign workers. The primary method to obtain and transport victims was for sending-country labor recruitment agencies to offer valid contracts to workers, inflating salary figures and misrepresenting the labor conditions, and then not honor those contracts. There were reports that employers gave workers new contracts at lower salaries than those they signed previously or deducted multiple fees from their salaries. Some companies reportedly kept workers' debit cards and withdrew part of the salary after the paycheck had been deposited. Workers found it difficult to leave these situations for several reasons: employers frequently withheld workers' passports or otherwise restricted their movements; employees often were in debt from their travel to the country; and employers could file or threaten to file criminal charges against workers for absconding. Some workers also faced physical and sexual assault as a means of forcing them to work. Traffickers also forced some female domestic workers into prostitution after they had escaped an abusive employer or deceived them with a promise of a job in a different sector. Although the law does not explicitly prohibit trafficking in persons, traffickers may be prosecuted for transnational slavery, with a penalty of as long as five years' imprisonment, or forced prostitution, with a penalty of as long as five years' imprisonment or seven years' for minors. Penalties for trafficking-related crimes range from fines and incarceration for failure to abide by the standardized domestic labor contract to life sentences and the death penalty for rape. However, in most cases law enforcement efforts focused on administrative measures, such as shutting down companies in violation of labor laws or issuing the return of withheld passports or payment of back wages, rather than criminal punishments for abusive employers. During the year the MOI's Immigration Investigations Department closed more than 700 false companies that were involved in visa trading and trafficking in persons. The Immigration Investigations Department also made numerous arrests, but the courts did not secure any convictions for trafficking-related crimes. On March 11, the Court of Appeals ruled against two defendants who had been sentenced in June 2008 to two years in prison for selling two domestic workers into sex slavery. The government assisted some trafficking victims; however, it sometimes detained, prosecuted, or deported victims for acts such as prostitution or absconding, committed as a consequence of being trafficked. On April 14, the government reported it had convicted 351 defendants for prostitution and/or debauchery in 2008. The government sheltered some trafficking victims in a domestic workers shelter, and it occasionally paid for airline tickets to repatriate runaway or abused domestic workers. The Domestic Workers Administration sometimes brokered solutions between employers and former employees. In 2008 the MOSAL and MOI sent officers to International Organization of Migration (IOM) training on managing shelters and assisting trafficking victims. Foreign workers were sometimes unable to afford airfare back home from the country. During the year the government cooperated with the IOM to buy plane tickets home for 400 Sri Lankan and Indonesian workers. On August 9, the MOSAL issued a resolution to permit most foreign workers to change employers after three years of work without having to first secure the permission of the original sponsor. The resolution excludes domestic workers, public sector workers, and foreign workers involved in finance management, thereby applying to approximately two- thirds of the country's two million foreign workers. At year's end the MOSAL had not processed any sponsor transfer requests. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities and imposes penalties against employers who refrain from hiring persons with disabilities without reasonable cause. The law also mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities. The government generally enforced these provisions. There were no specific reports of discrimination against persons with disabilities; however, noncitizens with disabilities did not have access to government-operated facilities or receive stipends paid to citizens with disabilities, which covered transportation, housing, job training, and social welfare. Representatives from ministries, other governmental bodies, Kuwait University, and several NGOs constituted the government's Higher Council for Handicapped Affairs, which made policy recommendations, provided financial aid to persons with disabilities, and facilitated the integration of such persons into schools, jobs, and other social institutions. The government supervised and contributed to schools and job and training programs that catered to persons with special needs. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexuality and cross- dressing are illegal. The law punishes homosexual behavior between men older than 21 with imprisonment of up of to seven years; those engaging in homosexual activity with men younger than 21 may be imprisoned for as long as 10 years. In 2007 the National Assembly approved a law to impose a fine of 1,059 dinars ($3,690) and/or one year's imprisonment for those imitating the appearance of the opposite sex in public. There are no laws that criminalize sexual behavior between women. During the year there were more than a dozen reports of police arresting transgender persons at malls and markets, taking them into custody, beating them and shaving their heads, and then releasing them without charges. For example, on March 10, MOI Criminal Investigations Division officers raided a cafe, arresting five men for cross-dressing. There were no official NGOs focused on lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender matters. Societal discrimination based on sexual orientation was common; official discrimination was less so. There was no government response to either. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was no reported societal violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Unmarried men continued to face housing discrimination based solely on marital status. Although the law prohibits single men from obtaining accommodation in many urban residential areas, at year's end the government had not fulfilled a plan to construct housing for them on the outskirts of the capital. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--With the exceptions of the country's approximately 560,000 domestic servants and an unknown number of maritime employees, the law provides that workers have the restricted right to join unions without previous authorization. Although 1.5 million foreign workers who are not domestic workers can join unions, they cannot run or vote in board elections. An estimated 100,000 persons, or 5 percent, of a total workforce of two million were organized into unions, mostly in the public sector or petroleum industry. The law empowers the government to interfere significantly in union activities, including the right to strike; however, the government did not impede strikes. To hold a legal strike, a union must obtain permission from the MOI, which did not grant permission for any of the strikes that took place during the year. The government restricts the right of freedom of association to only one union per occupational trade and permits only one federation, the Kuwait Trade Union Federation (KTUF), which comprises 15 of the 47 licensed unions. Some workers were dissatisfied with the KTUF and instead joined the unlicensed National Trade Union Federation. The law stipulates that any new union must include at least 100 workers, 15 of them citizens. Both the International Labor Organization and the International Trade Union Confederation criticized this requirement because it discourages unions in sectors that employ few citizens, such as the construction industry and much of the private sector. The government essentially treated licensed unions as parastatal organizations, providing as much as 90 percent of their budgets and inspecting financial records. Union leaders and board members are elected by the union members, who are citizens. It is prohibited for unions to discuss political, religious, or sectarian issues. The law empowers the courts to dissolve any union for violating labor laws or for threatening ``public order and morals,'' although such a court decision may be appealed. The MOSAL can request the dissolution of a union through the Court of First Instance. The emir also may dissolve a union by decree. No union was dissolved during the year. The government denied several public sector and oil sector unions' applications for official recognition during the year on the grounds that the law does not allow for more than one union to represent the same profession or organization. The law denies domestic servants (one-third of the noncitizen workforce) and maritime employees the right to associate and organize. It also discriminates against more than one million other foreign workers by denying them union voting rights, barring them from leadership positions, and permitting them to join unions only after five years of residence, although the KTUF stated that this last requirement was not widely enforced in practice. During the year, for the first time, the KTUF worked to promote the rights of noncitizen workers, cooperating with the Embassy of Pakistan to settle the labor disputes of several Pakistani workers in the country. The law limits the right of workers, especially noncitizens, to strike. Most labor disputes are resolved in compulsory negotiations; if not, either party may petition the MOSAL for mediation. If mediation fails the dispute is referred to a labor arbitration board composed of officials from the Court of Appeals, the Attorney General's Office, and the MOSAL. The law does not contain any provision ensuring protecting strikers from legal or administrative action taken against them by the government. Employers generally try to settle disputes with workers themselves to retain them. Foreign workers went on strike several times during the year. Most striking workers were employees of cleaning and security companies who claimed they had not received their salaries. In these instances the MOSAL responded by attempting to negotiate a settlement between the workers and the employers. On April 26, more than 300 cleaning and security company workers staged a strike, claiming they had not received their salaries for four months. The MOSAL summoned the owner of the company and made him pay all late wages. On July 19, an estimated 120 cleaning workers gathered in front of the Capital Labor Department, claiming they had not received their salaries for more than six months and their company had not renewed their residencies. The MOSAL summoned the owner of the company and made him pay all late wages. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides workers, with the exceptions of domestic servants, maritime workers, and civil servants, with the right to bargain collectively, subject to certain restrictions; the government generally respected in practice the rights of those workers covered by the law. Collective agreements covered approximately 70 percent of the labor force. There are no restrictions on collective bargaining. There is no minimum number of workers needed for such agreements. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination and employer interference with union functions, and the government generally protected those rights. Any worker alleging antiunion discrimination has the right to appeal to the judiciary. Employers found guilty of such discrimination must reinstate workers fired for union activities. There were no reports of discrimination against employees based on their affiliation with a union. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, ``except in cases specified by law for national emergency and with just remuneration''; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. Domestic servitude and forced prostitution were the most common types of forced labor. Some foreign domestic workers, often trafficked, were victims of forced labor. Physical or sexual abuse of female domestic workers was a serious problem, and police and courts took action against employers when presented with evidence of serious abuse. There were frequent reports of domestic workers allegedly committing or attempting suicide because of desperation over poor working conditions or abuse. For example, on August 16, a Sri Lankan domestic employee sustained injuries after a failed attempt to commit suicide by jumping from a roof. She alleged that her employer had punished her by pouring boiling oil on her and making her stand on the roof. Authorities took the employee to the hospital and questioned her employer. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits child labor; however, there were credible reports of underage workers, including domestic servants. The legal minimum age for employment is 18; however, employers may obtain permits from the MOSAL to employ juveniles between the ages of 14 and 18 in nonhazardous trades. Juveniles may work a maximum of six hours a day on the condition that they work no more than four consecutive hours followed by a one-hour rest period. There were reports that some children were trafficked to the country to provide domestic labor, and some underage workers reportedly falsified their ages to enter the country. There were few reports of underage Asian girls working as domestic servants after entering the country on false travel documents obtained in source countries. Approximately 300 inspectors from the Labor Inspection Department monitored private firms routinely for labor law compliance, including laws against child labor. Noncompliant employers were fined or their company operations were suspended. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The public sector minimum wage for citizens was 217 dinars ($756) per month, and the public sector noncitizen wage was 97 dinars ($338). The public sector minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a citizen worker and family. There was no legal minimum wage in the private sector, except for those domestic workers who had signed contracts in 2006 who received at least 40 dinars ($140) per month. The MOSAL implemented the minimum wage effectively by requiring companies to provide a monthly wage report with supporting documents. The law establishes general conditions of work for the private sector. The law limits the standard workweek to 48 hours (40 hours for the petroleum industry) with one full day of rest per week and one hour of rest after every five consecutive hours of work. These standards were not well enforced, and domestic servants and other unskilled foreign workers in the private sector frequently worked in excess of 48 hours a week, often with no day of rest. Workers submitted complaints to the MOSAL's Labor Disputes Department. The government issued occupational health and safety standards; however, compliance and enforcement by the MOSAL appeared poor, especially with respect to unskilled foreign laborers. A September MOSAL report stated that in the previous 12 months approximately 20,000 industrial and commercial firms had negligently violated professional safety standards and that 3,313 workers were injured on the job. To decrease accident rates, the government periodically inspected enterprises to raise awareness among workers and employers and to ensure that they abided by safety rules, controlled pollution resulting from certain industries, trained workers to use machines, and reported violations. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment, and legal protection existed for both citizen and foreign workers who filed complaints about such conditions. In past years government attention to worker safety issues was limited, resulting in poor training of inspectors, inadequate injury reports, and no link between insurance payments and accident reports. No such cases were reported during the year. The law provides that all outdoor work stop between noon and 4:00 p.m. during the months of June, July, and August or when the temperature rises to 50 degrees Celsius (122 Fahrenheit) in the shade. The MOSAL monitored work sites to ensure compliance with these rules. There were no reports of violations during the year. __________ LEBANON Lebanon, with a population of approximately four million, is a parliamentary republic in which the president is a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the chamber of deputies a Shia Muslim. On June 7, the country held parliamentary elections international observers deemed generally free and fair. In May 2008 parliament elected President Michel Sleiman, who serves as the head of state. On June 27, the president and parliament appointed Saad Hariri prime minister-designate, and Hariri formed a cabinet November 9 after lengthy negotiations. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of government security forces. UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions 1559 and 1701 call upon the government to take effective control of all Lebanese territory and disarm militia groups. Despite the presence of Lebanese and UN security forces, Hizballah retained significant influence over parts of the country, and the government made no tangible progress toward disbanding and disarming armed militia groups, including Hizballah. Palestinian refugee camps continued to act as self-governed entities and maintained security and militia forces not under the direction of government officials. There were limitations on the right of citizens to change their government peacefully. Unknown actors committed unlawful killings, and there was one reported disappearance during the year that may have been politically motivated. Security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained individuals. Torture of detainees remained a problem, as did poor prison conditions, lengthy pretrial detention, and long delays in the court system. The government violated citizens' privacy rights, and there were some restrictions on freedoms of speech and press, including intimidation of journalists. The government suffered from corruption and lack of transparency. There were limitations on freedom of movement for unregistered refugees. Widespread, systematic discrimination against Palestinian refugees and minority groups continued. Domestic violence and societal discrimination against women continued, as did violence against children and child labor. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. There was at least one high-profile killing by unknown actors. On March 23, a roadside bomb blast close to Mieh Mieh, a Palestinian refugee camp east of Sidon, killed Kamal Medhat, deputy head of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in the country, along with Akram Daher, Khaled Daher, and Mohammed Shehadeh. There were few developments in killings by unknown actors from previous years. At year's end investigations were ongoing in two January 2008 explosions: one targeted a diplomatic vehicle, killing three persons and injuring two security employees; the other killed Internal Security Forces (ISF) Information Technology Intelligence branch head Captain Wissam Eid and three others, and injured 36. During January 2008 riots protesting power outages in the predominantly Shia Muslim area of Shiyah, an unknown assailant shot and killed an Amal movement official. In response the riots turned violent, with protestors throwing stones and setting cars ablaze; seven civilians died, and more than 19 were injured. In February 2008 the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) arrested 17 persons, including 11 soldiers and three officers, for excessive use of force in containing the protests. Authorities later released on bail the three officers, some of the soldiers, and other individuals. In September 2008 unknown persons planted a car bomb that killed Druze opposition figure Saleh Aridi and injured six others. Aridi reportedly played a major role in the reconciliation efforts of Druze leaders Walid Jumblatt and Talal Arslan following the May 2008 conflict with Hizballah. At year's end the investigation was ongoing. There were no developments in investigations following several 2007 car bombing deaths, including those of member of parliament (MP) Walid Eido and 10 others in June and MP Antoine Ghanem and eight others in September. There were no developments in the investigation of the 2006 killings of Islamic Jihad member Mahmoud Majzoub and his brother or of the roadside bombs in Rmeileh that injured ISF Lieutenant Colonel Samir Shehade and killed four of his bodyguards. It remained difficult to distinguish politically motivated crimes allegedly committed by opposition groups or terrorists from simple criminal acts or disputes, as the government did not exercise control over all its territory and investigations of suspicious killings rarely led to prosecutions. In April 2008 Joseph and Tony Zouki, supporters of pro-March 8 Alliance MP Elie Skaff, allegedly shot and killed two Phalange party supporters, Nasri Marouni and Salim Assi, during the inauguration of the Phalange headquarters in Zahle. At year's end Joseph and Tony Zouki remained at large. In May 2008 Hizballah-led opposition fighters occupied parts of downtown Beirut to protest two government decisions against Hizballah. Armed clashes ensued between the predominantly Shia opposition and Sunnis aligned with the majority. The occupiers targeted Sunni-run political party offices and media outlets. There were also armed clashes between Druze and Hizballah in the mountains and between Sunnis and Alawites in the north. The May 2008 conflict reportedly resulted in more than 80 deaths and 250 injuries. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), during the May 2008 conflict, members of the opposition groups Hizballah, Amal, and the Syrian Socialist National Party (SSNP) used small arms and rocket- propelled grenades (RPGs) in densely populated areas of Beirut, killing numerous civilians. For example, HRW reported opposition gunmen shot and killed Amal Baydoun and her son, Haytham Tabbarah, with an RPG while the two were trying to flee their Ras al-Nabaa neighborhood. Opposition gunmen shot and injured Tabbarah's two brothers later that day while they were trying to join their family at the hospital. Also in May 2008, supporters of the progovernment groups Future Movement and the Progressive Socialist Party (PSP) resorted to violence against civilians and offices associated with opposition groups in areas under the groups' control in northern Lebanon, the Biqa', and the Shouf. According to Hizballah, PSP fighters detained and then executed two Hizballah followers. After examining photos of the two Hizballah members, HRW reported PSP fighters shot at least one victim in the head at close range. In Halba, a village in the north, armed Sunnis killed members of the SSNP who had surrendered. According to HRW, the judiciary has issued only one indictment related to the May 2008 clashes, against an individual who shot at civilians. Other investigations have stalled with no prosecutions by year's end. In May 2008 a blast killed soldier Ossama Hassan at an army intelligence post near the northern city of Tripoli. In August and September 2008, two separate bomb attacks targeted buses filled with LAF soldiers on their way to work in Tripoli, killing 20 persons, including 14 soldiers, and injuring more than 90. In October 2008 the public prosecutor issued charges against 34 suspects accused of carrying out terrorist attacks, including the attack on the intelligence post and the Tripoli bus bombings. At year's end, authorities continued to detain 26 suspects; eight others, including Fadi Ghassan Ibrahim, remained at large. Judicial authorities also accused Ibrahim, a suspected member of Fatah al-Islam (FAI), of killing Brigadier General Francois el-Hajj and his bodyguard in 2007. Four suspected members of FAI charged with leading the 2007 Ain Alaq twin bus bombings remained in detention at year's end, without formal convictions or progress toward a trial. On April 29, the UN-appointed Special Tribunal for Lebanon ordered the government to release for lack of evidence four generals suspected of collaborating in the 2005 killing of former prime minister Rafiq al- Hariri and 22 other individuals. The officers were Major General Jamil Sayyed, former chief of Surete Generale (SG); Major General Ali Hajj, former ISF head; Brigadier General Raymond Azar, former chief of military intelligence; and Brigadier General Mustafa Hamdan, former commander of the presidential guard. Israeli cluster munitions from the 2006 conflict continued to kill and injure civilians during the year. In April the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) estimated these munitions caused an ongoing average of two civilian casualties per month. The UN Mine Action Coordination Center estimated 560,000 to 1.1 million unexploded munitions remained, despite ongoing removal efforts. At year's end munitions had killed 44 persons since the end of the conflict. On May 13, Israel provided strike data to the Lebanese government to assist in explosive ordnance disposal and demining efforts. b. Disappearance.--There was one report of an allegedly politically motivated disappearance during the year. On February 12, three masked men seized Middle East Airlines' Director of Information Technology Operational Services, Joseph Sader, as he got off a bus and walked to his office in the Rafiq Hariri Beirut International Airport. According to Sader's brother, the men threw Sader into a van and drove away. A small bus carrying army personnel who also witnessed the accident pursued but reportedly lost the van in heavy traffic. Although the ISF was investigating the disappearance, some expressed concern at government and security officials' refusal to discuss the case, and at least one source claimed the kidnappers transferred Sader to LAF intelligence, purportedly to investigate his relationship with an acquaintance who had connections to Israel. According to press reports, Bishop Elie Haddad, Melkite Roman Catholic Pastor of Sidon and Deir al- Qamar, said in an interview with television channel OTV Sader was still alive, and a local armed group without connections to Hizballah was holding him. Sader remained missing at year's end. In December 2008 plainclothes military intelligence officers took Syrian citizen and United National Alliance member Nawar Abboud and two of his employees from his office in Tripoli to al-Qubbeh military base for interrogation. Authorities reported they released all three over the next two days, but Abboud remained missing at year's end despite his family's reportedly extensive efforts to find him. On November 10, the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD), the body mandated to investigate complaints of arbitrary deprivation of liberty, declared Abboud's disappearance to have been arbitrary. The WGAD said the government's response to its queries on Abboud's whereabouts had been ``brief and imprecise'' and urged the government to ``show with precision the proof that he was liberated.'' At year's end Abboud's whereabouts were still unknown. There were no developments in the 2007 kidnapping and killing case of Ziad Ghandour and Ziad Qabalan, who were affiliated with PSP leader Walid Jamblatt. In September 2008 the public prosecutor issued charges against 14 persons, including brothers Mohammed, Shehadeh, Abdallah, Abbas, and Ali Shamas, who remained at large at year's end. More than 17,000 persons reportedly disappeared in the country during the 1975-1990 war. On October 23, judicial authorities ordered the Council of Ministers to release the official investigations report issued in 2000, of which only a three-page summary had been previously available. At year's end the report had not been published. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law does not specifically prohibit torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment, and there were reports government officials employed such practices. According to human rights groups--including Amnesty International (AI), the Lebanese Association for Education and Training (ALEF), and HRW--torture was common, and security forces abused detainees. Human rights organizations reported torture occurred in certain police stations, the Ministry of Defense (MOD), and the ISF's intelligence branch and Drug Repression Bureau detention facilities in Beirut and Zahle. At year's end the government had not submitted its initial report under the Convention Against Torture--a report due in 2001. The government also continued to deny the use of torture, although authorities acknowledged violent abuse sometimes occurred during preliminary investigations at police stations or military installations where suspects were interrogated without an attorney. Such abuse occurred despite national laws preventing judges from accepting confessions extracted under duress. Former prisoners, detainees, and reputable local human rights groups reported the methods of torture and abuse applied included hanging by the wrists tied behind the back, violent beatings, blows to the soles of the feet, electric shocks, sexual abuse, immersion in cold water, extended periods of sleep deprivation, being forced to stand for extended periods, threats of violence against relatives, deprivation of clothing, withholding of food, being deprived of toilet facilities, and continuous blindfolding. On January 22, LAF soldiers allegedly discovered two men engaged in homosexual activity in the lobby of an uninhabited building in Beirut. They dragged them to Sassine Sqaure in Beirut and severely beat them. According to reports soldiers punched, kicked, and jabbed the men with their rifle butts. The beating reportedly ended only when bystanders began to intercede, but the LAF detained the men at police barracks on the attorney general's order until their release a few days later. On July 8, LAF officials arrested and beat Mathieu Fever, a French citizen and son of Jean-Francois Fever, head of security for UN agencies in the country. The LAF alleged Fever had attempted to obstruct a convoy transferring a dangerous criminal and the convoy repeatedly warned Fever to move. Fever had a broken leg when the LAF released him two hours after the arrest. No new developments were reported in this case by year's end. From October to November 2008, authorities reportedly tortured Fadi Anwar Sabunah, who was in detention at the MOD. According to international nongovernmental organization (NGO) Alkarama (Dignity), officers tortured Sabunah before he reportedly signed a confession to end the torture. At year's end he faced criminal charges before the Beirut military tribunal related to May, August, and September 2008 bomb attacks on LAF soldiers. From November 2007 to February 2008, according to Alkarama, ISF intelligence agents allegedly tortured Amer and Mosbah Hashash in incommunicado detention at the ISF Directorate General detention center in Beirut. Authorities reportedly tortured the brothers to force them to sign confessions they were not permitted to read. The brothers, who were charged with forming a terrorist group, were awaiting trial at year's end. In 2007 security forces arrested five men in Tripoli on suspicion of supplying weapons to FAI. Security forces reportedly broke one suspect's jaw while he was in detention and forced another to stand for long periods of time, beating him severely if he tried to rest. Police dropped charges against two suspects; the others remained in custody at year's end. According to the Lebanese Center for Human Rights (CLDH), on July 31, the military court sentenced Faysal Ghazi Moqalled to life imprisonment for his 2006 interaction with the Mossad, the Israeli intelligence agency. Moqalled originally was illegally detained for five months in a Hizballah prison in 2006, where he was allegedly tortured. Subsequently the MOD detained him for 20 months, and he was allegedly tortured again. His trial on appeal was scheduled for February 2010. The army intelligence service arrested Mahmoud Qassem Rafeh in 2006 on suspicion of being an Israeli agent and subsequently detained him at the MOD, where he was allegedly tortured and forced to sign a confession. Rafeh was detained for approximately two years before he was permitted access to a lawyer; at year's end he was in prison awaiting trial. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions were poor and did not meet minimum international standards. Prisons were overcrowded and sanitary conditions, particularly in women's prisons, were very poor. NGOs working with prisoners reported three cases of prisoner-on-prisoner rape in Roumieh prison during the year. According to one NGO, 27 prisoners died during the year primarily due to authorities' negligence and failure to provide appropriate medical care. The government did not consider prison reform a high priority. At year's end there were 4,800 prisoners and detainees, including pretrial detainees and remand prisoners, in facilities built to hold a maximum of 2,500 inmates. NGOs reported at the end of the year, 138 minors and 336 women were incarcerated. Overcrowding and limited prison facilities meant pretrial detainees were often held together with convicted prisoners, and juveniles may have been held together with adults during the year. Men and women are held separately in similar conditions. The LAF carried out interrogations of security detainees in detention centers at the MOD. Authorities held FAI prisoners in separate cells at Roumieh prison. The government permitted independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights groups and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and such monitoring took place during the year. According to its 2008 annual report, the ICRC carried out 136 visits to 6,104 detainees in 21 prisons and detention centers. Nongovernmental entities such as Hizballah and Palestinian militias also operated detention facilities. The government made modest efforts to rehabilitate some inmates through education and training programs. A 15-month project funded by the European Union and implemented by the Association for Defense of Rights and Freedoms used theater arts to help inmates express themselves and communicate with others. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law requires judicial warrants before arrests, except in immediate pursuit situations, but the government arbitrarily arrested and detained persons. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The ISF, under the Ministry of Interior (MOI), enforces laws, conducts searches and arrests, and refers cases to the judiciary. The State Security Apparatus, which reports to the prime minister, and the SG, under the MOI, control the borders. The LAF is responsible for external security but may also arrest and detain suspects in the country on national security grounds. Both the State Security Apparatus and the SG collect information on groups deemed possible threats to state security. Government security officials and agencies and the police force are subject to laws against bribery and extortion. In practice a lack of strong enforcement limited the laws' effectiveness. The government acknowledged the need to reform law enforcement behavior. The ISF maintained three complaint hotlines. Hotline operators in North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Biqa', and Mount Lebanon each received approximately 50 calls per day; the Beirut operation center received approximately 100 calls per day. If the calls indicated urgency, the ISF dispatched its forces for assistance. During times of particular security instability, these centers received a greater number of calls. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law generally requires a warrant for arrest and provides the right to a lawyer, a medical examination, and referral to a prosecutor within 48 hours of arrest. If authorities hold a detainee longer than 48 hours without formal charges, the arrest is considered arbitrary and the detainee must be released. In such cases officials responsible for the prolonged arrest may be prosecuted on charges of depriving personal freedom, but charges are rarely filed. A suspect caught in the act of committing a crime must be referred to an examining judge, who decides whether to issue an indictment or to order the release of the suspect. By law bail is available in all cases regardless of the charges, although the amounts demanded may be set prohibitively high. The law guarantees detainees prompt access to a lawyer and to family members. However, the state does not provide legal assistance, although the Beirut Bar Association provides lawyers for indigent defendants. Authorities did not observe many provisions of the law, and government security forces--as well as extralegal armed groups such as Hizballah--continued the practice of arbitrary arrest and detention. In addition, the law permits military intelligence personnel to make arrests without warrants in cases involving military personnel and those involving alleged espionage, treason, and weapons possession. According to the CLDH, there have been clear cases of arbitrary detention and torture among persons detained on spying charges. For example, the CLDH reported four individuals accused of spying complained various security services tortured them to force them to sign confessions. Bureaucratic inefficiency delayed some cases. According to the CLDH, on September 25, authorities summoned Haytham Zantout to the Shiyah police station, where they interrogated him concerning a financial case. Zantout spent a night at the police station and four nights at the Baabda Court jail before authorities transferred him to Roumieh prison. After three hearings the investigative magistrate ordered him released on October 19. However, due to a delay in transmitting the release order to prison authorities, Zantout was only released on December 10, seven weeks after his ordered release date. Palestinian refugees were subject to arbitrary arrest and detention by state security forces and rival Palestinian factions. No statistics on the number of such cases were available at year's end. For example, on September 5, Hizballah reportedly arrested Salah Ezzedine and conducted an interrogation into his alleged financial fraud scheme before remanding him to the custody of government law enforcement personnel. Both Ezzedine and his business partner Youssef Faour were charged with fraud, embezzlement, distributing worthless checks, and violating the country's fiscal law. Human rights activists believed as of 2008 there were at least 600 Lebanese and Palestinians from Lebanon in prolonged and often secret detention in Syria. In August 2008 Minister of Justice Ibrahim Najjar stated in a televised interview there were 745 citizens missing in Syria, some of them convicted criminals, and some victims of ``enforced disappearances.'' Najjar was the first government official to classify the detainees publicly. By year's end the Syrian government had released 130 detainees; all of those released had been convicted as criminals. According to NGO Support of Lebanese in Detention and Exile, at year's end the Syrian delegation to the joint Syrian-Lebanese commission had not granted approval for the country's judges to check on the prisoners remaining in Syrian detention, although it had agreed in principle to do so. Pretrial detention was a serious problem. According to ISF statistics, of the 5,122 persons in prison in May, more than 3,200 had yet to go to trial. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) expressed concerns about arbitrary pretrial detention without access to legal representation and refused to support construction of new prisons until the issue of arbitrary pretrial detention was resolved. Amnesty.--On July 10, President Sleiman granted amnesty to Palestinian prisoner Youssef Shaaban, jailed since 1994 for allegedly killing a Jordanian diplomat. Shaaban's release came several years after the execution of the confessed killers in Jordan. Shaaban was sentenced on the basis of confessions intelligence services extracted from after torturing him. He had been claiming his innocence for 15 years. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, in practice the judiciary was subject to political pressure, particularly in the appointment of key prosecutors and investigating magistrates. Influential politicians and intelligence officers intervened at times and used their influence and connections to protect supporters from prosecution. Despite intimidation generated by a series of unresolved political assassinations by unidentified assailants beginning in 2004, the aftermath of the 2005 assassination of Rafiq Hariri led to the gradual reduction of Syrian influence over the judiciary. The Ministry of Justice (MOJ) appoints most judges, taking into account the sectarian affiliation of the prospective judge. A shortage of qualified judges impeded efforts to adjudicate cases that accumulated during the years of internal conflict. Trial delays were aggravated by the government's inability to conduct investigations in areas outside of its control, specifically in the Hizballah-controlled areas in the south and in the 12 Palestinian-controlled refugee camps in the country. The judicial system consists of the civilian courts, a military court, the Judicial Council, and the Constitutional Council. There are tribunals for the 18 government-recognized religious affiliations to adjudicate matters of personal status, including marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody according to each confession's principles. Shia and Sunni religious communities use religious courts that apply Shari'a principles to resolve family legal matters. There are also religious family courts in the Christian sect and Druze communities. There was no universal or secular personal status civil court system, no full body of civil law, and no appeal mechanism for the confessional courts. The military court tries cases involving military personnel and civilians in security-related issues, but it also has jurisdiction over civilians in espionage, treason, weapons possession, and draft evasion cases. Civilians may be tried for security issues, and military personnel may be tried for civil issues. The military court has two tribunals: the permanent tribunal and the cassation tribunal. The latter hears appeals from the former. A civilian judge chairs the cassation court. Defendants on trial by military tribunals have the same procedural rights as defendants in ordinary courts. The Judicial Council is a permanent tribunal of five senior judges that adjudicates threats to national security and some high-profile cases. Upon the recommendation of the minister of justice, the cabinet decides whether to try a case before this tribunal. Defendants before the Judicial Council have the same procedural rights as other defendants, but there is no right to appeal, and judges have the discretion to order the sessions, which are generally public, be closed. Trial Procedures.--Defendants do not enjoy a presumption of innocence, and there is no trial by jury. Trials were generally public, but judges have the discretion to order a closed court session. Defendants have the right to be present at trial, to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, and to question witnesses against them, but they must do the latter through the court panel, which decides whether to permit the defendant's question. Although there was no state-funded public defender's office, the bar association operated an office for those who could not afford a lawyer, and a lawyer was often provided for indigent defendants, of whom 80 percent were foreigners. A member of the Beirut Bar Association's Legal Aid Committee estimated as many as 20 percent of such defendants believed they did not receive proper representation. Defendants may present witnesses and evidence, and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Defendants have the right of appeal. These rights generally were observed and applied to all defendants, both citizens and foreigners. Palestinian groups in refugee camps operated an autonomous and arbitrary system of justice outside the control of the state. For example, local popular committees in the camps attempted to resolve disputes using tribal methods of reconciliation. If the case involved a killing, the committees occasionally transferred the perpetrator to state authorities for trial. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--There is an independent judiciary in civil matters. In practice it was seldom used to bring civil lawsuits seeking damages for human rights violations the government allegedly committed. During the year there were no examples of a civil court awarding an individual compensation for human rights violations the government committed against them. Many potential litigants perceived such litigation was not worth the effort because the process was lengthy and there were few precedents of successful outcomes. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--Although the law prohibits such actions, authorities frequently interfered with the privacy of persons regarded as enemies of the government. The law requires police obtain warrants before entering homes except when in close pursuit of armed attackers, and they generally did so. The Army Intelligence Service monitored the movements and activities of members of opposition groups. Security services continued to eavesdrop, although the law requires prior authorization. Defense Minister Elias Murr stated that Law 140, which regulates eavesdropping, was implemented as of February 3. The law allows the State Prosecutor's Office to request permission to tap telephone calls made in connection with ordinary crimes. It also allows the ministries of defense and interior to request the interception of calls related to political and terrorist activities. These ministries must first inform the Council of Ministers of their intention to request a particular telephone tap. Subsequently they must submit all specific requests to the relevant authorities. The law also provides for the formation of an independent judicial committee to receive telephone-tapping complaints and permits security services to monitor suspected criminals' telephones. On August 17, the press reported the establishment of a new telephone-tapping center, operated by army officers, with the capacity of recording 72,000 calls per day. Militias and non-Lebanese forces operating outside the area of central government authority also frequently violated citizens' privacy rights. Various factions used informer networks and telephone monitoring to obtain information regarding their perceived adversaries. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, but political violence and extralegal intimidation in recent years have led to self-censorship among journalists. Individuals are free to criticize the government but are legally prohibited from publicly criticizing the president and foreign leaders. Dozens of newspapers and hundreds of periodicals were published throughout the country, financed by and reflecting the views of local, sectarian, and foreign interest groups. In cooperation with the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) regional office in Beirut, the Maharat Foundation released its annual report on the status of freedom of expression and opinion in the country for the year 2008. It noted the law restricts the freedom to issue, publish, and sell newspapers. The law also limits the number of political periodical publications to 25 per day for political publications and 20 a day for provisional political publications; prohibits the release of any publication without a prior license from the minister of information in consultation with the Press Union; and outlaws owning or managing a printing press without informing the Ministry of Information. There was limited state ownership of newspapers and periodicals; of the nine television and 33 radio stations, all but one television and one radio station were privately owned. The majority of media outlets had political affiliations, which sometimes hampered their ability to operate freely in areas dominated by other political groups and affected the objectivity of their reporting. In November 2008 more than 15 supporters of the SSNP attacked Future News Television reporter Omar Harqous with sticks in Beirut's Hamra Street, injuring him in the head, neck, and chest. Harqous, who was admitted to a hospital for treatment, filed a complaint against the SSNP, its president, and the assailants, claiming the attack was motivated by his political reporting and editorials and that the assailants called him a Jew. The case was under appeal at year's end. During the year several journalists privately reported receiving threats from political parties, politicians, fellow journalists, and opposition militia figures who generally threatened violence against them and their families if they did not cease writing articles on sensitive political issues. During the May 2008 conflict, there were physical attacks on several journalists and photographers, and armed Hizballah fighters closed four government-affiliated media outlets for several days. According to the Maharat Foundation's 2008 survey, 10 of the 61 journalists interviewed had experienced a shooting or beating in 2008, six had been threatened or intimidated, and four had been illegally detained. The law permits censorship of pornographic material, political opinion, and religious material considered a threat to national security or an offense to the dignity of the head of state or foreign leaders. The 1991 security agreement between the government and the Syrian government, still in effect, contains a provision prohibiting the publication of any information deemed harmful to the security of either state. The SG reviews and censors all foreign newspapers, magazines, and books before they enter the country. On October 19, the media reported the government forced a private school to remove pages reportedly describing Hizballah as a terrorist organization from a history book, following a complaint by former labor minister Mohammad Fneish. Any of the recognized religions may unilaterally request the SG ban any book. The government may prosecute offending journalists and publications in the publications court. Officials also used libel laws to suppress criticism during the year. On July 31, security forces surrounded the headquarters of the Al-Jadeed television station to serve an arrest warrant against Ghada Eid, the host of weekly talk show Corruption, for allegedly slandering judge Shaheed Salameh during an episode of her show. The court issued an arrest warrant for Eid when she failed to appear at a hearing on the case; she claimed she had not received the summons. Eid avoided arrest on July 31 but surrendered to authorities on September 14. She was subsequently released on six million pounds ($4,000) bail. On November 30, in a separate libel case against judge Afif Shamseddine, the press court sentenced Eid to three months' imprisonment and a fine of 30 million pounds ($20,000). The court also demanded she read the accusation against her aloud on the first episode of her show following implementation of the sentence. In September 2008 the Execution Bureau of Beirut enforced a provisional seizure of property against Al-Jadeed in compliance with a decision by the Court of Publications. Former justice minister Charles Rizk had filed a lawsuit in 2007 against the head of the station's editorial department, Maryam al-Bassam, accusing her of libel. Ruling in favor of Rizk, the court judgment forced Al-Jadeed to pay 50 million pounds ($33,333) to Rizk as compensation and 13 million pounds ($8,666) to the state in penalty and judgment fees. Al-Jadeed paid the compensation to the state but appealed to the Supreme Court to avoid paying compensation to Rizk, who in turn requested the provisional seizure of Al-Jadeed's property. At year's end, there were no new developments. At year's end, authorities had not pursued most judicial cases launched in previous years against journalists. Internet Freedom.--The government reportedly censored some Internet sites, but there were no reports the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could generally engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including e-mail and Internet discussion groups. According to 2008 International Telecommunications Union statistics, approximately 23 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The SG and MOJ sometimes contacted Internet service providers to block pornographic and religiously provocative Web sites. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--There were no government restrictions on academic freedom, apart from libel and slander laws, but the government censored films, plays, and other cultural events; filmmakers, playwrights, festival organizers, and others practiced self-censorship. The SG reviews all films and plays, and prohibits those deemed offensive to religious or social sensitivities. On February 16, the SG banned director Marc Abi Rached's film Help--about a homeless boy who meets a female prostitute living with a gay man--after having previously granted permission to screen the film. Help was subsequently presented at the October 7-14 Beirut International Film Festival, during which the SG banned the films Le Chant des Mariees, Confortorio, and Gostanza Da Libbiani for objectionable content. At year's end the SG's ban on the public screening of the Israeli animated film Waltz with Bashir remained in force. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.The law provides for freedom of assembly, but the government sometimes restricted this right in practice. The MOI required prior approval for rallies, and it sometimes did not grant permits to groups that opposed government positions. Freedom of Assembly.--Unlike previous years there were no reported cases of security forces abusing demonstrators or failing to prevent violence against them. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, but the government imposed limits on this right. The law requires every new organization to submit a notification of formation to the MOI, which then issues a receipt. The MOI sometimes imposed additional and inconsistent restrictions and requirements and withheld receipts, turning the notification process into a de facto approval process. In some cases the MOI sent notification of formation papers to the security forces to initiate inquiries on an organization's founding members. Organizations must invite MOI representatives to any general assembly where members vote on by-law amendments or positions on the board of directors. The MOI must then validate the vote or election; failure to do so could result in the dissolution of the organization. The MOI did not immediately validate the February 2008 elections of the Israeli Communal Council, a legally registered Jewish organization representing the small Jewish community and Jewish property owners who do not reside in the country. As with the previous two such elections, the MOI did not validate them until May 2008, following diplomatic intervention. The cabinet must license all political parties (see section 3). c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion and the freedom to practice all religious rites, provided the public order is not disturbed. The government generally respected these rights, but there were some restrictions. The government must formally recognize a religious group for it to obtain official status. A group must submit a statement of its doctrine and moral principles for government review to ensure that such principles do not contradict popular values or the constitution. The group must ensure the number of its adherents is sufficient to maintain continuity. Alternatively, religious groups may apply for recognition through existing religious groups, all of which are variants of Islam or Christianity. Official recognition conveys certain benefits, such as exemption from taxes and the right to apply the recognized religion's codes to personal status matters. Each recognized religious group has its own courts for family law matters such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. Although the government did not recognize officially some Baha'i, Buddhist, Hindu, and Protestant Christian groups, the groups were allowed to practice their faith without government interference, but the law did not recognize their marriages, divorces, and inheritances in the country. Protestant evangelical churches are required to register with the Evangelical Synod, a nongovernmental advisory group that represents those churches to the government. Representatives of some churches complained the Synod has refused to accept new members since 1975, thereby preventing their clergy from ministering to adherents in accordance with their beliefs. Although the law stipulates anyone who ``blasphemes God publicly'' may face imprisonment for as long as one year, no prosecutions or arrests were reported under this law during the year. The unwritten ``National Pact'' of 1943 stipulates the president, the prime minister, and the speaker of parliament be a Maronite Christian, a Sunni Muslim, and a Shia Muslim, respectively. The 1989 Ta'if Accord, which ended the country's 15-year civil war, reaffirmed this arrangement but also codified increased Muslim representation in parliament and reduced the power of the Maronite president. Religious affiliation is encoded on national identity cards and indicated on civil status registry documents but not on passports, and the government complied with requests of citizens to change their civil records to reflect changes in religious status. On February 11, the MOI issued a circular informing citizens they would be allowed to remove their religious affiliations from their civil registry records. The MOI did not make public the number of persons who had taken advantage of this option during the year. Government documents refer to Jewish citizens as ``Israelites'' even though they are not Israeli citizens. The law provides that only religious authorities may perform marriages, but the government recognized civil marriage ceremonies performed outside the country. Although there were no legal barriers to proselytizing, traditional attitudes and edicts of the clerical establishment strongly discouraged such activity. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Societal harassment and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice occurred, often in relation to political events, and the government failed to prevent or punish such actions. During the year there were examples of Maronite religious leaders attempting to prevent evangelical Christians from proselytizing to other Christians and of Druze religious figures hindering Maronite missionary efforts. At year's end there were approximately 100 Jews living in the country and 6,000 registered Jewish voters who lived abroad but had the right to vote in parliamentary elections. During the year Hizballah directed strong rhetoric against Israel and the Jewish population, and it cooperated in publishing and distributing anti-Semitic literature. Al-Manar TV, controlled and operated by Hizballah, continued to broadcast anti-Semitic material that drew no government criticism. On November 5, the government censored The Diary of Anne Frank from a textbook used by the International College. The action followed a campaign by Hizballah claiming the work promoted Zionism. Hizballah's Al-Manar television channel ran a report condemning the book for focusing on the persecution of Jews. On September 28, Khaled Shebli Khelo allegedly threw a Molotov cocktail at the Maghen Abraham synagogue, the last remaining synagogue in the country. Security authorities arrested Khelo the same day, and investigations into the incident were ongoing at year's end. During the year representatives from the Israeli Communal Council reported continued acts of vandalism against a Jewish-owned cemetery in downtown Beirut. The government had not arrested or prosecuted suspects for these crimes as of year's end. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights for citizens but placed limitations on the rights of Palestinian refugees. The government cooperated with the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA), the UNHCR, and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, and other persons of concern. The government maintained security checkpoints, primarily in military and other restricted areas. On main roads and in populated areas, security services used a few police checkpoints to conduct warrantless searches for smuggled goods, weapons, narcotics, and subversive literature. Government forces were unable to enforce the law in the predominantly Hizballah-controlled Beirut southern suburbs and did not typically enter Palestinian refugee camps. According to UNRWA, Palestinian refugees registered with the MOI's Directorate of Political and Refugee Affairs (DPRA) may travel from one area of the country to another. However, the DPRA must approve transfer of registration for refugees who reside in camps. UNRWA stated the DPRA generally approved such transfers. The LAF granted Palestinian refugees residing in the area adjacent to the Nahr el-Barid camp permanent permits, which they must produce at the LAF checkpoint to enter the area. The law prohibits direct travel to Israel. The law prohibits forced exile, and it was not used. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--According to international humanitarian organizations, a significant number of persons remained displaced as a consequence of the 1975-1990 civil war, the 2006 war, and the 2007 displacement of Palestinian refugees from the Nahr el- Barid camp. Many IDPs endured dangerous conditions, including lack of food, electricity, and potable water, during their displacement and after their return home. The Ministry of the Displaced paid compensation to IDPs to leave illegally occupied properties, removed debris from conflict-affected areas, provided rebuilding assistance, and initiated infrastructure projects. The High Relief Commission coordinated national international humanitarian assistance. The World Bank and the Ministry of the Displaced estimated the civil war displaced 500,000 to 800,000 persons. The government set a 2002 target date to complete returns, but as of 2002 an estimated 300,000 remained displaced. In 2006 the government reported 17,000 persons remained displaced, but others estimated only 20 to 25 percent of the original number had returned home. Some IDPs displaced during the civil war have neither returned home nor attempted to reclaim and rebuild their property due to the hazardous social and economic situation in some areas. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Center, at the height of the 2006 war between Israel and Hizballah, as many as one million persons fled their homes; approximately 735,000 were internally displaced, and approximately 230,000 fled to neighboring countries. According to government estimates, 90 percent of the IDPs returned home within four days of the ceasefire, but many homes had been destroyed, compensation was rarely sufficient for rebuilding, and unexploded ordnance restricted freedom of movement. In December 2008 the UNHCR estimated 40,000 to 70,000 such persons remained IDPs. UNRWA reported more than 20,000 Nahr el-Barid residents remained displaced at year's end. During the year there were no substantiated reports the government deliberately attacked or forcibly resettled IDPs or made efforts to obstruct access by domestic or international humanitarian organizations. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. Its laws do not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status. As a result more than 70 percent of refugees registered with the UNHCR do not have any legal status and thus are liable to arrest for their illegal status. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Authorities repatriated refugees on a voluntary basis during the year. According to the UNHCR, domestic courts often sentenced refugees to one month's imprisonment and fines instead of deportation. Courts often referred to the Convention against Torture, to which the country is a party, which states no state party shall expel, return, or extradite a person to another state where there are substantial grounds for believing he or she would be in danger of being subjected to torture. After serving their sentences, most refugees remained in detention unless they found employment sponsors and the SG agreed to release them in coordination with the UNHCR. A 2003 agreement between the SG and the UNHCR recognizes and grants protection to non-Palestinian refugees, providing temporary relief for those seeking determination of refugee status. Those wishing to claim refugee status must do so within two months of arriving in the country. The SG issues residence permits, valid for three months, during which time the UNHCR must make a refugee status determination. The SG extended residency permits for as long as 12 months for those to whom the UNHCR accorded refugee status. The government granted admission and temporary (six-month) refuge to asylum seekers, but not permanent asylum. The SG sometimes arbitrarily detained asylum seekers at its detention facility for more than a year and then deported them. The second largest group of refugees in the country were Iraqis. At year's end 10,288 Iraqis were registered with the UNHCR. The UNHCR estimated 30,000 to 50,000 Iraqis were living in the country; many entered the country illegally in search of jobs, education, and security. Local NGOs and community workers estimated approximately 20,000 Iraqis were vulnerable and in need of assistance. During the year the government provided limited services for Iraqi refugees but had no process for regularizing their status. The government did not take action to provide a temporary protection regime for Iraqi asylum seekers, as advocated by the UNHCR, and the government regularly deported Iraqis who may have had valid persecution claims. According to the SG there were 16 detained Iraqis in the country at year's end. During the year the SG deported 183 illegal Iraqi immigrants to Iraq. From February 18 until June 18, the SG granted a grace period for illegal immigrants, during which period Iraqis could regularize their status. The SG allowed Iraqi detainees an additional three months to arrange for new sponsors in the country if they did not wish to return to Iraq. By law Palestinian refugees are considered foreigners, although in several instances they are accorded poorer treatment than other foreigners due to the country's insistence on the principle of reciprocity, which is prejudicial to stateless Palestinians. UNRWA has the sole mandate to provide health, education, social services, and emergency assistance to Palestinian refugees residing in the country as well as in the West Bank, Gaza, Syria, and Jordan. As of June 30, 421,993 UNRWA-registered Palestinian refugees were living in or near 12 camps throughout the country. The majority of Palestinian refugees were those displaced during the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 and their descendants. Additional Palestinians arrived in 1967 after the Six-Day War and in the 1970s after many were expelled from Jordan. The amount of land allocated to official refugee camps in the country has only marginally changed since 1948, despite a four-fold increase in the registered refugee population. Consequently, most Palestinian refugees lived in overpopulated camps subject to repeated heavy damage during multiple conflicts. Poverty, drug addiction, prostitution, and crime reportedly prevailed in the camps, although reliable statistics were not available. In accordance with a 1969 agreement with the PLO, PLO security committees, not the government, provide security for refugees in the camps. During and after the 2007 fighting in Nahr el-Barid, which resulted in the displacement of an estimated 35,000 Palestinian refugees, LAF and ISF forces arbitrarily detained and physically abused some Palestinian refugees and citizens of other countries suspected of being militants. The LAF interrogated many men as they left the camp and detained those suspected of supporting or having information about FAI (see section 1.c.). FAI attacked members of international humanitarian organizations who attempted to enter the Nahr el-Barid camp to provide assistance. An FAI attack on a UN aid convoy claimed the lives of two Palestinian refugees. The Nahr el-Barid conflict caused multiple humanitarian concerns. Palestinian refugees and Lebanese displaced by the violence had no access to running water, sewage, or electricity for weeks. Refugees who left the camp were treated for dehydration, diarrhea, and stomach illnesses, and, due to security problems, UNRWA clinics in the camp were not fully functioning. The government provided emergency relief with assistance from UNRWA, the international donor community, and humanitarian NGOs. During the year there were reports members of various Palestinian factions and foreign militias detained their rivals during clashes over territorial control of the camps, particularly in the north and south. At year's end 15,000 refugees had returned to areas adjacent to the camp. Displaced communities raised concerns about their security and freedom of movement, as security measures tightened in response to sporadic clashes in the northern part of the country. In June 2008 UNRWA, the government, and the World Bank launched a comprehensive, three-year plan to rebuild Nahr el-Barid camp and surrounding communities. Reconstruction in the official camp began in November following bureaucratic and political delays. According to human rights observers, Palestinian refugees faced severe restrictions in access to work opportunities. Few Palestinians received work permits, and those who found work usually were directed into unskilled occupations. In 2005 the minister of labor issued a memorandum authorizing Palestinian nationals born in the country and registered with the MOI to work in 50 (out of 72) professions otherwise banned to foreigners. There were no indications this memorandum was implemented consistently. Some Palestinian refugees worked in the informal sector, particularly in agriculture and construction. Palestinian incomes continued to decline in real terms. Iraqi refugees also faced significant restrictions on their ability to work, with many working in the informal labor sector. Seventy percent of registered Iraqi refugees were men, who were particularly at risk for labor exploitation and deportation. Palestinian refugees residing in the country were not able to obtain citizenship and were not citizens of any other country. Palestinian refugee women married to citizens were able to obtain citizenship and transmit citizenship to their children. Palestinian refugees, including children, had limited social and civil rights and no access to public health, education, or other social services. The majority relied entirely on UNRWA for education, health, relief, and social services. Children of Palestinian refugees faced discrimination in birth registration, and many reportedly had to leave school at an early age to earn income. Iraqi refugees had access to both the public and private education systems. The UNHCR reported approximately 1,000 Iraqi children were registered in schools, and it provided grants to the children to help defray the costs associated with attending school. Iraqi refugees also had access to the primary health care system. The UNHCR, through NGOs, provided secondary health care. Property laws do not explicitly target Palestinian refugees, but they bar persons who do not bear the nationality of a recognized state from owning land and property, which directly and effectively excludes Palestinians. Under this law Palestinians may not purchase property, and those who owned property before this law was issued in 2001 are prohibited from passing the property to their children. The parliament justified these restrictions on the grounds it was protecting the right of Palestinian refugees to return to the homes they fled after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. Other foreigners may own limited-size plots of land. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived exclusively from the father, which may result in statelessness for children of a citizen mother and a noncitizen father when registration under the father's nationality is not possible. Approximately 3,000 Palestinian refugees were registered neither with the UNRWA nor with the government. Also known as undocumented, or non-ID, Palestinians, most moved to the country after the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan in 1971. Non-ID Palestinians were not eligible for assistance from UNRWA, faced restrictions on movement, and lacked access to fundamental rights under the law. The majority of non-ID Palestinians were men, many of them married to UNRWA refugees or citizen women, who could not transmit refugee status or citizenship to their husbands or children. In January 2008 the government agreed to grant a new legal status to non-ID Palestinians. By the end of 2008, the LPDC and UNRWA had facilitated the issuance of identification cards to 1,200 non-ID Palestinians. However, the process was suspended during the year, and all the cards issued have expired. At year's end the MOI had not rendered a decision on the legal status of approximately 4,000 persons who stood to lose citizenship due to the State Consultative Council's 2003 decision to invalidate the 1994 naturalization decree, which naturalized several thousand Palestinians. Approximately 1,000 to 1,500 of the 75,000 Kurds living in the country were without citizenship despite decades of family presence in the country. Most were descendants of migrants and refugees who left Turkey and Syria during World War I but had been denied the right to citizenship to preserve the country's sectarian balance. The government issued a naturalization decree in June 1994, but high costs and other obstacles prevented many from acquiring official status. Some held an ``ID under consideration'' that states no date and place of birth. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully in periodic, free, and fair elections based on universal suffrage; however, lack of government control over parts of the country, defects in the electoral process, and corruption in public office significantly restricted this right in practice. Elections for parliament must be held every four years, and parliament elects the president every six years to a single term. The president and parliament nominate the prime minister, who, with the president, chooses the cabinet. Elections and Political Participation.--On June 7, parliamentary elections were held in the 26 electoral districts. Observers concluded the elections were generally free and fair, with minor irregularities. In its final report, a EU observer team stated there were no major irregularities; that the elections benefited from legal improvements introduced in September 2008, such as an independent election commission, abolition of the voter card and multiday elections, and regulation of campaign finance and media; and voter turnout was higher than in previous elections, at almost 52 percent compared to 43 to 45 percent in 2005. The September 2008 electoral law also established out- of-country voting provisions for the 2013 parliamentary elections. The cabinet must license all political parties. The government scrutinized requests to establish political movements or parties and monitored their activities to some extent. The political system is based on confessional affiliation, and parliamentary seats are allotted on a sectarian basis. There were four major, and numerous smaller, political parties. The larger, sectarian- based parties maintained the greatest influence in the country's political system, although a number of smaller parties existed or were in the process of forming. There were significant cultural barriers to women's participation in politics. Prior to 2005 no woman held a cabinet position. One woman served as a member of the national unity cabinet formed in July 2008, and two women were appointed to the cabinet formed late in the year. Minorities were able to participate in politics to some extent. Regardless of the number of its adherents, every government-recognized religion was given at least one seat in parliament. Three parliamentarians representing minorities (one Syrian Orthodox and two Alawites) were elected in the June elections. These groups also held high positions in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the LAF. As Palestinian refugees are not citizens, they have no political rights. An estimated 17 Palestinian factions operated in the country, generally organized around prominent individuals. Most Palestinians lived in refugee camps that one or more factions controlled. Refugee leaders were not elected, but there were popular committees that met regularly with the UNRWA and visitors. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The government provides criminal penalties for official corruption, but the penalties were seldom enforced, and government corruption was a serious problem. A September Transparency Lebanon report enumerated types of corruption in the country, such as systemic clientelism; judicial failures, especially in investigations of politically motivated killings; electoral fraud from the absence of preprinted ballots; and bribery. According to the report, all bureaucratic transactions are facilitated through the payment of bribes; in addition to regular fees, customers pay bribes of at least 60,000 pounds ($40) for a new driver's license, 40,000 pounds ($27) for car registration, and 4.5 million to 45 million pounds ($3,000 to $30,000) to get a residential building permit. In its annual National Integrity System Study, the Lebanese Transparency Association (LTA) reported during the parliamentary elections LTA monitors witnessed vote buying through cash donations on election day in many electoral districts. LTA issued a press statement the day after the elections stating acts of vote-buying occurred in Metn, Zahle, Batroun, Zghorta, West Bekaa, and Saida. The report indicated the value of a vote reached from 90,000 pounds ($60) to 150,000 pounds ($100) in Saida, 1,300,000 pounds ($800) in Zahle, and up to 4,500,000 pounds ($3,000) in Zgharta. On June 9, OTV broadcast a recording of a conversation between MP Michel Murr and Father Elias Akkary in which Murr asked Akkary to retrieve the preprinted ballots he had distributed on behalf of Murr's opponent or else face the secret services. Akkary had reportedly agreed to campaign for Murr but instead campaigned for Murr's opponent, MP Ibrahim Kenaan. The law requires public officials to disclose their financial assets to the Constitutional Council, but the information was not available to the public. The Court of Accounts, the Central Inspection Department, the Office of the Minister of State for Administrative Reform, the Central Bank's Special Investigation Committee, and the Disciplinary Board were tasked with fighting corruption. There are no laws regarding public access to government documents, and the government did not respond to requests for documents. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without overt government restriction and investigated and published their findings on human rights cases. Domestic human rights groups included the Lebanese Association for Human Rights, the Foundation for Human and Humanitarian Rights-Lebanon, the Beirut Bar Association's Institute for Human Rights, and the National Association for the Rights of the Disabled. Government officials generally cooperated with NGOs, but following the 2007 Nahr el-Barid conflict, the government obstructed a monitoring visit to the camp conducted jointly by several international and domestic NGOs, including HRW, ALEF, the Palestinian Human Rights Organization, and the Palestinian Foundation for Human Rights. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and permitted visits by UN representatives and other international bodies such as the ICRC. On May 27, the ICRC released its 2008 annual report on its activities in the country. On April 22, the UN Special Coordinator for Lebanon wrote a letter to the parliamentary human rights committee reviewing his discussion with members about civil, political, economic, and social rights, including those of refugees, and reporting on treaty obligations. Parliament's Committee on Human Rights made little progress due to the absence of a government for most of the year. At year's end there was no evidence that the committee had begun implementing the existing national action plan calling for legal changes to guide ministries on protecting specific human rights and the implementation of certain measures, such as improving prison conditions. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and it provides for equality among all citizens. In practice some aspects of the law and traditional beliefs discriminated against women. Although the law reserves a percentage of private sector and government jobs for persons with disabilities, there were few accommodations for them. Discrimination based on race, language, or social status is illegal, but foreign domestic employees often were mistreated, sometimes suffered physical abuse, had pay withheld or unfairly reduced, or were forced to remain locked within their employer's home for the duration of their contracts. Women.--The law prohibits rape, and the government effectively enforced the law. The minimum prison sentence for a person convicted of rape is five years, or seven years for raping a minor. Although the law does not provide for it, victims' families may offer rapists marriage as an alternative to preserve family honor. Spousal rape was not criminalized. According to the local NGO KAFA (Enough) Violence and Exploitation, nonspousal rape was relatively common. KAFA reported 80 percent of domestic violence victims suffered spousal rape as well. Although there were no official statistics on the number of abusers who were prosecuted, prosecution was rare, according to KAFA. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence, and domestic violence, including spousal abuse, was a problem. There were no authoritative statistics on its extent. Despite a law that sets a maximum sentence of three years in prison for battery, some religious courts may legally require a battered wife to return to her home despite physical abuse. Women were sometimes compelled to remain in abusive marriages because of economic, social, and family pressures. Foreign domestic servants, usually women, were often mistreated, abused, and in some cases raped or placed in slavery-like conditions (see section 7.c.). The government provided legal assistance to domestic violence victims who could not afford it, but in most cases police ignored complaints submitted by battered or abused women. A local NGO, the Lebanese Council to Resist Violence against Women, worked to reduce violence against women by offering counseling and legal aid and raising awareness about the problem. From January to September, KAFA assisted 98 victims of domestic violence. The legal system was discriminatory in its handling of honor crimes. According to the penal code, a man who kills his wife or other female relative may receive a reduced sentence if he demonstrates he committed the crime in response to a socially unacceptable sexual relationship conducted by the victim. For example, although the penal code stipulates murder is punishable by either a life sentence or death, a defendant who can prove the killing was an honor crime receives a commuted sentence of a maximum of seven years' imprisonment. According to a March 2008 Agence France Presse article, although honor crimes were not widespread in the country, every year men killed a number of female relatives under the pretext of defending family honor. The law on prostitution requires brothels be licensed, including regular testing for disease. Government policy was to reject all new license requests for brothels in an attempt to eliminate prostitution; consequently most prostitution in the country was unlicensed and unregulated. The SG closely monitored women working in adult clubs. Foreign women's residency permits did not exceed six months, and they were deported if they were caught overstaying their permits. The law prohibits sexual harassment, but it was a widespread problem, and the law was not effectively enforced. Social pressure against women pursuing careers was strong in some parts of society. Men sometimes exercised considerable control over female relatives, restricting their activities outside the home or their contact with friends and relatives. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. There are no legal prohibitions or governmental encumbrances to equal access under the law for reproductive health care products or services, although the most advanced clinics and practices were in the larger metropolitan areas. The government provided free hospital treatment and free antiretroviral drugs for all persons living with HIV/AIDS. Women suffered discrimination under the law and in practice. Many family and personal status laws, which varied widely across the various confessional court systems, discriminated against women. For example, Sunni civil courts apply an Islamic inheritance law that provides a son twice the inheritance of a daughter. Immigration law also discriminates against women, who may not confer citizenship on their spouses and children, except widows may confer citizenship on their minor children. By law women may own property, but they often ceded control of it to male relatives due to cultural reasons and family pressure. The law provides for equal pay for equal work for men and women, but in the private sector there was discrimination regarding the provision of benefits. Children.--Citizenship is derived exclusively from the father, which may result in statelessness for some children of a citizen mother and noncitizen father (see section 2.d.). The government did not register the births of children born in the country to Palestinian refugees or non-ID Palestinian parents, resulting in the denial of citizenship and restricted access to public services, including school and health care. Children of citizen mothers and Palestinian fathers were not granted citizenship. According to the government Higher Council for Childhood, although Palestinian refugee births were not officially registered, the General Directorate for Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon, which falls under the MOI, maintained birth figures. Iraqi, Sudanese, and Somali refugee children and children of foreign domestic workers also faced obstacles to equal treatment under the law, and NGOs reported ongoing discrimination against them, although some could attend school. According to an October 2008 report by the Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), children born in the country of migrant domestic workers had no official identity. For Sri Lankans, Filipinos, and West Africans, the law allows a child who is already registered in a school to have residency. Many children of domestic workers faced marginalization and racism because of their parents' social status. No accurate statistics on the number of such children born in the country existed at year's end, although Caritas estimated there were approximately 75 children. In a joint KAFA-Save the Children Sweden study released in October 2008, 16 to 20 percent of children eight to 17 years old admitted experiencing at least one form of sexual abuse at an average age of 10 years. The survey also showed most sexual abuse occurred at home, and 54 percent of the sexually abused children said they told someone about the abuse, most commonly their mother. Focus group discussions revealed a lack of knowledge about the prevalence of, or factors leading to, child sexual abuse; and also indicated gender bias in addressing such cases, as girls' experiences were treated with greater secrecy. Trafficking in Persons.--The law does not specifically prohibit trafficking in persons. However, the country was a destination and transit point for trafficked persons, and there were reports persons were trafficked to and through the country. The government may prosecute traffickers under criminal law on abductions. Trafficking in persons remained a problem during the year. The country was a destination for Eastern European, Russian, and Syrian women who were contracted as dancers in adult clubs and sexually exploited. Most of these women engaged in voluntary illegal prostitution, but some reported intimidation or coercion and restrictions on freedom of movement. The country was also a destination for women from Africa and Asia, usually contracted as domestic workers. Some of these workers found themselves in situations of involuntary servitude including restrictions on movement, withholding of passports, nonpayment of wages, threats, and physical or sexual assault, with little practical legal recourse. Children were trafficked within the country for forced labor (mostly street vending) and sexual exploitation. A high percentage of traffickers were employers and employment agencies. Some foreign women became illegal workers due to their employer's failure to renew their work and residency permits or because they fled from their employer. The women were subject to detention, rendering them vulnerable to trafficking when abusive sponsors used the women's illegal immigration status to intimidate them and coerce them into labor. Unscrupulous employers sometimes falsely accused an employee of theft as a pretext to relinquish their contractual responsibilities to their employees and their obligation to pay taxes and provide a return airline ticket. At year's end 100 Ethiopian women were in detention awaiting trial for not having passports. The women claimed their passports had been taken from them when they started as domestic workers or that they never had passports. Authorities arrested most of the women on the street after they fled from their employers. Breaking their contracts deprived them of a guaranteed flight home on completion of their work. The penal code stipulates that abduction be punished by hard labor and that abductors who engage in sexual exploitation be sentenced to at least one year in prison. According to the MOJ, there were no prosecutions or convictions under this law during the year. NGOs and foreign embassies reported many victims of exploitation and abuse preferred quick administrative proceedings, which resulted in monetary settlements and repatriations, rather than legal proceedings that were often lengthy and difficult. Victims frequently dropped cases before prosecution was completed in exchange for compensation. A small number of exploited foreign workers won cases against their employers, but nonjudicial action resolved the majority of cases. As a result workers frequently were repatriated without further judicial action. A few cases were referred to the judiciary for further action, although the government took minimal steps to prosecute traffickers. The SG, MOJ, and Ministry of Labor (MOL) have responsibilities for combating trafficking. The MOL regulates local employment agencies that place migrant workers with sponsors. In 2008 the MOL closed two employment agencies for violations of workers' rights, including physical abuse, and warned a number of others it found in noncompliance with MOL regulations. The government did not provide trafficking victims with shelter, legal, medical, or psychological services, or relief from deportation. The SG allowed Caritas social workers unrestricted access to its retention center for foreign persons to provide detainees with counseling, assistance, and legal protection. The SG also continued to refer potential victims to Caritas. Once victims were identified, the government transferred them to a ``safe house,'' and Caritas could assist them. The SG sometimes granted victims permission to remain in the country as long as two months to assist in investigation of their cases and prosecution of their abusers. The SG allows migrant workers who do not wish to be repatriated to their home countries to change their sponsors legally by means of a ``release paper'' from the original employer. A court may order an abusive employer to provide such a release paper as part of a decision, or this action may be part of a negotiated out-of-court settlement. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at: www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--Although prohibited by law, discrimination against persons with disabilities continued. The Civil Service Board, which is in charge of recruiting government employees, continued to refuse applications from persons with disabilities. The law stipulates at least 3 percent of all government and private sector positions be filled by persons with disabilities, provided such persons fulfill the qualifications for the position; however, there was no evidence the law was enforced in practice. The law mandates access to buildings by persons with disabilities, but the government failed to amend building codes. Many persons with mental disabilities were cared for in private institutions, several of which the government subsidized. A study by the UN Development Programme in 1990, just after the end of the civil war, estimated one in 10 citizens--as many as 300,000 individuals--had disabilities, but the Ministry of Social Affairs had registered only 70,000 persons for official disability cards at year's end. The Ministry of Social Affairs and the National Council of Disabled are responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. According to the president of the Arab Organization of Disabled People, little progress has been made since the law on disabilities was passed in 2000. Approximately 100 relatively active but poorly funded private organizations made most of the efforts to assist persons with disabilities. On May 13, the MOI issued a decree to ensure accessibility to polling stations for persons with special needs during the June parliamentary voting. Following the decree the Lebanese Physically Handicapped Union, sponsored by the International Foundation for Election Systems, conducted a study mapping 1,741 polling stations throughout the country and assessed them according to the ministry's six accessibility criteria. The study showed that only six polling stations out of 1,741 satisfied all six criteria. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--There were reports Syrian workers, usually employed in manual labor, continued to suffer discrimination following the 2005 withdrawal of Syrian forces, although to a lesser extent than in previous years. According to an IRIN report, many Syrians in the country have been attacked, robbed, beaten, and sometimes killed over the past four years. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Discrimination against homosexual activity persisted during the year. The law prohibits ``unnatural sexual intercourse,'' an offense punishable by up to one year in prison. The law was sometimes applied to men engaging in homosexual activity; it was rarely applied to women, although the domestic NGO Helem (from the Arabic acronym for Lebanese Protection for Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgenders) reported police used the law to blackmail women. At year's end Helem reported on December 3, a judge in the Batroun District rendered the first decision determining ``unnatural sexual intercourse'' does not apply to homosexual activity, which he ruled a part of nature. Meem, the first NGO in the country exclusively for nonheterosexual women, hosted regular meetings in a safe house, provided counseling services, and carried out advocacy projects for nonheterosexual women. On February 25, Helem organized a demonstration in Beirut to protest an attack by security forces against two gay men (see section 1.c.) and against the homophobic provisions of the law. On May 10 and on May 17, the International Day Against Homophobia, Helem in coordination with Meem and Gay-Straight Alliance organized gay rights demonstrations. The government permitted these demonstrations, and there was no violence from any source reported against the demonstrators. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Although there are no discriminatory laws, Helem reported during the year at least five HIV- positive individuals reported discrimination by dentists or hospital staff. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law allows all workers except government employees to establish and join unions with government approval, and workers exercised this right in practice. The MOL must approve the formation of any union. The MOL controlled the conduct of all trade union elections, including election dates, procedures, and ratification of results. The law permitted the administrative dissolution of trade unions and forbade them to engage in political activity. The General Labor Confederation (GLC), the umbrella organization for trade unions, estimated there were approximately 900,000 workers in the active labor force. Approximately 5 to 7 percent of workers were members of some 450 to 500 labor unions and associations, half of which were believed to be inactive. The law provides that unions conduct activities free from interference, but the MOL at times interfered in union elections and registered unions not considered representative by the GLC. Unions have the right to demonstrate, with advance notice and approval by the MOI. Most unions belonged to federations. There were 52 federations that were voting members of the GLC, six of which the judiciary declared illegal in 2007 because they had failed to obtain the required GLC general directorate majority vote, although at year's end they remained members. Many others were reportedly unrepresentative and created by political interest groups to offset the votes of the 13 established labor federations that represent workers. The GLC remained the only organization the government recognized as an interlocutor for workers, while approximately 13 federations that composed the ``Salvation Committee of the GLC'' no longer participated in GLC meetings but had not declared an official breakaway at year's end. Palestinian refugees may organize their own unions. Because of restrictions on their right to work, few Palestinians participated actively in trade unions. Palestinian refugees are legally barred from entering certain unionized professions such as engineering, law, and medicine. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law protects the right of workers to organize and to bargain collectively, and the government supported this right in practice. Most worker groups engaged in some form of collective bargaining with their employers. There is no government mechanism to promote voluntary labor-management negotiations. The law protected workers against antiunion discrimination, although the law was weakly enforced. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law does not specifically prohibit forced or compulsory labor, but articles within the law prohibit behavior that constitutes forced or compulsory labor. Nevertheless, children, foreign domestic workers, and other foreign workers sometimes were forced to remain in situations amounting to coerced or bonded labor. Women from Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia were trafficked and forced to provide sexual or domestic services. Children from Lebanon, Iraq, and Syria were most subject to forced labor. Government regulations also prohibited employment agencies from withholding foreign workers' passports for any reason. In practice employment agencies and household employers often withheld domestic workers' passports. Recruitment agencies and employers were required to sign employment contracts with foreign workers. On February 5, the MOL published a standardized contract to be used by all employment agencies locally and overseas for all domestic workers. It regulates working hours and stipulates workers be given days off for vacations and holidays. According to NGOs assisting migrant workers, some employers did not pay their workers regularly and some withheld their salaries for the duration of the contract, which was usually two years. Asian and African female workers especially had no practical legal recourse because of their low status and isolation and because labor laws did not protect them. Due to the prevalence of such abuse, the government prohibited foreign women from working if they were from countries without diplomatic representation in the country. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- There are laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace, but the government sometimes did not effectively enforce these laws. According to 2005 UNICEF statistics, 7 percent of children between five and 14 years old were involved in child labor. The International Labor Organization (ILO) estimated there were 100,000 child workers, of whom 25,000 were thought to be in the tobacco industry, and a large percentage worked in informal sectors of the economy, including construction, agriculture, mechanics, and fisheries. Street children worked selling goods, polishing shoes, and washing car windows. Traffickers used children for commercial sexual exploitation and work under hazardous conditions in sectors, such as metalwork, construction, automobile repair, welding, and seasonal agriculture. The minimum age for employment is 14 years old. The law requires juveniles, defined as children between 14 and 18 years of age, undergo a medical exam to ensure their fitness for a particular position before beginning work. The labor code prohibits employment of juveniles younger than 18 years old for more than six hours per day and requires one hour of rest if work is more than four hours. Juveniles younger than 17 years old are prohibited from working in jobs that jeopardize their health, safety, or morals, or working between the hours of 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. The law prohibits the employment of juveniles younger than 16 years old in industrial jobs or jobs physically demanding or harmful to their health. The MOL enforced these requirements through its Child Labor Unit, established in 2001 in cooperation with the ILO. Enforcement improved during the year, as the unit worked to train its inspectors and recruit new ones. At year's end the MOL employed approximately 130 labor inspectors and assistant inspectors who helped to enforce child labor laws. The Higher Council of Childhood provided education to families and children to help prevent child abuse. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The legal minimum wage was 500,000 pounds ($333) per month, which did not adequately provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum wage for the private sector is set by the council of ministers; the minimum wage for the public sector is also set by the council of ministers, but requires additional approval from parliament. The law prescribes a standard 48-hour workweek with a 24-hour rest period per week. In practice workers in the industrial sector worked an average of 35 hours per week, and workers in other sectors worked an average of 30 hours per week. The law stipulates 48 hours is the maximum duration of work per week in most corporations except agricultural entities. A 12-hour day is permitted under certain conditions, including a stipulation the overtime provided is 50 percent higher than the pay for other hours. The law includes specific occupational health and safety regulations. Labor regulations require employers to take adequate precautions for employee safety. The MOL was responsible for enforcing these regulations but did so unevenly. Labor organizers reported workers did not have the right to remove themselves from hazardous conditions without jeopardizing their employment. Some private sector firms failed to provide employees with family and transport allowances as stipulated under the law, and did not register them with the National Social Security Fund (NSSF). Employers sometimes registered their employees with lower salaries, to decrease their contributions to the NSSF and their end-of-service pay to the employee. Some companies did not respect legal provisions governing occupational health and safety. Workers may report violations directly to the GLC, MOL, or NSSF. In most cases they preferred to remain silent for fear of arbitrary dismissal. The law does not protect foreign domestic workers. Some employers mistreated, abused, and raped foreign domestic workers, who were mostly of Asian and African origin, or placed them in situations of coerced labor or slavery-like conditions. Domestic workers often worked 18 hours per day and in many cases did not receive vacations or holidays. There was no minimum wage for domestic workers. Official contracts stipulate a wage ranging from 150,000 to 450,000 pounds ($100 to $300) per month, depending on the nationality of the worker. Victims of trafficking or abusive labor may file civil suits or seek legal action, but most victims, counseled by their embassies or consulates, settled for an administrative solution that usually included monetary compensation and repatriation. The government did not release information on legal actions filed, but NGOs indicated fewer than 10 legal actions were undertaken during the year. On December 9, a criminal court judge in Batroun sentenced a woman who beat her Filipino domestic worker to 15 days in prison, a fine of 50,000 pounds ($33), and 10,800,000 pounds ($7,200) in compensation. The victim was in the Philippines when the verdict was announced, and the judge refused the request of the citizen woman to bring the victim before the court. In 2008 the MOL closed two employment agencies for violations of workers' rights, including physical abuse. Perpetrators of the abuses were not further prosecuted for a number of reasons, including the victims' refusal to press charges and lack of evidence. An unknown number of other cases of nonpayment of wages were settled through negotiation. According to source country embassies and consulates, many workers did not report violations of their labor contracts until after they returned to their home countries. __________ LIBYA The Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya is an authoritarian regime with a population of approximately 6.3 million, ruled by Colonel Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi since 1969. The country's governing principles are derived predominantly from al-Qadhafi's Green Book ideology. In theory citizens rule the country through a pyramid of popular congresses, communes, and committees, as laid out in the 1969 Constitutional Proclamation and the 1977 Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People. After elections in March, Secretary of the General People's Committee al-Baghdadi al-Mahmoudi (prime minister equivalent) and the delegates of the 760-member General People's Congress began three-year terms. In practice al-Qadhafi and his inner circle monopolized political power. These authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. The government's human rights record remained poor. Citizens did not have the right to change their government. Continuing problems included reported disappearances; torture; arbitrary arrest; lengthy pretrial and sometimes incommunicado detention; official impunity; and poor prison conditions. Denial of fair public trial by an independent judiciary, political prisoners and detainees, and the lack of judicial recourse for alleged human rights violations were also problems. The government instituted new restrictions on media freedom and continued to restrict freedom of speech (including Internet and academic freedom). It continued to impede the freedom of assembly, freedom of association, and civil liberties. The government did not fully protect the rights of migrants, asylum seekers, and refugees, and in some cases participated in their abuse. Other problems included restrictions on freedom of religion; corruption and lack of transparency; discrimination against women, ethnic minorities, and foreign workers; trafficking in persons; and restriction of labor rights. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no confirmed reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. On May 10, the Tripoli newspaper Oea reported that Ali al-Fakheri (also known as Ibn al-Sheikh al-Libi) had been found dead in his cell in Abu Salim prison from an apparent suicide, and that the General Prosecutor's Office (GPO) had begun an investigation. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) Human Rights Watch (HRW) had met briefly with al-Fakheri during a visit to the prison on April 27, but he refused to be interviewed. In a May 12 statement, HRW called on authorities to conduct a full and transparent investigation. The NGO Amnesty International (AI) visited Abu Salim Prison after his death in May, but authorities denied access to al- Fakheri's guards, forensic doctors, or the autopsy report. There were no results of the GPO investigation made public by year's end. On August 31, the NGO Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) called for a credible and transparent inquiry into the reported 2007 trial and sentencing to death of three unnamed individuals for the 2005 killing of Daif al-Ghazal, a prominent opposition journalist and anticorruption activist. There were no developments in the case of Mohammed Adel Abu Ali, who died in custody in May 2008 after his return to the country when his asylum claim was denied in Europe. According to HRW, he was tortured in detention. London-based As-Sharq Al-Awsat reported that he belonged to the oppositionist ``al-Tabu'' Front for the Liberation of Libya. b. Disappearance.--In 2007 security services arrested Abdulrahman al- Qutiwi, along with others who appeared subsequently in court to face criminal charges. Authorities did not bring al-Qutiwi to trial. After two years of incommunicado detention during which his whereabouts were unknown, authorities released al-Qutiwi in mid-February. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, but security personnel reportedly routinely tortured and abused detainees and prisoners during interrogations or as punishment. Detainees often were held incommunicado. Foreign observers noted that incidents of torture--used as a punishment in Internal Security Service prisons--seemed to have decreased over the past year. There were reports of torture and abuse during the year. On December 10, the Qadhafi Development Foundation (QDF) released a report on human rights practices in the country. In a statement accompanying the release, the QDF said during the year it had received a ``large number of complaints'' of torture during imprisonment and called for the government to waive immunities from prosecution for officials accused of torture. The Human Rights Society of Libya (HRSL), the QDF subsidiary responsible for the report, noted that suspected narcotraffickers were among those most mistreated, with punishments including beating with sticks. On March 9, International Christian Concern, an NGO dedicated to religious issues, alleged that four converts to Christianity, arrested in January, had been physically abused in detention, although no specific methods or further details were provided (see section 2.c.). According to a June 9 HRW report, migrants in Malta and Italy previously apprehended in Libya reported that authorities severely abused them. On May 20, HRW interviewed an Eritrean migrant in Rome who alleged officials in Libya beat him with sticks and metal rods at a migrant detention facility. On September 15, Algeria's human rights commissioner stated that 26 of 54 Algerian prisoners released from prisons in the country as part of an annual Revolution Day amnesty ``suffered from the effects of torture.'' In previous years the reported methods of torture and abuse included chaining prisoners to a wall for hours; clubbing; applying electric shock; applying corkscrews to the back; pouring lemon juice in open wounds; breaking fingers and allowing the joints to heal without medical care; suffocating with plastic bags; depriving detainees of sleep, food, and water; hanging by the wrists; suspending from a pole inserted between the knees and elbows; burning with cigarettes; threatening with dog attacks; and beatings on the soles of the feet. The law sanctioned corporal punishments such as amputation and flogging, although there were no reports that such punishments were carried out. No further information was available at year's end concerning the June 2008 alleged abduction, interrogation, and torture of lawyer Dhaw al-Mansuri. In July 2008 Saif al-Islam al-Qadhafi, son of Colonel Mu'ammar al- Qadhafi, conceded that acts of torture and excessive violence had taken place in prisons. Al-Qadhafi denied government culpability, arguing that the individuals responsible for the torture had acted on their own initiative and were being tried within the legal system. At year's end there was no information released on the progress of trials. On April 19, Ashraf Ahmad Jum'a al-Hajuj drew attention to his suit against the Libyan government at a preparatory meeting for the Durban Review Conference, chaired by Libyan diplomat Najjat al-Hajjaji. Al- Hajuj, a Palestinian doctor, was arrested in 1999 on charges that he and five Bulgarian nurses working in Benghazi infected hundreds of children. In January 2008 he filed suit in France and at the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva, arguing he was tortured repeatedly in detention. According to his testimony, the torture included rape by a German shepherd, fingernails ripped off, and electric shocks. He also testified that he was present when the Bulgarian nurses detained with him were tortured. He said most of the torture occurred during the early period after his imprisonment in 1999. At year's end the case was awaiting further action in a French court. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--According to diplomatic missions and international organizations, prison and detention center conditions ranged from poor to adequate. HRW and AI visited prisons during study tours in April and May respectively, but authorities did not allow full access to prisoners or facilities. A UK-based NGO implementing a prison reform program in partnership with the General People's Committee for Justice had periodic access to some facilities. International organizations had some access to migrant detention centers throughout the country, but that access was restricted after an increase of at-sea interdiction of migrants begun in May led to severe overcrowding in the centers. Pretrial detainees, who reportedly accounted for more than half of the prison population, remained in the same facilities as convicts. Individual prison directors were unable to provide population estimates of their own prisons and centralized records were not kept, according to prison authorities. Men and women are in separate prisons and detention centers. Juvenile migrants were generally held with mothers while in detention. Security forces reportedly subjected prisoners and detainees to cruel, inhuman, or degrading conditions and denied them adequate medical care. Foreign observers noted that many of those incarcerated had been acquitted or had served their sentences, but remained in internal security service prisons, likely due to unresolved differences between the internal security service administration that manages state security prisons and the General People's Committee for Justice, responsible for legal procedures and criminal detention facilities. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) did not have an office in the country. During the year prosecutors and directors of several migrant detention centers participated in training sessions implemented by the International Organization for Migration on prison conditions and reform. International organizations reported that individual directors were responsive regarding limited improvements in the centers under their control, including providing office space for relief workers to provide medical care and counseling to migrants in detention. On September 6, Minister of Defense-equivalent Abubakr Yunis Jabir appointed Muhammad Bashir al-Khadhar to head an inquiry into the 1996 Abu Salim prison riot, in which a large but unknown number of prisoners died. Yunis stated that the inquiry would be empowered to imprison any officials found guilty of wrongdoing. Press reports indicated the families of victims approved the appointment. Previous investigations have resulted in an estimated 800 families receiving confirmation of death, but officials did not provide bodies or explain the causes of death, through mid-July. According to HRW, authorities offered compensation of 200,000 dinars ($166,666) if a family agreed to halt legal proceedings. Family members of some of the victims reportedly killed in the 1996 incident attended the December 12 launch of HRW's country report on Libya, where several family members repeated their rejection of compensation offers and demanded that responsible officials be brought to justice. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--Sections 111 through 119 of the criminal code establish procedures for pretrial detention and prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, but the government did not observe these prohibitions. As in previous years, there were reports that security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained citizens. Security services detained individuals without formal charges and held them indefinitely without court convictions. On January 31, police arrested former secretary general of the Libyan human rights society QDF advisor Juma'a Atiga and charged him with being a member of a banned organization and participating in the killing of the Libyan ambassador in Rome in 1984. According to press accounts, Atiga was released on February 15. There were no developments reported in the case of regime critic Fouad Nassar al-Mahmoudi. In 2007 security services detained al- Mahmoudi upon his return from a long stay abroad, reportedly placing him in incommunicado detention. There were no developments in the case of Mahmoud Muhammad Boushima, a government critic resident abroad since 1981, whom police arrested during a 2005 trip to the country, according to an AI report. During an April visit to Abu Salim Prison, HRW unsuccessfully requested a meeting with Boushima. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The country maintains an extensive security apparatus that includes police and military units, multiple intelligence services, local ``revolutionary committees,'' people's committees, and ``purification'' committees. The result is a multilayered, pervasive surveillance system that monitors and controls the activities and everyday lives of individuals. In theory, military and internal security forces are under direct civilian control under the Jamahiriya, or ``sovereignty of the masses'' system. In practice, an inner circle of elites close to Muammar al-Qadhafi wields effective control and uses security services to protect regime interests. The legal basis of security service authority is unclear; citizens have no obvious recourse against security services. Frequently cited laws are the 1971 and 1972 ``Protection of the Revolution'' laws, which criminalize activities based on political principles inconsistent with revolutionary ideology. The police and Internal Security Service share responsibility for internal security. Armed forces and the External Security Service are responsible for external security. In practice it was unclear where authorities overlapped. Security forces were effective when combating internal and external threats against the regime. Security forces committed serious human rights abuses with impunity, including the lengthy extralegal detentions of Boushima, Abdulrahman al-Qutiwi and the rearrest of Jamal al-Hajj (see section 1.e.). They intimidated, harassed, and detained individuals without formal charges and held them indefinitely without court convictions, particularly in cases involving the political opposition. They regularly enjoyed impunity from criminal acts committed while performing their duties. In November 2008 opposition members living abroad alleged that security forces battled Toubou tribesmen in the southeastern part of the country. Other observers within the country characterized clashes in the town of Kufra as societal violence between Toubou and Zawiya tribes. There were reports that between 11 and 30 civilians were killed in the fighting. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law stipulates that authorities can detain persons for investigation for as long as eight days after arrest. In practice security services held detainees indefinitely, arbitrarily, and secretly. Although the law requires that detainees be informed of the charges against them, the requirement was not enforced in practice. The law states that for a detention order to be renewed, detainees must be brought before a judicial authority at regular intervals of 30 days, but in practice security services detained persons for indefinite periods without a court order. The law provides for bail and access to counsel for pretrial detainees, and a public defender for anyone unable to afford a private attorney. Detainees reportedly did not receive information on their right to legal representation during interrogation. Incommunicado detention remained a problem. The government held many political detainees incommunicado for unlimited periods in unofficial detention centers controlled by branches of the security services. More than 100 detainees may have been held for periods too brief to permit confirmation by outside observers. According to a June 9 HRW report, migrants in Malta and Italy reported that authorities in Libya subjected them to long periods of detention without recourse. The law allows women and girls--some of whom were victims of gender-based or domestic violence--who were suspected of violating moral codes to be detained in ``social rehabilitation'' facilities for their own protection. They can be detained indefinitely without access to legal representation or the opportunity to contest their detention in court. Women at these sites could only be released into family custody, and were sometimes subjected to forced marriage to strangers. Amnesty.--On October 15, authorities released 88 prisoners held for membership in the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) and other jihadist groups. On July 10, the LIFG had stated that its 2007 announced merger with al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb was ``invalid'' and in August renounced violent jihad. On August 28, as a regular part of its annual Revolution Day commemoration, the government reportedly pardoned 2,183 prisoners. On November 25, authorities released an additional 748 prisoners on the religious feast of Eid al-Adha. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary, but the judicial system was not independent in practice. Although the law stipulates that every person has the right to resort to the courts, security forces had the authority to sentence without trial, particularly in cases involving the political opposition. The government used summary judicial proceedings to suppress domestic dissent. At his discretion, Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi may interfere in the administration of justice by altering court judgments, replacing judges, or manipulating the appeal system. The judiciary failed to incorporate international standards for fair trials, detention, and imprisonment. The Ministry of Justice admitted that both inefficient bureaucracy and disagreement between the judiciary and the Internal Security Organization led to unfair trials and detention. The ministry reported that hundreds of prisoners that had been acquitted or had served their sentences remained in prison due to differences in the two responsible ministries. The judicial system is composed of four tiers: the summary courts, the courts of first instance, the three courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. The summary courts hear cases involving misdemeanors. The decisions of this court may be appealed to the courts of first instance, which are composed of three-judge chambers and have the authority to adjudicate all civil, criminal, and commercial cases. Jurors of the court of first instance apply Shari'a (Islamic law) in family law cases. Cases from the courts of first instance may be appealed to the three courts of appeal, which are composed of three- judge panels. The Shari'a court of appeals hears cases from the lower Shari'a court. The final court of appeal is the Supreme Court, composed of five separate chambers of five judges. The court has chambers for civil and commercial, criminal, administrative, constitutional, and Shari'a cases. The General People's Congress elects the presiding judge and other members of the Supreme Court. The Higher Judicial Council, an extrajudicial body that reviews Supreme Court decisions for political implications, has the authority to overturn Supreme Court verdicts or to grant amnesty in cases involving capital punishment. The Supreme Council for Judicial Authority is the administrative authority of the judiciary that handles appointments, transfers, and disciplinary matters. A state security court is responsible for hearing national security cases. The court's portfolio includes cases stemming from three laws: Law 80 of the 1975 Penal Code stipulating the death penalty for offenses against the security of the state; Law 71 of 1972, which classifies as ``treason'' all independent political activity; and a 1969 revolutionary council decision that prohibits all forms of peaceful political opposition. Opposition groups and international human rights groups raised concerns that defendants in cases before the state security court may be denied access to an attorney and that cases are conducted in secret. The QDF called for the abolition of the court in its December 10 report. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the presumption of innocence, informing defendants of the charges against them, and the right to legal counsel. Independent counsel was not always provided in practice. The presiding judge appoints defense lawyers automatically, even if the defendant has declined representation. In practice defendants often were not informed of the charges against them and usually had little contact, if any, with their lawyers. There were cases during the year in which officials did not present defendants with the charges against them until trial and defendants did not always have access to evidence against them before trial. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--A large but unknown number of persons were in detention or prison for engaging in peaceful political activity or for belonging to an illegal political organization. The law bans any group activity based on any political ideology inconsistent with the principles of the 1969 revolution. The government reportedly held political detainees, including as many as 100 associated with banned Islamic groups, in prisons throughout the country, but mainly in the Ayn Zara, Jadida, and Abu Salim Prisons in Tripoli. In an August 31 report, HRW claimed dozens of political prisoners remained in jails. The same report noted that ``a number'' of political prisoners had been freed since 2008. In 2008 human rights organizations and foreign diplomats speculated there were 2,000 political detainees, many held for years without trial. Hundreds of other detainees may have been held but for periods too brief to permit confirmation by outside observers. On May 20, political activist and al-Qadhafi critic Fathi al-Jahmi died in Jordan. Authorities had regularly held him in solitary confinement without adequate medical care before transferring him to Tripoli Medical Center and then releasing him from custody on May 5 and sending him to a hospital in Jordan. During his transfer, he fell into a coma from which he did not recover, and he died 17 days later. HRW visited him on April 25 and 26 at Tripoli Medical Center, reporting he was frail and emaciated. Al-Jahmi told HRW officials he was not free to leave the hospital. During the visit, HRW noted four men, presumably security officers in plain clothes, stationed near the room. With the exception of two weeks in 2004, the regime had continuously detained al-Jahmi since 2002 for publicly calling for democratic reforms and for giving media interviews criticizing the regime. According to HRW, the government contended that it arrested al- Jahmi for telephoning foreign officials and ``providing them with information with the purpose of making their countries hate the Great Jamahiriya'' and for conspiring to serve the interests of a foreign country. The formal charges were attempting to overthrow the government, slandering Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi, and communicating with a foreign official without permission. Al-Jahmi's lawyer reportedly believed these charges could carry the death penalty. On December 8, authorities rearrested Jamal al-Hajj in conjunction with a defamation suit filed in June by the minister of justice. In a September 1 report on BBC World television, al-Hajj called the Qadhafi regime's rule a ``disaster'' and railed against European states for ``supporting this dictator.'' On March 15, Al-Hajj had been released from one year of detention, along with Faraj Humaid. Authorities sentenced the two men in June 2008 to terms of 12 and 15 years respectively, on charges of attempting to foment rebellion and for conducting unauthorized communications with a foreign government. Abdulrahman al-Qutiwi, who had been held in incommunicado detention and had not been seen since his arrest, was released on or about February 15. Before their arrest in 2007, al-Hajj, Humaid, and al-Qutiwi were part of a group of 14 men, led by Idriss Boufayed, who had planned a peaceful demonstration calling for greater political openness. Boufayed was the head of the National Union for Reform, an opposition group he headed in exile for 16 years until his return to the country in 2006, two months before he was arrested the first time. The group reportedly conducted a hunger strike to protest their lengthy pretrial detention in overcrowded cells and alleged mistreatment. Of the 14 arrested, the court convicted and sentenced 11 in 2008 to terms ranging from six to 25 years. One was found not guilty. Of the 11 sentenced, nine were released in 2008, including Idriss Boufayed. On an April 27 visit to Abu Salim Prison, HRW interviewed Abdel Nasser Younis Meftah al-Rabassi, who was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment in 2003 for posting an article on an Arabic-language Web site criticizing government corruption. According to human rights activists and AI, he was tortured, did not have access to adequate medical care, was held incommunicado, and was unable to hire his own attorney. Geneva-based Solidarity for Human Rights, which describes itself as an independent human rights NGO focused on Libya, reported that Muhammad Bosadra, a prisoner who reportedly negotiated with guards during the 1996 Abu Salim Prison riots, had been transferred from prison and put under house arrest after his release from Abu Salim Prison on June 3. He had been held incommunicado since 2005. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens did not have access to courts to seek damages for or demand cessation of human rights violations. Security services intimidated, harassed, and detained individuals extralegally and without judicial oversight. In practice individuals did not have the right to seek redress for security service actions in civil court. Neither judicial nor administrative remedies generally were available for alleged wrongs. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, but the government did not respect the prohibitions. Security agencies often disregarded the legal requirement to obtain a warrant before entering a private home. They routinely monitored telephone calls and Internet usage, including e-mail communication with foreign countries. Security agencies and the revolutionary committees oversaw an extensive network of informants engaged in surveillance for the government. The government threatened to seize and destroy property belonging to ``enemies of the people'' or those who ``cooperated'' with foreign powers. Exiled government opponents reported that authorities harassed their family members and threatened them with detention. Authorities inflicted collective punishment on the relatives of individuals, particularly those of convicted oppositionists. Punishments by law include denial of access to utilities (water, electricity, and telephone), fuel, food, and official documents; denial of participation in local assemblies; and termination of new economic projects and state subsidies. In 2007 the UN Human Rights Committee noted the collective punishment of a community in Bani Walid, where security services reportedly burned the property of relatives of a political activist who had been arrested after calling for a multiparty system. There were no reports of application of the ``purge law'' that provides for the confiscation of private assets greater than a nominal amount. The law describes wealth in excess of such unspecified amounts as ``the fruits of exploitation or corruption.'' Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for freedom of speech ``within the limits of public interest and principles of the Revolution,'' but in practice the Publication Act of 1972 severely limits the freedoms of speech and of the press, particularly criticism of government officials or policy. The government tolerated some difference of opinion within governmental structures in people's committee meetings and at the General People's Congress. HRW met with a group of journalists during an April visit to the country. While the journalists acknowledged that restrictions on press freedoms had generally loosened over the past years, they lamented that new freedoms were based not in law but on ``personalities'' of those enforcing laws--including the Publication Act, which in practice allows the government to silence critics through slander and libel provisions. The government prohibited all unofficial political activities. The law permits authorities to interpret many forms of speech or expression as illegal. The wide reach of security services and broad networks of informants resulted in pervasive self-censorship. The government owned and controlled virtually all print and broadcast media. The official news agency, the Jamahiriya News Agency (JANA), is the designated conduit for official views. Government- controlled media neither published nor broadcast opinions inconsistent with official policy. In 2008 the quasiofficial al-Ghad Media Group, a QDF subsidiary controlled by Saif al-Islam al-Qadhafi, launched a satellite television station, a radio station, and two independent newspapers. According to the NGO Reporters Without Borders, most of the journalists at these newspapers also work for official media outlets, and the newspapers were printed on the government's presses. Local revolutionary committees published several small newspapers. During the year the government nationalized all privately owned news media, reversing the decision in 2007 to allow a few private media outlets. On April 24, the state-run al-Jamahiriya television feed interrupted quasiindependent al-Libiyya satellite television channel in the middle of an interview program. According to press reports, JANA officials took over al-Libiyya's offices and the station manager and deputy director of al-Ghad Media Group, Abdelsalam al-Mishri, was arrested and held for two days. On June 3, opposition Web sites reported General People's Committee decree 226 of 2009, placing the al- Ghad Media Group under state-run National Center for Media Services control. All news outlets under the group's umbrella continued to publish and broadcast through the end of the year, and Saif al-Islam announced that al-Libiyya would relocate to London or Jordan for business reasons. On August 20, al-Ghad-sponsored al-Mutawasit began original programming broadcasts from Jordan. Within days, however, its signal ran al-Jamahiriya feeds in simulcast. It had not resumed original programming at the end of the year. On October 21, Mohammed al-Sareet reported on Jeel Libya, a London- based Web site, about a demonstration carried out by residents of a state-run care center for women that had been orphaned as children calling for the removal of the center's director for sexual harassment. On October 22, al-Sareet was reportedly questioned by police and subsequently charged with criminal defamation of the center's director. Quotations attributed in al-Sareet's original reporting were retracted by the women in subsequent coverage of the event, reportedly under pressure from government officials. On October 31, however, the General Prosecutor's Office charged the center's director with sexual harassment and reportedly dropped all charges against al-Sareet. Some outlets in Tripoli had limited quantities of international weekly publications. Although the publications law in theory restricts publishing rights to public entities, private companies were able to distribute newspapers and books in practice. Satellite television was widely available, but the government blocked foreign programming at times. Internet Freedom.--A single government-owned service provider offered Internet access. The number of Internet users was small but growing with improved broadband capability. According to 2008 data of the International Telecommunication Union, there were approximately 82,500 Internet subscribers and 323,000 users. The government reportedly monitored Internet communications. According to a 2009 report by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI), a partnership among several universities to analyze Internet filtering and surveillance, authorities selectively blocked some opposition Web sites and occasionally blocked others, including those that advocated minority rights. During the year most of these Web sites were accessible to users of the state-owned Internet provider. Many Internet cafes operated via satellite connection to Europe, bypassing potential blocking by the state, although security services regularly monitored Internet use at cafes. ONI reported that IP blocking took place at the international gateway. Users were generally able to access blocked content through proxies and Virtual Private Network. On January 19, the Geneva-based NGO Libyan League for Human Rights reported that six opposition Web sites operating abroad had been hacked, with some pages replaced with proregime content. It was unclear who was responsible for the actions. At the end of the reporting period, all sites remained inoperative. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government severely restricted academic freedom. Professors and teachers who discussed politically sensitive topics faced the risk of government reprisal. Authorities frequently denied foreigners access to schools and university campuses. Selected students were encouraged to study abroad and, although reportedly monitored, were provided with government scholarships. All cultural events require advance government approval. Any group or individual seeking to organize a cultural event needs a government sponsor. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law stipulates that ``individuals may meet peacefully, and no police personnel are entitled to attend their meetings; moreover, they are not obliged to notify the police of such gatherings.'' The law also provides for the right to hold public meetings in accordance with the regulations set by law. In practice, however, the government severely restricted these rights and permitted public assembly only with express advance approval and only in support of its positions. Family groups of victims of the 1996 Abu Salim Prison riots who protested in Benghazi periodically throughout the year faced harassment, and authorities arrested four for their protests, according to foreign opposition groups. Freedom of Association.--The government restricted the right of association to institutions affiliated with the government. The government did not allow the formation of groups based on political ideology inconsistent with the 1969 revolution. In its December 10 report and press conference in Tripoli, LHRS demanded that Law 19 of 1992 that restricts formation of civil society organizations be repealed and pressed for adoption of a new law--in draft since 2008--that would remove the ability of the state to suspend organizations without cause. c. Freedom of Religion.--Although there is no explicit law guaranteeing religious freedom, the government generally respected in practice the right to observe one's religion. Islam is the equivalent of a state religion and is thoroughly integrated into everyday political and social life. The government regulated mosques, religious schools, and clerics to ensure that all views were in line with the state-approved form of Islam. The government strongly opposed militant forms of Islam, which it viewed as a threat to the regime. The World Islamic Call Society (WICS), an international educational institution, operated a state-run university in Tripoli that provided Muslims from outside the Arab world with a broad education in literature, history, science, and religion. WICS also organized vocational training programs, offered students exposure to international academic speakers, and maintained relations with local non-Muslim religious groups, including Christian churches. Although there is no law prohibiting conversion from Islam, the government prohibits efforts to proselytize Muslims and actively prosecutes offenders. International Christian Concern, a Christian rights NGO, reported that four citizen converts to Christianity were detained at a state security prison in Tripoli in January and allegedly held without charge in incommunicado detention for three months and interrogated, abused, and pressured to reveal the names of other converts. Two weeks before their release, the converts were reportedly transferred to a reform and rehabilitation prison where family members were permitted to visit them. They were released on April 21. In May authorities released Daniel Baidoo, a Ghanaian national, after eight years in prison. According to press reports, Baidoo had been imprisoned for proselytizing after receiving Christian biblical tracts at a local post office. The government permitted Christian churches to operate freely but imposed a limit of one church per denomination per city and monitored religious services, including Islamic services, for evidence of political discourse. A noncitizen female who marries a Muslim citizen is not required to convert to Islam, but a noncitizen male must convert to Islam to marry a Muslim woman. The government maintained the position that all citizens were Muslims. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence, harassment, or discrimination against members of religious groups. Although no statistics were available during the year, the country's Jewish population was extremely small and possibly nonexistent. There was no functioning synagogue. Discussions between the government and representatives of the former Jewish community on possible compensation for Jewish communal property the government confiscated after 1948 have been ongoing since 2004. During al- Qadhafi's trip to Rome on June 10, five representatives from the estimated 6,000-member community of Libyan-origin Jews in Italy were included in a meeting between al-Qadhafi and Italians expelled from the country in the early days of the regime, while an additional unknown number refused to attend the meeting, according to press reports. Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi has made statements denigrating Christians and Jews. In a March 2008 speech, echoing statements in a 2007 speech in which he declared that all those who did not practice Islam were ``losers,'' al-Qadhafi said the Christian Bible and the Jewish Torah are forgeries and the original versions mentioned the Prophet Muhammad. Al-Qadhafi stated in a 2007 interview that ``Jews will go extinct because everyone hates them.'' For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law stipulates that ``each citizen, during times of peace, may move freely, choose the place where he or she wishes to live, and may return to the country and leave whenever he or she chooses.'' The government generally did not restrict freedom of movement within the country, but freedom to travel outside the country was at times restricted by the arbitrary seizure or nonissuance of passports. Authorities routinely held the passports of foreign spouses of citizens when they entered the country. The widely accepted concept of male guardianship limited women's freedom of movement in practice, particularly travel outside the country. The law does not allow, nor did the government impose, forced exile as a punishment. The government continued to encourage dissidents abroad to return and publicly promised their safety, but there were numerous reports that the government detained dissidents who returned from exile. The government reportedly interrogated students returning from study abroad and at times discouraged students from studying abroad. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The country is a party to the Organization of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of the Refugee Problem in Africa in which states agree to cooperate with the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and agree that the Convention is the regional complement to the 1951 Convention. The government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees or asylum seekers. Domestic laws do not recognize asylum seekers or refugees as classes distinct from migrants in the country without residency permits. As such, refugees and asylum seekers are subject to laws pertaining to illegal migrants and were regularly held in detention. In practice, the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year authorities allowed limited refugee resettlement to third countries. The UNHCR operated in the country assisting refugees and asylum seekers despite the absence of a formal memorandum of understanding and the lack of a formal mechanism for individuals seeking protection in the country. On September 20, HRW quoted Brigadier General Mohamed Bashir Al Shabbani, the director of the Office of Immigration at the General People's Committee for Public Security, as saying, ``There are no refugees in Libya. They are people who sneak into the country illegally and they cannot be described as refugees. Anyone who enters this country without formal documents and permission is arrested.'' On June 11, during his visit to Italy, al-Qadhafi responded to criticism about Libya's treatment of asylum seekers by calling the reported situation ``a widespread lie.'' The government operated at least 10 detention centers for undocumented migrants and asylum seekers, among others. International organizations and some foreign diplomats had occasional access to these detention centers. The UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration had regular access to asylum seekers registered with the UNHCR and irregular migrants in prisons and detention facilities. The UNHCR staff was allowed to conduct private interviews with asylum seekers at government-operated detention facilities with facilitation by the quasi-NGO International Organization for Peace, Care, and Relief (IOPCR). The UNHCR had regular access to government officials and detained refugees through IOPCR. However, since August, coincidental with an influx of returned migrants due to at-sea interdiction, authorities restricted access to detention centers. On May 6, the country began implementing joint sea patrols with Italy to curtail the flow of migrants to Europe. Under the agreement, the patrols return interdicted migrants to Libya, where their numbers have swelled migration detention centers beyond capacity. International organizations reported that conditions in the centers have worsened significantly, and along with rights groups expressed concern that the joint patrols return all interdicted migrants to the country without screening for asylum seekers, sick or injured persons, pregnant women, unaccompanied children, or victims of trafficking or other forms of violence against women. In a September report, HRW criticized the interdiction program for denying individuals access to asylum and sending migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers back to detention in inhuman and degrading conditions where they face abuse by authorities. International organization access to returned migrants to screen for the above classes varied according to the decision of each detention center director. The law prohibits the extradition of political refugees. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. Although the government did not target UNHCR-recognized refugees for forcible deportation, the government regularly and forcibly deported foreigners without properly screening refugees and asylum seekers from economic migrants. Government sources claim in 2007 to have repatriated 30,940 illegal migrants of the estimated 1.5 to two million illegal migrants in the country, regardless of their status or claims to asylum. During the year according to international organizations working in the country, some government officials became more rigorous in differentiating between legitimate refugees and asylum seekers and other economic migrants. During the year the UNHCR registered approximately 9,000 refugees on its internal rolls, although it estimated there were 30,000 in the country. Of the total refugee population, an estimated 3,500 were in regular contact with the UNHCR mission in Tripoli. During the year the UNHCR reported an increase in the number of refugee applications, which contributed to an eight-month waiting period for asylum seekers to receive an appointment with the organization. The majority of refugees were Palestinians, Iraqis, and Somalis, followed by smaller but growing numbers from Sudan, Eritrea, and sub-Saharan Africa. The government stipulates that any foreigner who enters the country illegally shall be arrested and deported. The government operated detention camps to hold noncitizens pending deportation and did not routinely inform diplomatic representatives when their nationals were detained. Persons in detention camps reportedly were abused, including reports of sexual abuse of women. On May 20, HRW interviewed an Eritrean migrant in Rome who alleged that authorities held him in a single room with more than 160 other individuals with limited access to toilets, food, or water, and that guards had beaten him. Another Eritrean migrant interviewed on May 13 claimed authorities transported him with 200 other persons by truck to an inland deportation site at Kufra. Rather than deporting migrants at the border, authorities reportedly left migrants in the desert or released them to smugglers who then demanded payment for transportation to the coast. International organizations also reported mass deportations of irregular migrants, including reports of 1,084 deported Nigerians in September. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The country does not have a constitution, and citizens do not have the right to change their government by peaceful means. The country's governing principles stem from al-Qadhafi's Green Book, which combines Islamic ideals with elements of socialism and pan-Arabism. The Green Book states that direct popular rule is the basis of the political system and that citizens play a role in popular congresses; in practice, al-Qadhafi and his close associates monopolized every aspect of decision-making in the government. Elections and Political Participation.--The government prohibits the creation of and membership in political parties. The 1977 Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People dictates how citizens exercise their political rights. The government is structured in a pyramid of directly elected residential people's committees (roughly neighborhood voting districts), which in turn form the 424 basic people's congresses, municipal people's committees (sha'abiyas, formed of the basic people's congresses), the 760-member General People's Congress, and the 20 cabinet-level secretaries of the General People's Committee with a general secretary, each layer of which is involved in the selection of the next-higher level. Citizens participate through numerous organizations, including residential, vocational, production, professional, and skilled labor congresses. Voting for leaders of the local congresses is mandatory for all citizens 18 or older. In practice the regime exercised significant influence over legislation and enforcement of the General People's Congress' decisions. Elections to the General People's Committee occur at meetings of the General People's Congress. Elections are generally held every three years. The most recent elections were held during the second week of March with the people's congresses, the local bodies comprising all citizens, electing their leadership committees. The election process continues through the hierarchy of committees and congresses. Finally, the General People's Congress chooses the General People's Committee, which manages the daily affairs of the government. In theory, revolutionary committees guard against political dissent and ensure that citizens adhere to sanctioned ideology. These committees approve candidates for the General People's Congress. In practice revolutionary committees played an unclear role in enforcing official ideology, sometimes appearing increasingly marginalized and sometimes appearing active in political life. According to the February 6 report of the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, women held 32 percent of the 760 seats in the General People's Congress. No reliable information existed on the representation of minorities in the government. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency Laws stipulating criminal penalties for official corruption are unclear and inconsistently applied. The Administration Monitoring Board is the government agency responsible for oversight of official activities and prevention of corrupt practices. Officials regularly engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Government corruption coupled with favoritism based on family and tribal ties were perceived to be severe problems. Both contributed to government inefficiency. The law does not provide for financial disclosure by public officials or public access to government information, and the government did not provide access in practice to citizens, pressure groups, or the media. The government did not publicly provide detailed planning or budget documents. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government prohibited the establishment of independent nongovernmental human rights organizations, although the quasigovernmental QDF routinely criticized the government's human rights practices. Restrictive laws that imposed imprisonment for forming or joining international organizations without government authorization forced individuals wishing to carry out human rights work to operate abroad. In May QDF facilitated AI's first fact-finding visit to the country since 2004. The QDF also facilitated HRW's visit in April, just more than a year after the group's last visit, but restricted their access to prisons. The QDF facilitated the December 12 launch of HRW's report from Tripoli, the first such event in Libya by an international human rights organization. Associations engaging in unauthorized political activity were illegal. The Libyan Arab Human Rights Committee, a government body, did not release any public reports. HRSL, operating under the sponsorship of the semiofficial QDF, released a report on December 10 criticizing government policies restricting civil society, calling for the abolition of the state security court, drawing attention to human rights abuses, and demanding resolution of claims stemming from the 1996 Abu Salim riot. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, religion, disability, or social status. The government did not enforce these prohibitions effectively, particularly with regard to women and minorities. Women.--The 1969 Constitutional Proclamation granted women equality under the law. In practice traditional attitudes and practices continued that discriminated against women. Shari'a governs inheritance, divorce, and the right to own property. The law does not distinguish between genders for crimes of domestic violence, rape, or sexual harassment. Women have societal restrictions on their movement even to local destinations. The law prohibits domestic violence, but there was scant information on the penalties or on the extent of violence against women. There were 563 cases of rape reported in 2007; statistics were not disaggregated by gender. In 2008 courts heard more than 900 cases involving sex crimes. On January 29, members of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women criticized the government for not presenting data on violence against women. Prison terms of varying length were handed down to convicted rapists, according to a July 24 government response to the UN Human Rights Committee. Domestic abuse was rarely discussed publicly; HRW reported that students conducting a study on sexual violence in April found that victims were reticent to discuss their experiences due to fears of social stigmatization. The law criminalizes rape. A convicted rapist must marry the victim, with her agreement, or serve a prison term of as long as 25 years. The law does not distinguish between rape and spousal rape. According to government officials responding to the UN Human Rights Committee, ``if a wife is raped by force or in a way that she does not accept, she may lodge a complaint and demand that her husband be prosecuted and punished.'' There were 20 Women's Courts in Tripoli and in Benghazi to deal with cases that, according to government officials, could not be resolved privately and where women could avoid the social stigma of appearing in court alongside violent criminals. The law prohibits prostitution, but there were reports that it existed in major cities. The law does not prohibit female genital mutilation (FGM), which is foreign to the culture and society. There were no reports of FGM during the year. Women and girls suspected of violating moral codes were detained indefinitely without being convicted or after having served a sentence and without the right to challenge their detention before a court (see section 1.d.). They were held in ``social rehabilitation'' facilities, in some cases because they had been raped and then ostracized by their families. The government stated that a woman was free to leave a rehabilitation home when she reached ``legal age'' (18 years), consented to marriage, or was taken into the custody of a male relative. According to HRW, authorities transferred most women to these facilities against their will, and those who came of their own volition did so because no genuine shelters for survivors of violence exist. HRW maintained that the government routinely violated women's and girls' human rights in ``social rehabilitation'' homes, including violations of due process, freedom of movement, personal dignity, and privacy. One example of these violations is the practice of ``virginity exams'' in ``social rehabilitation'' facilities. According to a 2006 HRW report, medical providers conducted invasive examinations to determine whether women detained in ``social rehabilitation'' facilities had engaged in sexual intercourse. HRW notes that these exams have ``no medical accuracy.'' On October 21, approximately 12 women living in a care center in Benghazi demonstrated in that city, charging officials with sexual harassment and calling for the reinstatement of the center's former director. Several women were quoted in Libya al-Youm and Jeel Libya saying officials allowed security officers into their rooms at night and at least one woman claimed she had been physically threatened by an official who had propositioned her. On October 31, the General Prosecutor's Office charged the head of the care center with sexual harassment. The law criminalizes sexual harassment, but there were no reports on how this law was enforced in practice. Expatriate women reported occasional harassment, including men exposing themselves and following women. The Department of Social Affairs, under the supervision of a cabinet-level member of the General People's Committee, is charged with collecting data and oversees the integration of women into all spheres of public life, although data are often out of date and incomplete. Women did not hold any cabinet-level offices in the government, although the General People's Congress has a representative for women's affairs and two female high committee chairs. The General Union of Women's Associations, which the government established as a network of quasinongovernmental organizations, addresses women's employment needs. According to 2008 data from the International Labor Organization (ILO), 26 percent of women older than 15 were economically active, compared to 77 percent of men. Traditional restrictions continued to discourage some women from playing an active role in the workplace. The government is the country's largest employer. Civil service salaries are set according to education and experience. Women and men with similar qualifications are paid at the same grade for positions that are substantially similar. The emerging private sector does not formally discriminate on the basis of gender for access to employment or credit, although cultural conceptions of gender roles reduce women's involvement in the economy. Women constituted the majority of university students and graduates and made up almost one-third of university faculty. Virtually all births took place in hospitals and more than 90 percent of mothers received pre- and postnatal care. Maternal mortality was low and female life expectancy was high and rising. All forms of contraception were available free of charge and there were no reports of government or societal pressure on couples limiting their freedom to determine the number, spacing, or timing of their children. During the year at least one child was born to an HIV-positive couple and diplomatic observers indicated that both the mother and child received adequate medical care. Children.--Citizenship is derived from the father and registered in a government-issued family book. There were no data on the number of unregistered births. The government subsidized primary, secondary, and university education, and secondary education was compulsory through grade nine for both boys and girls. The law imposes high fees on noncitizens enrolled in primary and secondary schools. The UN Human Rights Committee noted that schools discriminated against children born out of wedlock. According to a 2003 UNDP report, 96 percent of school-age children attended primary school and most reached at least a sixth-grade level; 53 percent of girls and 71 percent of boys attended secondary school. The law prohibits child abuse, and that prohibition was respected in practice. There is no law specifically prohibiting statutory rape. Sex outside of marriage is defined as adultery in Law 70 of 1973 and is a felony offense. Eighteen is the age of consent for marriage, although a woman younger than 18 can marry with her father's consent. Trafficking in Persons.--The law criminalizes all forms of trafficking in women, but does not specifically prohibit trafficking in persons. There were widespread reports that persons were trafficked to the country for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor purposes. The country was both a transit point for trafficked persons en route to Europe and a destination country for victims from sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. International observers and countries with significant undocumented migrant populations in the country estimated that one-half to 1 percent of the country's approximately 1.5 million to two million foreign residents may be victims of trafficking. The law does not expressly criminalize trafficking for purposes of sexual exploitation or involuntary servitude, and the government provided no information on prosecutions related to trafficking offenses, nor does the law expressly criminalize involuntary servitude. On June 14, HRW published interviews with migrant workers in Italy and Malta claiming government officials were complicit in trafficking in persons. The migrants claimed smugglers arranging boat departures were closely linked with the authorities responsible for interdicting such vessels. Migrant workers also told HRW that authorities often released detainees into the custody of smugglers rather than deporting them, trapping migrants in a repeating cycle of rearrest. As in previous years, the government did not provide adequate protection to victims of trafficking. The government failed to screen vulnerable populations adequately to identify trafficking victims. Victims were susceptible to punishment for unlawful acts committed because they were trafficked, including unlawful presence in the country, working without a valid work permit, and engaging in prostitution. There were limited reports that authorities deported trafficking victims who had been intermingled with economic migrants without receiving medical, psychological, or legal aid. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides for the rights of persons with disabilities and provides for monetary and other types of social care. A number of government-approved organizations care for persons with disabilities and protect access to employment, education, health care, and other state services. Few public facilities have adequate access for persons with physical disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Arabic-speaking Muslims of mixed Arab-Amazigh (Berber) ancestry constituted 97 percent of citizens. The principal minorities were Amazighs and Tuaregs. Both minority groups are predominantly Sunni Muslims but identify with their respective cultural and linguistic heritage rather than with Arab traditions. Several nomadic groups live in areas along the country's desert borders, including members of Tuareg and Toubou tribes. The country is home to an estimated 1.5 million to two million foreign workers. Of those, nearly one million are thought to be of Sahelian or sub-Saharan African origin and in the country as irregular migrants. During the year the government took steps to alleviate discrimination against the Berber minority. In 2007 the government abolished a law prohibiting the use of Amazigh and Tuareg names. Unlike in previous years, limited exhibitions of Amazigh culture were permitted, including a televised history program. The government allowed the written Amazigh language on more signs, but reportedly still prohibited it in official contexts. The Berber Web site Tawalt.com reported Revolutionary Committee members in December 2008 targeted Berber leaders near Yefren. Demonstrators reportedly chanted anti-Berber slogans, vandalized properties, and physically confronted counter protesters. Opposition Web sites alleged the individuals acted in collusion with local police. According to a December 2008 MEED Business Intelligence report, the Toubou minority faced discrimination in the town of Kufra. Authorities reportedly withdrew citizenship from members of the Tabou tribe in Kufra during the year, and local authorities reportedly issued decrees barring members of the Tabou tribe who did not have citizenship from access to education and health care services. There were no updates on the reported societal clashes that occurred in Kufra in November 2008 (see section 1.d.) Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Sexual Identity. No public information was available on societal discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or identity. There were no reports of societal abuses, violence, or discrimination based on sexual orientation and sexual identity, although Libyans tended to hold negative views of homosexual activity. Homosexual acts are a criminal offense punishable by three to five years in prison. The law provides for punishment of both parties. There were no reports of legal discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, or access to education or health care. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence toward persons with HIV/AIDS. There were reports of societal stigmatization of persons living with HIV/AIDS, due to an association of the disease with drug use and sex outside marriage. This stigma also resulted in underreporting of the disease. Treatment and medicine were provided to HIV/AIDS patients free of charge at special centers. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law prohibits independent associations; workers are allowed to join the government-organized General Trade Union Federation of Workers. The Federation played an active role in the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions, the Organization of African Trade Union Unity, and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The government required candidates for trade union office to be citizens. Active government employees are often enrolled automatically. The law does not give workers the right to strike, and there were no reports of strikes or attempted strikes during the year. Although trade unions have existed officially for more than 25 years, workers historically have seen them as idle organizations under government control. In 2007 an intervention to secure back pay for employees of the National Oil Corporation reportedly took place. No information was available on any additional mechanisms to protect workers' rights. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law circumscribes the conduct of union activities, and collective bargaining is restricted in practice. For example, the government must approve all collective agreements between unions and employers to ensure that they are in line with the government's economic and social objectives. A free trade zone in Misrata officially opened in 2004, although through year's end it was not operating due to bureaucratic delays. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits any form of forced or compulsory labor, including by children. There were some reports of forced labor of migrant workers, particularly Filipino, Indian, and sub-Saharan Africans working in the construction sector, after they were smuggled into the country. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law forbids children younger than 18 from being employed, except when it is a form of apprenticeship. There was no information available on the prevalence of child labor, although there were no reports of child slavery, prostitution, or recruitment into armed conflict during the year. No information was available concerning whether the law limits working hours or sets occupational health and safety restrictions for children. The General People's Committee for Manpower, Employment, and Training is responsible for preventing child labor. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The labor law defines the rights and duties of workers, including matters of compensation, pension rights, minimum rest periods, and working hours. The legal workweek is 40 hours. The law stipulates the minimum wage, standard working hours, night shift regulations, dismissal procedures, and training requirements. The law does not specifically prohibit excessive compulsory overtime. The Green Book forbids wages, so pay is in the form of ``entitlements.'' Although some public sector categories, such as professors, have received increases in recent years, a freeze imposed more than a decade ago continues to depress earnings. The minimum wage was 250 dinars ($208) per month. The government paid an additional pension of 90 dinars ($75) for a single person, 130 dinars ($108) for a married couple, and 180 dinars ($150) for a family of more than two. Although there was no information available regarding whether the average wage was sufficient to provide a worker and family with a decent standard of living, the government heavily subsidized rent and utilities, and government workers received an additional 130 dinars ($108) per month for food staples during the year. Contracts exist for migrant workers and are the legal basis for granting visas for temporary workers. Labor inspectors were assigned to inspect places of work for compliance with government-defined health and safety standards, and the law grants workers the right to court hearings regarding these standards. Certain industries, such as the petroleum sector, attempted to maintain standards that foreign companies set. There was no information about whether workers could remove themselves from an unhealthy or unsafe work situation without jeopardizing their employment. Foreign workers reportedly constituted 1.6 million of the 3.2 million-person work force in 2004, but the labor law applies only to foreign workers who have work contracts, a fraction of the total. These workers are covered under the laws on acceptable conditions of work, while other migrants are considered to be illegally in the country. While the 2006 census counted 349,040 foreigners resident in the country, in 2009 observers and diplomatic missions with large migrant populations in the country estimated the total number of undocumented workers at between 1.5 and 2 million. Authorities permitted foreign workers to reside in the country only for the duration of their work contracts, and they could not send more than half of their earnings to their home countries. They were subject to arbitrary pressures, such as changes in work rules and contracts, and had little choice other than to accept such changes or depart the country. Authorities deported many foreign workers for not having newly required work permits for unskilled jobs that they held at the time of arrest. In practice the government had no practical means to track foreign workers or remittance flows, relying instead on the threat of deportation and random round-ups, including the deportation of several hundred Nigerians in August and September, to exercise authority. __________ MOROCCO Morocco is a monarchy with a constitution, an elected parliament, and a population of approximately 34 million. According to the constitution, ultimate authority rests with King Mohammed VI, who presides over the Council of Ministers and appoints or approves members of the government. The king may dismiss ministers, dissolve parliament, call for new elections, and rule by decree. In the bicameral legislature, the lower house may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence. The September 2007 parliamentary elections for the lower house went smoothly and were marked by transparency and professionalism. International observers judged that those elections were relatively free from government-sponsored irregularities. The civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Citizens did not have the right to change the constitutional provisions establishing their monarchical form of government or the establishment of Islam as the state religion. There were reports of torture and other abuses by various branches of the security forces. Prison conditions remained below international standards. Reports of arbitrary arrests, incommunicado detentions, and police and security force impunity continued. Politics, as well as corruption and inefficiency, influenced the judiciary, which was not fully independent. The government restricted press freedoms. Corruption was a serious problem in all branches of government. Child labor, particularly in the unregulated informal sector, remained a problem, and trafficking in persons continued. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. Abderrezzak Kadiri died after a December 2008 pro- Palestine demonstration that turned violent at Cadi Ayyad University. Nongovernmental organization (NGO) reports alleged that Kadiri's death resulted from injuries sustained during violent confrontations with police and indicated that authorities did not notify Kadiri's family of his death until January 6. However, the authorities denied this account and reported that an autopsy had determined his wounds were consistent with a criminal assault. Police issued a criminal arrest warrant, and the government reported that the case would not be investigated as a human rights violation unless a subsequent arrest or other information revealed that it should be. As of year's end, no suspects had been arrested. As in previous years, there were reports of deaths of sub-Saharan migrants crossing the country's territory trying illegally to enter the Spanish enclave of Melilla (see section 2.c.). The NGO Amnesty International (AI) called on the government to open an investigation into the death of a migrant whom police reportedly fired on at the northern border of the country with Melilla on January 1. Arrests and beatings continued on the borders, principally on the Spanish side. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. Since 2004 the Justice and Reconciliation Authority (IER) and its successor organization, the Consultative Council on Human Rights (CCDH), completed investigations of approximately 800 cases of forced, long-term disappearances of opponents of the government between independence in 1956 and 1999. During the year the CCDH published newsletters updating progress in investigating cases but generally did not mention individuals. According to the CCDH, six cases remained outstanding at year's end. Human rights groups and families continued to claim that the IER did not acknowledge all cases of disappearances, many from the Western Sahara. By year's end the CCDH reported it had paid reparations to 15,000 victims of disappearance or other abuses committed during the 1970s or 1980s or to their family members. The CCDH shifted its focus toward conducting community reparation projects that were designed to rebuild communities hit especially hard by the disappearances of male breadwinners during the 1970s. The CCDH cooperated with NGO partners such as the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Arab Institute for Human Rights, and Entraide Nationale in this effort. Some NGOs criticized the CCDH as flawed administratively and the CCDH process as nontransparent, resulting in unequal payments and lack of objective criteria for awarding payments. The CCDH acknowledged that communal reparation programs were still in their initial phase and that there was room for improvement. According to the February 25 report of the UN Human Rights Commission's Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, there were 58 outstanding cases at the end of 2008, a decrease of five from 63 outstanding cases at the beginning of the review period in December 2007. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and the government denied that it used torture. However, numerous NGO reports and media articles alleged that members of security forces tortured and abused individuals in their custody, particularly during transport and pretrial detention. The CCDH reported an overall decline in incidents of torture and other abuses during the year, and independent news media and human rights groups, including the Moroccan Association for Human Rights (AMDH) and the Moroccan Organization for Human Rights (OMDH), made fewer reports denouncing such abuses in internationally recognized Morocco than in past years. There was no such decline in reports from Western Sahara (see separate report). The penal code stipulates sentences of up to life imprisonment for public servants who use or allow the use of violence against others in the exercise of their official duties. On August 24, authorities sentenced Sahrawi independence activists, Ennaama Asfari and Ali El-Rubia, to four months in prison and a two- month suspended sentence, respectively, for ``contempt of public officials while in performance of their duty.'' According to NGO reports, police officers assaulted Asfari and Rubiou. Authorities charged the two after police reportedly saw Asfari in Tan Tan carrying a key ring with the pro-independence flag of the Western Sahara. Supporters of the defendants were not allowed access to the court, and others were arrested on their way to the hearing. Most of the activists were released without charge after six hours of detention. Four reported mistreatment including claims that authorities beat them and then threw them out of a moving police car on the road to Smara. National police in Oujda, subsequent to the June 25 communal elections, intimidated some supporters and members of the Islamist- oriented Party of Justice and Development (PJD). In one case, PJD lawyers filed a complaint alleging that police beat a local leader, Noureddine Boubker, into a coma. The government reported that this was not the case and that Boubker was injured in a violent confrontation between several PJD activists and police. Boubker did not file charges, subsequently recovered, and the government reported the case closed. In February 2008 the government arrested 35 individuals, including six political party officials, and charged them with being part of a terrorist network. The six political party officials were Mostapha Mouatassim, president of al-Badil al-Hadhari; Mohamed Amine Regala, deputy chief of al-Badil al-Hadhari; Mohamed Merouani, president of al- Oumma party, a moderate Islamist party that had applied for but not received legal status; Al-Abadelah Maelainin, a member of the national council of the PJD; Hamid Nejibi, a member of the national council of the Unified Socialist Party (PSU); and Abdelhafidh Sriti, a journalist with al-Manar television, which belongs to the Lebanese Hezbollah movement. They claimed they made self-incriminating statements while in custody as a result of torture. According to their lawyers, authorities did not investigate their allegations. On July 28, all 35 were found guilty of forming a terrorist group, plotting attacks, and committing robberies and other crimes to finance their operations. The Sale court sentenced them to prison terms ranging from suspended sentences to life in prison. Many appealed the verdicts on the grounds that the court failed to hear the case in a timely manner and failed to refer their cases to a forensic expert as required by the country's 2006 law against torture. At year's end the appeals remained pending. At year's end, 11 of 18 students who were sentenced to prison in relation to their involvement in demonstrations in May 2008 at Cadi Ayyad University remained in prison awaiting appeal hearings. The government continued to base its case on police reports stating that students armed with Molotov cocktails and stones violently attacked and injured several police officers, and that any injuries the students sustained were the result of these confrontations. The students' appeal included evidence alleging that security forces employed torture, sexual harassment, and other abuse, especially during their arrest and pretrial detention, and denied the students medical care. The appeal case also alleged that the government did not investigate these allegations. At year's end the 11 students' appeal was still pending. The government provided no new information about the case of Qadimi El Ouali, who was severely injured in connection with the demonstrations in May 2008 at Cadi Ayyad. The government continued to improve implementation of the 2006 law against torture, which requires judges to refer a detainee to a forensic medicine expert when the detainee or his or her lawyer requests it or if judges notice suspicious physical marks on a detainee. The government reported that as of September, the public prosecutor had requested medical examinations for six persons, and judges had requested 21 medical examinations. The total of 27 requests represented a decrease from 2008's total of 49, which the government suggested reflected an overall reduction in allegations of torture throughout the country. Media and human rights NGOs documented cases in which the antitorture law provision was not implemented. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions remained poor and generally did not meet international standards. Overcrowding, malnutrition, and lack of hygiene characterized the conditions inside prisons. A February report by the Moroccan Observatory of Prisons (OMP), an umbrella grouping of lawyers promoting better conditions for prisoners, stated that prisons were overcrowded, prone to violence, and failed to meet local and international standards. It also stated that current prison capacity was sufficient for only half the prison population. The government acknowledged that its 59 prisons held about 76,000 inmates in early November, 40 percent more than they were designed to hold. That capacity allowed 16 square feet per inmate, far short of the international standard of 97 square feet. The pardon of 26,498 persons during the year reduced overcrowding. The OMP reported that more than 100 inmates died in 2008 from various causes, which it and other NGOs blamed in large part on poor conditions and inadequate health care. The government acknowledged that providing adequate care was difficult given the overcrowded conditions. The Directorate General for Prison Administration (DGAP) employed 107 general practitioners and kept a number of medical specialists on contract to provide inmates with care as needed. In April 2008 in response to public criticism following a highly publicized multi-prisoner escape from the Kenitra prison three weeks earlier, the king transferred responsibility for prison governance from the Ministry of Justice (MOJ) to the newly created DGAP. The DGAP, which reports directly to the prime minister and informally to the palace, has its own budget and central administrative apparatus. The DGAP secured additional funds during the year to build new facilities, reduce crowding and increase living space per inmate, improve health care and other conditions, and improve security. The MOJ still directs the development and reform of penal policy. Pretrial detainees, who made up 21 percent of the 377,092 persons charged with crimes in 2008, were not held separately from convicts due to a lack of prison space. During the first six months of the year, 14,364 persons were held in pretrial detention. Although the law dictates that juvenile prisoners be separated from adults in prisons, this did not always occur in practice. There are only three juvenile detention centers. Due to the lack of juvenile prison facilities, authorities often held juveniles together with adults, particularly in pretrial detention and in police stations. Human rights groups reported the abuse of younger offenders by other minors, older inmates, and prison guards. Local NGOs estimated there were at least 4,000 juveniles in the prison system. Offenders convicted of minor crimes are often placed in the same cell as those convicted of more serious offenses. Government figures indicate that only 3 percent of prisoners were women, and there was less overcrowding in the women's sections. Women were held separately from men. The government allowed programs such as training workshops for juvenile court judges and a regional conference on restorative justice. Some human rights activists asserted that the prison administration reserved harsher treatment and conditions for certain prisoners, and they blamed the June death of Mohammed Amine Akalai on inadequate medical care. Akalai was known to have cardiovascular problems and was apparently denied medical treatment. The government denied allegations that it accorded different levels of treatment, maintaining that there were no political prisoners in the country. Government officials acknowledged that Akalai died in custody but claimed his death was due to his cardiovascular problems. In August 40 Islamists imprisoned on terrorism charges began a hunger strike to protest the conditions of their detention. Hunger strikes were not uncommon in the country's prisons and usually ended within several days in response to concessions from prison authorities. Although prisons provided meals three times a day, the quality of the meals was poor, and it was standard practice for families and friends to supplement prisoners' diets. During the year, the government reported it had conducted autopsies into 13 deaths that resulted from a 2007 hunger strike at the Sale prison. The government reported that its investigation showed 12 cases were due to natural causes, and one case was a result of electric shock. The government claimed that only one case was referred to investigation due to a complaint filed by the brother of a deceased prisoner. No further information on that investigation was available at year's end. The government permitted visits during the year by independent human rights observers, including local human rights groups, but not international groups or the media. According to the DGAP, the government permitted 20,100 visits to prisons during the year. Family members accounted for the majority of visits, but 900 were judiciary authorities and 600 were by NGOs. Some international donors had occasionally visited in the past, but, according to NGOs, the DGAP under its new director general discouraged such visits and they ceased. During the year the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) did not make any requests to visit prisoners; the last ICRC request for access to a prisoner was in 2007, and the government honored the request. Government policy permits NGOs that provide social, educational, or religious services to prisoners to enter prison facilities, but it does not permit NGOs that only have a human rights mandate to do so except with special authorization. Members of various NGOs, including OMDH, AMDH, and the Association of Victims of Grave Human Rights Abuses (ASVDH), visited prisoners regularly to distribute food and personal items and to check on their health and well-being as ``friends or family,'' not as human rights NGO representatives. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law does not prohibit arbitrary arrest or detention, and police used both practices. Police did not always observe due process. According to local NGOs and associations, police did not always identify themselves when arresting suspects or consistently obtain warrants. Police reportedly held some detainees without charging them. It was common practice for security forces to arrest a group of persons, take them to a police station to be questioned, and release them without charge hours or even days later. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The security apparatus includes several police and paramilitary organizations with overlapping authorities. The National Police (DGSN) manages the border and immigration services, as well as internal law enforcement, and reports to the Ministry of Interior (MOI). The General Directorate of Territorial Security (DGST) and the auxiliary forces are separate entities that have security responsibilities and also report to the MOI. The Royal Gendarmerie reports to the Ministry of Defense and is responsible for law enforcement in rural regions and on national highways. The judicial police--the main federal investigative body--is a hybrid DGSN and MOJ entity. It investigates violations of criminal law, terrorism, organized crime, and white-collar crime under MOJ prosecutors. The Department of Royal Security reports to the palace. Corruption and impunity remained problems and reduced police effectiveness and respect for the rule of law. It was general knowledge that petty corruption was widespread among the police and gendarmes, and broader, systemic corruption undermined both law enforcement and the effectiveness of the judicial system. The MOI increased investigations of abuse, human rights violations, and corruption. During the year the government reported that it prosecuted 282 security officials for crimes ranging from ``assault and battery leading to death'' to petty bribery throughout the country and the Western Sahara. There were prosecutions against approximately 190 employees of the judicial police, the royal gendarmerie, the auxiliary forces, the royal navy, and prison guards for bribery and influence misuse; most other cases were for physical abuse or mistreatment. The government prosecuted 117 officials, including security service personnel, for corruption in the first 11 months of the year. Despite these investigations and prosecutions, other investigations did not result in disciplinary action or judicial proceedings, and many more incidents of corruption never were investigated. Cases often languished in the investigatory or trial phases without resolution. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- Police may arrest following a general prosecutor's issuance of an oral or written warrant; in practice warrants were sometimes issued after the arrest. Authorities denied defendants' access to counsel or family members during the initial 96 hours of detention under terrorism- related laws or 48 hours of detention for other charges, during which police interrogated detainees and abuse or torture was most likely to occur. Under the antiterrorism law, after the first 96 hours, two additional 96-hour extensions are allowed at the prosecutor's discretion. Under the law a person may be detained without trial for as long as one year while an investigating magistrate completes work. According to NGOs, as many as 90 percent of incarcerated minors were in pretrial detention. The law provides for a limited system of bail, but bail was rarely granted. The law does not require written authorization for a person to be released from detention. In some instances judges released defendants on their own recognizance. The antiterrorism law does not include a system of bail. Under a separate military code, military authorities may detain members of the military without a warrant or public trial. According to the law, all defendants have the right to be represented by attorneys and, if a defendant cannot afford private counsel, a court-appointed attorney must be provided when the criminal penalty exceeds five years in prison. In practice effective counsel was not always provided. Police were required to notify a detainee's next of kin of the arrest as soon as possible after the initial 48-hour, incommunicado detention in nonterrorism cases, unless arresting authorities applied for and received an extension from a magistrate; this provision was not always respected. Because of delays in notifying family, lawyers sometimes were not informed promptly of the date of arrest and were not able to monitor compliance with administrative detention limits, which authorities exceeded when individuals were suspected of links to terrorism. Amnesty.--The government used royal pardons rather than a parole system as the principal judicial mechanism for early release. During the year the king pardoned 26,498 prisoners. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but in practice the courts were not always independent. According to observers, corruption remained prevalent. Judges did not consistently base rulings on new laws and, at times, referred to outdated laws in their decisions. There are four levels in the common law court system: communal and district courts, courts of first instance (regional courts), the appeals court, and the Supreme Court. All decisions in criminal and civil matters in which the penalty exceeds 330 dirhams ($40) may be appealed to the courts of first instance. Regional courts are subdivided into civil, commercial, administrative, penal, and rabbinical sections. Cases may be appealed from the regional courts to the appeals court. There were no restrictions on appeals at this level. Serious state security charges against civilians, including those relating to the monarchy, Islam, or territorial integrity, are typically tried in civilian courts. Cases regarding treason must be tried before a military court. Cases regarding territorial integrity can also be referred to a military court. Judgments by military tribunals may be appealed. On October 8, authorities detained seven Sahrawi activists in Casablanca who had visited Algiers and the refugee camps near Tindouf from September 26 to October 8. The government accused the seven of participating in military parades with Polisario soldiers, charged them with ``intelligence cooperation with a foreign entity,'' and referred the case to a military tribunal. Trial Procedures.--According to the constitution, the judiciary is independent; in practice the judiciary, often inefficient and believed to be corruptible, was not fully independent and was subject to influence, particularly in sensitive cases such as those dealing with the monarchy, religion, and the Western Sahara. Although technically not one of the four ministries under direct control of the king, the palace supervises who hires and dismisses judges, controls promotions, and decides who can be appointed and to which positions. The king heads the Supreme Judicial Council with administrative authority over the judiciary. Defendants are presumed innocent. The law provides for the right to a fair public trial for all citizens; this did not always occur in practice, especially for those protesting the incorporation of the Western Sahara into the country. Juries are not used, following principles of the Napoleonic legal system. Although the government claims that accused persons generally are brought to trial within two months, prosecutors may request as many as five additional two-month extensions of pretrial detention. Technically an accused person may be kept in detention for as long as one year prior to trial. Authorities routinely held detainees beyond the one- year limit. Defendants have the right to be present at their trial and to timely consultation with an attorney, although these rights were not always enforced in practice. Attorneys were not appointed in all cases, or if provided, were poorly paid or provided in an untimely fashion, often resulting in inadequate representation. According to law, defendants in criminal and human rights cases have access to government evidence against them. In practice judges sometimes prevented or delayed access. Some judges denied defense requests to question witnesses and to present mitigating witnesses or evidence. Individuals are arraigned before a court of first instance. If the judge determines that a confession was obtained under duress, the law requires that it be excluded from evidence. Human rights NGOs charged that judges often decided cases based on forced confessions, especially in cases of Islamists accused of terrorism or some Sahrawis. Police statements about detainees were used in place of defendants' confessions. The Supreme Court may overturn an appellate court's ruling only on procedural grounds. Appeals to the Supreme Court were infrequent. An investigation by an examining magistrate was mandatory only when life imprisonment or the death penalty was a possible sentence. Family courts generally adjudicated divorce and child custody cases according to the family law. These courts addressed family issues for Muslim citizens, and judges were trained in Shari'a as applied in the country and in the requirements of the 2004 family law. Family matters for Jewish citizens were handled by the parallel legal system available to them. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--Legislation does not define or recognize the concept of a political prisoner. The government did not consider any of its prisoners to be political prisoners, stating that all individuals charged with crimes were charged under common criminal law. Several NGOs, including AMDH, Sahrawi organizations, and Berber activist groups, charged the government with detaining persons for political activities or beliefs under cover of criminal charges, such as AMDH members arrested on charges of failing to show ``due respect'' to the king. In April 2008 police arrested Sahrawi activist Enaama Asfari in Marrakesh after a traffic altercation. He stated plainclothes police assaulted and injured him and then took him to a hospital for treatment. According to Asfari, he was later forced to sign a statement he had not written or read and was denied the opportunity to contact his family. During the trial, the judge refused to allow a medical examination and authorities expelled Asfari's wife and two other trial observers from the courtroom for incitement. He was sentenced to two months in prison, fined 3,000 dirhams ($420), and was freed on June 13. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The MOJ received 35 complaints against judges, and public prosecutors investigated these complaints. Prosecutors closed 10 of the cases due to lack of evidence, and the other complaints remained under investigation at year's end. There are administrative as well as judicial remedies for alleged wrongs. A national ombudsman resolves civil matters when the judiciary is unable to do so and has gradually expanded the scope of its activities. The number of complaints it received rose from 4,500 in 2006 to 7,000 during 2008. The percentage of actionable complaints rose from 29 percent in 2004 to 91 percent in 2008. Despite the significant increase in numbers of complaints the ombudsman received, most citizens looked to the CCDH for redress of human rights complaints. The CCDH served as a conduit through which citizens expressed complaints about government malfeasance or human rights violations. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution states that an individual's home is inviolable and that a search may take place only with a search warrant, yet authorities sometimes ignored these provisions in practice. The law stipulates that a prosecutor may issue a search warrant on good cause, particularly in cases of suspected terrorism. Plainclothes security officers who did not identify themselves or present search warrants conducted home searches. As in previous years, authorities reportedly searched and shut down activities in the homes of members of the Justice and Good Works Organization (known also as the Justice and Charity Organization or ``JCO''), an Islamist sociopolitical group the government tolerated but did not officially recognize. Members allegedly used their homes for ``open houses'' where they held politically oriented meetings. During Ramadan, in the first half of September, authorities arrested JCO members in a series of operations across the country. These raids forcibly dispersed meetings at private residences in Fes, Berkane, and Casablanca. JCO members claimed the DGST was responsible for the harassment. In Casablanca authorities arrested 18 persons on September 13 in Sbata, a low-income neighborhood. In Casablanca, Fes, and Berkane, authorities arrested, questioned, detained, and later released JCO members without charges. Sahrawi activists reported that when NGOs held meetings at members' houses, both plainclothes and uniformed police intervened on numerous occasions. (See the Western Sahara report.) Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law generally provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government compromised this law in practice. Criticism of Islam, the monarchy, and territorial integrity (the issue of Western Sahara) is prohibited by law. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), during the year, there was an increase in punishing journalists who reported on these issues. The press, however, reported on controversial subjects such as military, security, and sexuality. In the latter half of the year, a trend toward restricting freedom of the press emerged, with a marked increase in media restrictions. Figures provided by the government showed an increase in total cases from 45 in 2008 to 56 during the year. These numbers included cases the government initiated as well as private citizens' libel complaints. Numerous human rights groups criticized the steady stream of criminal prosecutions, newspaper closings, and libel suits. The antiterror law and the press code impose financial penalties on journalists and publishers who violate restrictions related to defamation, libel, and insults including critical discussion of the monarchy, state institutions, territorial integrity, and Islam. Prison sentences may be imposed on those convicted of libel. The press code lists threats to public order as one of the criteria for censorship. The government also has the ability to revoke licenses and to suspend and confiscate publications. Politically diverse newspapers and weeklies published articles critical of high-ranking officials and sensitive policies. Although authorities overlooked most of these instances, a few publications paid a substantial price in financial penalties. Often these excessive fines appeared to be designed to bankrupt the publisher. On July 22, the international NGO Reporters Without Borders reported that since the beginning of King Mohammed VI's reign in 1999, journalists have been sentenced to a total of 25 years in prison and news media have been fined a total of two million Euros ($2.8 million). On February 26, journalist and blogger Hassan Barhoum was sentenced to six months in prison and a fine for circulating a petition accusing a local prosecutor of corruption and raising questions about authorities' complicity in the escape of a convicted drug baron in Tetouan. He was charged with defaming a judicial official. On August 1, Barhoum was released from prison after he received a royal pardon. In June the Court of First Instance in Casablanca fined three independent Arabic-language newspapers 3.3 million dirhams ($400,000) for insulting a foreign head of state. The newspapers have begun an appeal process. During the same month, the government banned an issue of French weekly Courier International after it published an article on the king's wealth. In rare instances during the year, the government banned the importation of foreign media when they were considered to undermine the sanctity of the nation or public order. The appeal process for the case of a French-language monthly accused of defamation resulted in a fine triple the original amount. On December 29, the Casablanca Court of Appeal ordered Hassan Alaoui, director of French weekly Economie et Enterprises, to pay a 600,000 dirham ($77,000) penalty to Mounir Majidi, the king's personal secretary; the magazine had accused the royal family-owned company Primarios of fraud. In August the MOI seized editions of two independent weekly news magazines, Tel Quel and its Arabic-language sister publication Nichane, for publishing an opinion poll on the king's first decade in power although the poll results were favorable to the king. The ministry also banned the import of an edition of French daily Le Monde that also published the poll results. To justify its action, the MOI cited the country's 1958 press code, which allows seizure of publications that show lack of respect for the royal family or of Islam. A court in Casablanca rejected the appeal of Tel Quel and Nichane against the MOI action. Ahmed Benchemsi, the publisher of both weeklies, was charged with failing to show ``due respect'' to the king. Benchemsi's case remained pending at year's end. Idriss Chahtane, director of the Arabic-language weekly Al Michaal, received a one-year sentence and 10,000 dirham ($1,28O) fine, and journalists Mustafa Hirane and Rachine Mahamid received three-month sentences and a fine of 5,000 dirhams ($640) each for reporting false information on the king's health. On December 29, the correctional chamber in the Appellate Court in Casablanca decided to postpone a verdict against Chahtane. Chahtane remained in prison at year's end under an outstanding suspended sentence against him from 2008 for allegedly libeling Algerian President Abdelaziz Boutefilka; Hirane and Mahamid remained free at year's end pending appeal. In November Taoufik Bouachrine, director of the Arabic-language daily Akhbar Al Youm, and cartoonist Khalid Keddar received suspended prison sentences totaling eight years for a cartoon allegedly depicting Prince Moulay Ismail with a deformed Moroccan star. The court fined Bouachrine and Keddar a total of 200,000 dirhams ($25,641) and ordered them to pay three million dirhams ($385,000) to the prince for defamation. Authorities charged them with ``lack of respect due to the prince'' and ``insulting the national flag.'' On December 30, Prince Ismail pardoned them and decided to forgo the fine. The Ministry of Communications (MOC) issued directives and guidance, and it subsidized publications including those critical of the government. The placement of government-directed advertising influenced print media outlets' revenue and may have influenced their coverage. Direct government subsidies varied according to the percentage of the population reading the publication. There are approximately 500 newspapers in the country. The government temporarily suspended publications it judged offensive. This happened in the aforementioned cases with Tel Quel and Nichane. Arabic-language Akhbar Al Youmwas permanently closed and later reopened under the name Akhbar Al Youm Al Maghrebiya. After some delay, the government allowed suspended publications to continue operation. Newspapers reported exercising self-censorship in response to the threat of government closure. The government registered and licensed domestic newspapers and journals. The government owned la Societe Nationale de la Radiodiffusion et de la Television, formerly Moroccan Radio-Television, which owned and operated several local television and radio stations. It also partially owned the 2M television and radio network. The government purchased a majority stake in formerly private Medi-Sat television this year in an effort to save it from bankruptcy. Since 2006 the government has licensed the operations of several independent radio stations that offer news and information. A government-appointed committee monitored broadcasts to ensure adherence to license agreements. The government owned or partially owned the only television stations whose broadcasts could be received in most parts of the country without decoders or satellite dishes. In March the MOC refused to renew the press credentials of Rafael Marchante, a Spanish photographer employed by Reuters, following a negative report he made on the Western Sahara. His credentials were restored after a few weeks' delay. In May 2008 the government suspended Al-Jazeera's broadcasting license, forcing it to cease broadcasting its nightly Maghreb news bulletin from Rabat. Al-Jazeera was permitted to retain its office in Rabat. In July 2008 a court fined Al-Jazeera Rabat bureau chief Hassan al-Rachidi 49,000 dirhams ($6,000) and suspended his press accreditation for ``publishing false information'' after the channel quoted human rights activist Brahim Sab Alail alleging that security forces killed protesters in the town of Sidi Ifni. At one point Rachidi's attorneys withdrew from his case in protest, claiming the court refused to allow them to call defense witnesses. Al-Rachidi appealed, claiming the court did not follow correct procedures for the suspension of his press accreditation. In December 2008 the Rabat appeals court postponed hearing the case until January 2010. Throughout the year Al-Jazeera's license to broadcast directly from the country remained suspended. Authorities subjected journalists to harassment and intimidation during the year. In February security forces searched the offices of Arabic-language weekly al-Ayyam for possessing an unpublished photograph of the king's mother after the newspaper had submitted a formal request to the palace to publish the photograph. The director and editor in chief of the publication were detained but later released. In early September the public prosecutor in Rabat ordered police to question 10 journalists from three Arabic-language newspapers that in late August published articles about the king's health. A statement issued by the king's aide claimed an article in the privately owned Arabic-language newspaper Al-Jarida al-Oula contained false information and fabricated news about the king's health. Police released the journalists after lengthy interrogations. The Rabat public prosecutor brought defamation charges against Al-Jarida al-Oula. Ali Anouzla, the director of Al-Jarida al-Oula, was sentenced in October to one year in prison and a 10,000 dirham ($1,280) fine and Bouchra Eddou, a journalist for the paper, was sentenced to three months in prison and a 5,000 dirham ($640) fine. On December 28, the appellate court in Rabat confirmed the initial verdict against Anouzla and Eddou. Internet Freedom.--There are neither specific laws nor a body of judicial decisions concerning Internet content or access. The government did not usually restrict access to the Internet. Individuals and groups were able to engage in peaceful exchange of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. The International Telecommunication Union reported there were 33 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in 2008. In January the government temporarily blocked four Islamist- oriented Web sites after they were used to mobilize protests in support of Palestinians during the Israeli offensive in Gaza. On December 14 the Kenitra court of first instance handed down a three-month suspended jail sentence against Jawad El Galii, a journalist, blogger, and editor of a Web site. He was convicted of aggression against a policeman and of impersonating a journalist, as he had no credentials. The charges stemmed from an incident in which a policeman smashed his camera during a protest rally and El Galii quarreled with the policeman. Security forces detained him for eight hours and dropped the case when he reconciled with the policeman. The following day police again summoned El Galii and prosecuted him in the court of first instance. Before the three-month suspended sentence was announced, he was free on bail. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--By law and in practice, the government reserved the right to restrict presentations or discussions questioning the legitimacy of the monarchy, Islam, or the status of Western Sahara and did so on some occasions. There was political and religious activism on university campuses during the year, which the government generally tolerated. Islamist groups wielded considerable influence on campuses. In some cases they controlled student unions and acted to constrain academic freedom. The MOI approved the appointments of university rectors. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association within the limits provided by law. Although sit-ins, demonstrations, and protests occurred, in practice the government used administrative delays and other methods to suppress or discourage demonstrations. The government also prohibited or failed to recognize associations it deemed unqualified for NGO status. Freedom of Assembly.--The MOI required permission for public assemblies. During the year police forcibly prevented and disrupted some demonstrations and mass gatherings. The media and NGOs made fewer reports of police disrupting peaceful demonstrations in the country, and violent police actions were fewer than in previous years. As in years past, there were violent demonstrations at Caddi Ayyad University in Marrakesh that prompted police to use force (see sections 1.a. and 1.b.). Freedom of Association.--The constitution and the law provide for freedom of association. The government reported that approximately 100,000 NGOs and associations were registered in the country. New organizations are required to register with the MOI. A proposed organization must submit its bylaws to the ministry. If the bylaws support the monarchy, Islam, and territorial integrity, the ministry issues a receipt to the organization that signifies formal approval. The organization may apply for tax exemption and government funding. If the organization does not receive a receipt within one week, it is not formally registered. Many organizations the government chose not to recognize functioned without the receipts, and the government tolerated their activities. Organizations supporting self-determination for Western Sahara were not permitted to register, including ASVDH and the Sahrawi Collective of Human Rights Defenders. Unregistered organizations cannot access government funds or legally accept contributions. ASVDH remained unregistered despite a 2005 Agadir administrative court decision requiring authorities to register it. During the year, authorities continued to monitor JCO activities and, on occasion, disrupted its activities (see section 1.c.). c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion and stipulates that Islam is the official state religion. According to the constitution, the king is the ``Commander of the Faithful and the Supreme Representative of the Muslim community.'' Non- Muslim communities openly practiced their faiths with varying degrees of official restrictions. The law proscribes efforts to proselytize Muslims. Civil law does not prohibit voluntary conversion. In March the government seized Shi'ite tracts and literature from libraries and bookstores throughout the country in a stated effort to stop the spread of politicized Iranian Shi'ism. There were also reports of police questioning hundreds of Shi'a Muslims about their faith and political affiliations. The Ministry of National Education closed a private Iraqi school that had operated in the country for more than 30 years, after allegations that the school was teaching Shi'a principles. School officials denied the accusation. Local media reported continued questioning of Shi'a Muslims in Casablanca throughout April. Authorities claim these actions were in reaction to a politicized Iranian Shi'ism that violates the country's laws against using religion for political purposes. The government also took action against a group that attempted a public protest against a law prohibiting Muslims from eating publicly during daylight in Ramadan. Through coordination on Facebook, the group organized a protest picnic for September 13 near the Casablanca suburb of Mohammedia. Police prevented the picnic from occurring and detained the six main organizers for questioning. Police subsequently released all six and did not file charges against them. The government did not license or approve religions or religious organizations. The government provided tax benefits, land, building grants, subsidies, and customs exemptions for imports necessary for the observance of major religions. The Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs continued to monitor Friday mosque sermons and Koranic schools to ensure the teaching of approved doctrine. During the year, the ministry broadcast approved programs to some of the country's 47,000 mosques via government- provided television sets and satellite dishes. It placed restrictions on individual Muslims and Islamic organizations whose activities were deemed to exceed the bounds of religious practice or to be political in nature. For example, the government closed the Moroccan Society for the Call to Koran and Sunnah, headed by Mohammed Bin Abdulrahman al Maghrawi of Marrakesh, and its affiliated Koranic schools. Magrawi has been living in self-imposed exile in Saudi Arabia since the government tried to prosecute him for issuing a fatwa, or his own Islamic legal interpretation, condoning the marriage of minor girls. In November the Court of Appeals reaffirmed the closure of his schools and organization. In June the ministry announced a new program to train imams in the family code (Moudawana) as well as to reinforce the teachings of the Malikite school of Islamic jurisprudence, which the country follows. The government strictly controlled the construction of new mosques and required a permit for construction. Authorities instituted the measures to avoid exploitation of mosques for political propaganda, such as distributing pamphlets, raising funds, or disseminating extremist ideas. The government generally limited mosque activities to the propagation of Islam, education, and charity. The government did not close any mosques during the year. The small foreign Christian community operated churches, orphanages, hospitals, and schools without restrictions or licensing requirements. Missionaries who conducted themselves in accordance with cultural norms worked largely unhindered, but those who proselytized publicly faced expulsion. The number of local Christians, other than foreign spouses of citizens, was estimated to be between 5,000 and 25,000 persons. The government prohibited distribution of Christian religious materials for the purpose of proselytism, although it allowed the sale of Bibles and tolerated several small religious minorities. In late March, authorities expelled five nonresident women and interrogated 12 others, 11 of whom were citizens, about their participation in a Bible study group in a private apartment in Casablanca. Police entered the apartment without a warrant, claiming a warrant was not necessary under emergency law. The authorities detained the 12 women on March 28 but released them the following morning. The authorities confiscated Bibles, books, cellular phones, and a computer; they reportedly pressured the women to return to Islam, mocked their Christian faith, and questioned why they left Islam. The authorities reportedly accused the foreigners of proselytizing but did not press charges. On May 14, the government reportedly denied entry to two of the nonresident women when they attempted to reenter the country. The government supported and facilitated religious activities of the Jewish community. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of anti- Semitic acts, publications, or incitements to violence. Representatives of the Jewish minority, estimated by community leaders to number 4,000 members, generally lived in safety throughout the country, and the government provided appropriate security. The Jewish community operated schools and hospitals whose services were available to all citizens. There are six Jewish schools in Casablanca, including primary, middle, and high schools. One of the schools, the ``Itihad'' or Alliance school, was primarily for Jewish children but was partially government-funded and included a significant percentage of Muslim students who competed for entrance. Children of prominent citizens and government employees enrolled in the school. There is one Orthodox religious school. The government provided funds for religious instruction to the parallel system of Jewish public schools. Jews continued to hold services in synagogues throughout the country. There are two sets of laws and courts--one for Muslims and one for Jews--pertaining to marriage, inheritance, and family matters. Under the family code, which applies to Muslims, the government began retraining judges and recruiting new civil judges. Rabbinical authorities continued to administer family courts for Jews. There are no separate family courts for other religious groups, which rely upon the civil system. The government continued to encourage tolerance and respect among religions. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation. These rights were generally respected in practice although the government restricted movement in areas regarded as militarily sensitive, including the demilitarized zone in Western Sahara. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The MOI restricted the freedom of civil servants to travel outside the country, including teachers and military personnel. Civil servants and soldiers must obtain written permission from their ministries to leave the country. The law provides for forced exile. On November 13, government authorities in Western Sahara refused to allow Aminatou Haidar, a Sahrawi independence activist, to enter the territory. She returned to Western Sahara on December 18, after spending 34 days in the Canary Islands. (See the Western Sahara report for further details.) The government encouraged the return of Sahrawis if they acknowledged the government's authority over the Western Sahara territory. The government eliminated most previous informal restrictions on the travel of Sahrawis and made travel documents available. There were cases of Sahrawis who were prevented from traveling (see the Western Sahara report). The government welcomed voluntary repatriation of Jews who had emigrated. Jewish emigrants, including those with Israeli citizenship, freely visited the country. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. The government has not yet established a national asylum procedure; it defers to the UNHCR as the sole agency in the country entitled to grant refugee status and verify asylum cases. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Refugees recognized by the UNHCR are not returned under such circumstances, although the government does not process or recognize their asylum claims. In practice this procedure meant they were unable to obtain residence permits that would allow them access to the national health care system and the legal right to work. As of August, the UNHCR reported 746 refugees and 310 asylum seekers. In late July a group of recognized refugees staged a sit-in at the UNHCR's Rabat office, protesting the lack of resettlements to Europe and the United States. A violent confrontation resulted in injuries to the refugees and the police, and five refugees were charged with illegal entry into the country, disturbing the peace, unlawful assembly, assault of security officials, and destruction of private property. They were sentenced to one month in prison and a 500 dirham ($64) fine. During court proceedings they were found not guilty of ``illegal entry'' and were not expelled from the country. There were credible reports of government authorities expelling illegal migrants into the desert along the border with Algeria. NGOs reported that some migrants were left without food and water and consequently died (see section 1.a.). The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported 1,119 cases of migrants' voluntary return to their country of origin during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides for regular, free elections based on universal suffrage, including elections to a bicameral parliament. Citizens elect municipal councils directly; citizens indirectly elect regional councils through representatives. Citizens vote for the legislature from which the government is drawn; therefore, they had an indirect say in choosing parts of the executive branch. Citizens did not have the right to change the monarchical form of government. The king as head of state appoints the prime minister, who is the titular head of government. The constitution authorizes the prime minister to nominate all government ministers, although the king also may nominate ministers and has the power to replace any minister. The government consists of 34 cabinet-level posts, including the prime minister and four sovereign ministerial posts that traditionally report directly to the king (interior, foreign affairs, endowments and Islamic affairs, and defense). The MOI nominates and the king appoints provincial governors (walis) and local city-level administrative governors (caids). The king also appoints the constitutional council that determines whether laws are constitutional. The constitution may not be changed without the king's approval. The constitution provides that neither the monarchical system nor measures related to the practice of Islam may be revised. Only the king has the power to put constitutional amendment proposals to a national referendum. The king or parliament may propose amendments, which must pass both houses with a two-thirds majority. Once a royal decree has been issued, the amendment may be sent to a national referendum; the king has the authority to bypass any national referendum. Elections and Political Participation.--Electoral law and regulation give the MOI authority over elections, from drawing electoral districts to counting votes. Redistricting, which occurs before every nationwide election and addresses population changes, took place before the June local government elections. Districts contained significantly different numbers of voters. In the 2007 legislative elections, the king mandated the royally chartered and appointed CCDH to supervise and facilitate the work of domestic and international observers. In the June communal elections, the CCDH again organized a wide range of domestic observers, and all political parties considered the elections valid. International and domestic observers assessed the voting and noted the government's effective administration of the process. According to the MOI, voter turnout was 52 percent. Independent media made numerous reports alleging preelection vote buying by political parties and some instances of official misconduct at the district level. The CCDH, the government, and observers acknowledged that all parties likely engaged in such misconduct. Domestic observers and some political party leaders recommended the creation of an independent electoral commission. Political parties faced government-imposed restrictions. The MOI must approve political parties, and legislation placed conditions on the establishment and functioning of political parties. The law requires parties to hold annual national congresses and to include women and youth in the leadership structures. Public funding is based on a party's total representation in parliament and the total number of votes it received nationally. Only registered members of a particular party may make private contributions. The MOI can disband a party if it does not conform to the provisions stated in the law. To create a new party, organizers must submit to the MOI a declaration signed by at least 300 cofounding members from at least eight of the 16 regions of the country. In 2007 the government declared the Amazigh Democratic Party illegal on the grounds that it violated a constitutional ban against ethnic political parties. On January 2008 the ban was upheld on appeal. Although there was significant participation by centrist parties such as the Popular Movement that identify themselves as representing Amazigh interests, segments of the Berber political movement felt that their requests for greater cultural, political, and economic autonomy were not given a fair hearing. Prime Minister Abbas El Fassi's 33-member cabinet included three female ministers and two female secretaries of state. There were 34 female members of the 325-member lower house of parliament. There were no women on the Supreme Court. Women's representation in local government and political parties' decision making structures increased during the year. Before the June elections, women held less than 1 percent of elected positions at the local level, and only two women served as mayors. Following an agreement in November 2008 between the government and political parties, a minimum of 12 percent of the local council seats (approximately 3,000 elected positions) were reserved for women. More than 20,000 female candidates ran for office, with 3,421 winning seats (13 percent of the total). Twelve women were selected in subsequent indirect elections to head local councils as mayors or mayor equivalents, including the mayor of Marrakesh. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, but the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials often engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. It was common knowledge that corruption was a serious problem in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The judiciary's lack of independence and susceptibility to influence were widely acknowledged, including by the king. On August 21, the king called for reform of the judicial system including greater independence of the judiciary and prevention of corruption. Since 2007 the law has required judges, ministers, and members of parliament to submit financial disclosures. In late 2008 the government formed the Central Commission for the Prevention of Corruption (ICPC). In July the ICPC released its first report, stating that it had received 21 valid corruption complaints. At year's end, investigations were continuing. Officials attributed the low number of complaints in part to the lack of legislation protecting plaintiffs and witnesses in corruption cases. The commission worked with the MOJ to develop procedures for processing corruption complaints. At year's end, the MOJ had implemented some procedures, and in his speech, the king called for an acceleration of the process. In addition to the commission, the MOJ and the government accountability court had jurisdiction over corruption issues. During 2008 the accountability court conducted 245 audits of national government offices and services and 198 of local authorities. The court's report was generally critical of the level of accountability and corruption in government services. The report levied specific criticism against the health ministry, National Investment and Development Fund, and several local mayors for rampant corruption. The government investigated the mayor of Meknes on charges of mismanaging funds, resulting in his removal from office on January 30. In January authorities arrested 100 officials throughout the country for corruption, malfeasance, or abuse of office. The arrests capped a year-long audit by the MOI's inspector general and the Government Accountability Court. At year's end a total of 117 were charged with corruption. In July the High Judiciary Council, which oversees the disciplining of judges, sanctioned 70 judges on corruption-related charges, according to NGOs. In August the Royal Gendarmerie launched an internal anticorruption awareness campaign and established a unit to track down corrupt agents (see section 1.d.). There is no freedom of information law. In practice the government did not grant access to official information to citizens and noncitizens, including foreign media. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government's attitude toward international human rights organizations varied, depending on the sensitivity of the issues. Domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction (apart from those that favored independence for Western Sahara and some Berber organizations), and they investigated and published findings on human rights cases. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to their views. Domestic and independent human rights NGOs the government recognized included the OMDH and the Moroccan League for the Defense of Human Rights (LMDH). Since 2000 the government has subsidized these two NGOs. However, LMDH, which is a part of the Istiqlal party, was no longer active; OMDH and AMDH were considered the main human rights NGOs. AMDH did not cooperate officially with the government but usually shared information on an informal basis with both the government and government affiliated organizations. The government sometimes met with and responded to inquiries and recommendations of these groups. Other groups that worked with the government to try to improve human rights conditions or investigate alleged abuses included Friends of the Center for Reform and the Protection of Youth, more commonly known as Association Mama Assia, which focused on working with youth in the prison system. The government also cooperated with the Forum for Truth and Justice, OMP, and the local branch of AI. International NGOs such as HRW, Reporters Without Borders, and AI cooperated with the government on several human rights projects and generally reported unrestricted operation. The United Nations Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (UNWGEID) met for its 88th session from June 26 to 28 in Rabat. During its session the working group reviewed 200 cases of enforced disappearances around the world, as well as past cases from 35 countries. The UNWGEID also analyzed the IER, to collect lessons learned for other countries. The last visit by a UN Special Rapporteur took place in 2006 by the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education. A Special Rapporteur visit on adequate housing was pending approval at year's end. The CCDH advised the king on human rights issues. A nonjudicial ombudsman considered allegations of governmental injustices, but in practice the CCDH filled many of the roles of national social ombudsman. Although there was some media criticism of the difficulties the CCDH has faced in implementing the institutional changes recommended by the IER, human rights NGOs and the public generally viewed the organization as a credible and proactive government advocate for institutional protection of human rights and seeking redress in individual cases. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status. In practice societal discrimination against women continued to be a problem, particularly in rural areas. Women.--The law punishes men convicted of rape with prison terms of five to 10 years; when the conviction involves a minor, the prison sentence ranges from 10 to 20 years. Sexual assault can result in a prison sentence of up to one year and a fine of 15,000 dirhams ($1,905). Spousal rape is not a crime. Defendants in rape prosecutions bear the burden of proving their innocence. Sexual assaults often were unreported. Although the law does not provide for it, victims' families may offer rapists marriage as an alternative to preserve family honor. Reports by women's shelters were limited in scope regarding the scale of violence against women and noted the government's failure to implement existing legislation. According to women's rights organizations, a government campaign to prevent violence against women launched in 2006 had little follow-through, and major legal reforms were still needed. The law is lenient toward husbands who commit crimes against their wives. Police rarely became involved in domestic disputes. Women's rights organizations pointed to numerous articles of the law on rape that they see as perpetuating unequal treatment for women and insufficient protection despite family law revisions. A prosecution for statutory rape may be cancelled if the defendant agrees to marry the victim. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence against women, but the general prohibitions of the criminal code address such violence. Physical abuse was legal grounds for divorce, although few women reported abuse to authorities. The government operated hotlines for victims of domestic violence in 20 centers nationwide. In 2007 the Ministry of Social Development, Family, and Social Security recorded 14,617 cases of violence against women, including rape. In addition to the government centers, two NGOs operated counseling centers for legal and social services. The Anaruz Network (31 call-in listening centers) reported 16,527 complaints of physical and sexual violence in 2007. The Democratic League for the Rights of Women (LDDF), with 12 centers, reported 3,569 cases of violence in the same year. Counseling centers exist exclusively in urban areas. Services for victims of violence in rural areas are limited to local police. In February the Union for Women's Action, an NGO working against all forms of discrimination against women, and the Anaruz Network launched a to raise awareness for victims of violence. It took place in 16 municipal districts of Casablanca. Many recognized NGOs worked to advance women's rights and promote women's issues. Among these were the Democratic Association of Moroccan Women, the Union for Women's Action, the Democratic League for the Rights of Women, and the Moroccan Association for Women's Rights. All advocated enhanced political and civil rights. There were numerous NGOs that provided shelters for battered women, promoted literacy, and taught women basic hygiene, family planning, and child care. Prostitution is illegal. Closely linked to tourism and urban migration, it was a growing but not yet pervasive problem. Authorities did not effectively enforce the law. Sexual harassment in the workplace is a criminal offense, but only when committed by a superior, and it is defined as an abuse of authority. Authorities did not effectively enforce the law. According to the government, although the law allows victims to sue employers, few did so out of fear of losing their job or difficulty in proving a case. Women's inheritances, which are determined by Shari'a for Muslims, vary depending on circumstances, but are less than men's. For example, under Shari'a daughters receive half of what their brothers receive, and if a woman is the only child, she receives half and other relatives receive the other half. A sole male heir would receive the entire estate. Inheritance laws were not changed during the 2004 reform of the family code. In 2007 Muslim women gained the right to pass nationality to their children. Previously, nationality was passed only through the father. The change allows children of citizen mothers and noncitizen fathers who are both Muslims to attain Moroccan nationality and access the educational and social benefits available to citizens. Citizenship can only be transferred to a child if both parents are Muslim and if their marriage is recognized by the law. In July 900 women from tribes around the country protested the transfer of and compensation to men only for collectively used tribal lands. The Democratic Association of Moroccan Women reported that local authorities, in agreement with tribal representatives, secretly negotiated to provide compensation to men only, and failed to publish the list of beneficiaries, actions that violated the MOI's 2004 circular regulating the transfer of lands. In November 2008 women of the Saknia tribe in the province of Kenitra were excluded from collectively used lands benefits. On September 25, the eve of the celebration of the National Day of Moroccan Women, the courts and MOI announced that the minister of interior had recognized that the tribal women had the same rights as men to benefit from the cessions of communal lands. The 2004 Moudawana changed the marriage age for women from 15 to 18 years, placed the family under the joint responsibility of both spouses, and rescinded the wife's duty of obedience to her husband. A marital tutor is no longer a requirement for women as a condition of marriage, divorce is available by mutual consent, and limitations are imposed on the practice of polygamy. Implementation of the family law remained a concern because it is largely dependent on the judiciary's ability and willingness to put it into practice. Due to its controversial nature, the law was written to provide broad interpretive latitude to individual judges, not all of whom agreed with its intent. Corruption among working-level clerks in the courts and a lack of knowledge about its provisions among lawyers also constituted obstacles. According to law, contraception is legal, and in practice most forms were widely and freely available. It is government policy that couples be able to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and that they have the information and means to do so free from discrimination. The Ministry of Health ran two programs: one with mobile clinics providing maternal and child health and family planning services in remote rural areas and the other involving systematic home visits to encourage the use of contraception and to provide family planning and primary health care services. Beginning in late 2008, emergency contraception (EC) became available. In practice NGOs report that women often faced obstacles in obtaining EC from pharmacies. Access to contraception and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care were available for women with adequate financial resources. Women and men had equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS. Legally there are few obstacles to women's participation in business and other economic activities. Women are able to travel, receive loans, and start businesses without their husband's or father's permission. According to the Moroccan Association of Women Entrepreneurs, more than 5,000 female entrepreneurs operated businesses in the country's formal economic sectors; in addition, nearly 2.7 million women worked outside the home, although 75 percent of these women worked in the informal sector. Studies showed that inadequate higher education for women was an impediment for female entrepreneurs in the country. Girls continued to lag behind their male counterparts in literacy and school attendance beyond the primary level, and only slightly more than 40 percent of urban women--and 25 percent of rural women--were literate, further hindering their opportunities for economic participation. Children.--Since 2007 the law has permitted female citizens to pass nationality to their children. Previously, nationality was passed only through the father. The constitution provides for compulsory, free, and universal education for children between six and 15 years of age. Although NGOs, human rights groups, media outlets, and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) claimed that child abuse was widespread throughout the country, there were no conclusive government statistics on the extent of the problem. The most reliable recent information was a joint MOJ UNICEF study in 2006 that found that child abuse occurred not only in families, but was also committed by police, schools, employers, and even charitable institutions. Anecdotal evidence also showed that abuse of children serving as domestic servants was a problem. In September the press reported on violence against a minor domestic servant in Oujda. A judge and his wife allegedly tortured and beat Zineb Chetite, their 13-year-old maid, on several occasions. Chetite escaped from her employers' home and went to the police; later she was hospitalized. The attorney general ordered an investigation of the case and arrest of the judge's wife. On October 12, the first instance court in Oujda sentenced the wife to three years in prison and a 100,000 dirham ($12,820) fine. In November media reported that the prosecutor in Oujda ordered an investigation into the involvement of the judge as well. The Ministry of Social Development, Family, and Solidarity launched a decade-long national plan in 2006 to address child abuse that included programs to target the issue of child domestics and street children. The plan called for establishing child protection units in Casablanca, Tangier, Fes, Marrakesh, Agadir, and Laayoune (Western Sahara). The units would coordinate their work and share statistics with other local agencies, monitor child abuse, offer counseling and legal guidance, and promote children's rights. By year's end only the Casablanca unit was operational. The legal age of marriage is 18 years, but parents may secure a waiver from a judge for underage marriage. The LDDF issued a report criticizing the government for the relative ease with which an underage marriage waiver can be obtained. According to the LDDF, the number of requests for minor marriages has increased on average 25 percent per year over the last three years. The report also criticized the judiciary for approving 90 percent of all petitions in 2008, blaming the phenomenon on corruption and the conservative mindset of judges. An NGO reported that in many cases, a couple was already effectively in a marriage by consensus of their families when a request for underage marriage came before a judge for approval. Children were exploited through prostitution within the country and were victims of sex tourism. The government maintained accords with Spain and Italy to repatriate unaccompanied minors, although this did not take place in practice. Repatriation remained slow due to the lack of agreement by local families to allow the minors to return home as well as the small number of spaces in reception centers for minors with no place to return. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons under statutes in the criminal and labor codes; it forbids activities that are normally defined as trafficking crimes. The country does not have a specific antitrafficking law. During the year there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. The country was a source for men, women, and children trafficked to Europe and the Middle East for forced labor and sexual exploitation. The two most commonly trafficked groups were girls sent involuntarily to serve as domestic servants and women forced to perform sexual services. According to UNICEF and national NGOs, recruiters habitually visited isolated rural villages in the Atlas Mountains where they persuaded parents that their daughters would be better off as maids. Women were trafficked to Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and other Persian Gulf countries and forced into prostitution after being promised jobs as domestics. The country was a transit point for trafficked persons. Men and women from sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines were trafficked to Europe or Near Eastern countries. Sub-Saharan Africans transiting the country to Europe were also victims of traffickers. Women were often pressured into commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary servitude in exchange for food and shelter. Most trafficking rings were small criminal groups. Unofficial reports stated that hotel personnel arranged to transport girls and young women from rural areas to cities for commercial sexual exploitation. The government made efforts to prosecute traffickers and trafficking-complicit officials during the year. Penalties prescribed by law for sex trafficking offenses are stringent and commensurate with those for other serious crimes such as rape. During the year, 193 persons were prosecuted for facilitating the prostitution of a minor. During the year, 10 foreigners were prosecuted for homosexual activity, inciting a minor to prostitution, and violent rape of a minor less than 18 years of age. The sentences ranged from two years to one month's imprisonment. From January to September, the government reported dismantling 91 criminal networks involved in smuggling persons and contraband. As the government continued to make no distinction between migrant smuggling and trafficking, it is not clear how many, if any, actually were trafficking rings. Protection of trafficking victims was a problem. Foreign trafficking victims were not properly identified and were often arrested and subject to detention and automatic deportation along with other illegal migrants. There were reliable reports that authorities routinely rounded up illegal sub-Saharan migrants, including victims of trafficking, and abandoned them at the Algerian border, often without food or water. As the government has not provided data regarding these expulsions, the extent of the problem was not known. The government did not offer legal alternatives to the removal of foreign victims of trafficking to countries where they might face hardship or retribution. UNHCR protection was available to trafficked individuals in theory, but the government had no procedures in place to refer trafficked individuals to the UNHCR. The government continued to repatriate illegal migrants. As the government does not differentiate between illegal migrants and trafficking victims, specific trafficking statistics were unavailable. IOM assisted in the voluntary repatriation of 1,119 irregular migrant persons during the year. The government reported that it expelled 8,735 illegal migrants during the year. A working group known as the National Observatory of Migration, consisting of representatives of the Ministries of Interior, Justice, Foreign Affairs, and Social Development was responsible for migration and antitrafficking policies implemented primarily by the MOI. Clandestine migration was under the purview of immigration officials; prostitution was a police issue; and child bride cases were reviewed by local authorities, who ultimately report to MOI. Law enforcement officers participated in training and seminars relating to trafficking. The government has in place agreements with Catalonia (Spain) and Italy to prevent illegal migration of children from the country who are at extremely high risk of being trafficked. The government did not show significant efforts to raise public awareness of the commercial sexual exploitation of children and women in major cities, especially tourist areas, and did not take any reported measures to reduce the demand for commercial sex acts. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides for regulations and building codes that ensure access for persons with disabilities, but the government did not effectively implement the laws and programs. Although building codes require accessibility for all, the codes were rarely enforced, and in many cases, builders and building inspectors were unaware of laws requiring accessibility. The Ministry of Social Development, Family, and Solidarity has responsibility for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities and attempted to integrate persons with disabilities into society by implementing a quota of 7 percent for persons with disabilities in vocational training in the private and public sectors. In 2008 the government created 217 integrated classes for children with disabilities. In practice integration was largely left to private charities. Typically, families supported persons with disabilities. A limited number survived by begging. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The official language is Arabic. Both French and Arabic are used in the news media and educational institutions. Educational reforms in the past decade emphasized the use of Arabic in secondary schools. Approximately 60 percent of the population claimed Amazigh heritage, including the royal family. Amazigh cultural groups contended that their traditions and language were being lost rapidly to Arabization. The government provided television programs in the three Berber dialects of Tarifit, Tashelhit, and Tamazight (the dialect spoken by the Amazigh Berbers). The government also offered Berber language classes in the curriculum of some 3,470 schools; the language offered varied according to the main dialect spoken in each region. Programs in one of the three Berber dialects were increasingly available on both radio and television. The government also implemented compulsory Berber instruction for students at the MOI's School for Administrators in Kenitra. Although the country is majority Amazigh, rural areas that are predominantly Amazigh are the poorest in the country. Illiteracy in some areas runs as high as 80 percent, and authorities often do not provide basic governmental services. The Amazigh political and cultural movement also demanded that Berber be made an official language on par with Arabic and French. Some members of the Amazigh community have described difficulty registering traditional names of children with authorities, who declined to recognize non-Arab names. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The penal code criminalizes homosexual activity, but these provisions were infrequently enforced. Homosexual conduct was addressed in the media and in public with more openness than in previous years. There were no reports of societal violence based on sexual orientation. Authorities near Meknes detained 17 men suspected of homosexual activity and male prostitution during a Sufi festival on March 10. Eight of the men were detained and charged under the penal code with ``attacks against the kingdom's moral foundations,'' which may carry a penalty of as long as three years in prison and a fine of 1,200 dirhams ($150). All those charged have been released. On March 15, a judge sentenced two men in Agadir to 10 months in prison on sodomy and prostitution charges. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--The number of AIDS cases continued to increase. According to ministry of health statistics, the number of HIV-positive persons in March was estimated at 22,700. Youth and young adults remained the most vulnerable segment; 68 percent of AIDS victims were 15 to 39 years old, and 74 percent of transmission derived from heterosexual sexual activity. Of all AIDS patients, 84 percent resided in urban areas and were lower-income. The number of AIDS cases in the coastal city of Agadir tripled in recent years due to sex tourism. The number of sexually transmitted infections was also increasing; there were nearly 400,000 in 2004 compared with 100,000 in 1993. There was a stigma attached to being tested for HIV/ AIDS. Persons living with HIV/AIDS in the country faced discrimination and had limited treatment options. The government worked with the UN to set up reproduction and sexual education programs in schools for children as young as 10 years of age. The government sponsored television and radio messages that warn about HIV. In the country's state-controlled mosques, imams promoted contraception. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The constitution permits workers to form and join trade unions. In practice the laws were not implemented in some sectors as well as in some geographic areas. The law provides workers with the right to strike except for certain categories of government employees, including members of the armed forces, police, and judiciary. Domestic and agricultural workers are not covered by the labor code and do not have the right to form unions. Although most union federations were allied with political parties, unions were free from government interference. Approximately 5.5 percent of the country's workers were organized into unions. Any group of eight workers may organize a union, and a worker may change union affiliation easily. On January 27, workers at a packing station in Biougara near Agadir owned by SOPROFEL, a private agricultural company, went on strike to protest the company's alleged failures to pay the minimum wage, social security benefits as mandated by law, and overtime wages. The union CDT also demanded the rehiring of workers fired for union activity. According to union sources, a gang of approximately 30 non-SOPROFEL workers wielding clubs attacked the protesters, injuring numerous workers, three of them severely. Security forces arrested 12 workers, and a judge sentenced eight of them to prison sentences of one to two months. There were no arrests or convictions of the strike breakers. According to NGO reports, during a September 2 rally by Zitrap City Transportation workers, Agadir police intervened, beat workers, and confiscated cameras. Five workers were seriously injured. The law provides for government intervention in strikes when national security, domestic stability, or vital economic interests are threatened. Employers cannot initiate criminal prosecutions against workers for participating in strikes. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports that union officers were subjects of government pressure. The law requires compulsory arbitration of disputes, prohibits sit- ins, calls for a 10-day notice of a strike, and allows for hiring replacement workers. The government can intervene in strikes, and a strike cannot take place around issues covered in a collective contract for one year after the contract comes into force. The government has the authority to break up demonstrations in public areas where strikes have not been authorized and to prevent the unauthorized occupancy of private space. Unions may not prevent nonstrikers from working and may not engage in sabotage. Any striking employee who prevents a replacement worker from working is subject to a seven-day suspension. A second offense within one year is punishable by a 15-day suspension. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The right to organize and bargain collectively is protected by law, and the government generally upheld this right. Fewer than 6 percent, or 600,000, of the 11.3 million-strong workforce, belonged to a union. A worksite may contain several independent locals or locals affiliated with more than one labor federation. Only unions that have 35 percent of the workforce as members may be recognized as negotiating partners. Collective bargaining was prevalent in many sectors of the economy. According to the labor code, the wages and employment conditions of unionized workers should be agreed in discussions between employer and worker representatives; however, frequently employers unilaterally set wages for the majority of unionized and nonunionized workers. Labor disputes arose in some cases as the result of employers failing to implement collective bargaining agreements and withholding wages. Employers wishing to dismiss workers are legally required to notify the provincial governor through the labor inspector's office. When the employer plans to replace dismissed workers, a government labor inspector provides replacements and mediates the cases of workers who protest their dismissal. The law specifically prohibits antiunion discrimination and prohibits companies from dismissing workers for participating in legitimate union-organizing activities; the law was followed in practice. Family courts have the authority to reinstate arbitrarily dismissed workers and can enforce rulings that compel employers to pay damages and back pay. Unions may sue to ensure that the government enforces labor laws, and employers may sue unions when they believe unions have overstepped their authority. There are no special laws or exemptions from standard labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced, compulsory, and clandestine labor, but there were reports that such practices occurred. Child and forced labor were especially common in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Young girls often worked in urban areas as domestic servants. In practice the government did not inspect the small workshops and private homes where the majority of such employment occurred. Forced labor persisted in the practice of adoptive servitude in households. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law protects children from exploitation in the workplace and prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, the government did not effectively implement these laws, except in organized labor markets. According to government statistics, during the first half of the year, 94 inspections led to citations being issued for 39 instances of employment of children younger than 15. A total of 184 site visits and 616 investigations uncovered 19 cases of children between the ages of 15 and 18 being employed. The inspection visits found that most child laborers worked in the sectors of carpentry and forestry (23 percent), mechanical (19 percent), and construction (12 percent). Noncompliance with child labor laws was common, particularly in agriculture. In 2006 domestic and international NGOs reported that as many as 87 percent of the country's underage workers worked on family farms. According to the labor law, the minimum age for employment in all sectors is 15 years. Children younger than six years of age are prohibited from working more than 10 hours per day, with a break of at least one hour. Children younger than 16 are not permitted to work between the hours of 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. in nonagricultural work or between 8 p.m. and 5 a.m. in agriculture. The law prohibits employment of children younger than 18 in stone quarries, mines, or any other positions the government considers hazardous. In practice children were apprenticed before age 12, particularly in small family-run workshops in the handicraft industry. Children also worked in the informal sector in textiles, carpets, and light manufacturing. Children's safety and health conditions and wages were often substandard. The labor code does not cover domestic labor and, therefore, does not prohibit the employment of child maids. NGOs estimated that, at year's end, 66,000 to 88,000 children worked illegally as domestic servants, many of them young girls. Credible reports of physical and psychological abuse of domestic servants were common. Some orphanages were accused of complicity in the practice. The public generally accepted the concept of adoptive servitude, and parents of children involved were frequently complicit and typically received compensation for their children's work. Most child domestics received food, lodging, and clothing instead of monetary payment. Children were also ``rented'' to street businessmen by their parents or other relatives to beg. Parents received a fee for the use of their children, and the person ``renting'' the child kept a portion of the day's income from the child's begging. The government put in place programs to combat and discourage these practices. The Ministry of Employment is responsible for implementing and enforcing child labor laws and regulations. The law provides for legal sanctions against employers who recruit children under the age of 15, with fines ranging from 27,000 to 32,000 dirhams ($3,250 to $3,900). Legal remedies to enforce child labor laws include criminal penalties, civil fines, and withdrawal or suspension of one or more civil, national, or family rights, including denial of legal residence in the country for five to 10 years. The formal and informal sectors continued to flout the application of the legal minimum employment age. According to MOJ officials, no one has been convicted for employing a child domestic. Labor inspectors responsible for enforcing the labor code do not have jurisdiction to inspect private residences. The Ministry of Social Development, Family, and Solidarity has proposed legislation that would substantially increase the fines for employing a child domestic and provide an enforcement mechanism. The informal sector, where the majority of children work, was not monitored by the Ministry of Labor's small cadre of labor inspectors. There were no labor inspectors dedicated solely to child labor issues. According to reports, police, prosecutors, and judges rarely enforced legal provisions on child abuse or on ``forced labor in cases involving child domestics,'' and few parents of children working as domestics were willing or able to pursue legal avenues that were likely to provide any direct benefit. Under the 2006-15 National Plan of Action for Children, the government expanded coordination with local, national, and international NGOs on education and training programs during the year. The Ministry of Employment and Professional Training, led by the Office of the Director of Work, in conjunction with NGOs, oversaw programs to deal with the issue of child labor. The programs sought to decrease incidents of child labor through awareness raising, financial assistance to needy families, and lowering obstacles to school attendance. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The minimum wage was 10 dirhams ($1.25) per hour in the industrialized sector and 52.50 dirhams ($6.50) per day for agricultural workers. Informal businesses hired approximately 60 percent of the labor force and often ignored the minimum wage requirements. Neither minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family, even with government subsidies. In many cases several family members combined their incomes to support the family. Most workers in the industrial sector earned more than the minimum wage. Including traditional holiday-related bonuses, workers generally were paid the equivalent of 13 to 16 months' salary each year. The law provides for a 44- to 48-hour maximum workweek, with no more than 10 hours in any single day, premium pay for overtime, paid public and annual holidays, and minimum conditions for health and safety, including a prohibition on night work for women and minors. Employers did not observe these provisions universally, and the government did not enforce them effectively in all sectors. The labor code does not cover domestic workers. Occupational health and safety standards were rudimentary, except for a prohibition on the employment of women and children in certain dangerous occupations. Labor inspectors attempted to monitor working conditions and investigate accidents, but they were too few in number and lacked sufficient resources. Although workers in principle had the right to remove themselves from work situations that endangered health and safety without jeopardizing their continued employment, there were no reports of workers attempting to exercise this right. __________ WESTERN SAHARA Morocco claims the Western Sahara territory and administers Moroccan law through Moroccan institutions in the estimated 85 percent of the territory it controls. However, Morocco and the Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario), an organization that has sought independence for the formerly Spanish territory since 1973, disputes Morocco's sovereignty. The population of the territory was approximately 405,000, an estimated 100,000 of whom were attributable to Moroccan in-migration. The Moroccan government sent troops and settlers into the northern two provinces after Spain withdrew in 1975 and extended its administration over the third province after Mauritania renounced its claim in 1979. Moroccan and Polisario forces fought intermittently from 1975 until a 1991 ceasefire and the deployment of a UN peacekeeping contingent, the UN Mission for a Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), whose mandate does not include human rights monitoring. Sahrawis, literally ``people of the desert'' in Arabic, live in the south of internationally recognized Morocco, in the territory controlled by Morocco (``Western Sahara''), in Algeria, and to a lesser extent in Mauritania. In the late 1980s, Morocco constructed a 1,250- mile stone and sand wall known as the ``berm'' that marks the effective limit of Moroccan administrative control. In 1988 Morocco and the Polisario agreed to settle the dispute over sovereignty by referendum. The parties did not resolve disagreements over voter eligibility and which options for self-determination (integration, independence, or something in between) should be on the ballot; consequently, a referendum never took place. Over the years there have been several attempts to broker a solution. In 2007 the first face-to-face negotiations between representatives of the Moroccan government and the Polisario began under UN auspices. Morocco proposed autonomy for the territory within the kingdom; the Polisario proposed a referendum in which full independence would be an option. On April 30, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1871 extending MINURSO's mandate until April 2010. The resolution also called on member states to consider voluntary contributions to confidence building measures carried out under the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that allowed increased contact between family members separated by the dispute. After four meetings in 2007 and 2008 produced little progress, both sides participated in an informal August 10 and 11 meeting under the auspices of Personal Envoy of the UN Secretary General for Western Sahara Christopher Ross and agreed to reinvigorate negotiations. Morocco considers the part of the territory that it administers to be an integral part of the kingdom with the same laws and structures conditioning the exercise of civil liberties and political rights. Accordingly, ultimate authority rests, de facto, with King Mohammed VI, and human rights conditions in the territory tended to converge with those in the kingdom. There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings or politically motivated disappearances. On December 1, the Moroccan authorities reported that an investigation had shown that the killing of the two illegal Senegalese migrants in 2007 had been the result of a confrontation with gendarmes and the case had been referred to a military court. The military court determined the officers' actions were in self-defense and closed the case. The court ordered that gendarmes receive extra training on the use of deadly force. The government inquiry into an alleged mass gravesite discovered in May 2008 at a former military barracks in Smara, undertaken by the Laayoune Court of Appeal, found no human remains. Media reports and the governmental Consultative Council for Human Rights (CCDH) confirmed this finding and expressed satisfaction with closing the case. At year's end the government, in cooperation with the CCDH, continued to investigate an alleged mass gravesite discovered at the Laayoune Prison in 2007. As it has done since 2000, the CCDH paid reparations during the year to Sahrawis or family members of those Sahrawis who had disappeared or been detained during the 1970s and 1980s. By year's end the government had settled most individual reparation claims, and the CCDH shifted its focus to community reparation projects. There were credible reports that security forces sometimes engaged in torture, beatings, and other mistreatment of detainees. Although the CCDH reported that security forces engaged in serious abuses such as these less frequently than in previous years, Human Rights Watch (HRW), Amnesty International (AI) and local NGOs continued to report abuse, especially of Sahrawi independence advocates. For example, on February 23, the unrecognized nongovernmental organization (NGO) Sahrawi Association of Victims of Grave Violations of Human Rights (ASVDH) reported that two police officers detained, beat, and sodomized a female independence activist and interrogated her about her political activities and those of her family members. The activist filed a complaint. Although officials at the Ministry of Interior (MOI) denied that the officers beat and raped the activist, the Ministry of Justice opened an investigation that was ongoing at year's end. On August 27, human rights advocates reported that police officers detained a well-known human rights activist in Laayoune. The victim alleged that police stripped her while questioning her about her political views and threatened to post a video of the proceedings on the video-sharing Web site YouTube if she continued her political activities. They also allegedly threatened her with death. After interrogating her for five hours, police left her naked on the outskirts of Laayoune. According to ASVDH, the victim filed a complaint. Authorities had not begun an investigation at year's end. On September 2, according to ASVDH, two police officers detained human rights and proindependence activist Chamad Marzouk. The officers allegedly blindfolded Marzouk, stripped him, handcuffed him, and beat him before releasing him later that night. The officers reportedly questioned Marzouk about his relationship with certain human rights activists and about the details of his planned trip to the United Kingdom. Marzouk filed a complaint on September 24; however, authorities had not begun an investigation by year's end. On May 15, the appeal court in Agadir upheld a 15-year prison sentence given to Sahrawi activist Yahya Mohamed El Hafed, convicted of killing a security officer in a 2008 trial. The court also sentenced seven other activists to as long as eight years in prison. According to AI, all of the defendants claimed security officials tortured them to extract confessions that the court later used as evidence at trial. The activists claimed that prison officials beat them, hung them by their legs, and subjected them to sleep deprivation. Police impunity remained a problem. According to local NGOs such as ASVDH and the Sahwari Collective of Human Rights Defenders (CODESA), the number of complaints against police filed by persons who claimed to be victims of human rights abuses declined during the year compared to 2008. However, NGOs alleged that a number of complaints cited the same police officers for abuses more than once. According to HRW and ASVDH, authorities dismissed nearly all complaints without collecting evidence beyond the police version of events. There was no report at year's end that the government began an investigation into the May 2008 case of Hamoud Iguilid, who had filed a complaint with judicial authorities claiming that police detained and verbally abused him. According to NGO reports, there was no investigation into the June 2008 use of police force to disperse gatherings celebrating the release of human rights activist Brahim Sabbar from prison. The government took some steps during the year to reduce police impunity. It provided training, including a human rights component, to security personnel in the territory. The government also reported that it prosecuted 282 security officials in Morocco and the territory for various crimes ranging from petty bribery to ``assault and battery leading to death.'' The government reported that some of these prosecutions involved officers who committed crimes in the territory; however, the exact number was uncertain because the government did not disaggregate the data by region. Past practice has often left alleged abusers in leadership positions or transferred them. A delegation of EU parliamentarians visited Laayoune from January 27 to 28 and Tindouf from February 23 to 26. The government allowed the delegation to meet with all the organizations and individuals they requested, but maintained obvious police surveillance. Activists reported that police harassed them in Laayoune on the way to and from sessions with the delegation as well as days before and after the meetings. The police arrested and detained one person, beat another, and seized activists' electronic equipment. During the year, allegations of abuse and substandard prison conditions persisted. Government policy permits NGOs that provide social or religious services to prisoners to enter prison facilities, but does not permit NGOs that solely have a human rights mission to do so except when authorized, and no authorization was given during the year. The Moroccan Observatory of Prisons (OMP) and members of the CCDH made at least 11 prison visits and filed complaints with government authorities of substandard conditions or abuses of detainees. The OMP stated that overcrowding in prisons remained a problem. Some human rights activists and NGOs charged that the government had reduced overcrowding by transferring politically active prisoners to facilities in Morocco as a punishment for activism. The government stated that while some transfers to Morocco took place, the transfers were for administrative reasons and the purpose was to improve conditions. Human rights and proindependence activists claimed that authorities arrested them for their political activities but charged them with drug or other criminal offenses. They also claimed that in cases where torture was alleged, courts often refused to order medical examinations or to take into account the results of such examinations, despite laws requiring investigation into such allegations of abuse for any individual facing prosecution who requests it. The government reported that the public prosecutor ordered six medical examinations and judges ordered 21 medical examinations, in accordance with the law. Students supporting independence were reportedly detained and mistreated. Activists stated that authorities regularly took them into custody, beat them, and released them within 24 hours without formal arrest or charge. In September, according to the unregistered NGOs ASVDH and CODESA, police intervened with excessive force in a few unauthorized demonstrations in Laayoune, Smara and Dakhla. During a demonstration in Laayoune, the NGOs accused police of throwing demonstrator Mohamed Berkan from a window. The government charged Berkan with throwing Molotov cocktails at police and participating in an unauthorized demonstration. A court sentenced him to one year in prison and a 200 dirham ($25) fine. The government maintained the right, under the constitution, to restrict freedom of speech and press in cases involving the monarchy, Islam, or the territorial integrity of Morocco (see country report on Morocco). During the year there were credible reports that government authorities prevented some foreign journalists from meeting with proindependence activists. There were no cases of government attempts to repress journalists or bloggers. The media engaged in self- censorship, and no views appeared in the media supporting either independence or a referendum that included independence as an option. Moroccan and international media, as well as satellite television, were available in the territory. According to the OpenNet Initiative, Internet access in the territory was generally open and unrestricted. A small number of blogs and ``anonymizers'' were blocked. ASVDH and CODESA stated that in recent years they have applied less frequently for legal permits to engage in sit-ins and demonstrations because police rarely granted the permits. In addition to these limitations, the organizations reported that holding organized demonstrations became more difficult because police increasingly harassed them following the king's November 6 speech, in which he announced a policy of decreased tolerance for individuals who held proindependence views. Numerous spontaneous demonstrations erupted on December 18, when CODESA president and prominent proindependence and human rights activist Aminatou Haidar returned from 34 days of exile in Spain. The demonstrations took place peacefully and security forces did not attempt to limit them. Authorities began to place limitations on gatherings the following week, especially after some demonstrators arrived at Haidar's home carrying Polisario flags. The government enforced strict procedures governing the ability of NGOs and activists to meet with journalists. Although foreign journalists needed prior official approval before meeting with proindependence NGOs, authorities did not always enforce the requirement prior to the king's November 6 speech. As in previous years, the government did not allow CODESA or ASVDH to register as official NGOs, limiting their ability to raise funds domestically and internationally and to secure space for public meetings. At year's end, CODESA reported that local authorities had not acknowledged its most recent application, which it submitted in 2008 by registered mail. The leadership of ASVDH reported that in 2005 an Agadir administrative court had found in its favor and ordered the government to register it, but by year's end the government had not done so. The Moroccan government and the Polisario continued to accuse one another of withholding information regarding approximately 150 Algerians and Polisario supporters (including 58 soldiers) and 213 Moroccans, who remained missing because of the war from 1975 to 1991. Both sides denied that any former combatants remained in detention. Corruption by security forces and judicial officials was a problem. The laws and restrictions regarding religious organizations and religious freedom in the territory are the same as those in Morocco. The constitution provides that Islam is the state religion, and that the state provides the freedom to practice one's religion. HRW and ASVDH reported instances of authorities preventing foreign persons from meeting with proindependence activists. For example, on November 12, Luis Mangrane Cuevas, a lawyer representing the General Council of the Spanish Bar Associations, attempted to visit Sultana Khaya, vice president of the Forum for the Future of Sahrawi Women, at her home in Boujdour. Mangrane had gone to the region to observe the trial of Sahrawi activist Hassana Alouate. Police intercepted him near Khaya's house and notified him that he would not be permitted to enter. The government restricted the freedom to travel abroad and return of some Sahrawi activists and others opposed to the government's Sahara policy. On August 5, authorities prevented six Sahrawis from leaving the country to attend a two-week workshop in the United Kingdom regarding the future of Western Sahara. The police stopped the six from boarding their flight in Agadir and took them to Laayoune, where authorities questioned and released them without charge, according to NGO reports. On October 8, authorities detained seven Sahrawi activists: Ahmed Alansari, Brahim Dahane, Yahdih Ettarouzi, Saleh Labihi, Dakja Lashgar, Rachid Sghir, and Ali Salem Tamek. The group, which included representatives of the Moroccan Association for Human Rights, ASVDH and CODESA, visited Algiers and the refugee camps near Tindouf from September 26 to October 8 to observe conditions, according to human rights NGOs. Moroccan officials charged the seven with ``intelligence cooperation with a foreign entity'' and sent the case to a military tribunal in Sale in accordance with a Moroccan law that requires that a military court hear cases involving intelligence charges. Human rights NGOs claimed the charges were politically motivated. The detainees' family members also reported to ASVDH that prison officials initially limited the detainees' access to attorneys and family members and placed Lashgar in solitary confinement. However, by late December, families reported that the government allowed them increased access to the detainees. The detainees awaited trial at year's end. On November 13, Moroccan authorities refused to allow prominent Sahrawi independence and human rights activist Aminatou Haidar entry at the Laayoune International Airport, claiming she stated her nationality as ``Sahrawi'' and her country of residence as ``Western Sahara.'' Authorities confiscated her passport after she initiated the process of renouncing Moroccan citizenship and instructed the airline to return her to the Canary Islands. For 34 days, the government refused to allow Haidar to return to the territory, despite repeated requests from the Spanish government and international pressure prompted in part by Haidar's decision to engage in a hunger strike. Government officials repeatedly stated in public that the government would return Haidar's passport and allow her to enter the country only if she met certain conditions, including a formal apology and a public declaration acknowledging her Moroccan citizenship. After Haidar's health worsened, the government allowed her to return on December 18 without meeting these conditions. Since 1977 the inhabitants of the Western Saharan provinces of Laayoune, Smara, Awsard and Boujdour and, since 1983, Oued Ed-Dahab have participated in Moroccan national and regional elections. In the June 12 communal elections, only Sahrawis with pro-Moroccan political views were candidates. Turnout exceeded 70 percent of registered voters. Domestic observers leveled accusations of corruption, principally vote buying, in some races. Relatively little information was available on discrimination in the territory. In traditional tribal Sahrawi society, women participated more actively in political and economic activities than was common among some other North African ethnic groups. Most Sahrawis in the territory lived in urban or semi-urban environments, and discrimination in those circumstances paralleled the situation in Morocco proper. In the June 12 communal elections, women won 13 percent of seats due partly to the implementation of the same new quota system used in the internationally recognized part of Morocco, which required all political parties to include at least 12 percent women on their party slates. The Moroccan penal code is in effect and provides for the imposition of stiff fines and prison terms for individuals involved in or failing to prevent trafficking in persons. The territory was a transit region for traffickers of persons. The labor code applied in the Moroccan-controlled areas of the territory. Moroccan unions were present in those areas but were not active. The largest trade confederations are nominally represented in Laayoune and Dhakla. These include the Moroccan Union of Labor, the Democratic Confederation of Labor, and the National Union of Moroccan Workers. There were no known strikes, other job actions, or collective bargaining agreements during the year. Most union members were employees of the Moroccan government or state-owned organizations. Unions were also active in the phosphate and fishing industries. Wage- sector workers in the territory typically earned as much as 85 percent more than their counterparts in Morocco as an inducement to relocate to the territory. The government exempted workers from income and value- added taxes. The labor code prohibited forced or bonded labor, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. Regulations on the minimum age of employment were the same as in Morocco. There were no substantiated reports regarding child labor in the formal wage sector. There were anecdotal reports of children working in family-owned businesses or the agricultural sector. The minimum wage and maximum hours of work in the territory were identical to those in Morocco. In practice, during peak periods workers in fish processing plants worked as many as 12 hours per day, six days per week during peak periods. Occupational health and safety standards were the same in Morocco and enforcement was rudimentary, except for a prohibition on the employment of women in dangerous occupations. __________ OMAN The Sultanate of Oman is a hereditary monarchy with a population of 3.3 million, including approximately one million nonnationals. Sultan Qaboos Al Bu Sa'id has ruled since 1970. The sultan has the sole authority to amend the country's laws through royal decree, although ministries draft laws and citizens provide input through the 84-member Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Council), an elected advisory institution. In 2007 approximately 245,000 registered voters participated in generally free and fair elections for all of the council's seats. The sultan appoints the 71-member Majlis al Dawla (State Council); it and the Majlis al Shura review legislation, recommend policy, and conduct studies on public policy. The 32-member cabinet of ministers advises the sultan on government decisions. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of security forces. Citizens did not have the right to change their government; however, operating under a system of rule of law based on the Basic Law of 1996, the government generally respected the human rights of its citizens. The government placed some restrictions on privacy and freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, and religion. Instances of discrimination and domestic violence toward women were reported. There were also isolated reports some employers placed expatriate laborers in situations indicative of forced labor or abuse. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and there were no reports government officials employed them. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, and the government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The Royal Office, part of the cabinet, controls internal and external security and coordinates all intelligence and security policies. Under the Royal Office, the Internal Security Service investigates all matters related to internal security, and the Sultan's Special Force has limited border security and antismuggling responsibility. The Royal Oman Police (ROP), also part of the cabinet, performs regular police duties, provides security at points of entry, serves as the country's immigration and customs agency, and operates the coast guard. The Ministry of Defense, and in particular the Royal Army of Oman, is responsible for securing the borders and has limited domestic security responsibilities. The security forces performed their duties effectively. There were isolated reports of corruption during the year. The ROP's Directorate General of Inquiries and Criminal Investigation is charged with investigating allegations of police abuse and turns its findings over to the Directorate General of Human Resources for disciplinary action. There was no public information about ROP internal disciplinary action. Officers received human rights training as part of the police academy's standard training program. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law does not require police to obtain a warrant before making an arrest. The law provides that within 48 hours of arrest, police must either release the accused or refer the matter to the public prosecutor. Within 24 hours, the public prosecutor must formally arrest or release the person. Authorities respected these rights in practice. Detainees were generally informed promptly of the charges against them. The state provided public attorneys to indigent detainees. Authorities must obtain court orders to hold suspects in pretrial detention. Judges may order detentions for 14 days to allow investigation and may grant extensions. There was a functioning system of bail. Detainees generally had prompt access to a lawyer of their choice. Police sometimes failed to notify a detainee's family, or the detainee's sponsor in the case of an expatriate laborer, of the detention. There were isolated reports authorities detained without charge foreign workers suspected of being in the country illegally, pending confirmation of their immigration status. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the sultan may act as a court of final appeal and exercise his power of pardon as chairman of the Supreme Judicial Council, the country's highest legal body, which is empowered to review all judicial decisions. The Ministry of Justice administers all courts. The magistrate court system is composed of courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. There are 42 courts of first instance throughout the sultanate to hear civil, criminal, commercial, labor, and personal status cases. One judge presides over each court of first instance. There are six courts of appeal, each with a panel of three appointed judges. The Supreme Court, comprising five judges, standardizes legal principles, reviews decisions of lower courts, and monitors judges in their application and interpretation of the law. The sultan can pardon or reduce sentences but cannot overturn a Supreme Court verdict. The Supreme Judicial Council can hear appeals beyond the Supreme Court. Members of the Supreme Judicial Council included the president of the Supreme Court, the minister of justice, the public prosecutor, and the ROP inspector general. Principles of Shari'a inform the civil, commercial, and criminal codes. Laws governing family and personal status are based on the government's interpretation of Shari'a. The Administrative Court, under the authority of the Diwan of the Royal Court, reviews complaints about the misuse of governmental authority. It has the power to reverse decisions by government bodies and to award compensation. Appointments to this court are subject to the approval of the Administrative Affairs Council. The court's president and deputy president are appointed by royal decree based on the council's nomination. The State Security Court tries cases involving national security and criminal matters requiring expeditious or especially sensitive handling. The security court procedures mirror those applicable elsewhere in the criminal system. The sultan may exercise his powers to extend leniency, including cases involving state security. Military and security personnel are subject to a military tribunal system of justice with limited outside visibility or access. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and the judiciary generally enforced this right for all citizens. The law also provides for the presumption of innocence. There is no jury trial. Citizens and legally resident noncitizens have the right to a public trial, except when the court decides to hold a session in private in the interest of public order or morals. Defendants have the right to be present, to consult with an attorney in a timely manner, and to present evidence and confront witnesses. The prosecution and defense counsel direct questions to witnesses through the judge. Defendants and their lawyers generally had access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Courts provide public attorneys to indigent detainees and offer legal defense for defendants facing prison terms of three years or more. Those convicted in any court may appeal a jail sentence longer than three months and fines of more than 480 rials (approximately $1,250). Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Applicable civil procedure codes govern civil cases. Citizens and nationals of other countries were able to file cases in the courts. There were instances in which courts ruled in favor of foreign domestic servants against their sponsors, requiring sponsors to return the workers' passports and allow them to break the employment contract. In some instances, the court issued orders to apprehend the sponsor and force his or her appearance before the court. Citizens and foreign workers can lodge complaints regarding working conditions with the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) for administrative redress. The MOM may refer cases to the courts if the ministry is unable to negotiate a solution. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law provides for broad governmental discretion, which the government exercised in practice. The law does not require police to obtain search warrants before entering homes, although police often obtained warrants from the public prosecutor's office. The government monitored private communications, including cell phones, e-mail, and Internet chat room exchanges. The Ministry of Interior (MOI) required citizens to obtain permission to marry foreigners, except nationals of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries; permission was not granted automatically. Citizen marriage to a foreigner abroad without MOI approval may cause the foreign spouse to be denied entry into the country and prevent a legitimate child from claiming citizenship rights. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The law provides for limited freedom of speech and of the press. The government generally abridged these rights in practice. Journalists and writers exercised self- censorship. The law prohibits criticism of the sultan in any form or medium; ``material that leads to public discord, violates the security of the state, or abuses a person's dignity or his rights''; ``messages of any form that violate public order and morals or are harmful to a person's safety''; and ``defamation of character.'' Courts have interpreted these laws to mean it is illegal to insult any public official. There are seven privately owned newspapers in the country, four in Arabic and three in English. Editorials generally were consistent with the government's views, although authorities tolerated limited criticism regarding domestic and foreign affairs, including GCC policies, which the country participated in determining. In addition, there were two state-owned newspapers and more than 30 state-owned and privately owned magazines in circulation. The government owned four radio stations and two television stations and licensed one privately owned satellite-based television station, none of which generally broadcast politically controversial material. There were three private radio stations broadcasting occasional news bulletins supplied by the state-owned Oman News Agency. Access to foreign broadcasts via satellite is permitted and was widespread. There was no permanent international media presence in the country. Occasional international reporting tended to focus on special events or human interest stories. The MOI reviewed all media products produced in or imported into the country and prohibited or censored material viewed as politically, culturally, or sexually offensive from all domestic and imported publications. All content in both public and private print outlets was subject to an official, nontransparent review and approval process before publication. Unlike previous years, there were no reports of media companies refusing to publish articles by journalists who had previously criticized the government. Authorities tolerated a limited degree of criticism of policies, government officials, and agencies, particularly via the Internet. Such criticism rarely appeared in traditional mass media. The government used libel laws and concerns for national security as grounds to suppress criticism of government figures and politically objectionable views. There were no major publishing houses in the country and limited publication of books. The government restricted the importation, distribution, and publication of books as it did other media products. Internet Freedom.--The law restricted free speech via the Internet, and the government enforced the restrictions. The government's national telecommunications company made Internet access available for a fee to citizens and foreign residents. Despite infrastructure increases, less than 5 percent of the population had subscription Internet access at year's end. Internet access was available via schools, workplaces, wide area networks at coffee shops, and other venues, especially in urban areas, and approximately 20 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet, according to 2008 International Telecommunication Union statistics. The government's telecommunications company restricted access to numerous Web sites considered pornographic, culturally or politically sensitive, or competitive with local telecommunications services. The criteria for blocking Internet sites were not transparent. The government placed warnings on other Web sites that criticism of the sultan or personal criticism of government officials would be censored and could lead to police questioning, effectively increasing self- censorship. The government also monitored Internet communications and reportedly questioned some chat room contributors who were critical of government officials or policies, or whose postings precipitated criticism, after identifying the contributors through their Internet service provider addresses. There were reports Web site administrators removed chat room or blog postings, but it was unclear whether such censorship was self-imposed or in response to government requests. During the year several Web sites were rigorously cautious concerning content, and moderators reportedly were quick to delete potentially offensive material. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government limited academic freedom, particularly publishing on or discussing controversial matters such as domestic politics, through the threat of dismissal. Academics largely practiced self-censorship. There were no reported cases during the year in which the government dismissed an academic on these grounds. The appropriate government authority must approve all public cultural events. There were indications organizations avoided controversial issues due to the belief authorities might not approve such events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for circumscribed freedom of assembly, and the government restricted the exercise of this right in practice. Prior government approval was necessary for all public gatherings. Authorities enforced this requirement, with rare exceptions. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association ``for legitimate objectives and in a proper manner.'' The Council of Ministers approves the establishment of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)--officially recognized as associations--to work on a set of acceptable issues, including women, children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, the environment, and others approved by the council. The council limited freedom of association in practice by prohibiting associations whose activities were deemed ``inimical to the social order'' or otherwise not appropriate and did not license groups regarded as a threat to the predominant social and political views or the interests of the country. Associations must also register with the Ministry of Social Development (MoSD), which approves association bylaws. The average time required to receive approval and register an association was approximately two years, although the process could be as short as two months. Approval time varied based on the level of preparedness of the applying organization and was often longer because the group required significant help from the MoSD to formalize its structure. Formal registration of nationality-based associations was limited to one association for each nationality. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for the freedom to practice religious rites as long as doing so does not disrupt public order. The government generally respected this right, albeit within defined parameters that placed limitations on the right in practice. By law Islam is the state religion and Shari'a is the basis of legislation. Most citizens were Ibadhi or Sunni Muslims, with some Shia and a few non-Muslim citizens. The government permitted worship by non- Muslim residents. All religious organizations must be registered with the government. Non-Muslims were free to worship at churches and temples built on land the sultan donated. The government prohibits religious gatherings in locations other than government-approved houses of worship; it enforces this limitation only if there is a specific complaint, and there were no reports of such complaints during the year. Islam was taught from a cultural and historical perspective in public and private schools, and Islamic studies were mandatory for Muslim students. Non-Muslim students in both systems were exempt from this requirement, and many private schools provided alternate religious instruction. The law does not prohibit proselytizing, but the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs (MERA) can stop individuals or groups from engaging in proselytizing if the ministry receives complaints. The government may use immigration regulations and laws against harassment to enforce the ministry's policy. The MERA monitored sermons at mosques to ensure imams did not discuss political topics or instigate religious hatred or divisions. The government expected all imams to preach sermons within the parameters of standardized texts the ministry distributed monthly. Imams may be suspended or dismissed for exceeding government boundaries. There were no reported suspensions or dismissals during the year. The government monitored, but did not attempt to control the content of sermons in non-Muslim places of worship. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal violence or harassment against members of religious groups. There was no Jewish population, and there were no reports of anti- Semitic acts or public statements by community or national leaders vilifying Jews. Anti-Semitism was present in the media. Anti-Semitic editorial cartoons depicting stereotypical and negative images of Jews, along with Jewish symbols, were published during the year, primarily in the privately owned daily newspaper Al-Watan. A senior columnist at the privately owned sister papers The Times of Oman/Al-Shabiba on several occasions attacked Israeli actions and policies in anti-Semitic tones, including the use of citations from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The law does not specifically provide for foreign travel or emigration; however, the government generally respected these rights in practice. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees did not visit the country during the year, and it did not maintain an office or personnel in the country. The law prohibits forced exile, and there were no reported cases during the year. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 protocol. Nevertheless, the law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The ROP is responsible for determining refugee status but did not grant asylum or accept refugees for resettlement during the year. The ROP's system for granting refugee status was not transparent, and the law does not specify a time frame in which the ROP must adjudicate an asylum application. In practice the government did not provide protection against the return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened. Tight control over the entry of foreigners effectively limited access to protection for refugees and asylum seekers. Authorities apprehended and deported hundreds of Somalis, Yemenis, Ethiopians, and Eritreans who sought to enter the country illegally by land and sea in the South, and Afghans and Pakistanis who generally came to the country by boat via Iran in the North. Authorities generally detained these persons in centers in Salalah or the northern port city of Sohar, where they stayed an average of one month before being deported to their countries of origin. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law does not provide citizens with the right to change their government. The sultan retains ultimate authority on all foreign and domestic issues. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2007 more than 60 percent of almost 400,000 registered voters participated in elections for the Consultative Council, which has no formal legislative powers but provides a mechanism for citizen input into the establishment of laws. Electoral commissions reviewed potential candidates against a set of educational and character criteria before allowing candidates' names on the ballot. There were no notable or widespread allegations of fraud or improper government interference in the voting process. Although the government did not permit independent monitoring of the elections, the Ministry of Information invited foreign journalists to cover the voting in several locations throughout the country. The law does not provide for political parties. There were 14 women in the 154-seat Council of Oman, which includes the Consultative Council and the State Council, whose members are appointed by the sultan. There were four appointed female ministers, three of whom served in the 32-member cabinet. The Council of Oman and the Cabinet of Ministers were composed of representatives from a variety of linguistic, religious, racial, and other backgrounds. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. There were isolated reports of government corruption during the year. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. The law does not provide public access to government information. All royal decrees and ministerial decisions were published for public access. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were no registered domestic human rights NGOs or fully autonomous human rights groups in the country. There was a government- funded human rights commission to report on human rights via the State Council to the sultan. No association may receive funding from an international group without government approval. Individuals convicted of doing so may receive up to six months in jail and a fine of 500 rials (approximately $1,310). Heads of domestic NGOs reported the government periodically asked to review their financial records to confirm sources of funding and required NGOs to inform the government of any meetings with foreign organizations or diplomatic missions. The government allowed several international organizations to work in the country without interference, including the UN Children's Fund, the World Health Organization, and the International Labor Organization. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination against citizens on the basis of gender, ethnic origin, race, language, religion, place of residence, and social class. The government generally enforced prohibitions on discrimination effectively. Women.--The law criminalizes rape with penalties up to 15 years in prison, but it does not criminalize spousal rape. The government generally enforced the law when cases were reported, but cultural and societal influences may have prevented victims from reporting rape. As a result, there was no reliable estimate of the extent of the problem. Foreign nationals working as domestic employees occasionally reported they had been raped by their sponsors or by employees of labor recruitment agencies. According to officials in foreign missions, police investigations resulted in few rape convictions; sponsors repatriated most of the women who made the allegations. The law does not specifically address domestic violence. Assault, battery, and aggravated assault carry a maximum sentence of three years in prison. Allegations of spousal abuse in civil courts handling family law cases were reportedly common. Victims of domestic violence may file a complaint with police; due to cultural and societal customs, women often sought private family intervention to protect them from violent domestic situations. Authorities generally enforced the law when they were aware such crimes had occurred. There is no law prohibiting female genital mutilation (FGM), but the Ministry of Health prohibited doctors from performing the procedure in hospitals. The issue remained sensitive and was not publicly discussed. Planners at the Ministry of Health did not take action to eliminate FGM during the year. Prostitution was illegal. Observers reported, however, despite strict cultural norms and immigration controls, women from Eastern Europe, South Asia, North Africa, and China engaged in prostitution. The law does not specifically prohibit sexual harassment. In a recent study, 11 percent of women surveyed said they had been sexually harassed. The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Health clinics were permitted to operate freely in disseminating information on family planning under the guidance of the Ministry of Health. There are no legal restrictions on the right to access contraceptives. The government guaranteed free childbirth services to citizens within the framework of universal health care. Prenatal and postnatal care was readily available. Men and women received equal access to diagnosis and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Despite legal and some social progress, including the appointment of women as ministers, ambassadors, and senior government officials, women continued to face discrimination. Aspects of Islamic law and tradition as interpreted in the country discriminated against women. The law favors male heirs in adjudicating inheritance. Many women were reluctant to take an inheritance dispute to court for fear of alienating the family. Women married to noncitizens may not transmit citizenship to their children and cannot sponsor their noncitizen husband's presence in the country. Women may own property. Government officials applied different standards to female applicants for housing loans, resulting in fewer approvals for women. The law equalizes the treatment of men and women in receiving free government land for housing, and in April the government began allocating land to women to address concerns about inequality in access to land ownership. Illiteracy among women 45 and older hampered their ability to own property, participate in the workforce, or inform themselves about their rights. Government policy provided women with equal opportunities for education, and educated women have attained positions of authority in government, business, and the media, but women still faced some job discrimination based on cultural norms. In both the public and private sectors, women were entitled to maternity leave and equal pay for equal work. The government, the country's largest employer of women, observed such regulations, as did many private sector employers. The MoSD is the umbrella ministry for women's affairs. The ministry provided support for women's economic development through the Oman Women's Association and local community development centers. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's parents. Although women married to noncitizens may not transmit citizenship to their children, there were no reported cases of statelessness. All births were registered promptly. Primary school education for children, including noncitizen children, was free and universal, but not compulsory. There were reports of FGM performed on some girls ages one to nine. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes. Nonetheless, there were reports persons were trafficked to and through the country. The sultanate was a destination for men and women trafficked primarily from Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines, some of whom became victims when they were subjected to conditions of involuntary servitude as domestic workers and laborers. It was a transit point for such victims from those countries en route primarily to the United Arab Emirates, but also to other Gulf countries. It was also a destination country for women from the People's Republic of China, the Philippines, India, Morocco, and Eastern Europe for commercial sexual exploitation. Labor recruiting agencies in sending countries sometimes used false contracts for employment. Some employers of illegal immigrants exploited their employees based on their illegal status. Some foreign female household workers were lured into prostitution with the promises of higher wages. Persons convicted on trafficking charges face three to 15 years in prison and fines of 5,000 to 100,000 rials (approximately $13,000 to $260,000). The government arrested, prosecuted, and punished individuals in two trafficking cases during the year. On May 27, a court in Seeb sentenced 11 men to seven years' imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 rials ($26,000) each for trafficking Arab women through Oman for prostitution in another Gulf country. On September 6, a court in Sohar sentenced two men to seven years' imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 rials ($26,000) each for trafficking in persons and forced prostitution. The MOM, ROP, and public prosecutor's office are primarily responsible for combating trafficking. The government worked with foreign governments to prevent trafficking in persons. During the year the government maintained its 2008 memorandum of understanding with India regarding the treatment of its expatriate workers in the country and also worked with sending countries to identify and prosecute recruitment agencies involved in trafficking. The government made significant efforts to combat trafficking during the year, including training for the police on the identification of trafficking victims and screening of immigrants who are apprehended for entering the country illegally. The government continued to provide shelter, financial assistance, and counseling to trafficking victims at appropriate facilities. There were no reports government officials were involved in trafficking. In the two trafficking cases concluded during the year, the government provided accommodation for the victims in a specially arranged shelter with access to health care. The government paid for the victims to be repatriated as they desired at the conclusion of the cases. The MOM conducted rigorous inspections of privately owned companies to identify victims of trafficking during the year. The government continued to operate a 24-hour hotline to register complaints from potential victims and held training sessions for MOM, public prosecutors, and ROP officials on trafficking and forced labor during the year. In October the government launched an antitrafficking Web site and published a national plan to combat trafficking in persons. The plan outlines the roles and responsibilities of each government entity involved in combating trafficking in persons and lists factors to assist authorities in identifying trafficking victims. It also established a secretariat to collect and publish data related to trafficking in persons. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law provides persons with disabilities the same rights prescribed for other citizens; however, there was no protective legislation to ensure equal educational opportunities for them. Persons with disabilities also faced societal discrimination. The law mandates access to buildings for persons with disabilities, but many older buildings (including government buildings and schools) were not retrofitted to conform to the law. The law also requires private enterprises employing more than 50 persons to reserve at least 2 percent of positions for persons with disabilities. In practice this regulation was not widely enforced. The MoSD is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The penal code criminalizes homosexuality with a jail term of six months to three years. There were no reports of prosecutions for homosexual conduct during the year. The discussion of sexual orientation in any context remained a social taboo. There was no official or overt societal discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, or access to education or health care. Other Societal Discrimination.--The government does not permit foreigners with HIV/AIDS to work in the country. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The government recognizes workers' rights to form unions and a general federation to represent unions in regional and international fora. Members of the armed forces, public security institutions, government employees, and domestic workers are prohibited from forming or joining unions. At year's end according to the MOM, there were 80 unions at the enterprise level. Workers have the right to strike. They must give employers three weeks' notice of intent to strike. Some government control over union activities remained. The law prohibits accepting grants or financial assistance from any source without the MOM's prior approval. The government also requires unions to register. The law prohibits unions among civil servants and most essential services, thus preventing strikes as well. Any worker in the country who feels his or her rights have been violated can lodge a complaint with the MOM. The MOM investigated complaints and responded appropriately. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law allows for collective bargaining, and regulations require employers to engage in collective bargaining on the terms and conditions of employment, including wages and hours of work. The law prohibits employers from firing or imposing penalties for union activity. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor. There were reports that adult forced labor occurred. Some men and women from South and Southeast Asia, most of whom migrated voluntarily to the country as domestic servants or low- skilled workers in the construction, agriculture, and service sectors, subsequently faced conditions indicative of involuntary servitude, including withholding of passports and other restrictions on movement, nonpayment of wages, long working hours without food or rest, threats, and physical or sexual abuse. Some employers of domestic workers, contrary to the law, continued to withhold documents releasing the workers from employment contracts or demanded release fees totaling as much as 600 rials (approximately $1,560) before allowing the workers to change employers. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits all child labor; the minimum age for employment is 15, or 18 for certain hazardous occupations. Children 15 to 18 may only work between the hours of 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. Minors are prohibited from working for more than six hours per day, on weekends, or on holidays. Child labor did not exist in any formal industry. As a cultural practice, Bedouin children sometimes voluntarily participated in camel racing for their families, despite the 18-year minimum age for camel riders. The MOM generally enforced the law effectively; in practice, enforcement often did not extend to small family businesses that employed underage children, particularly in the agricultural and fishing sectors. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The minimum wage for citizens of 140 rials (approximately $364) per month did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Minimum wage regulations did not apply to a variety of occupations and businesses, including small businesses employing fewer than five persons, dependent family members working for a family firm, and some categories of manual laborers. There is no minimum wage for foreign workers. There were reports migrant laborers in some firms and households worked more than 12-hour days for as little as 30 rials ($78) per month. The MOM effectively enforced the minimum wage for citizens. The private sector workweek was 40 to 45 hours and included a rest period from Thursday afternoon through Friday. Government workers had a 35-hour workweek. Although the law does not designate the number of days in a workweek, it requires at least one 24-hour rest period per week and mandates overtime pay for hours in excess of 48 per week. Government regulations regarding hours of employment were not always enforced, especially for foreign workers. Employees who worked extra hours without compensation could file a complaint with the MOM's Directorate of Labor Care. The law states an employee may remove himself or herself from dangerous work without jeopardy to continued employment if the employer knew about the danger and did not implement corrective measures. Employees covered under the labor law may receive compensation for job- related injury or illness through employer-provided medical insurance. Domestic workers are not covered under the labor law, but separate domestic employment regulations obligate the employer to provide domestic workers with local medical treatment free of charge throughout the contract period. Medical professionals reported some employers did not provide low-skilled migrant workers with medical insurance or provided them with coverage as low as five rials (approximately $13) per month, with any excess costs deducted from their salaries. Inspectors from the Department of Health and Safety of the Labor Care Directorate generally enforced the health and safety standard codes and made regular onsite inspections as required by law. Additional training was conducted for these inspectors during the year. __________ QATAR Qatar is a constitutional monarchy headed by Emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani. The population is approximately 1.8 million, of whom approximately 225,000 are citizens. The emir exercises full executive power. The 2005 constitution provides for continued hereditary rule by the emir's male branch of the Al-Thani family. Shari'a (Islamic law) is the main source of legislation. The emir approves or rejects legislation after consultation with the appointed 35-member Advisory Council and cabinet. There are no elections for national leadership, and the law forbids political parties. In 2007 citizens elected the 29 members of the Central Municipal Council. Reports based on monitoring by the government-appointed National Human Rights Committee (NHRC) and informal observations by diplomatic missions noted no apparent irregularities. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of security forces. Citizens lacked the right to change the leadership of their government by election. There were prolonged detentions in overcrowded and harsh facilities, often ending in deportation. The government placed restrictions on civil liberties, including freedoms of speech, press (including the Internet), assembly, association, and religion. Foreign laborers faced restrictions on foreign travel. Trafficking in persons, primarily in the labor and domestic worker sectors, was a problem. Legal, institutional, and cultural discrimination against women limited their participation in society. The unresolved legal status of ``Bidoons'' (stateless persons with residency ties) resulted in discrimination against these noncitizens. Authorities severely restricted worker rights, especially for foreign laborers and domestic servants. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution and law prohibit such practices, and there were no reports that government officials employed torture. The 2008 NHRC report cited receipt of information in two cases of ``ill- treatment'' and indicated that authorities took ``due and necessary action.'' Documentation of abuses was limited due partly to hesitancy of alleged victims to make public claims of torture or abuse. The government interprets Shari'a as allowing corporal punishment. During the year the government conducted training for law enforcement and military personnel focusing on the prohibition of torture. A 2006 UN Committee Against Torture Report questioned the country's implementation of its obligations under the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, citing the lack of a comprehensive definition of torture in domestic law and the absence of training and education for law enforcement personnel, medical personnel, and public officials about the prohibition. Under the constitution, the terms of all international agreements ratified by the government become domestic law, and the government considers its definition of torture to be the one contained in the UN convention. At year's end a police officer's appeal was pending of his conviction for mistreatment in 2006 of an Indian citizen who alleged that police intentionally burned him with cigarettes during interrogation. Courts ordered corporal punishment (flogging) prescribed by interpretation of Shari'a in cases of alcohol consumption. On appeal, the court typically reduced this type of sentence to a fine. Authorities did not carry out corporal punishment during the year. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--In some prisons and detention centers, conditions did not meet international standards. During the year there were no monitoring visits or requests to visit by independent human rights observers. The government-appointed NHRC conducted regular visits to prisons, jails, and detention centers, but it did not visit the state security prison. Authorities informed the NHRC of the citizenship of prisoners and detainees, and the NHRC monitored the length of each person's detention. According to some embassies, the government frequently delayed notification of arrest. The NHRC reported that the Deportation Detention Center (DDC) held an estimated 1,000 male and 300 female detainees during the year. The government granted foreign embassy personnel regular access to the DDC and the central prison. The government did not approve requests to visit the state security prison and police detention centers. The Capital Police Detention Center (CPDC) had better conditions with beds and separation according to gender. In the state security prison, conditions were generally better than at the central prison. The DDC held some male and female detainees awaiting civil trial or persons awaiting criminal trial together with persons awaiting deportation. The central prison held some pretrial detainees with convicted prisoners because of overcrowding at the CPDC. The Ministry of Social Affairs had authority over juvenile detainees and held them separately under the supervision of a social worker. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. Authorities may detain individuals in the state security prison for indefinite periods under the Protection of Society and Combating Terrorism Law. There were no reports of arbitrary arrest or detention, and the NHRC reported during the year authorities released three persons previously held under the law. Processing speed for deportations increased for most DDC detainees during the year with the period of detention ranging from two days to three months. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the military and internal police forces. Police, under the authority of the Ministry of Interior (MOI), were responsible for general security, combating crime, and protecting public facilities, and the population generally regarded police as effective. The government had mechanisms to investigate abuse and corruption. During the year the government instituted training to prevent corruption and torture by police, and reports of official impunity decreased. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Criminal law requires that persons be apprehended openly with warrants based on sufficient evidence and issued by a duly authorized official, be charged within 24 hours, and be brought before a court without undue delay. Authorities respected this in practice. The Protection of Society and Combating Terrorism Law provides an exception that permits detention without charge for as long as two years (in six-month periods that can be extended) and allows detention for as long as six months without charge for investigation, extendable indefinitely by a special court order. Decisions under the law were not subject to appeal. The law empowers the minister of interior to detain a defendant for crimes related to national security, honor, or impudence. Although generally not used, a provision of the law permits the prime minister to adjudicate complaints against these detentions. In most cases a judge may order a suspect released, remanded to custody to await trial, held in pretrial detention pending investigation, or released on bail. Although suspects are entitled to bail (except in cases of violent crimes), it is used infrequently in practice. Authorities were more likely to grant citizens bail than noncitizens. Noncitizens charged with minor crimes may be released to their citizen sponsor, although they may not leave the country until the case is resolved. Judges may also extend pretrial detention for one month at a time to provide authorities additional time to conduct investigations. The accused is entitled to legal representation throughout the process and prompt access to family members in nonsecurity cases. There are provisions for state-funded legal counsel for indigents in criminal cases, and this requirement is generally honored in practice. Authorities generally afforded suspects detained under the Protection of Society and Combating Terrorism Law access to counsel but delayed access to family members. Once convicted of state security violations, prisoners were held in the state security prison. The Permanent Committee on Examining the Conditions of Inmates at the DDC was charged with reviewing and acting on the cases of those in custody for two months. Amnesty.--A committee within the MOI reviews individual cases for possible leniency and makes recommendations to the emir, who customarily grants amnesties on holy days and other special occasions. During Ramadan the emir granted amnesty to 205 prisoners, of whom 168 were noncitizens. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports that the emir pardoned prisoners on National Human Rights Day. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but the emir, based on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, appoints all judges. They hold their positions at his discretion. Approximately 75 percent of the judges were foreign nationals dependent on residency permits granted by civil authorities. During the year there were no reports of political or governmental interference or corruption in the courts. Although the emir has the ability to remove judges, he has never exercised the power. The law provides for a three-tiered court system: the courts of first instance, appeals, and cassation. The courts of first instance are the courts of justice (civil, criminal, and commercial). The court of appeals hears appeals of decisions from the courts of first instance. Legal reforms in 2003 eliminated separate Shari'a courts, although Shari'a still governs family cases heard by the civil courts. The Court of Cassation hears cases from the appeals court and has four chambers, two for appeals of civil cases and two for appeals of criminal cases. The Court of Cassation is the court of final appeal, except on constitutional matters. A separate Supreme Constitutional Court rules on disputes related to the constitutionality of laws and rules and the jurisdiction of lower courts. An administrative court of at least one circuit exists within each of the three tiers (first instance, appeal, and cassation). Each circuit consists of three judges and is the sole party concerned with settling administrative disputes between government entities. There are no provisions in the law for establishment of security tribunals. The existing court system would handle such cases. The constitution provides for establishment of military tribunals, but their use is restricted to periods of martial law, and only military crimes committed by members of the armed forces and other security forces may come before such tribunals. There are provisions for nonjudicial proceedings for administrative discipline of military and security personnel, but during the year no such proceedings were reported. Trial Procedures.--The law provides for the right to a fair trial for all citizens, and the judiciary generally enforced this right. The law provides defendants the presumption of innocence; in practice, those charged with a crime carry the burden of disproving at trial the charge against them. All litigants, regardless of religion or citizenship, are tried in the unified court system under the Supreme Judicial Council, which regulates the judiciary. Trials are by jury and open to the public, but the presiding judge can close the courtroom to the public if he deems the case to be sensitive. Due to an October 2008 court of cassation ruling, the media has limited access to courts since journalists must obtain a judge's permission to attend. All sentences are publicly announced. Lawyers prepare litigants and speak for them during the hearing, with interpreters provided for non-Arabic speakers. Defendants are entitled to legal representation throughout the pretrial and trial process. In matters involving religious issues, Shia and Sunni judges may apply their interpretations for their respective groups. There was an adequate number of both Shia and Sunni judges. The courts reached verdicts in felony cases within four to six months of detention, and in misdemeanor cases within one to two months of citation. Defendants have the right to be present for trial and to consult with an attorney in a timely manner. Their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases, once the case has been filed in the court. Defendants have the right to confront and question witnesses against them and to present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants have the right of appeal. Although there are no separate Shari'a courts, the application of Shari'a denied women equal status in certain civil proceedings. The high fee for appealing to the Court of Cassation restricts the right to appeal. The appellant must deposit 20,000 riyals (approximately $5,500) for the appeal in a case decided by the court of appeals and 5,000 riyals ($1,375) in a case decided by the court of first instance. An appeal to the court of appeals costs 1,000 riyals ($364). Litigants must deposit 10,000 riyals ($2,750) for an appeal to the Constitutional Court. Deposits may be seized, in whole or in part, should the court decide to reject the appeal. On September 27, the Supreme Constitutional Court, established in 2008, started to function following the nomination of Mubarak al- Assiri, head of the Supreme Judicial Council, as chief justice. The jurisdiction of the court is specifically limited to cases that involve constitutional questions. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reported political prisoners or detainees during the year. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law and judiciary permit persons with civil grievances to seek redress in the court system, although the majority of administrative decisions by the executive authority are immune from judicial jurisdiction, according to the 2008 NHRC report. The judiciary is not impartial and independent in practice, and judgments tend to favor citizens. The law specifies circumstances that necessitate a judge's removal from a case for conflict of interest, and these were observed in practice. There are civil and criminal remedies available for those seeking damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations, but there were no cases reported during the year. There were no reports that a noncitizen won a judicial decision in a case involving an alleged civil grievance. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution and the criminal procedures code prohibit such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Traditional attitudes of respect for the sanctity of the home and the privacy of women provided protection against arbitrary intrusion for both citizens and noncitizens. Judicial authorities must grant a warrant before police may search a residence or business, except in cases involving national security or emergencies, of which there were none reported during the year. Police and security forces reportedly monitored telephone calls and e-mails. Citizens must obtain government permission, which was generally granted, to marry foreigners. Citizens may apply for residency permits or citizenship for their spouses. The nationality law allows men and women to apply for citizenship for their spouses. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press in accordance with the law, but the government limited these rights in practice. Journalists and publishers continued to self-censor due to political and economic pressures when reporting on government policies or material deemed hostile to Islam, the ruling family, and relations with neighboring states. There were no reports that security authorities threatened individuals and organizations to keep them from publishing certain articles. According to journalists, editors would not permit printing the names of companies involved in labor cases. The law provides the press the right to attend the court proceedings, but the court may bar the media on a case-by-case basis. The 1979 Press and Publications Law provides for restrictive procedures on the establishment of newspapers and criminal penalties and prison sentences for libel and slander, including injury to dignity, as well as for closure and confiscation of assets of the publication. All cases involving the media fall under the jurisdiction of the criminal courts. In 2007 the emir established the Doha Center for Media Freedom to protect threatened journalists and to promote the free flow of news and information around the world. On June 19, Robert Menard, the former head of the nongovernmental organization (NGO) Reporters without Borders (RSF), and three other officials of the center stepped down. In Menard's view, authorities had ``suffocated'' the center, and he protested the country's refusal to reform the ``obsolete'' and ``repressive'' laws governing the media that, he said, ``made it impossible for the center to criticize any other country for imposing restrictions on media freedom.'' The center was largely inactive since June, and its Web site was unavailable at year's end. Prior to Menard's departure, according to several media NGOs, the center provided assistance to 250 journalists and media organizations worldwide through direct funding and legal and medical assistance. Local media criticized the center for alleged lack of support to journalists and lack of regard for cultural values in the region. After the Doha Center intervened during the year, authorities dismissed the case against Gulf Times reporter Peter Townson. Towson was arrested and charged in October 2008 with ``spreading racial hatred'' and bringing the country into ``disrepute'' after he filed stories on ``family day'' policies that prevent Asian laborers from entering entertainment areas on certain days. Citizens discussed sensitive political and religious issues. Members of the much larger foreign population did not express themselves on sensitive topics. The government did not prosecute anyone for expression of views. During the year the government-supported Qatar Foundation continued to fund the ``Doha Debates,'' a series of public debates broadcast by the BBC featuring citizens and noncitizens speaking about internationally controversial topics. Although the seven daily newspapers are not state owned, owners are members of the ruling family or have close ties to government officials. The government reviewed and censored foreign newspapers and magazines for objectionable sexual, religious, and political content. The Qatar Radio and Television Corporation and customs officials censored material. There were no specific reports of political censorship of foreign broadcast news media or foreign programs during the year. State-owned television and radio reflected government views. Callers to the state-owned radio station's popular morning show frequently discussed topics such as government inefficiency and the lack of responsiveness to citizens' needs. The Doha-based, Arabic-language Al Jazeera satellite television network focused coverage and commentary on international news. Al Jazeera and the government claimed that the channel was independent and free of government influence, but the government exercised editorial and programmatic control of the channel through funding and selection of the station's management. Al Jazeera covered local news when there was an international component. In October Al Jazeera Arabic Channel televised an investigative documentary titled Foreign Workers in the Gulf. The documentary included interviews with foreign workers and employers in the country about their opinion of the sponsorship law implemented in March. Internet Freedom.--The government restricted the peaceful expression of views via the Internet and censored the Internet for political, religious, and pornographic content through a proxy server, which monitored and blocked Web sites, e-mail, and chat rooms through the state-owned Internet service provider. For example, the government blocked access to the Arab Times, an Arab-American online newspaper, which at times published articles critical of the government. Authorities also blocked other sites such as boingboing.net, a technology and fashion site. A user who believed a site was mistakenly censored could submit the Web address to have the site reviewed for suitability; there were no reports that any Web sites were unblocked based on this procedure. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union data, there were an estimated 116,000 Internet subscribers, and 34 percent of the country's population used the Internet. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The constitution provides for freedom of expression and scientific research according to the conditions and circumstances stipulated by law. In practice, instructors at Qatar University noted that they often exercised self- censorship. Instructors at foreign-based universities operating in the country reported enjoying academic freedom. There were no reported government restrictions on cultural events, although some groups organizing cultural events reported that they exercised self- censorship. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for, but regulates, freedom of assembly. Organizers must meet a number of restrictions and conditions to acquire a permit for a public meeting. For example, the director general of public security must give his permission. His decision is not subject to appeal. Freedom of Association.--The constitution provides for the right to form societies, defined by the Advisory Council as professional societies. A number of professional societies exist, but administrative obstacles, including the slow pace of procedures required to form such associations, limited this right in practice. The law imposes strict conditions on the establishment, management, and function of professional societies. They are prohibited from engaging in political matters and must obtain approval from the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which can deny their establishment if it deems them a threat to the public interest. Professional societies must pay 50,000 riyals (approximately $13,740) in licensing fees and 10,000 riyals ($2,750) in annual fees. Registrations are valid for three years, after which an association must register again and pay new fees. The law allows noncitizens to participate in private societies only in cases in which their participation is deemed necessary to the work of the society. The prime minister must approve their participation, and the number of noncitizens cannot exceed 20 percent of the total membership. During the year the government did not approve new NGOs. Since 2004 the government has approved 15 societies. At year's end 29 others were under consideration, including five that applied for registration during the year. Applications first submitted in 2005 (applications must be resubmitted yearly) to establish a journalists' association and a teachers' association remained pending at year's end. Informal organizations, such as community support groups and activity clubs, operated without registration, but they may not engage in activities that could be deemed ``political.'' The regulations prohibit international affiliation of associations. A 2006 law regarding the establishment of ``private establishments having public interest'' allows for relaxed requirements for the formation of independent local and international NGOs in the country. Although untested, the law allows the registration of independent NGOs without the administrative hurdles and monetary requirements of the previously enacted law governing the formation of professional societies. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of worship and forbids discrimination based on religion in accordance with the law and the requirements of protecting public order and morality, but the government continued to prohibit proselytizing by non-Muslims and placed some restrictions on public worship. Among non-Muslims, only Christians have requested and been allowed to rent space for public worship. The Ministry of Justice maintains a registration procedure for Christian marriages performed by registered churches in the country. Adherents of other faiths may privately practice their religion without harassment. The state religion is Islam. Both Sunni and Shia Muslims practiced Islam freely. Shia Muslims (approximately 10 percent of the citizen population) organized traditional Shia ceremonies and performed rites in their mosques because they chose not to perform them publicly. The government allowed Shia to build and decorate Shia mosques without restriction, and Shia were well represented in the lower and middle levels of government and in the business community. The government and the ruling family are linked inextricably to Islamic institutions and practices. The Ministry of Islamic Affairs administers the construction of mosques, clerical affairs, and Islamic education for adults and new converts. The Ministry of Education administers Islamic education in public schools. The emir participated in public prayers during both Eid holiday periods and financed the Hajj journeys of some pilgrims. In October the authorities hosted the Seventh Doha Conference on Interfaith Dialogue. More than 250 participants from 59 countries, including Muslim clerics, Christian clergy, and Jewish rabbis, participated in the conference. At the conclusion of the conference, participants approved a declaration calling for interfaith cooperation to advance human rights, protect holy sites, and combat hunger and disease. There was no prohibition of or action to discourage specific religions or religious factions. The government provided legal status to Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Coptic, and many Indian Christian churches. The government allowed recognized congregations to open bank accounts and to sponsor clergy for visas. Construction continued on five Christian churches on land leased from the government. Hindus, Buddhists, Baha'is, and members of other religious groups do not operate as freely as Christian congregations do. Religious services took place without prior government authorization; authorities have asked congregations not to advertise them in advance or use visible religious symbols such as outdoor crosses. Criminal law provides for prison terms of up to 10 years for individuals proselytizing for any religion other than Islam on behalf of an organization, society, or foundation. Proselytizing on behalf of an individual for any religion other than Islam can result in a sentence of up to five years' imprisonment. The law provides for imprisonment of as long as two years for individuals who possess written or recorded materials or items that support or promote missionary activity. In May the government issued a number of deportation orders, later rescinded, to a multinational group of Christian expatriates allegedly involved in unauthorized activities at labor camps in industrial areas. Other deportation orders for two Indian Christians were still being processed at year's end. Converting to another religion from Islam is technically a capital offense, but there were no executions or other punishments handed down or carried out for such an act during the year. Disclosure of religious affiliation is required when applying for a passport or other identity documents, but affiliation is not listed in the issued documents. Islamic instruction was compulsory in public schools. Although there were no restrictions on non-Muslims providing private religious instruction for children, most foreign children attended secular private schools. There were no religious private schools. The government regulated the publication, importation, and distribution of non-Islamic religious literature. Individuals could import Bibles and other religious items for personal or congregational use. Government officials only monitored Islamic religious literature and copies of the Koran. Religious materials for use at Christmas and Easter were readily available in local shops; however, Bibles were not publicly available in local bookstores, either in Arabic or in English. Christmas decorations were on display in many public places, including shopping malls and in the common areas of housing compounds. Such decorations were available for sale at stores throughout Doha. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There was no indigenous Jewish community; the few Jews in the country were foreigners with no restrictions on traveling to or working in the country. On occasion, in response to political events and developments in the region, some of the country's privately owned Arabic-language newspapers carried cartoons depicting offensive caricatures of Jews and Jewish symbols and editorial comparisons of Israeli leaders and Israel to Hitler and the Nazis. These occurred primarily in the daily newspapers Al-Watan, Al- Sharq, Al-Arab, and Al-Raya, and drew no government response. In a January 9 sermon on Al-Jazeera, Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi called for killing Jews ``down to the very last one.'' The government does not officially collect or publish statistics on the religious affiliations of the population. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for these rights, but the government did not fully respect these rights. The government severely restricted in-country movement and foreign travel for noncitizens. There were no reports that the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) asked the government to assist refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. The only restrictions on in-country movement for citizens concerned sensitive military, oil, and industrial installations. Unlike previous years, local shopping malls did not prevent groups of foreign workers from entering entertainment areas in Doha on weekends and during certain periods designated as ``family times.'' The Protection of Society and Combating Terrorism Law allows the government to prevent some citizens from traveling abroad. Men may prevent adult female family members from leaving the country, but only by seeking and securing a court order. During the year no cases of women older than 18 being prevented from traveling abroad were reported. Official policy severely restricted foreign travel for expatriate workers. A Sponsorship Law enacted in March outlawed the practice of employers retaining workers' passports but retained the provision requiring workers to obtain exit permits from their employers before being allowed to exit the country. Although the law provided an administrative procedure for obtaining an exit permit without an employer's approval, the process was burdensome. Foreign embassies reported that the process was ineffective and that they continued to be called upon to mediate disputes concerning exit permits between foreign workers and their sponsors. The government did not allow noncitizen custodial parents to take their children out of the country without the permission of the citizen parent. The constitution prohibits internal and external forced exile of citizens, and the government respected this prohibition in practice. The constitution provides citizens who have left the country the right to return. Noncitizen women who were married to citizens received residence permits and could apply for citizenship, but they were required to relinquish their foreign citizenship. There were no restrictions on emigration from the country. The government occasionally revoked citizenship or passports for political reasons, thereby restricting freedom of movement. Unlike in previous years, there were no reported cases of deprivation of citizenship. Protection of Refugees.--The constitution prohibits the extradition of political refugees. The country is not a party to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, and the government has not established a system for providing protection or status to refugees. Its laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status. Individuals who were able to obtain local sponsorship or employment were allowed to enter and could remain as long as they were sponsored, but without asylum status. The government generally provided protection against the expulsion or forcible return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Stateless Persons.--The government provides a legal means for long- term residents to apply for and acquire citizenship; in practice, restrictions and uneven application of the law prevent stateless persons from acquiring citizenship. The Nationality Law allows a maximum of 50 noncitizen residents per year to apply for citizenship after residing in the country 25 consecutive years, but only a small number have been granted citizenship under this provision. Citizenship derives solely from the father. Women do not transmit citizenship to their children, even if the child is born in wedlock in the country. A woman must obtain permission from authorities before marrying a foreign national, but she does not lose nationality upon marriage. According to the UNHCR, there were approximately 1,500 Bidoons (stateless Arabs with residency ties) in the country. They suffered discrimination based upon their lack of nationality. They were unable to register for such services as education and health care. There were no reports of summary deportation orders issued against long-term residents, including Bidoons. The Permanent Committee for Naturalization Affairs commissioned a study in 2008 to determine the extent of these practices, but the results of that study were not made public during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution does not provide citizens the right to peacefully change their government through elections. The constitution provides for hereditary rule by the emir's branch of the Al-Thani family. The Advisory Council, whose members the emir appointed, exercised significant influence over ministries. The constitutional provision for initiation of legislation by the Advisory Council has not been implemented. The influence of family and tribal traditions was strong, and the government did not permit political parties or opposition groups. Elections and Political Participation.--The emir exercises full executive powers, including appointment of cabinet members. In 2007 citizens elected the 29 members of the third Central Municipal Council to four-year terms. The council advises the minister of municipal affairs and agriculture on local public services. Diplomatic missions noted no apparent irregularities in the elections. Nearly 50 percent of the fewer than 50,000 eligible voters participated. Approximately 75 percent of citizens could not vote in the 2007 municipal elections, as this right was limited to families who were in the country prior to 1930. All citizens older than 21 were eligible to run for seats on the council. The law limits political participation by persons whose citizenship was withdrawn but subsequently restored. These persons are denied the right to candidacy or nomination in any legislative body for 10 years from the date of restoration of their citizenship. The law forbids formation of and membership in political parties. In July 2008 the emir postponed elections for an expanded 45-member Advisory Council and extended the term of the current council until 2010. In February the Permanent Elections Commission conducted a training program on campaign planning and communications with the foreign NGO National Democratic Institute in anticipation of 2010 elections. Although the influence of traditional attitudes and roles continued to limit women's participation in politics, women served in public office as president of the Permanent Election Committee, head of the General Authority for Health, vice president of the Supreme Council for Family Affairs (SCFA) with ministerial rank, head of the General Authority for Museums, and president of Qatar University. One woman served on the Central Municipal Council. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. During the year local newspapers reported three prosecutions for embezzlement of funds from public corporations. The cases were still pending at year's end. Public officials were not subject to financial disclosure laws. The National Committee for Accountability and Transparency is charged with implementing articles of the UN Convention for Combating Corruption, developing a national strategy to support transparency, implementing an awareness campaign, investigating complaints from the public, managing state properties, suggesting legislation, and training staff. The committee was considered effective in carrying out its mandate. In November 2008 the audit bureau reported it had referred 26 cases involving private sector corruption in the administration of government contracts to the public prosecutor. During the year prosecutions resulted in five convictions, with judgments in favor of the government totaling more than 23 million riyals (approximately $6.5 million). During the year local newspapers reported that a number of senior officials in various ministries had been dismissed for using their offices for personal gain but offered no details. The government publishes laws in the official gazette, and some information was available on the Internet. Although there is a mechanism for individuals and private institutions to request information, information on the government budget, expenditures, or draft laws was generally not available. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were few human rights organizations operating in the country. Domestic associations or NGOs may not engage in political activity or be critical of the government. No international NGO or international organization focusing on human rights or humanitarian issues was resident in the country, with the exception of a major Western labor organization, which in March placed a representative in Doha to work on labor rights issues. During the year there were visits from representatives of the same organization to meet with authorities and local contacts for short periods. The law provides the right to form private independent societies and associations, including NGOs, but since the law's enactment in 2004, the government approved only one application (for establishment of the Qatar Society for Rehabilitation and Special Needs, a nongovernmental human rights organization supporting persons with disabilities). One foreign NGO also successfully registered in 2007. The government-funded and appointed NHRC investigates and works to improve local human rights conditions. In December the secretary general of the NHRC stated that the committee handled 1,009 petitions for assistance during the preceding 12 months, 400 submitted by citizens and 609 by expatriate workers. The government appointed five NHRC members from government ministries and seven from civil society. Members from the government ministries participate in the deliberations, but their votes do not count when the NHRC board members vote on resolutions. During the year the NHRC did not issue a report on the status of human rights in the country. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on nationality, race, language, religion, and disability, but not gender or social status. In practice, custom heavily influenced government enforcement of nondiscrimination laws, and legal, cultural, and institutional discrimination existed against women, noncitizens, and foreign workers. Women.--The law criminalizes domestic violence and rape but does not address spousal rape. There were publicized cases of rape involving foreigners, but none were reported involving citizens. The penalty for rape is 10 years' imprisonment, or 14 years if the victim is younger than 16. If the perpetrator is the teacher, guardian, or caregiver of the victim, the penalty is life imprisonment. The government's ability to enforce the law against rape was limited due to underreporting by victims who feared social stigma. There is no specific law criminalizing domestic violence. According to the NHRC, domestic violence may be prosecuted under the Criminal Law that provides a general prohibition against violence. According to the quasigovernmental Qatari Foundation for the Protection of Women and Children (QFPWC), domestic violence against women was a problem. There were no arrests or convictions for family domestic violence among citizens publicized in the press, although there were reports of cases involving noncitizens. During the year 259 cases of domestic abuse against women were reported to the foundation. A 2007 Qatar University study found that 63 percent of 2,778 surveyed citizen and noncitizen female students reported they had been victims of physical abuse, with 52 reporting cases of ``strong violence,'' such as rape, and 120 reporting sexual harassment. Approximately 50 women reported they had considered suicide because they were afraid of the repercussions if they notified authorities. In 2007 the SCFA established a shelter under the supervision of the QFPWC to accommodate abused women and children. Since its opening, the shelter has accommodated 61 women and 73 children. The shelter provided a variety of services, including financial assistance, legal aid, and psychological counseling. There were no reports of government interference in the right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. There is no direct government support for access to means of contraception, but contraceptives are freely available without a prescription. Licensed medical professionals attended mothers at birth, and maternal care was readily available. Men and women are treated equally for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). All STDs are reported to the Ministry of Health. The legal system allows leniency for a man found guilty of committing a so-called ``honor'' crime against a woman for perceived immodesty or deviant behavior. There were no reports of honor crimes during the year. Prostitution is illegal, and the government considered it a problem. Government officials reported an increasing number of cases involving prostitution but provided no information about the scale of the problem. In some cases sponsors sexually harassed and mistreated foreign domestic servants. Most domestic servants did not press charges for fear of losing their jobs. Sexual harassment is illegal and carries penalties of imprisonment and/or fines. A foreign embassy reported 700 cases of sexual harassment against domestic employees in 2008, the majority by citizen employers. When the domestic employees brought harassment to the attention of authorities, the employees were often deported and no charges were filed against the employer. Another foreign embassy reported four cases of alleged rape against domestic employees during the year and an increase in the number of complaints alleging physical abuse and sexual harassment. The constitution asserts the principle of equality between citizens in rights and responsibilities, and the Civil Service Law, the Housing Law, and others consolidate this principle of equality. However, traditions and interpretation of Shari'a disadvantaged women in certain cases. For example, the government adhered to an interpretation of Shari'a that recognizes Muslims have the automatic right to inherit from their Muslim spouses. A non-Muslim spouse (invariably a wife, since Muslim women cannot legally marry non-Muslims) does not inherit unless her spouse wills her a portion (as much as one-third of the total) of his estate. A Muslim husband does not automatically inherit the property of a non-Muslim wife. The proportion that women inherit depends upon their relationship to the deceased; in the cases of siblings, sisters inherit only one-half as much as their brothers. Citizen women faced legal discrimination in obtaining citizenship for their noncitizen husbands and their children. In cases of divorce, young children usually remain with the mother, regardless of her religion, unless she is found to be unfit. Sons remain in the custody of the mother until age 13 and daughters until age 15. In certain conditions the court may extend the age of maternal custody to 15 years for sons and to the time of marriage for daughters. In exceptional cases, the mother retains custody of children with disabilities with no age limit stipulated. In some cases, according to the NHRC, women who are granted guardianship over their children by law are denied their financial rights and associated right of residence. The law allows a female citizen married to a noncitizen man residing in the country for the previous five years to benefit from the government housing system. Widows and divorced women may also benefit if they have children and have not inherited a house from a deceased husband. Unmarried men or women can benefit if they support parents, brothers, and sisters or are older than 35 years. The law is generally applied fairly in practice. Women may attend court proceedings and may represent themselves, but a male relative generally represented them. In cases involving financial transactions, the testimony of two women equals that of one man, but courts routinely evaluated evidence according to the overall credibility of the witness and the testimony being offered, and not on the basis of gender. In August 2008 the government equalized the law on compensation that had previously set the level of compensation to be paid for the loss of a woman's life at half that of a man. A non-Muslim woman is not required to convert to Islam upon marriage to a Muslim, but many make a personal decision to do so. Children born to a Muslim father are considered Muslims. Female family members can travel freely unless a male family member notifies customs and immigration officials that his permission is required. There were no reports that the travel of any woman had been restricted in this fashion during the year. According to the Qatar Chamber of Commerce and Industry, women constituted approximately 13 percent of business owners, mainly operating design companies, fashion establishments, training centers, and beauty centers. Women served in the workforce as university professors, public school teachers, and police. Women served as professionals in government service, education, health, and private business. Women received equal pay for equal work but often lacked access to some positions and did not receive equal allowances for transportation, housing, and subsistence. The SCFA seeks to improve the status of women and the family under both civil and Islamic law. The council contributed to a number of national and international conferences, studies, and reports on the status of women in the country, as well as the drafting of legislation affecting women and children. Children.--Citizenship is derived from one's father. The government generally registered all births immediately except for Bidoons. Since all persons must provide proof of nationality to access health care and education, these services are not available to stateless children. The government provides for the welfare of citizen children, but not noncitizen children. The government funds free public education (elementary through university) and health care for citizens. Education was compulsory for all children through the age of 18. In practice this requirement is not enforced for noncitizen children. Schooling is free through primary school (the equivalent of ninth grade) for noncitizen children whose parents work in the government sector. There was generally no difference in attendance of girls and boys at the primary and secondary levels. Girls were the majority in postsecondary institutions. There was no societal pattern of child labor or abuse, although there were some cases of family violence and physical and sexual abuse. The QFPWC reported during the year it received 106 cases involving abuse of children. Under section 280 of the Criminal Law, the penalty for having sexual relations with a person younger than 16 years is life imprisonment. If the individual is the relative, guardian, caretaker, or servant of the victim, the penalty is death. The government-funded Qatar Orphan Foundation provided shelter, medical care, and education to orphans from birth to age 18. The children lived in a modern facility, segregated by age and sex, with adult supervision and medical care. The foundation seeks to place the orphans under the guardianship of citizen families. The QFPWC conducted awareness campaigns on the rights of the child and maintained a special hotline that allowed both citizen and noncitizen children to call with questions and concerns ranging from school, health, and psychological problems to concerns about sexual harassment. This hotline operated in conjunction with the family abuse hotline; statistics on use were not available. Trafficking in Persons.--During the year the government adopted the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, but it had not passed a law criminalizing trafficking at year's end. Provisions of the Sponsorship Law create conditions that can lead to forced labor activities and slave-like conditions. Although the law criminalizes many practices related to trafficking in persons, including slavery, there were no forced labor or forced prostitution prosecutions. The country was a transit and destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of involuntary servitude and, to a lesser extent, commercial sexual exploitation. Men and women from Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East travel to the country as laborers and domestic servants but often subsequently face conditions of forced labor and physical and sexual exploitation. Some women and girls who traveled to the country voluntarily to work were forced into prostitution. Most often, victims were not prosecuted for prostitution; the government issued a deportation order and sent the women to the DDC. Women and girls also traveled to the country to work as domestic servants, where they were vulnerable to domestic servitude and physical and sexual exploitation and were unprotected by labor legislation. A new sponsorship law implemented during the year prohibits the retention of workers' passports. The law retains the provision under which foreign laborers are not allowed to leave the country without a signed exit permit or to change employment without a written release from their sponsor. Under the terms of the new sponsorship law, foreign laborers may change employment or travel without the sponsor's permission only after a long administrative process. Foreign embassies reported that it was a burdensome process and implementation was not effective. Workers remained vulnerable to abuse, arrest, and deportation. Some sponsors intimidated and coerced foreign employees to work for longer periods than called for in contracts, reduced or withheld pay, and withheld passports and failed to obtain or renew residency permits. Authorities arrested workers who did not have valid residency permits and detained them at the DDC. At the end of the year there were approximately 1,300 detainees awaiting deportation at the DDC. Principal traffickers included individual employers, contractors, and employee recruitment agencies. Most victims traveled legally to the country by means of recruiting agencies in their home countries but faced conditions of forced labor and trafficking after they reached the country. Some workers were recruited for jobs in the country but then were abandoned by their recruiters upon arrival or by employers after the work was completed, making them even more vulnerable to trafficking. Under the criminal law, traffickers can be prosecuted for slavery or forced labor. The law bans forced or coerced labor with prison sentences of up to seven years and a fine of up to 10,000 riyals ($2,748). The law also specifically bans and provides penalties for child labor, including child camel riders (see section 7.d.). The criminal law also addresses crimes that violate human liberty and sanctity (kidnapping) with up to 10 years' imprisonment. The law specifically criminalizes the handling of money related to trafficking of women and children. During the year no antitrafficking or related cases against employers or labor recruitment agencies were prosecuted, and there was no indication that the government assisted with international investigations or that it extradited citizens who were accused of trafficking in other countries. Although there was no evidence of institutional involvement by government bodies or officials, some officials may own or operate companies that subject their employees to forced labor conditions. Trafficking prevention efforts by the government included visits to camel racing tracks, police antitrafficking training, and a media campaign. In September the NHRC sponsored an antitrafficking awareness campaign that focused on the energy sector and included classroom training on workers' rights conducted at corporate facilities. A human rights department in the MOI receives and processes cases of alleged human rights abuses and trafficking in persons. There was a government shelter for trafficking victims to serve the needs of abused domestic workers, other laborers, and children. According to government policy, any person facing criminal or immigration violations cannot be considered a victim and will not receive assistance. This policy continued to severely limit the effectiveness of the shelter during the year. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law requires the allocation of resources for persons with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against such persons. The government is charged with acting on complaints from individuals and the NHRC and enforcing compliance. The law requires that 2 percent of jobs in government agencies and public institutions be set aside for persons with disabilities. Private sector businesses employing a minimum of 25 persons were required to hire persons with disabilities. Employers who violated these employment provisions were subject to fines. There were no reports of any employer being fined for violating this law during the year. New public buildings were required to be accessible to persons with disabilities. In October the emir's sister, Sheikha Hassa bint Khalifa Al Thani, delivered a speech at the close of her term as the UN special rapporteur on disabilities in which she called on her country to enforce more rigorously its own laws and international conventions on the rights of persons with disabilities. Private and independent schools in general provided most of the required services for students with disabilities, but government schools did not. Few public buildings met the required standards of accessibility for persons with disabilities, and new buildings generally did not comply with standards. The SCFA was charged with ensuring compliance with the rights and provisions mandated under the law, but compliance was not effectively enforced. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The government distinguished between citizens and noncitizens in employment, education, housing, and health services. Noncitizens were required to pay for health care, electricity, water, and education (services provided without charge to citizens). Noncitizens were eligible for medical coverage at a nominal fee. Noncitizens generally could not own property, but the law provides for property ownership in three designated areas. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law prohibits same-sex relations between men but is silent concerning same-sex relations between women. Under the criminal law, a man convicted of having sexual relations with another man or boy younger than 16 is subject to a sentence of life in prison. A man convicted of having sexual relations with another man older than 16 is subject to a sentence of seven years in prison under section 285 of the criminal law. There were an unknown number of cases before the courts during the year. There were no lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) organizations in the country. During the year no violence was reported against LGBT persons. Other Societal Discrimination.--There was discrimination against HIV patients. HIV-positive foreigners, whose condition was typically diagnosed during their medical examinations upon arrival in the country, were deported. HIV-positive citizens were quarantined and received treatment. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The labor law and regulations provide for worker organizations for citizens older than 18 in private enterprises that have more than 100 citizen workers. In practice, the law makes union formation difficult. Noncitizens were not eligible to form worker committees, and foreign workers could only be members of joint labor-management committees. Those working in the government sector were prohibited from joining a union. The law and regulations permit only the General Union for the Workers of Qatar (composed of various general committees for the workers in a trade or industry, which are in turn made up of worker committees at individual firms) and forbid affiliation with groups outside the country. There were no reported attempts to form unions during the year. The law grants workers the right to strike, but restrictive conditions made the likelihood of a legal strike extremely remote. The labor law requires that a strike be approved by three-fourths of the company's workers committee. Such committees are composed of an equal number of representatives from management and labor, making it practically impossible for labor to gain a strike authorization. During the year there were no strikes reported. Foreign embassies reported several cases in which they intervened to resolve labor disputes reported by their nationals working in the country. In the past, the government responded to labor unrest by dispatching large numbers of police to the work sites or labor camps involved, and that the strikes generally ended peacefully after these shows of force. In most cases, the government summarily deported strike organizers. Government employees, domestic servants, and those in the public utility, health, and security services were prohibited from striking. These workers may legally seek permission to hold a public gathering, but there were no reports of such gatherings occurring during the year. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The labor law grants workers in private enterprises that have more than 100 citizen workers the right to bargain collectively and to sign joint agreements between employer and worker regarding a work-related issue. The government circumscribed the right through control over the rules and procedures of the bargaining and agreement processes. Collective bargaining was not freely practiced, and there were no workers under collective bargaining contracts. Private employers and workers set wages without government involvement. Local courts handled disputes between workers and employers. Foreign workers avoided drawing attention to problems with their employers for fear of retaliation and deportation. The Human Rights Office at the MOI served as the point of contact for the complaints of foreign workers. According to resident embassies of countries with foreign workers present and some individual migrant workers, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs' Labor Department was widely perceived to be objective within its narrow mandate when dealing with the nonpayment of wages. The department claimed that it resolved 80 percent of the 6,044 complaints filed by workers. The remaining cases were referred to the labor courts for judgment. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits all forms of forced or compulsory labor. However, there were reports that such practices occurred. Foreign workers in many cases worked under circumstances that constituted forced labor. These conditions were found primarily in the construction and domestic labor sectors. The Sponsorship Law that took effect in March gives the MOI the power to transfer temporarily a worker's sponsorship to another employer if there is a legal dispute between the worker and the original employer. According to government figures, more than 85 percent of the workforce was composed of foreign workers who, dependent on their employer for residency rights, were vulnerable to abuse. For example, employers must consent to and the MOI must approve the granting of an exit permit to any foreign employee. Some employers temporarily withheld this consent to force foreign employees to work for longer periods than they wished. Workers could report such cases to the MOI's Human Rights Office. Unskilled workers and domestic servants were particularly vulnerable to nonpayment or late payment of wages. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits forced and compulsory labor by children, and the government generally enforced this prohibition. The labor law stipulates the minimum age for employment is 16 years. The labor law provides that minors between the ages of 16 and 18 can work with parental or guardian permission, and some children worked in small, family-owned businesses such as small markets or as office clerks. Minors may not work more than six hours a day or more than 36 hours a week. Employers must provide the Labor Department with the names and occupations of their minor employees and obtain permission from the Ministry of Education to hire a minor. The Labor Department may prohibit the employment of minors in jobs judged dangerous to the health, safety, or morals of minors. Violators of the law banning child camel jockeys may receive six months' imprisonment or a fine of approximately 3,000 riyals (approximately $825). In other cases involving the employment of minors, the punishment is three years' imprisonment or a fine of approximately 10,000 riyals ($2,748). During the year there were no reported cases, and there have been no prosecutions under this law. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no minimum wage stipulated by law. The average wage of noncitizen workers did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The law prescribes a 48-hour workweek with a 24-hour rest period, but most government offices followed a 36-hour workweek. Employees who worked more than 48 hours per week or 36 hours per week during the holy month of Ramadan were entitled to overtime pay of at least a 25 per cent wage supplement. Government offices and major private sector companies adhered to this law; it was often not observed with respect to unskilled laborers and domestic and personal employees, the majority of whom were foreigners. Many such workers frequently worked seven days a week and more than 12 hours a day with few or no holidays, no overtime pay, and no effective means to redress grievances. The rights of noncitizen workers continued to be severely restricted. Some employers mistreated foreign domestic servants, predominantly those from South Asia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, by withholding wages or paying wages late. Some cases involved rape and physical abuse. Some foreign embassies provided temporary shelter to their nationals who left their employers because of abuse or disputes before transferring the cases to local government officials. According to these embassies, the majority of cases were resolved within 48 hours by their mediation efforts between employee and employer. Those not resolved within 48 hours were transferred to the Criminal Evidence and Investigation Department of the MOI for a maximum of seven days. Cases not resolved within seven days were transferred to the labor court, a special section of the first instance civil court. One foreign embassy reported that it received approximately 6,000 complaints during the year; most related to nonpayment of salaries, failure to pay overtime, and refusal to obtain residence permits. Changes in the sponsorship law accounted for a steep drop in the number of complaints against sponsors for retaining employees' passports. An employer's withholding of a passport carries a fine of 10,000 riyals (approximately $2,747). Another foreign embassy received between 50 and 60 complaints a day, including sexual harassment, delay and nonpayment of salaries, forced labor, contract switching, withholding of passports, poor accommodations, nonrepatriation, termination and deportation without cause, physical torture or torment, overwork, imprisonment, and mistreatment. Abused domestic servants usually did not press charges for fear of losing their jobs. According to a foreign embassy, 217 of its reported 280,000 citizens working in the country died during the year, with heart attacks claiming 115; work-related accidents, 23; and suicides, 9. Forty Nepalese citizens died in traffic accidents and nine died from drowning. Police investigated work-related deaths, but the results were not made public. Local support groups believed authorities reported the cause of death as heart attacks to hide workplace deaths. A foreign embassy reported an increase in the overall number of complaints during the year. There were government regulations regarding worker safety and health, but enforcement, which is the combined responsibility of the Ministry of Energy and Industry, the Ministry of Health, and the Labor Department, was uneven due to insufficient training and lack of personnel. Diplomatic representatives visited labor camps and found most unskilled foreign laborers living in cramped, dirty, and hazardous conditions, often without running water, electricity, or adequate food. The labor inspection department conducted a limited number of random inspections of labor camps, and when it found them below minimum standards, the operators received a warning, and authorities ordered them to remedy the violations within a specific period. If they did not remedy the violations, the Labor Department referred the matter to the public prosecutor for action. An unknown number of cases were filed during the year. Statistics on the number of inspections were not available, but foreign labor officials reported that most labor camps in the country remained far below minimum standards. A foreign embassy reported acceptable conditions at the three camps that house its nationals, and embassy staff were permitted to visit on a regular basis. The Department of Public Safety oversaw safety training and conditions, and the state-run petroleum company had its own safety standards and procedures. The regulations listed partial and permanent disabilities for which compensation may be awarded, some connected with handling chemicals and petroleum products or construction injuries. The law does not specifically set rates of payment and compensation. The government provided free medical treatment to workers who suffered work-related sickness or injuries. Foreign workers may enter the country on a visitor's visa, but a sponsor is needed to convert a visitor's visa to a work visa, and the worker must have a sponsor's permission to depart the country. In August the Labor Ministry conducted a labor protection drive that included unannounced worksite inspections to check for proper payment of wages in compliance with worker protection laws. In October the NHRC conducted a labor protection drive in the energy sector that included classroom instruction and the distribution of printed materials explaining workers' rights and obligations under the labor and sponsorship laws. __________ SAUDI ARABIA The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the Al Saud family. The population is approximately 28.5 million, including 5.8 million foreigners. Since 2005, King Abdullah bin Abd Al-Aziz Al-Saud has ruled under the title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, a reference to his responsibility for Islam's two holiest sites in Mecca and Medina. The government bases its legitimacy on its interpretation of Shari'a (Islamic law) and the 1992 Basic Law. The Basic Law sets out the system of governance, rights of citizens, and powers and duties of the government. The law also provides that the Koran and the Traditions (Sunna) of the Prophet Muhammad serve as the country's constitution. In 2005 the country held male-only elections on a nonparty basis for half the members of municipal councils, the first elections for any government position since 1963. The civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. During the year the following significant human rights problems were reported: no right to change the government peacefully; disappearances; torture and physical abuse; poor prison and detention center conditions; arbitrary arrest and incommunicado detention; denial of public trials and lack of due process in the judicial system; political prisoners; restrictions on civil liberties such as freedoms of speech (including the Internet), assembly, association, movement, and severe restrictions on religious freedom; and corruption and lack of government transparency. Violence against women, violations of the rights of children, and discrimination on the basis of gender, religion, sect, and ethnicity were common. The employment sponsorship system limited the rights of foreign workers and remained a severe problem. Significant human rights achievements during the year included implementation of the overhaul of the kingdom's judicial system announced in 2007 that included the establishment of a new supreme court, regional appeals courts, and specialized courts for general, criminal, personal status, commercial, and labor cases; systematic review of judicial decisions; and transferring responsibility for hiring, training and supervision of judges from the Ministry of Justice to the reorganized Supreme Judicial Council. Supporting these reforms, the king reorganized the Senior Council of Religious Scholars to include representatives of all four schools of Sunni jurisprudence to broaden the sources for Shari'a (Islamic law) interpretations. The passage of a new Law to Combat Trafficking in Persons has led to training of law enforcement officials on the application of the law. The first coeducational university, the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, opened its doors and the king appointed the first female cabinet-level official, a deputy minister for women's education. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--The government or its agents were not known to have committed politically motivated killings during the year. However, there were media reports that Saudi armed forces killed Yemeni civilians in cross-border clashes with Houthi rebels from Yemen toward the end of the year. According to a July 22 report of the nongovernmental organization (NGO) Amnesty International (AI), persons ``have been killed in uncertain circumstances in the name of fighting terrorism.'' In the first week in June, Abdullah al-Rumian, a Saudi militant extradited from Iraq, died in custody in Al-Ha'ir state security detention center (security offenders are held in the detention center, criminal offenders in the prison), according to the international media. A Ministry of Interior (MOI) spokesperson reportedly denied the press accounts, saying no one had died in state security detention centers during that week. Beginning on November 4 and continuing at year's end, armed groups of Houthi rebels from Yemen and Saudi forces engaged in cross-border conflict. The Saudi government claimed the attacks were within Saudi territory and intended to eliminate armed groups of Houthi rebels who had entered Saudi territory and had killed three border guards and wounded 15 other members of the security forces in the border region of Jebel al-Dukhan. According to press reporting, Saudi attacks killed 54 civilians in the town of Al-Nadheer and injured an unknown number. After the March 2008 deaths of six persons in car chases, the head of the religious police, the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice (CPVPV), or Mutawwa'in, announced in July 2008 a new policy prohibiting pursuit of fleeing suspects. The CPVPV abided by the new policy and no subsequent deaths were reported. In September 2008 the Court of Appeals confirmed the acquittal of two members of the religious police in the 2007 beating death of Suleiman al-Huraisi. At year's end there was no further information on the appeal of the acquittal of the officers involved in the 2007 death in Medina of a Bangladeshi man who was in the custody of the religious police. During the year the media reported that the government announced 64 executions by beheading. Closed court proceedings in capital cases made it impossible to determine whether the accused were allowed to present a defense or were granted basic due process. There were no executions for sorcery during the year, although death sentences for two women and two men convicted of witchcraft and sorcery remained in effect. The government executed 102 persons in 2008 and 153 persons in 2007. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances during the year, although according to AI's July 22 report, the government was holding more than 3,100 persons ``in virtual secrecy,'' the majority of them suspected of being supporters of extremist Islamist groups, and some having peacefully criticized government policies (see sections 1.c. and 1.d.). c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--Article 2 of the Law of Criminal Procedure and other legal provisions prohibit torture and hold criminal investigation officers accountable for any abuse of authority. Shari'a, as interpreted in the country, prohibits judges from accepting confessions obtained under duress. Government officials claimed privately that measures such as alleged MOI formal rules prohibiting torture served to ensure that such practices did not occur in the penal system. According to the governmental Human Rights Commission (HRC), torture did not occur in prisons or detention centers. HRC president Dr. Bandar Al-Aiban, who holds ministerial rank, recounted that he personally ascertained this fact by speaking privately and individually to prisoners during visits to the Eastern Province General Prison, the Security Prison in Al- Damam, Tabuk Province General Prison, Abha General Prison, and Abha Security Prison on June 15, July 4 and July 21. Nevertheless, during the year there continued to be reports that authorities systematically subjected prisoners and detainees to torture and other physical abuse. On October 12, the Saudi Civil and Political Rights Association (ACPRA) wrote an open letter to King Abdullah highlighting that one of its members, 73-year-old Judge Suliman Al-Reshoudi, was subjected to ``severe physical and psychological tortures,'' including the tying of his feet to a bed frame by two separate chains and being forced into a sitting position throughout the day and shackled at night. The prisoner has been in solitary confinement for three years without indictment because he is a reform advocate and activist, according to ACPRA. According to AI's July 22 report, Saudi Arabia: Assaulting Human Rights in the Name of Counter-Terrorism, security officials used various methods to intimidate and to garner information from detainees, including ``severe beating with sticks, punching, and suspension from the ceiling, use of electric shocks and sleep deprivation.'' An AI September 11 analysis, Saudi Arabia: Countering Terrorism with Repression, claimed that many persons were tortured to extract confessions or as punishment after conviction. On June 5, the NGO Yemeni Network for Human Rights claimed that Saudi investigator Issa Al Zahrani tortured a noncitizen, Saleh Salim, allegedly interrogating him for 18 hours, after his leg had been broken. The investigator reportedly deprived Salim of sleep and kicked him in the testicles. The court in Asir convicted Salim of theft and sentenced him to 18 years in prison and 300 lashes. Three other defendants in the case reportedly received similar treatment and sentences. According to the Yemeni Network for Human Rights, there were hundreds of similar cases in the prisons. During the year there were numerous reports of physical abuse by the police and the CPVPV, as well as judicially sanctioned corporal punishments including harassment of women for being alone in the company of an unrelated male. On March 13, a court sentenced 75-year- old noncitizen Khamisa Mohammad Sawadi to 40 lashes, four months' imprisonment, and deportation for having unrelated men in her house. On August 21, the daily Saudi Gazette reported that four Asian men were sentenced to prison terms and lashes for alcohol production and distribution. One was sentenced to five years in prison and 1,200 lashes, two others to four years and 1,000 lashes, and the fourth to two and a half years in prison and 400 lashes. One judicially sanctioned amputation was reported. The July 24 New York Times published an account of the amputation of a thief's hand in front of the Grand Mosque in Mecca. There were reports that rape cases and other sexual abuses were widespread during confinement in both men's and women's detention centers and prisons. Although there were some female guards in women's prisons, their supervisors were men. During the year local human rights watchers reported that young men in the Burida Prison in Qassim had been sexually abused but did not alert prison authorities due to the stigma and penalties associated with homosexual activities. Human rights activists stated that the MOI has not been responsive to requests from independent activists to investigate this allegation. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison and detention center conditions varied; despite some improvements during the year, they generally did not meet international standards. Authorities did not permit monitoring by non-Saudi organizations, and no independent human rights observers visited prisons or detention centers during the year. The government permitted some monitoring of prison conditions by the royal family-funded but nongovernmental National Society for Human Rights (NSHR). The NSHR registered 682 cases involving prisoners in its annual report. The governmental HRC conducted prison visits to 50 percent of the country's prisons during the year. In addition to the visits by HRC president Dr. Bandar Al-Aiban (see section 1.c.), on July 4 and 21, HRC delegates visited Al-Khafgi, Hafr Al-Batin, Al-Jubail, Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif Haql, and Taima prisons. They found conditions below acceptable levels, citing overcrowding and prolonged holding of prisoners who had served their sentence as well as pretrial detainees. According to the UN 2007/2008 Human Development Report, in 2007 the total number of prisoners and detainees, including juveniles and women prisoners, was 28,612. The maximum number of prisoners and detainees the facilities were meant to hold was not available. Men and women were held in separate facilities, as were juvenile offenders. Human rights observers stated that the women's prisons were in especially poor condition. Pretrial detainees were held together with convicted prisoners. Terror suspects were separate from the general population to prevent the spread of extremist ideology. According to diplomatic sources, facilities for terror suspects were similar to those of the general prison population. On July 1, prisoners at Al-Ha'ir Prison staged a strike protesting abusive prison guards and the lack of drinking water, according to the human rights organization Frontline Defenders' Web site, which quoted human rights activist Waleed Sami Abu-Alkhair. When information about the strike became public, conditions improved. MOI agents reportedly threatened Abu-Alkhair with arrest and imprisonment for publishing the information. According to its 2008 report, the NSHR monitored health care in prisons and brought deficiencies to the attention of the MOI, which administers prisons and detention centers. The NSHR 2008 report stated that prisons were so crowded that prisoners had to take turns sleeping. Likewise, diplomats and human rights advocates reported that detention centers remained overcrowded, and that many prisoners who had completed their sentences remained for additional periods, sometimes for years. To address the issue of overcrowding, the HRC advocated for amnesty, reduction of sentences, and settlement of cases before they reach trial. Since 2008 the General Investigation and Prosecution Authority had unfettered access to the country's prisons and reviewed cases of prisoners who served their sentence but remained imprisoned. The NSHR noted that poor medical attention in deportation centers resulted in deaths. On September 2, the daily newspaper Arab News reported that 45-year-old noncitizen Mohammad Saquib died from tuberculosis in the Shomaishi Deportation Center's clinic. Subsequently, detainees staged a two-day hunger strike protesting poor conditions. According to the Saudi Gazette, many of the inmates suffered from preventable infectious diseases. Domestic human rights organizations did not report specifically on health conditions in prisons. During the year, the government built five new prisons to relieve overcrowding. The government established new training centers in Riyadh and Dammam to provide vocational training to prisoners. On September 2, in part to address the issue of overcrowding, the Council of Ministers authorized waivers of 15 percent of jail time for inmates with good behavior records who completed educational and vocational training programs in prison. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The Basic Law provides that a person's actions may not be restricted, and a person may not be or imprisoned, except under provisions of the law. Nonetheless, because of ambiguous implementation of the law and a lack of due process, the MOI maintained broad powers to arrest and detain persons indefinitely without judicial oversight or effective access to legal counsel or family. In practice authorities held persons for weeks or months and sometimes years. All forces with arrest power report to the MOI. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The king, the minister of interior, the minister of defense, and the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG) commander all have responsibility in law and in practice for law enforcement and maintenance of order. King Abdullah remained in command of the SANG. Crown Prince Sultan, the minister of defense and aviation, had responsibility for all of the ministry's armed forces. The minister of interior, Prince Naif, exercised control over all internal security and police forces, except the General Intelligence Presidency (GIP), the government's primary external intelligence agency that reports directly to the king and maintains its own forces. The civil police and the internal security police are authorized to arrest and detain individuals. The semiautonomous CPVPV, which monitors public behavior to enforce strict adherence to Saudi official interpretation of Islamic norms, reports to the king via the Royal Diwan (royal court). The MOI also oversees the CPVPV. Security forces were generally effective at maintaining law and order, but small-scale corruption occurred among security forces and impunity was a problem. The Board of Grievances is the only formal mechanism available to investigate claims of abuse, but its findings were not public. Citizens may report abuses by security forces at any police station, to the HRC, or to the NSHR. The HRC and the NSHR maintain records of complaints and outcomes, but privacy laws protect information about individual cases, and information is not publicly available. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--According to the Law of Criminal Procedure, ``no person shall be arrested, searched, detained, or imprisoned except in cases provided by law, and any accused person shall have the right to seek the assistance of a lawyer or a representative to defend him during the investigation and trial stages.'' Authorities may summon any person for investigation, and an arrest warrant may be issued based on evidence, but warrants sometimes were not used, and they are not required in cases of probable cause. There was a functioning bail system for less serious criminal charges. Although the law provides the accused the right to seek assistance of a lawyer, it does not specify any timeframe. There were no established procedures providing detainees the right to contact family members following arrest. Legal protections for persons in detention included a 72-hour limit on the period of arrest without charges being filed and trial of the detained within six months. Reportedly, authorities frequently failed to observe these legal protections. Incommunicado detention was a problem, and there were reports of torture of persons in such detention There were reports of arbitrary arrest and detention. Although the law prohibits detention without charge, authorities detained without charge security suspects, persons who publicly criticized the government, Shia religious leaders, and others who violated religious standards. According to the ACPRA, the following activists were among those detained without official indictment or court ruling at year's end: Professor Abdulrahman Al-Shomairi, Ali Khosifan Al-Qarni, attorney Mousa Al-Qarni, Professor Saud Al-Hashemi, Fahd Alskaree Al-Qurashi, Abdulrahman bin Sadiq, Saifaldeen Faisal Al-Sherif, Mansour Al-Otha, Abdulrahman Khan, Abdulaziz Al-Khirayji, and Suleiman Al-Reshoudi. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), most of these activists have been detained since 2007, when internal security police in Jeddah and Medina arrested prominent reform advocate Isam Basrawi and nine others. Authorities released Basrawi for health reasons later in 2007. The media reported allegations that the activists financed terrorism outside the country. The ACPRA alleged in an open letter to the king that the government uses religion and the antiterror campaign to criminalize, incarcerate, and discredit advocates of reform. On November 2008 the group and outside supporters organized a two-day hunger strike to protest their ongoing detention. At year's end, all of the activists remained in detention without charge. Arbitrarily lengthy detention before trial was a problem. According to the NSHR's 2009 report, the MOI did not respect the Punitive Procedures Law in arresting and detaining suspected terrorists. Suspects remained in detention in regions far from their families and for years without trial. A September 2008 AI submission to the UN Human Rights Council cited the minister of interior in 2007 confirming that 3,016 security suspects were in detention at that time (see sections 1.b. and 1.c.). In 2007 authorities released 1,500 suspected militants after a reeducation program in prison. They had been held without charge or trial. Reuters reported the ordered release of 17 political prisoners of the Ismaili community on August 24. In the aftermath of the failed August 28 assassination attempt on Prince Mohammed bin Naif, there were no further publicly announced releases of security suspects. During the year the NSHR called for a neutral party to evaluate defendants' claims of torture to obtain confessions by force. In 2007 the NSHR reported that some police officers detained individuals without justification and abused their authority by threatening to detain individuals to pressure them to obtain confessions or information relevant to an investigation. The religious police are required to have a police officer accompany them at the time of an arrest, although conformity to the regulation was sporadic. Particularly in the more conservative Nejd region, religious police accosted, abused, arrested, and detained citizens and noncitizens, especially women, for allegedly violating dress and behavior standards. Amnesty.--During the year the king continued the tradition of tempering judicial punishments. The details of the cases varied, but the demonstration of royal mercy sometimes included reducing or eliminating corporal punishment, for example, rather than wiping the slate clean. There were pardons or grants of amnesty on special occasions, including holy days and during Ramadan. For example, the king reportedly pardoned 88 prisoners on September 12. On October 26, the king pardoned high-profile journalist Rozanna Yami, who had been sentenced to 60 lashes for her involvement in a Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation (LBC) talk show about sexual pursuits. The king issued a royal decree on December 11 to pardon certain categories of prisoners on Crown Prince Sultan's return to the country. Nine workers from the Philippines accused of minor crimes were released pursuant to that pardon. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The 2007 Law of the Judiciary provides that judges are independent and are subject to no authority other than the provisions of Shari'a and laws in force. In practice, the judiciary was not independent, as it was required to cooperate with the executive and legislative authorities, with the king as arbiter. Although allegations of interference with judicial independence were uncommon, the judiciary was subject to influence. The courts did not attempt to exercise jurisdiction over senior members of the royal family. There were problems enforcing court orders. Shari'a, as interpreted in the country, rather than a penal code is the basis of the penal system. According to the Ministry of Justice (MOJ), Shari'a law is not based on precedent and can result in widely divergent rulings. Judges are free to base their decisions on any of the four Sunni schools of jurisprudence. In practice, judges usually follow the Hanbali School of jurisprudence. The 2007 judicial reforms align a structurally coherent court system and adopt procedures streamlining the system. Under the new system the minister of justice is absent from the decision-making process of the High Court and the administrative oversight of the courts' and judges' affairs. These responsibilities and the prerogative to compose courts of first instance and their specialization rest with the Supreme Judicial Council, which also monitors the competence of judges and lawyers. The law sets forth the structure of the judiciary, including the three-level criminal court system, which consists of first-degree Shari'a criminal courts with three-judge panels depending on the punishments and judicial discretion possible; appeals courts; and the High Court, which consists of a president and high-level judges appointed by royal order. Under the 2007 law, the jurisdiction of all courts extends to non- Muslims for crimes committed in the country. Judgments from the first- degree and appellate courts may be appealed to the next level. The third and final level of appeal is the High Court, which reviews rulings issued or upheld by the courts of appeals and those relating to certain major crimes. The High Court has a General Council consisting of top-level judges with the authority to set policy and settle conflicting opinions from High Courts that convened in different circuits. The General Council renders decisions by a majority vote and reports to the king. Shia citizens use their own Jaafari legal tradition to adjudicate cases involving domestic problems, inheritance, and Islamic endowments. The military justice system has jurisdiction over uniformed personnel and civil servants charged with violations of military regulations. The defense minister and the king review the decisions of military tribunals. Information on the existence of military tribunals separate from the military court system was not available. In December 2008 Saudi Arabia established a Specialized Criminal Court (SCC) within the existing court system to handle terrorist cases. In a decision to promote judicial independence, the Supreme Judicial Council supervises the court. The SCC follows the Law of Criminal Procedure. On July 8, without making public names or charges, the MOJ announced that the SCC had tried 330 persons, almost all in closed trials, in the first publicly reported trials since 2003 for terrorism offenses. Seven of the individuals were acquitted; sentences for the others ranged from fines to the death penalty. On February 14, the king issued a royal decree appointing more moderate and diverse members to the Council of Senior Religious Scholars (Ulema), an autonomous advisory body with the authority to determine how judges should interpret Shari'a law. The council consists of 21 senior religious jurists, including the minister of justice. The royal decree was part of overall judicial reforms. Trial Procedures.--Laws and regulations state that defendants should be treated equally in accordance with Shari'a. The Law of Criminal Procedure states that court hearings shall be public; at the judge's discretion courts may be closed, and many trials during the year were closed. According to the MOJ, a trial may be closed depending on the sensitivity of the case to national security, the reputation of the defendant, or the safety of witnesses. According to the Criminal Procedure Law, there is neither presumption of innocence nor trial by jury. The law does provide persons under investigation the right to be present at trial, and a defendant may consult with a lawyer who may present arguments in criminal courts. According to the HRC, an attorney is provided at public expense. The law does not specifically provide for a defendant to consult with an attorney upon arrest. Defendants also have the right to confront or question witnesses against them. Witnesses are questioned before the initiation of a trial and may attend and be questioned during the trial. There is no right to access to government- held evidence. Defendants may request to review evidence, and the court decides whether to grant the request. The court must inform convicted persons of their right to appeal rulings. Shari'a as interpreted by the government extends these provisions above to all citizens; however, the testimony of one man equals that of two women; judges may discount the testimony of non-practicing Sunni Muslims, Shia Muslims, or persons of other religions; and female parties in court proceedings such as divorce and family law cases must deputize male relatives to speak on their behalf unless they decide to speak for themselves. Sources reported that judges ignored testimony by Shia or deemed it to have less weight than testimony by Sunnis. At year's end the appeal in Rizana Nafeek's death sentence case was reportedly pending before the High Court. In 2007 a court convicted Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, for killing an infant in her care; she had no legal representation, and an initial appeal hearing revealed that her interpreter may not have been qualified. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--National security interests made it impossible to ascertain the number of political prisoners or detainees among the more than 3,000 persons who reportedly remained in prolonged detention without charge during the year (see section 1.d.). The government asserted that secret detentions were in conjunction with its efforts to combat terrorism. International NGOs, AI in particular, criticized the government for abusing its antiterrorism prerogatives to arrest some members of the political opposition. Security detainees were not given the same protections as other prisoners or detainees. Security suspects arrested by the internal security police remained incommunicado in special prisons during the initial phase of investigations, which may last indefinitely under the MOI's broad legal authority. Authorities restricted family and legal access to detainees; no international humanitarian organizations had access to them, in direct violation of international human rights protocol. On January 15, authorities released political detainee and professor Matrouk al-Faleh after eight months of detention without charges. Security forces had arrested him at King Saud University after he posted a three-page criticism of the justice system and a commentary on conditions in Buraida Prison on a Web site, following his visit to detained reformers Isa and Abdullah al-Hamid. According to HRW, Mansur al-'Awdha, a reform activist from Jawf, has been in al-Ha'ir Prison without charge since 2007. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Rather than Shari'a courts, specialized tribunals in the executive branch decide civil disputes relying on regulatory and legislative precepts and provide administrative remedies. These tribunals hear claims against the government and enforce foreign judgments. Claims for damages or an end to human rights violations may also be brought to the Higher Administrative Court. It specializes in cases against government departments and responds directly to the king; there were no reports of any such cases during the year or in the previous year. Instead, complainants generally referred their cases to the HRC, which either advocated on their behalf or provided courts with opinions on their cases. Domestic violence cases were the most common. The HRC was generally responsive to complaints. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The Basic Law provides that residences be inviolable and that they may not be entered or searched without their owner's permission except in cases set forth in the law. In practice the government generally respected the inviolability of privacy, family, and the home, with some exceptions in which the CPVPV raided private residences and disrupted Shia prayer services. The Basic Law provides for the privacy of correspondence. The Criminal Procedure Law requires authorities to obtain a warrant before searching a residence or a court order before perusing personal correspondence and documents. Royal decrees include provisions for the government to defend the home from unlawful intrusions, and laws and regulations prohibit officials from intercepting mail and electronic communications except when deemed necessary during internal security and criminal investigations; in such cases police must demonstrate reasonable cause and obtain permission from a provincial governor. The government did not respect the privacy of correspondence or communications. Customs officials routinely opened mail and shipments to search for contraband. In some areas, informants reported ``seditious ideas,'' antigovernment activity, or ``behavior contrary to Islam'' in their neighborhoods to the MOI. The government strictly monitored all political activity and took punitive actions, including arrest and detention, against persons in seeming opposition to the government. There were reports from human rights activists of government efforts to monitor or block mobile telephone or Internet usage ahead of planned demonstrations. The CPVPV enforced strict standards of behavior, but since there are no clear standards for what constitutes improper attire or prohibited gender mixing, enforcement of these rules was arbitrary. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The Basic Law and other laws strictly limit freedom of speech and mass and publishing media. The government believed it unacceptable to protect and defend freedom of speech and freedom of expression at the expense of other violations of human rights. Specifically, the government condemns defamation of religions and beliefs and disparagement of the personalities and symbols of all religions, according to the government's statement at the Durban Review Conference in Geneva on April 21. Mass and publishing media were limited, and media outlets can legally be banned or publication temporarily halted if the government assesses that they promote ``mischief and discord, compromise the security of the state and its public image,'' or ``offend a man's dignity and rights''; these formulations provide the government with latitude in using the law to define public discourse. The government continued to restrict freedom of speech and press by interrupting publication and dissemination of news sources critical of the royal family or of Islam. The legal structure permitted the government broad leeway in controlling the media through lawful controls on newsprint, printing presses, licensing, and media content. The government actively impeded criticism and monitored citizens' political activity. All public employees are enjoined from ``participating, directly or indirectly, in the preparation of any document, speech, or petition; engaging in dialogue with local and foreign media; or participating in any meetings intended to oppose the state's policies.'' The government could ban writers critical of the religious establishment, the government's activities, or the royal family from publishing articles; it could shut down critical blogs; and it could threaten and arrest university professors and lecturers for exercising free speech. On September 3, Hadi al-Mutif received a five-year sentence for criticizing the government (see section 2.c.). In 2007, according to AI, university professor Sa'id Bin Zu'air was arrested on charges of financially aiding terrorists; other sources have argued that he was arrested to prevent him from appearing on Al Jazeera and criticizing the government. He remained in detention at year's end. The government owned most print and broadcast media and book publication facilities in the country, and members of the royal family owned or influenced those that were privately owned and nominally independent, including various media outlets and widely circulated pan- Arab newspapers. The government owned, operated, and censored most domestic television and radio outlets. Privately owned satellite television networks, headquartered outside the country, maintained local offices and operated under a system of self-censorship. Many other foreign satellite stations broadcast a wide range of programs into the country. Foreign media are subject to licensing requirements from the MOI and cannot operate freely. Authorities prevented or delayed the distribution of foreign print media, effectively censoring these publications. Journalists occasionally faced harassment and intimidation through phone calls or e-mails. On January 17, after the national soccer team lost a game, a prince called sports channel Al-Riyadhiyya during a live show, threatened the commentator, and told him to be silent. The commentator had negatively remarked on the Saudi team and the management of the soccer federation, which is affiliated with the royal family according to media reports. In March 2008, according to the international NGO Committee to Protect Journalists, cleric Sheikh Abdul-Rahman al-Barrak called for the trial of two writers for ``heretical articles'' and their deaths if they did not repent. In September 2008 Supreme Judicial Council head Sheikh Saleh al-Lihedan stated during a radio program that it is permissible under Shari'a to kill owners of satellite television channels that broadcast immoral and anti-Islamic content. Following strong domestic and international reaction, al-Lihedan clarified his remarks to state that media owners could be subject to the judicial process, including the death penalty. On February 14, a royal decree replaced al-Lihedan with Dr. Saleh bin Humaid as head of the Supreme Judicial Council. The government directly or indirectly censored or restricted media content through laws or other mechanisms. The Law of Printed Materials and Publication governs printed materials; printing presses; bookstores; import, rent, and sale of films; television and radio; and foreign media offices and their correspondents. All media activities are subject to the MOI's prior censorship and licensing requirements. Censorship resulted in situations such as one in which an October 19 Time magazine article on Saudi women in the workplace was banned and drew government ire for ``making unacceptable criticisms of the leadership of the country'' and ``degrading Saudi women.'' A 1982 media policy statement still in effect urges journalists to uphold Islam, oppose atheism, promote Arab interests, and preserve cultural heritage. The Ministry of Culture and Information (MCI) must approve the appointment of all senior editors and has the authority to remove them. The government provides guidelines to newspapers regarding controversial problems. For example, on August 8 and 9, the MCI closed the Riyadh and Jeddah offices of the LBC for allegedly violating media policy. The closing came days after LBC aired a television program that focused on a man's recounting of his sexual experiences, including depicting him driving a car on the streets of Jeddah and picking up women. On July 31, Jeddah police arrested Mazen Abdul Jawad and three of his friends who had appeared on the program, as well as the cameraman and a female journalist. After conviction under Shari'a on criminal charges for publicizing vice, a district court sentenced Jawad to five years in prison, 1,000 lashes, and a ban on travel and talking to the media for five years after his release. The three men who appeared on the program were convicted of discussing sex publicly and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and 300 lashes, and the LBC cameraman was sentenced to two months in prison. On October 24, the court sentenced Rosanna al-Yami, an LBC journalist involved in the program, to 60 lashes and a two-year travel ban, but the king waived the lashing on October 27. It is unknown whether the travel ban was revoked. Occasionally, the Consultative Council allowed print and broadcast media to observe its proceedings and meetings, but the council closed certain high-profile or controversial sessions to the media. Foreign and domestic journalists practiced self-censorship. In rare cases, individuals were able to criticize specific government bodies or actions publicly without repercussions, as they did in the aftermath of the November Jeddah flood. Unlike the previous year, there were no reported cases indicating that officials used libel laws to suppress criticism. Restrictions, including censorship, limited the operation of publishing houses. Under the Law of Printed Materials and Publication, every author must provide two copies of a prepublication manuscript to the MOI for approval or rejection. Although satellite dishes were technically illegal, the government did not enforce restrictions on several million dishes that provided foreign television programming. Access to outside sources of information, such as Arabic and Western satellite television channels and the Internet, was widespread. During the year the government permitted some press criticism. For example, after the Jeddah flood on November 25, the government allowed articles openly critical of high-ranking municipal and other government officials, alleging widespread corruption in city planning. The Saudi Gazette, an English language newspaper, featured critical articles on human rights and labor issues, including pieces on citizenship of persons born and raised in the country, equal pay for female teachers, guardianship, and family violence. Internet Freedom.--The government restricted access to the Internet. According to 2008 International Telecommunications Union statistics, approximately 8 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The official Communications and Information Technology Commission (CITC) monitored e-mail and Internet chat rooms and blocked sites deemed incompatible with Shari'a and national regulations. In addition to designating unacceptable sites, the CITC accepted requests from citizens to block or unblock sites. The government blocked access to Web sites it deemed offensive (such as sites involving sex or pornography); against the principles of Islam and social norms, including radical religious sites or sites with controversial religious content (including pages about Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity and radical Islam); politically sensitive (including human rights); or offensive to the government or members of the royal family. The social networking site Orkut remained blocked throughout the year. Access to the Internet was legally available only through government-run Internet service providers. In practice the law was not enforceable, as Internet users could access the Internet via proxy servers. Individuals and groups were unable to engage in the peaceful exchange of views via the Internet, including e-mail. For example, on July 29, MOI security forces arrested and detained Raafat Al-Ghanem, a popular blogger and founder of the proreform blog Defaf. Al-Ghanem's articles criticized the CPVPV, and he signed an appeal for the release of blogger Mohammed Al-Otaibi and writer Khaled al-Omair. Al-Ghanem's whereabouts were unknown at year's end. On August 20, the CITC blocked the Twitter pages of Waleed Abdulkhair, whose postings included commentary on his own and other lawyers' human rights cases, and of businessman Khaled Al-Nasser, whose postings included commentary on human rights and governance. On November 1, the CITC blocked the liberal Web site www.montdiatna.com for unknown reasons. On December 28, the CITC blocked the Web site of the ACPRA after it wrote an open letter to King Abdullah charging the government with torturing imprisoned human rights activist Suliman Al-Reshoudi. The 2007 Law to Fight Cyber Crime imposes up to 10 years' imprisonment and a 4.7 million riyal ($1.3 million) fine for anyone who creates or disseminates a Web site for a terrorist organization to facilitate communication with leaders of such organizations or promotes the organization's radical views. Other laws criminalize defamation on the Internet, hacking, unauthorized access to government Web sites, and stealing information related to national security. By year's end, no prosecutions had been reported under these laws despite at least two widely reported breaches of the law when Al-Watan's Web site was hacked on September 26 and on November 6. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government continued to restrict academic freedom and cultural events. The government censored course content. Informants reportedly monitored classroom discussions and reported to government and religious authorities. Academics practiced self-censorship. Despite self-censorship by organizers, authorities monitored, censored, and shut down some cultural events. The government censored public artistic expression and prohibited cinemas and public musical or theatrical performances, except those considered folkloric and part of a special event. On July 18, the government canceled the widely advertised fourth annual Jeddah Film Festival, after temporarily lifting a restriction on the public showing of films with the screening of a movie in Jeddah and Taif in December 2008. Local authorities continued to force closings of social forums in the majority Shia Al-Ahsa region of Hofuf. During the year, cultural and recreational gatherings sponsored by private citizens continued. For example, the Jeddah Literary Club welcomed a visiting delegation of writers from the University of Iowa, and the Riyadh Literary Club hosted the group for a discussion that was open to the public. On August 18, the CPVPV attempted to stop a performance of a children's singing group, objecting to the group playing music and mixing genders, at a shopping mall in Medina but were confronted by the organizers' security staff and parents who had paid for their children to see the performance. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The Basic Law does not provide for freedom of assembly, which the government strictly limited in practice. Public demonstrations were prohibited. Public meetings were usually segregated by gender. The Jeddah Chamber of Commerce and Industry and some other commercial and medical events included both men and women. Authorities monitored large nonfamily gatherings, particularly if women were present. The religious police dispersed any large nonfamily groups in public places, such as restaurants. Men and women may mix in restaurants of Western luxury hotels that cater primarily to noncitizens, and in the family sections of some restaurants that do not check identification cards. Security forces usually denied demonstration requests, and they disrupted, dispersed, and arrested demonstrators or would-be demonstrators during the year. There were no government-permitted peaceful political demonstrations during the year. It was a crime to participate in unauthorized public assemblies. On January 1, Riyadh police arrested Khaled al-Omair, Mohammed Al- Otaibi, and at least 21 others in Riyadh and detained them in unknown locations after the men attempted to protest Israel's military action in Gaza through a public sit-in. Their whereabouts were later revealed, and in late June the government charged Al-Omair and Al-Otaibi with participating in a protest but subsequently dropped the charges, although 10 of the men (including Al-Omair and Al-Otaibi) remained detained at year's end. In late February and early March, security officers arrested more than 50 Shia citizens, including children, in the Eastern Province for engaging in a peaceful demonstration in solidarity with Shia arrested in the Medina clashes. Authorities held more than 24 individuals until July 1, when the king granted a pardon. In December 2008 the MOI, citing security concerns, denied a request by activists to hold a peaceful sit-in in Riyadh on behalf of Palestinians in Gaza. In December 2008 the unlicensed Association for the Protection and Defense of Women's Rights in Saudi Arabia received a warning against mounting any demonstrations, according to HRW. In 2007 the group had transmitted to the king a petition with 1,100 signatures asking for a repeal of the ban on women driving. The government did not reply. Freedom of Association.--The Basic Law does not provide for freedom of association, and the government strictly limited this right in practice. The government prohibited the establishment of political parties or any group it considered as opposing or challenging the regime. All associations must be licensed by the MOI and comply with its regulations. Groups that hoped to change some element of the social or political order reported that their licensing requests went unanswered. The MOI reportedly used arbitrary means, such as requiring unreasonable types and quantities of information, to effectively deny associations licenses. At year's end, the government had not licensed the Human Rights First Society (HRFS), whose founder, Ibrahim al-Mugaiteeb, applied for a license in 2002. The government continued to permit its informal operation, but as the group is formally ``unlicensed,'' it remained unclear which activities were permitted and which could draw government criticism or punishment. Without a license the group may not raise operating funds, which severely limited its activities. On October 12, the ACPRA wrote an open letter to the king declaring the founding of a civic and human rights group to promote human rights awareness in society and to educate citizens on basic freedoms as elaborated by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The group did not apply for a license. The 11 founding members of the organization are academics and human rights activists. The ACPRA has a Web site at www.ksarights.org, which was blocked at year's end. Government-chartered associations observe citizen-only limitations. The Saudi Journalists Association operates under a government charter. Membership is voluntary and open to both men and women. Although theoretically noncitizen journalists working in the country were eligible to join, they have no voting rights and may not attend the association's general assembly. c. Freedom of Religion.--The Basic Law recognizes Islam as interpreted by the government as the state religion, and Islam constitutes the basis of the Shari'a legal system. The law does not recognize or protect religious freedom as a matter of policy, and the government prohibited the public practice of non-Muslim religions. The government limited the public practice of forms of Islam other than Sunni Islam. Legal restrictions on religious expression and speech exist. The government prohibited the public practice or profession of other religions, and it outlawed possession of non-Muslim literature or symbols. Public religious training for all but Sunni religious groups was prohibited. Proselytizing by non-Muslims was illegal, including distribution of non-Islamic religious materials such as Bibles. Anyone publicly wearing non-Islamic religious symbols risked confrontation with the CPVPV. The law criminalizes blasphemy. A Muslim's conversion to another religion is considered apostasy, punishable with physical abuse, imprisonment, and threats of execution unless the converted person recants. There have been no confirmed reports of sanctioned executions for apostasy since 1992. The government stated that as a matter of public policy it protects the right to private worship in homes for all religious services and the right to possess and use personal religious materials in private. The policy was not defined in law nor always respected in practice. There were incidents of government violence and intimidation of individuals based on religious beliefs. On January 13, authorities arrested and imprisoned Hamoud Bin Saleh for describing his conversion to Christianity on his ChristforSaudis blog. He remained under a travel ban after release at the end of March and was prohibited from blogging at year's end. On September 3, Hadi al-Mutif, a Sulaimani Ismaili Shia who has been on death row for 16 years for ``insulting the Prophet Mohammad,'' received an additional five-year sentence for criticizing the government's justice system and human rights record on a tape smuggled out of prison and broadcast on Al-Hurra television in 2007. On January 29, the king pardoned Turkish barber Sabri Bogday, who had been sentenced to death for blasphemy in March 2008. On February 20, a group of Shia pilgrims visiting Medina's Baqui'a cemetery to observe the anniversary of the Prophet Mohammad's death clashed with government security forces after a man believed to be a member of the CPVPV filmed some of the women in the group. The clashes continued for five days and resulted in the arrest of 10 pilgrims. The security forces opposed what they consider idolatrous Shia rituals venerating gravesites. Subsequently, a Shia delegation from Qatif, Al- Ahsa, and Medina met with the king, who then announced the immediate release of all detainees. On December 29, the Saudi Gazette reported that the Medina Governorate mayor and the CPVPV officially banned the use of gravestones, a Shia practice to commemorate individuals. Sunni Muslim practice is not to mark graves. According to the mayor's office, all gravestones were removed in Medina. On November 9, authorities in the Eastern Province (Ras Tanura and Abqaia) closed two Shia mosques that had operated for years, justifying the closures on the grounds of improper zoning and lack of mandated permits. Other Shia mosques reportedly were closed in the Eastern Province in the past year, including two in Al Khobar in August. There were fewer reports of government officials confiscating religious materials from travelers, whether Muslim or non-Muslim. Individuals were able to bring personal Bibles, crosses, DVDs of sermons, and other religious materials into the country without difficulty. There were fewer reports of the CPVPV conducting raids of private religious gatherings during the year. The government allowed large public and private celebrations of Shia holidays in the Eastern Province, although restrictions on Shia celebrations differed by region. In Qatif during the year, the Ashura and Imam Mahdi celebrations were marked by more commemorations and participants and by a smaller security presence than in the recent past. Local news reported a wider practice of ritual self-flagellation, which the government previously discouraged. In contrast, the government imposed restrictions on the public observance of these holidays in other areas with large Shia populations such as Al-Ahsa, Dammam, and Najran. Authorities banned public marches, loudspeaker broadcasts of clerics' lectures from Shia community centers, and in some instances gatherings within the centers. Security forces patrolled the streets of Al-Ahsa to ensure there were no banners or flags associated with the religious holidays. Members of other religious groups faced significant restrictions of religious freedom in law and in practice. The government restricted the practice of their faith and the building of places of worship and community centers. There were no public places of worship for non- Muslims. Although the government did not officially permit non-Muslim clergy to enter the country to conduct religious services, some did enter under other auspices, and the government generally did not disrupt discreet religious functions. Restrictions made it difficult for most non-Muslims to maintain contact with clergymen and to attend services. Religious education conforming to the conservative Hanbali tradition of Sunni Islam was mandatory in public schools at all levels, regardless of the Islamic tradition to which students' families adhered. Expatriate non-Muslim students in private schools were not required to study Islam. According to a November 24 HRW report, a lower court in Medina on November 9 sentenced Lebanese citizen Ali Sabat to death for practicing witchcraft. Religious police arrested him in May 2008 while he was on pilgrimage. Apparently, the charge was based on advice on general life questions, forecasts, and predictions he made on a Lebanese satellite television program that was seen in the country. AI reported that Sabat was to be executed on December 19, but the execution had not occurred at year's end. In February 2008 HRW appealed to the king to stop the execution of Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali, arrested in 2005 and accused of witchcraft. HRW cited reportedly weak evidence and highly irregular court procedures. Her appeal was transferred to the High Court in January, and she remained imprisoned at year's end. To reduce extremist rhetoric, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs (MOIA) employed 1,500 monitors across the country, who followed sermons in mosques and the activities of imams, according to a February 2008 Okaz newspaper report. Provincial committees summon clerics accused of preaching intolerance based on the monitors' reports. If the committees are unable to dissuade the clerics from their radical thinking, the clerics are referred to a central committee in Riyadh. Since the program's inception in 2003, a reported 3,200 clerics have been dismissed, according to a March 25 Okaz Online interview with minister of Islamic affairs Sheikh Saleh Bin Abdul Aziz al-Sheikh. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--The government continued to enforce its official interpretation of Islam. Accordingly, it condoned societal abuses and discrimination against adherents of Shia Islam, including limited employment and educational opportunities and underrepresentation in official institutions, as well as societal abuses and discrimination against Christians, Jews, and others. The Shia minority, between 10 and 15 percent of the citizen population, live mostly in the Eastern and Western provinces and in Najran in the southwest. The local government in the Najran area subjected members of the Sulaiman Ismaili minority (a branch of Shia Islam) to officially sanctioned discrimination in employment and in the justice system. The government required noncitizens to carry legal resident identity cards identifying them as ``Muslim'' or ``non-Muslim.'' Unlike previous years, there were no reports that sponsors withheld pay and residency card renewal based on religious factors. In 2008 the UN endorsed the king's Interfaith Dialogue Initiative, which brought together prominent officials and religious and academic scholars to discuss interfaith issues and promote tolerance and understanding. The King Abdulaziz Center for National Dialogue conducted 2,677 training programs with 1,200 certified trainers training more than 150,000 people on ``the culture and importance of open dialogue and communication skills,'' initiatives to increase tolerance and encourage moderation and understanding. During the year high-level government and religious officials openly supported this campaign, advocating against religious extremism and intolerant language, especially in mosques and schools. Since the government's multi-year project to revise textbooks, curricula, and teaching methods to promote tolerance and remove content disparaging religions other than Islam began in 2007, more than 83 school districts in 27 different regions and provinces have participated in the project. The program's goal is to supplement religious instruction with knowledge-based subjects such as science and computer literacy. In 2007 the Ministry of Education signed a five-year collaboration agreement with King Abdulaziz Center for National Dialogue to promote religious and cultural tolerance in the classroom through teacher training and seminars. The government continued to address and remove intolerant and extreme language while promoting tolerance and intercultural understanding in textbooks. For example, the government mandated the removal of controversial terms from school textbooks and the substitution of such terms with the phrase ``there is no compulsion in religion.'' Although intolerant and extreme language was reportedly being removed from textbooks, prejudiced concepts and expressions remained. A 2007-2008 high school text contained stereotypical language, such as saying, ``Jews' lives are ruled by materialism, and usury consumes them.'' Textbook reviews and revisions continued at year's end. The MOIA has issued periodic circulars to clerics and imams in mosques directing them to include messages on the principles of justice, equality, and tolerance, and encouraging rejection of bigotry and all forms of racial discrimination in their sermons. On infrequent occasions, editorial cartoons exhibited anti-Semitism characterized by stereotypical images of Jews along with Jewish symbols and comparisons of Israeli government actions to those of Nazis. Anti- Semitic editorial comments sometimes appeared in government and private print and electronic media in response to regional political events, particularly the Israeli military operations in Gaza. In a January 11 address broadcast on Al Jazeera TV Saudi cleric Khaled Al-Khlewi referred to Jews as ``treacherous, disloyal, deceitful, and belligerent by nature.'' There continued to be instances in which Sunni imams, who receive government stipends, used anti-Jewish, anti-Christian, and anti-Shia language in their sermons and some instances in which mosque speakers prayed for the death of Jews and Christians. There were reports the MOIA dismissed some imams for espousing intolerant ideas. There were reports of imams in the Eastern Province who included calls for divine punishment of Jews as part of special prayers. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The Basic Law does not contain provisions for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, or emigration and repatriation. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner on Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern. Generally, the government did not restrict the free movement of male citizens within the country or the right of citizens to change residence or workplace, provided they held a national identification card (NIC). The law requires all male citizens 15 years of age or older to hold an NIC. For women the NIC was optional, reflecting the special status of female citizens, and could be issued only if a woman's male guardian consented in writing to its issuance, or if she already held a valid passport, also issued only with a guardian's consent. Any transaction with a government agency or public institution required presentation of the NIC. The government imposed restrictions on women's freedom of movement by prohibiting them from driving motor vehicles. The guardianship system requires a woman to have the permission of her male guardian (father, brother, husband, or son) to work or move freely in the country. During the year the government continued to issue NICs to women, despite opposition from religious conservatives. Unlike the previous year, there were no reports that women had difficulty obtaining identity cards, and the application for the NIC was available via the Internet. There are restrictions on foreign travel, including for women and members of minority groups. No one may leave the country without an exit visa and a passport. Women and minors (younger than 21) require a male guardian's consent to have a passport and to travel abroad. A noncitizen wife needs permission from her husband to travel unless both partners sign a prenuptial agreement permitting the noncitizen wife to travel without the husband's permission. Government entities and male family members can ``blacklist'' women and minor children, prohibiting their travel. In cases involving custody disputes, the male guardian is legally able to prevent even adult children from leaving the country. The government continued to impose travel bans on some social or political reform advocates. During the year the government revoked the rights of some citizens to travel outside the country for political reasons but did not provide them with notification or opportunity to contest the restriction. HRW reported the imposition of 22 travel bans on activists since 2007. On July 23, passport authorities in Braid informed Mohammad Saleh El-Beady of an ongoing travel ban. El-Beady is the administrator of the Web site Monitor of Human Rights in Saudi Arabia-Al Braid, and previously hosted an online forum on that topic. In January 2008 police arrested him for contacting human rights activists Abdullah al-Hamed and Matrouk Al-Faleh and for talking to the press about his 2007 four- month detention without charge in solitary confinement, according to the international NGO Front Line. On December 6, police stopped blogger and human rights activist Ra'if Badawi at the Jeddah airport and prevented him from traveling to Beirut; they gave no explanation or expiration date for the travel ban. On his Web site, Badawi had criticized the religious police for human rights violations. In December 2008 authorities stopped previously detained blogger Fouad al-Farhan in the Jeddah airport and prevented him from leaving the country to speak at the third annual Arab Free Press Forum. In 2008 the government prevented Abdurrahman al-Lahem from traveling abroad to receive two human rights awards. Al-Lahem had defended the female victim in the 2006 Qatif rape. His travel ban has been in effect since 2004. The travel ban was scheduled to expire in March, but its lifting was not confirmed by year's end. Movement and travel of foreign workers remained under the complete control of their employers or sponsors, who held their passports and were responsible for processing residence permits on their behalf. The government did not use forced exile, but it has previously revoked the citizenship of opponents of the government who resided outside the country. There are no prohibitions on the return of citizens who have left the country. The government sometimes confiscated passports of suspected opposition members and their families, thereby restricting their freedom to travel. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. The Basic Law provides that the ``state will grant political asylum if public interest so dictates.'' The country has no legislation implementing this provision, and the government allows only those with residence permits to apply for asylum. The government generally does not grant asylum or accept refugees for settlement from third countries. Government policy is not to grant refugee status to persons who are in the country illegally or who have overstayed a pilgrimage visa. The government strongly encourages persons who do not have residency to leave, or it threatens or imposes deportation. Access to naturalization is difficult for refugees. During the year the government provided temporary protection to an unknown number of individuals who may not qualify as refugees. During the year the government facilitated the movement of 28 Eritrean refugees to Sweden. In a 1993 memorandum of understanding with the UNHCR, the government agreed to provide protection for refugees present in the country while the UNHCR carries out refugee status determinations on the country's behalf. In law and practice, the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Access to basic services, including health care and social services, is reserved for citizens. Refugees' only access to basic services is through the UNHCR. The government did not allow the enrollment of refugee children in public elementary schools. Refugees did not have access to courts. There were no reports of mistreatment of refugees and asylum seekers. The UNHCR Representative Office to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries reported that as of September, no Iraqi refugees remained in the country. According to a UNHCR representative, since 1991 the UNHCR has facilitated the safe, voluntary resettlement of more than 25,000 Iraqi refugees to third countries. Stateless Persons.--The country has a significant number of habitual residents who are legally stateless; data on the stateless population are scarce, and the government is not open to discussing the issue. The UNHCR unofficially estimated that there were 70,000 to 100,000 stateless persons in the country, almost all of whom were native-born Arab residents known as Bidoon, with some Baloch and West Africans. Bidoon are persons whose ancestors failed to obtain nationality, such as descendants of nomadic tribes not counted among the native tribes during the reign of the country's founder, King Abdul Aziz; descendants of foreign-born fathers who arrived before there were laws regulating citizenship; and rural migrants whose parents failed to register their births. As noncitizens, Bidoon were unable to obtain passports and had no ability to travel abroad. Their lack of citizenship denied them employment and educational opportunities, and their marginalized status made them among the poorest residents of the country. In recent years, the Ministry of Education took steps to admit Bidoon children to school. The government has issued Bidoon five-year residency permits to facilitate their social integration in government- provided health care and other services, putting them on similar footing with sponsored foreign workers. The government enforces an Arab League directive against naturalizing the estimated 500,000 Palestinian residents, so they will not ``lose their Palestinian identity'' and will ``preserve their right of return.'' Several scenarios lead to statelessness of children under the Nationality Law: (1) A child born before his parents are married is not affiliated with his father legally, even if the father has recognized the child and therefore is stateless. (2) When identification documents are withdrawn from a parent, the child also loses his or her identification and accompanying rights (this could happen when a naturalized parent denaturalizes voluntarily or loses citizenship through other acts). (3) Children of a citizen mother and a foreign father are without nationality, unless the father transfers his foreign nationality to the child. (4) Children of a citizen father and a foreign mother are stateless, unless the government has authorized the marriage of the parents in advance. In addition, when government authorities seize a citizen's NIC, his or her children also lose their legal status and become stateless. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government Citizens did not have the right to change their government peacefully. The Basic Law states that the government is established on the principle of consultation (shura) and requires the king and crown prince to hold majlis meetings, open-door events where in theory any male citizen or foreigner may express an opinion or a grievance. A prince or other important national or local official can also hold a majlis. The Basic Law states that all individuals have the right to communicate with public authorities on any issue. The government interpreted this provision as a right to be exercised within traditional nonpublic means, not by the use of mass media. On May 13, a group of 77 human rights civil society activists sent a petition to the king condemning secret tribunals, seeking permission for human rights activists to monitor prisons, and demanding political and judicial reforms, including a constitutional monarchy and the limiting of the terms of appointed royal family members in government posts. The petition was copied to the Royal Diwan and 20 senior officials. The activists retained a Web site at www.humriht- civsocsa.org, where the petition and other documents relating to human rights and civil society issues were posted. Elections and Political Participation.--The Basic Law establishes monarchy as the political system. According to the family monarchy system enshrined in the Basic Law, only a few members of the ruling family have a voice in the choice of leaders, the composition of the government, or changes to the political system. The 2006 succession law created the Allegiance Commission, comprising 34 senior princes appointed by the king and responsible for selecting a king and crown prince upon the death or incapacitation of either. The king serves as prime minister and his crown prince serves as deputy prime minister. The king appoints all other ministers, who appoint subordinate officials with cabinet concurrence. The Consultative Council (Majlis as-Shura), a royally appointed 150-member body, advises the king. On May 18, the state news agency reported after a cabinet meeting that elections for half of the seats on the municipal advisory councils (the only elected government office) scheduled during the year would be postponed until October 2011 to provide more time to study ``expanding the participation of citizens in running local affairs.'' In the 2005 elections (the first since 1963), only male, nonmilitary citizens at least 21 years of age were eligible to vote for 592 seats on 178 municipal advisory councils, or half the total seats. There were no independent election observers. Unofficial estimates were that between 10 and 15 percent of eligible voters actually voted. The king completed the formation of the councils in 2005 by appointing 592 men to fill the other half of the council seats. Political parties were illegal. The Green Party continued to operate illegally during the year. There was no media coverage of the party's activities. Laws and traditional/cultural practices requiring strict segregation of genders encompassing every aspect of life prevented women from participating in political life on the same basis as men. Beginning in 2005, the government allowed women to run for positions on the boards of chambers of commerce and industry, but none has won a place. In 2008 two women were elected to the board of the Jeddah Chamber of Commerce and Industry for four-year terms and three woman were appointed. During the year the number of female consultants on the Consultative Council increased from six to 10. There were no women on the High Court (women may not practice law) or on the Supreme Judicial Council. There was one woman in a cabinet-level position, as deputy minister for women's education. There are no laws that prevent minorities from participating in political life on the same basis as other citizens, but the dominant societal norms marginalize the Shia population. The Consultative Council included only five Shia members. There were no religious minorities in the cabinet. There were some Shia judges. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption by employees. The government did not implement the law effectively, and officials sometimes engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. There were reports of government corruption during the year, and the World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a problem. There was widespread public perception of corruption on the part of some members of the royal family and the executive branch of the government. On December 31, the Saudi Gazette reported interim results of the king's order for an investigation into the Jeddah flood, which was reportedly more destructive because bribe-taking and corruption in construction contracting and land deals led to improper building and engineering. Authorities detained government and nongovernment officials pending the outcome of the investigative committee's inquiry, but the prince in charge of the investigation said there was no need to publicize the detentions and investigations. As of August 29, the Jeddah Administrative Court had postponed the issuance of a verdict three times in a Taif municipality corruption and bribe-taking scandal totaling 1.4 million riyals ($373,333). In July 2008 the court had convicted 16 Taif municipality employees. Sentences included prison, dismissal from employment, and fines. Seven others accused were absolved of all charges, and two private businessmen were fined 150,000 riyals ($40,000) each. In October 2008 Arab News requested an investigation into corruption involving contracts for major roadwork, highlighting a project for which the government paid 698 million riyals (approximately $186.1 million) that was subcontracted multiple times and ultimately performed for only 18.2 million riyals ($4.9 million). There was no investigation. Public officials were not subject to financial disclosure laws. The Prosecution and Investigation Commission, an independent body reporting to the Council of Ministers, investigated cases of corruption against public service officials. During the first half of 2008 the commission considered 12,466 cases involving public service officials and agencies. The commission identified instances of forgery, bribery, and public mistreatment, among other forms of misconduct. There were no new data from the Commission concerning additional cases of corruption at year's end. Government employees who accept bribes face 10 years in prison or fines of as much as one million riyals (approximately $267,000). The law does not provide for public access to government information, including precision in sources of state revenue and expenditures such as ministerial budgets or allocations to members of the royal family. During the year the government did not make publicly available information concerning specific instances of corruption, allegations regarding corruption, or government actions against corruption. In 2008 the Consultative Council called in ministers for questioning in exercise of its oversight responsibility, although some, notably the minister of finance, did not appear. There was no similar exercise during the year. In 2008 the Court of Grievances delivered 2,695 verdicts on 1,368 criminal cases and 1,327 disciplinary cases against public officials and agencies. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were government restrictions on, and the government sometimes did not cooperate with, domestic and international human rights organizations in investigations of alleged violations of human rights. The Basic Law provides that ``the State shall protect human rights in accordance with the Islamic Shari'a.'' The MOI licensed one domestic human rights organization, the NSHR, funded through a trust fund from a member of the royal family. There were at least two nonlicensed, active human rights groups, the HRFS and the ACPRA, previously the Human Rights Civic Society Saudi Arabia. The government viewed these groups with suspicion and as illegitimately meddling in government affairs. A third, less active group, the National Saudi Committee of Human Rights, has tried unsuccessfully to register since 2003, according to HRW. On October 12, 11 prominent human rights activists wrote an open letter to King Abdullah announcing the establishment of the ACPRA. The group had previously been operating as the Human Rights Civic Society Saudi Arabia organization, which was also unlicensed. There was no public reaction to the letter, which was widely circulated through e- mails and through the Internet, nor did the group's establishment receive press coverage in the country. The NSHR continued to receive requests for assistance and complaints about government actions affecting human rights. Most of its members were academics, and two of its former members were ministers. Ten of its 41 members were women. The NSHR maintained offices in Jeddah, Dammam, Riyadh, and Jizan. The NSHR attempted to resolve cases by working with government agencies. The government accepted the group's advice and opinion and sometimes accepted its recommendations. The government generally viewed international NGOs with suspicion. The HRC stated that the government welcomed the visits of legitimate, unbiased human rights groups and had invited HRW, special rapporteur on violence against women Yakin Ertuerk, and others to visit but also said the government had hundreds of requests and could not act on all of them, in part because it was cumbersome to decide which domestic agency would be their interlocutor. HRW's October 2008 formal request to visit the country to observe trials of terrorism suspects remained pending at year's end; HRW's February 2008 visit, facilitated by the HRC, resulted in a report highlighting the poor conditions of expatriate laborers. HRW and AI criticized the government and called on it to halt scheduled executions. The groups also made statements to draw attention to arbitrary arrests, poor conditions of detention, and mistreatment of activists and suspected terrorists. In February 2008 the government permitted the visit of UN special rapporteur Yakin Ertuerk. On February 6, the UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC) conducted the country's Universal Periodic Review and considered the National Report to the UNHRC outlining the human rights situation in the country. Requests from five UN human rights special rapporteurs or working groups remained unanswered since 2005. A 2005 Council of Ministers decision established the government- funded HRC, which acts as the government's voice on human rights and whose president has ministerial status and reports to the prime minister. According to the NSHR's Second Report on the Status of Human Rights, the HRC ``met with weak collaboration on the part of some governmental bodies in spite of the issuance of royal directives.'' The adequately resourced HRC was considered effective in highlighting problems but had limited capacity to effect change. The HRC worked directly with the prime minister, with a quasi-parliamentary committee, and with the Consultative Council's Committee for the Judiciary, Islamic Affairs, and Human Rights. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits discrimination based on race, and Islamic Shari'a traditions emphasize equality and human dignity regardless of gender, color, or race. The government did not effectively enforce laws prohibiting discrimination based on race. Women.--Human rights activists reported more progress in women's rights than in other areas. The government made efforts to integrate women into mainstream society. Under Shari'a, rape is a punishable criminal offense with a wide range of penalties from flogging to execution. Generally, the government enforced the law within the context of Shari'a, and courts punished both the victim and the abuser. The government views marital relations between spouses as contractual and did not recognize spousal rape. According to the law, if a man rapes a woman, she is viewed as being at fault for illegal mixing of genders and is punished along with her attacker. Statistics on incidents of rape were not available, but press reports and observers indicated rape against women and boys was a serious problem. On February 21, ABC News reported that two policemen were executed for raping an expatriate woman. On May 30, the Huffington Post reported the beheading of a man who had sodomized and killed an 11-year-old boy. Other executions for rape took place throughout the year. The government did not maintain public records on prosecutions, convictions, or punishments. Most rape cases were unreported because victims faced societal reprisal, diminished marriage opportunities, and possible imprisonment or accusations of adultery. On February 8, the Saudi Gazette reported that the district court in Jeddah sentenced a 23-year-old unmarried woman to one year in prison and 100 lashes for adultery; the woman was gang-raped, became pregnant, and tried unsuccessfully to abort the fetus. The verdict against her attackers was not reported. There were no laws specifically prohibiting domestic violence. Government officials stated that the government did not clearly define domestic violence and that procedures for dealing with cases varied from one government body to another. According to the NSHR's latest annual report, in which it investigated 257 cases of domestic violence and women's rights, violence was reported against both men and women in six metropolitan areas and included a broad spectrum of abuse. The government made efforts to combat domestic violence and supported government-run family protection shelters. Societal criticism for helping women ``flee'' without properly investigating cases reduced the shelters' effectiveness, according to a July 8 Arab News report. During the year the HRC fielded complaints of domestic abuse and referred them to other government offices. The HRC's women and children's branch in Riyadh received 275 complaints during the year, 24 percent of which were domestic violence cases. The branch opened in September 2008 and handled 52 cases in its first month of operation. Foreign domestic workers reportedly were frequent victims of abuse (see section 7.c.). Prostitution is illegal and its prevalence is not known. Some women and men, primarily noncitizens, reportedly engaged in prostitution. There were reports of trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation. The Arabic-language media carried infrequent reports of sexual harassment as a social phenomenon. The extent of sexual harassment was difficult to measure. The government's interpretation of Shari'a guides courts on cases of sexual harassment. Workplaces maintained separate male and female workspaces where feasible. On January 15, the Web site IslamNet reported that police in Al- Ahsa arrested a man who was blackmailing a 24-year-old woman into giving him 250,000 riyals ($66,666) by threatening to publish a photo he had obtained of her. The site reported several similar cases in different locales, one in Riyadh where a woman paid a man 800,000 riyals ($213,333) over 14 years before she turned to the CPVPV for assistance. Because the exchange of photographs or letters prior to marriage can cause enormous problems for women, cases in which men abuse contact with a woman to blackmail her into having sex or giving cash have occurred. There were no reports of government interference in the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of children, matters that are subject to agreement between husband and wife. Decisions regarding access to contraceptives, family size, and procedures involving reproductive and fertility treatments require the consent of both husband and wife. The information and means to make those decisions, as well as skilled attendance during childbirth are freely available. Information was not available regarding diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. Discrimination against women was a significant problem. After her February 2008 visit, the UN special rapporteur on violence against women, while acknowledging progress in the status of women and particularly women's access to education, noted the lack of women's autonomy, freedom of movement, and economic independence; discriminatory practices surrounding divorce and child custody; the absence of a law criminalizing violence against women; and difficulties preventing women from escaping abusive environments. Women continued to face discrimination under the law and remained uninformed about their rights. Although they may legally own property and are entitled to financial support from their guardian, women have few political or social rights and society does not treat them as equal members. The law prohibits women from marrying non-Muslims, but men may marry Christians and Jews. Women may not marry noncitizens without government permission; men must obtain government permission only if they intend to marry noncitizens from outside the six GCC States. Custom restricted women in their use of public facilities. When men are present, women must sit in separate, specially designated sections. Women risked arrest by religious police for riding in a vehicle driven by a male who was not an employee or a close male relative. On March 19, the newspaper Ar-Riyadh reported the CPVPV, mistakenly thinking the couple was not married, attacked and arrested a Saudi resident who had driven his wife to a Riyadh shopping mall. The religious police forcibly removed her from the shopping center and detained her for investigation. After discovering the mistake, the CVPV warned the couple not to publicize the incident. The law requires women to wear an abaya (a loose-fitting, full- length black cloak covering the entire body) in public and to conceal their hair. The religious police generally expected Muslim women to cover their faces and non-Muslim women from other Asian and African countries to comply more fully with local customs of dress than non- Muslim Western women. In rural areas and smaller cities, women adhered to the traditional dress code of covering the entire body, hands, feet, hair, and face. Women also faced discrimination in courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women. In divorce proceedings, women had to demonstrate legally specified grounds for divorce, but men could divorce without giving cause. In doing so men were required to pay immediately an amount of money agreed upon at the time of the marriage that serves as a one-time alimony payment. Women who demonstrate legal grounds for divorce also were entitled to alimony. A husband who ``verbally'' divorces his wife, or refuses to sign final divorce papers, continues to be her legal guardian with the authority to approve her travel, business license, studies at a university or college, or hospital care. Women faced discrimination under the family law and under Shari'a inheritance law. Courts awarded custody of children when they attained a specified age (seven years for boys and nine years for girls) to the divorced husband or the deceased husband's family. In numerous cases, former husbands prevented divorced foreign women from visiting their children. Under Shari'a inheritance laws, daughters receive half the inheritance awarded to their brothers. Women had access to free, but generally segregated education through university level and constituted more than 58 percent of all university students. The exception to segregation in higher education was the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, a coeducational research university that opened September 23, with women permitted to work jointly with men, to forgo the veil in coeducational classes, and to drive cars on campus. Employment opportunities for women were limited, confined mainly to the education and health care sectors, although increases were occurring in business and finance, social services, and government ministries. The cultural requirement to separate the genders led to discrimination in employment. A woman cannot accept a job in a rural area unless she lodges with an adult male relative who agrees to act as her guardian. Despite gender segregation, the law grants women the right to obtain business licenses for work in fields that might require them to supervise foreign workers, interact with male clients, or deal frequently with government officials. A male guardian must give permission before a woman can own or operate a business unless the business is in a field deemed appropriate for women and managed entirely by women. In medical settings and in the energy industry, women and men worked together, and in some instances women supervised male employees. Women who work in establishments with 50 or more female employees have the right to maternity leave and childcare. A May 5 Council of Ministers resolution removed the requirement for women to obtain the permission of a male guardian to work, as long as the type of business was ``deemed appropriate for a woman.'' On June 7, the Saudi Gazette cited a report by the Riyadh Chamber of Commerce and Industry stating that nearly 250,000 women worked in government departments and 45,000 others in private firms. By mid-year, the government had established 120 special computer-training centers accredited by the Ministry of Civil Service to help women integrate into the work force. Children.--Citizenship derives from the father and only the father can register a birth. There were cases of citizen children denied public services, including education and health care, because the government failed to register the birth entirely or immediately. The number of births that go unregistered is unknown. The government provided all citizen children with free education and medical care, but these benefits did not extend to noncitizen children. Gender segregation usually began in public and government- sponsored schools at the age of seven. Abuse of children occurred, although it was difficult to gauge its prevalence because the government kept no national statistics on child abuse. During the year the NSHR registered 72 instances of violence against children, according to its annual report. The NGO Committee for Social Protection initiated a campaign to train health workers to identify signs of abuse. At least three NGOs--one in Riyadh, one in Qasim, and one in Jeddah--ran shelters for women and children. On October 7, Princess Adela bint Abdullah launched a national child abuse and child neglect registry at King Faisal Hospital in Riyadh. The program was set up in conjunction with the National Safety Program to counter child abuse. Shari'a does not specify a minimum age for marriage but suggests girls are ready for marriage when they reach puberty. According to the Grand Mufti of the Kingdom, Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh, girls as young as 10 may be married. The press reported marriages between children and of girls as young as nine being married to men older than 60. Families arranged such marriages without the consent of the girl, often to settle family debts. For example, on August 11, Al-Yaum reported the marriage of a nine-year-old girl to a 69-year-old man. The girl's father approved the marriage in exchange for 30,000 riyals ($8,000). On August 25, Okaz reported a 12-year-old girl who had been married against her will to an 80-year-old man fled to her aunt's house but was returned to her husband. Reform-minded activists, media, and local human rights organizations continued to call for an end to child marriage. The HRC and the NSHR stated child marriages took place on rare occasions, principally in rural areas or to settle family debts. All marriages are required to be registered prior to the consummation of the marriage. According to the NSHR president, the government has instructed marriage registrars not to register marriages involving children. In contrast to previous years, there were no reports of sexual exploitation of foreign children brought to the country during the Hajj. There is no specific law providing penalties relating to child prostitution, no statutory rape law, and no minimum age for consensual sex. Children may not receive social services or attend schools or universities unless they hold NICs or valid residency permits and are properly registered in the family register, requirements that displaced children cannot meet. Trafficking in Persons.--A comprehensive law to combat trafficking in persons, signed July 13, prohibits trafficking for purposes of holding a person for sexual abuse, forced labor, involuntary begging, slavery or slavery-like practices, or enforced organ removal or medical experimentation. There were continued reports that trafficking in persons was a prevalent and serious problem to, from, through, and within the country for involuntary servitude, low-skilled labor, and commercial sexual exploitation. At particularly high risk for trafficking are men and women who voluntarily travel to the country to work as domestic employees or other low-skilled laborers. They run the risk of facing conditions indicative of involuntary servitude, including restrictions on movement, forced 18-hour workdays, withholding of passports, threats, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and nonpayment of wages. Countries from which victims are trafficked include Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Egypt, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Yemen, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Chad, and Sudan. There were reports of Asian and African women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation; some were reportedly kidnapped and forced into prostitution after running from abusive employers. Nigerian, Yemeni, Pakistani, Afghan, Chadian, and Sudanese children are at high risk for being trafficked into the country for involuntary servitude as forced beggars and street vendors. Domestic workers were especially vulnerable to trafficking into forced labor, in part due to deceptive hiring practices, the widespread convention of the employer withholding passports, and the requirement for employer consent to obtain an exit visa. Labor recruitment agencies and their subcontractors, as well as companies, hire labor from low- income countries, often under false pretexts. The sponsorship system ties a foreign worker's residency permit to the sponsor for the duration of the worker's stay in the country. When the employment relationship breaks down and the worker escapes or leaves the job, he or she is unable to leave the country. The Saudi Gazette reported in August 2008 that the number of illegal domestic employees in the country increased by 40 percent during that year, reportedly due to the poor working conditions domestic workers faced and their subsequent flight to other employers without changing their sponsorship status. Foreign employees working for anyone other than the original sponsor are vulnerable to exploitation. On May 7, a group of 15 foreign workers remained stranded in Riyadh more than a year after their sponsor died and their residency permits had expired, according to the Saudi Gazette. In such cases, authorities may arrest and detain workers until negotiations between the pertinent embassies or the workers' families in their home country facilitate return of the workers. Since October 13, the government has had the ability to prosecute cases under the new trafficking law and to impose sentences of as long as 15 years in prison and fines as much as one million riyals ($266,667) or both. The law provides for more severe penalties in special circumstances, including for organized crime. The law punishes those who commit as well as those who aid and abet the crime. By year's end, there were no reports on investigations or prosecutions under the law. In November the government provided trafficking awareness and technical training for officials in the justice community, including prosecutors, investigators, and judges, at Nayef Arab University for Security Studies. Due to a lack of victim identification procedures in deportation centers and police stations, authorities reportedly arrested and deported many victims of trafficking. Some victims feared arrest or deportation due to their status as runaways (it is illegal for a foreign employee to run away from a legal sponsor in the country) or as prostitutes, and most victims fled directly to their embassies to await repatriation rather than approaching the government. The government assisted some domestic worker trafficking victims with access to legal services and temporary residency status, including temporary relief from deportation. Public hospitals treated trafficking victims who needed medical care. The embassies of Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines maintained unofficial (unlicensed) safe houses in Riyadh for citizens of those countries who were victims of trafficking. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The Basic Law does not prohibit discrimination against persons with disabilities. There is no legislation mandating public accessibility. Newer commercial buildings often included such access, as did some newer government buildings. The MSA is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. A 2000 royal decree authorizes the provision of prevention and treatment of disease, welfare, and housing services to persons with disabilities and their families and encourages institutions and individuals to contribute to charitable activities to assist persons with disabilities. According to the MSA, there were numerous government-sponsored centers for persons with disabilities, such as the Noor Institute for the Blind, which operated 10 facilities for blind children; the Amal Institute for the Deaf, which had 23 branches; the Institute for the Mentally Retarded, which had 233 units annexed to schools; and social rehabilitation and welfare centers for the elderly. Vocational rehabilitation projects and social care programs provide opportunities for persons with disabilities. The government sponsored institutions for the care of paralyzed children in Riyadh and Taif. There were also five houses for vocational rehabilitation, two of which were for girls; three centers for social rehabilitation for those who have severe disabilities; and nine centers for total rehabilitation. The MSA assisted families who care for relatives with disabilities. The provision of government social services increasingly brought persons with disabilities into the public mainstream. The Labor Law provides that employers of 25 or more employees allocate 4 percent of positions to persons with disabilities. There were critical reports regarding care, particularly housing, for mental health patients, but there was no evidence of patterns of abuse or arbitrary commitments. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Although racial discrimination is illegal, societal discrimination against members of national, racial/ethnic, or tribal minorities was a problem. Foreign workers from Africa and Asia were subject to formal and informal discrimination. There have been some cases of assault against foreign workers and reports of widespread worker abuse. There were reports of racial discrimination against persons of non-Arab descent, especially persons of African descent. The Shia minority continued to suffer social, legal, economic, and political discrimination. In an effort to address the problem, the ministries of defense and interior and the National Guard held training courses in recent years for police and law enforcement officers to combat discrimination. There were no reports of training during the year or of the success rate of these programs. Unlike in previous years, there were no new media reports of married couples forced to divorce because one spouse was from ``inappropriate lineage,'' i.e., a nontribal family or an ``inferior'' tribe. In 2007 an appeals court in Riyadh upheld the forced divorce of Fatima al-Timani and her husband. Al-Timani's half-brothers successfully filed for her divorce because her husband had lied about his tribal lineage. At the end of the year, a royal order asked the court to reconsider the case. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Under Shari'a as interpreted in the country, sexual activity between two persons of the same gender is punishable by death or flogging. It is illegal for men ``to behave like women'' or to wear women's clothes and vice versa. There were few reports of societal discrimination, physical violence, or harassment based on sexual orientation. There were no organizations of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons. There was no official discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, statelessness, or access to education or health care. Sexual orientation could constitute the basis for harassment, blackmail, or other actions. No such cases were reported. On June 13, Riyadh police arrested 67 men from the Philippines for drinking and dressing in women's clothing at a private party. According to their embassy, police released the men to their employers while charges were being processed. In 2007 the newspaper Okaz reported the public flogging of two men in the city of Al-Bahah after being found guilty of sodomy. The sentence was 7,000 lashes. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was societal discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, which press reports associated with foreigners. By law the government deported foreign workers who tested positive for HIV/AIDS upon arrival or when hospitalized for other reasons. There was no indication that HIV- positive foreigners failed to receive antiretroviral treatment or that authorities isolated them during the year. The Society to Aid AIDS Patients, established in March, was the first NGO of its kind. It worked in collaboration with the national AIDS program in Mecca, providing HIV education, voluntary counseling, testing through mobile testing teams, and psychological help; fighting stigma and discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS; and helping families with HIV-positive relatives to acquire medicine; but it faced resource limitations. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The Labor Law does not address the right of workers to form and join independent unions, and there are no labor unions in the country. The government allowed citizen-only labor committees with limitations on the right of association in workplaces with more than 100 employees. Workers chose and the Ministry of Labor (MOL) approved committee members. MOL representatives could attend committee meetings. The committee could make recommendations to company management to improve work conditions, increase productivity, improve health and safety, and recommend training programs. The labor code makes no provision for workers to strike legally and does not prohibit retaliation against strikers. Authorities quickly arrested and in some cases deported strikers. On January 15, the Chinese online People's Daily reported authorities deported 23 of a group of 200 Chinese workers for striking to protest low pay; there were no similar reports from Saudi media. The strike reportedly occurred at a construction site 620 miles north of Riyadh. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law does not protect collective bargaining, and it did not take place. No government plans to address collective bargaining rights or attempts by nationals or foreign workers to organize and bargain were reported. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The Labor Law sets forth voluntary working conditions and pay, including conditions and pay for children, and thus implicitly prohibits forced labor; nonetheless, there were reports that forced or compulsory labor occurred. The government continued to study the sponsorship system, which has been cited in connection with problematic labor conditions, but at year's end had not implemented changes to decrease incidents of abuse. Plans to establish a government commission to oversee foreign workers or specialized companies to organize the foreign work force and to supervise the signing of contracts between employers and workers did not materialize. Many employers subjected foreign workers to abusive conditions that constituted involuntary servitude, including nonpayment of wages for months and years, debt bondage, confinement, confiscation of travel and identity documents, 18-hour days without days off, contract switching, intimidation, and physical abuse. According to HRW, there were approximately 1.5 million foreign domestic workers in the country during the year, most of them women. Reported cases of abuse were numerous. For example, on May 2, Kenyan citizen Esha Noor entered the country to work as a domestic employee. She was abused, required to work 18-hour days, and denied proper nutrition. After five months in the position, her employer threw her out of a third-floor window. She landed in a swimming pool, surviving the fall with broken limbs. She had worked for the employer for five months but received wages for only one month. She remained at a Jeddah deportation center until the Kenyan Embassy repatriated her, according to The Citizen Correspondent of Nairobi. In another case, on December 19, Riyadh authorities discovered the body of a Sri Lankan domestic worker who was working in Hofuf in the Eastern Province, according to the Arab News. The worker had written to her parents that her sponsor had been mistreating and beating her. The sponsor was in custody and awaiting trial at year's end. In terms of movement and travel, foreign workers were under the complete control of their employers or sponsors, who held their passports and were responsible for processing residence permits on their behalf. Sponsors involved in a commercial or labor dispute with foreign employees may ask authorities to prohibit the employees from departing the country until the dispute is resolved. In rare instances, the labor officer of the embassy of the sending country represented the rights of the laborers. In some contract disputes, a sponsor held the employee in country until the dispute was resolved to force the employee to accept a disadvantageous settlement or risk deportation without any settlement. Foreigners may reside or work in the country only under the sponsorship of a citizen or business. The law does not permit foreigners to change their workplace without their sponsor's permission, thus forcing the worker to remain with the sponsor or to seek the assistance of the embassy to return home. The Labor Law penalizes some types of forced labor by fines and bans on future hiring of the laborer, but the law does not apply to domestic employees, the largest group of forced laborers. Domestic employees can contact the labor offices of their embassies for assistance as well as the NSHR and the MOL's Civil Rights Centers, part of a new department responsible for the welfare of expatriate workers. According to the HRC, the MOL has a Migrant Workers' Welfare Department to provide services to safeguard migrant workers' rights and protect them from abuse. Workers may apply to the Civil Rights Centers and to the offices of regional governors and lodge an appeal with the judges at Board of Grievances against decisions from those authorities. Information about the cases the Board of Grievances heard was not available. The government reported no criminal investigations, prosecutions, convictions, or sentences for forced labor offenses under the Labor Law. Cultural norms, including the ban on women driving, make it difficult for domestic workers to file a complaint. Embassies reported receiving complaints via phone, and some domestic servants escaped and fled to embassies. The government does not enforce fines or bans on hiring workers imposed upon abusive employers or recruitment agencies, and foreign workers continued to criticize police for being unresponsive to requests for help. On rare occasions, the government imposed small fines or bans on importing foreign labor on those guilty of nonpayment of employees. On December 17, the Web site MediaBangladesh.net reported that 40,000 Bangladeshis were deported during the previous nine months because they had overstayed their pilgrimage visas. According to sources in Bangladesh's Overseas Employment Ministry, the deportations were for provoking labor unrest, strikes, and protesting low wages and poor labor conditions. Embassy representatives from originating countries stated that cases of foreign domestic worker abuse were increasing. During the year hundreds of domestic workers sought shelter at their embassies fleeing sexual abuse or other violence, and embassies received many reports of abuse. Some embassies from countries with large domestic employee populations maintained safe houses for citizens fleeing situations that amounted to bondage. According to embassy representatives, victims usually sought legal help from police and from embassies to obtain end- of-service benefits and exit visas. Criminal charges against abusive employers were rarely filed. Reports of domestic worker abuse declined in the press. According to the Arab News, the Indonesian Embassy reported 102 complaints lodged with its labor office alleging sexual assault and 156 cases of physical abuse involving its citizens in the first half of the year. In 2008 the Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment, a labor organization, had reportedly decided to curb the number of Sri Lankan domestic workers coming to the region, citing increased cases of abuse. The bureau conducted a campaign against fraudulent recruiting companies, which it regarded as partly to blame for the increased cases of abuse. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.-- Child labor occurred in the country, most commonly in the form of begging. Saudi children from poor families and foreign children trafficked into the country specifically for this purpose worked as beggars. Children from other countries, primarily Yemen, were forced into child begging rings, street vending, and possibly family businesses. There were reports of foreign domestic workers younger than 18, some of whom traveled to the country with forged documents. The MSA provides services aimed to provide every citizen a decent standard of living. Such services are not available for foreigners. The Labor Law states no person younger than 15 may legally work unless he is the only family worker. There is no minimum age for workers employed in family-owned businesses or in other areas considered extensions of the household, such as farming, herding, and domestic service. Children younger than 18 may not work in hazardous or harmful industries such as mining or industries employing power- operated machinery, and there is no evidence that this occurred. A September 2008 study commissioned by the King Abd Al-Aziz City for Science and Technology found that child labor was a growing phenomenon. According to the study, 1.54 percent of children work, including 2.3 percent in Eastern Province. In 2008 more than 83,000 children were working on the streets, according to a study by the King Abdullah Institute for Research and Studies, reported in Okaz. On September 2, Arab News reported that nine-year-old children were working long hours at the Al-Atiqa fruit market south of Riyadh and sometimes moving goods three times their weight. The MOJ has jurisdiction and has acted as plaintiff in the few cases that have arisen against alleged child labor violators. The MSA maintained special offices in Mecca and Medina to combat the growing problem of child beggars. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no national minimum wage. The unofficial private sector minimum wage for citizens was 1,500 riyals (approximately $400) per month, which appeared to provide a decent standard of living for a citizen worker and family (who also receive various government allowances). Foreign workers comprised approximately 88 percent of the private sector workforce. Their work, wages, living quarters, and working conditions were generally negotiated and agreed upon prior to their departure from the sending country. Labor regulations provided for a 48-hour standard workweek at regular pay; a weekly 24-hour rest period, normally on Fridays, although the employer may grant it on another day; a limit on hours worked; premium pay for overtime at time-and-a-half pay with a maximum of 12 additional hours of overtime; and the minister's determination on the maximum number of hours of compulsory overtime. There were no reports reflecting whether these standards were enforced. There were credible reports that female domestic employees were sometimes forced to work 16 to 20 hours per day, seven days per week, with little or no pay. The Labor Law provides for safety inspections and enables MOL- appointed inspectors to conduct inspections of materials used or handled in industrial and other operations and to submit samples of suspected hazardous materials or substances to government laboratories. The Ministry of Health's Occupational Health Service Directorate works with the MOL on health and safety matters. Regulations require employers to protect some workers from job-related hazards and disease, although violations occurred. These regulations did not cover farmers, herdsmen, domestic servants, or workers in family-operated businesses. Foreign nationals reported frequent failures to enforce health and safety standards. Many foreign workers, particularly domestic workers, were not able to exercise their right to remove themselves from dangerous situations, and employers occasionally left them locked inside the home or threatened with nonpayment if they left. Employers also subjected foreign workers to abusive conditions, including debt bondage, confinement, confiscation of travel and identity documents, long hours without days off, contract switching, intimidation, and physical abuse. The MOL's Department for Protection of Foreign Workers addressed some cases of abuse and exploitation. Foreign workers were able to submit complaints and to seek help from the 37 MOL offices throughout the country, although the government was not generally responsive. The ministry occasionally banned individuals and companies who mistreated foreign workers from sponsoring such workers for five years, although there were no publicly available statistics. The MOL may ban indefinitely employers who have repeated violations. Bilateral labor agreements stipulate conditions for workers from some countries, although enforcement was sometimes a problem. On February 2, Arab News reported the problems of four Pakistani mechanics who were owed six years' wages, end-of-service benefits, return tickets to Pakistan, and medical treatment costs. Although the Preliminary Commission for Settlement of Labor Disputes in Mecca issued a decision in favor of the employees in 2006, the workers had not received their compensation at year's end. __________ SYRIA Syria, with a population of approximately 20 million, is a republic under the authoritarian presidential regime of Bashar al-Asad. The president makes key decisions with counsel from a small circle of security advisors, ministers, and senior members of the ruling Ba'ath (Arab Socialist Renaissance) Party. The constitution mandates the primacy of Ba'ath party leaders in state institutions and society. President al-Asad and party leaders, supported by security services, dominated all three branches of government. In 2007 President al-Asad was confirmed for another seven-year term in a ``yes or no'' referendum that local and international human rights advocates considered neither free nor fair. Civilian authorities maintained effective control of the security forces. During the year the government and members of the security forces committed numerous serious human rights abuses, and the human rights situation worsened. The government systematically repressed citizens' abilities to change their government. In a climate of impunity, there were instances of arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life. Members of the security forces tortured and physically abused prisoners and detainees. Security forces arrested and detained individuals--including activists, organizers, and other regime critics--without due process. Lengthy pretrial and incommunicado detention remained a serious problem. During the year the government sentenced to prison several high-profile members of the human rights and civil society communities. The government violated citizens' privacy rights and imposed significant restrictions on freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, and travel. An atmosphere of corruption pervaded the government. Violence and societal discrimination against women continued, as did sexual exploitation, increasingly aimed at Iraqi refugees, including minors. The government discriminated against minorities, particularly Kurds and Ahvazis, and severely restricted workers' rights. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--During the year there were reports of arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life. In early January Yusuf Jabouli died in custody. On January 1, state security officers arrested him at his home in al-Baab, Aleppo province, and on January 7, officers delivered his body to his family, according to human rights observers. His family reportedly was not allowed to open his coffin or to invite friends and extended family to attend his funeral. Intelligence services monitored the burial. Jabouli reportedly taught Islamic studies at public schools in Aleppo and was the founder of an e-mail group called ``al-Mishkaat'' (The Lamp). The reasons for his arrest and cause of death remained unknown at year's end. Also in January Muhammad al-Shawa died in custody. In August 2008 authorities arrested al-Shawa along with a number of other individuals in Deir az-Zawr, Aleppo, and Hama, reportedly because authorities suspected they were members of unauthorized Islamic groups. On January 10, according to human rights observers, military intelligence agents returned his body to his family but allowed his family to see only his face. Human rights groups alleged that state intelligence agents tortured him to death. On June 2, according to the Day Press news Web site, police killed three persons and injured 30 in a violent clash in the town of Ruhaybeh. According to Day Press, the conflict erupted when municipal officials, accompanied by police, attempted to destroy 71 houses allegedly constructed without appropriate government approval. Residents were reportedly unarmed. According to local daily newspaper Al-Ba'ath, the People's Assembly formed a committee to ``discuss'' the causes behind the incident; at year's end there had been no further developments in the case. During the year at least 18 Kurdish soldiers died under mysterious circumstances while performing their required service in the military, bringing the total number of Kurdish conscript deaths over the last five years to at least 36. Authorities frequently attributed the deaths to suicide or accidents, but Kurdish human rights activists and victims' families asserted the deaths were deliberate government killings and demanded the government investigate them. In many cases security agents reportedly monitored preburial proceedings and prevented autopsies. In at least one case, according to a Kurdish human rights organization, authorities warned the family not to ask questions about the soldier's death or to discuss it publicly. Authorities failed to provide documentary evidence to families of the men who reportedly committed suicide. Suspicious Kurdish conscript deaths during the year included the January 19 death of Barkhadan Khaled Hamo; the February 5 death of Mahmud Hanan Khalil, who reportedly accidentally shot himself while on watch; and the May deaths of Ahmad Saadun, Ahmad Abdulrahim Moustafa-- who military authorities claimed died in a traffic accident--and Khabat Hassan Sheikhei, who military authorities reported drowned in sewage water as he tried to rescue a friend during a training exercise. Authorities warned Sheikhei's family not to discuss the death publicly or attempt to investigate the cause of death. There was also the June 5 death of Malek Shabo, whose autopsy reportedly revealed he was tortured to death; the June 26 and 29 deaths of Arif Abdul Aziz Said Osman and Mahmud Muhammad Halli; the death of Ahmad Arif Omar, whose body, which reportedly bore signs of torture, military authorities delivered to his family in July citing the cause of death as electric shock; the July 8 death of Mohamed Omer Khider from a gunshot wound; the August 9 death of Hogir Rasol Haso, reportedly from electric shock; the August 12 alleged suicide by gunshot of Ahmad Mustafa Ibrahim; the September 30 death of Suleiman Faruq Diko from a heart attack during training; the October deaths of Firas Badri Ibrahim, Rezan Abdulkareem Mirana, and Sadiq Hussein Musa, all of which military authorities claimed occurred due to traffic accidents; and the death of Khalil Bosan, whose body Syrian authorities returned to the family in December, claiming Bosan committed suicide with a gunshot to the head. After examining the body, Kurdish activists reported, Bosan's family claimed there were two gunshot wounds to the head. According to a Syrian Committee for Human Rights-MAD report published on the Kurdish Web site en.soparo.com, the Kurd Ez al-Din Morrow died during his mandatory military service while serving with 110th Brigade near Damascus. Military authorities informed Morrow's family on December 19 and advised them to collect his body. No official explanation for the death was provided. Authorities failed to conduct independent investigations into any of the preceding deaths by year's end. On January 14, Syrian authorities returned the body of Muhammad Bakir Dada, a Kurd from Afrin in Aleppo province, to his family, according to Kurdish activists. Authorities alleged he committed suicide on January 13. According to human rights observers, the defense minister, in cooperation with the military attorney general, reportedly resolved to suspend further action against the military and customs officers named in a military investigation report for allegedly shooting Sami Matuk and Joni Suleiman in the course of pursuing smugglers. Matuk's uncle, lawyer and human rights defender Khalil Matuk, filed a formal complaint in civil court about government inaction on the case in 2008. During the year the Homs Military Court initiated a countersuit against him for provoking sectarian discord, insulting the president, and insulting government officials. The court's action was widely presumed to be retribution for Matuk's formal complaint, activists reported. Khalil Matuk refused to attend any of the hearings in Homs. On October 14, the court sentenced him on the aforementioned charges, in absentia, to 13 months in prison. Matuk remained free pending appeal at year's end. At year's end military authorities reportedly continued to detain incommunicado Qaher Deeb, an eyewitness to the killings, without charge or trial. Authorities detained Deeb in April allegedly because he refused to comply with military security officers' demands that he testify that there was an exchange of fire during the incident. There were no investigations or developments in the deaths of Muhammad Yahya Khalil, Muhammad Zaki, and Muhammad Mahmoud Hussein, shot while celebrating the Kurdish New Year holiday in March 2008; Zakariyya Affash, Muhammad Mahareesh, Mahmoud Abu Rashid, Abdul-Baqi Khattab, Ahmed Shalaq, Khaled Bilal, Mo'ayad al-Ali, Muhanad al-Omar, and Khidr Alloush, or any of 75 to 100 other inmates allegedly killed in the July and December 2008 Sednaya prison riots; Ahmed Musa al- Shukaifi, whom authorities allegedly tortured to death in September 2008; or Fahed Mohammed Omar, Abdul Moez Salem, Ghafoor Abdul-Baqi, and Issa Khalil in 2007. In September, according to human rights observers, the family of Khoshnaaf Suleiman received a death certificate from the military attorney general giving Suleiman's date of death as March 3, 2003. Suleiman, a Kurd whom security forces detained in 1998 for alleged membership in the Kurdish Workers Party, had been an inmate at Sednaya prison. Neither prison officials nor the government provided the family with information about how Suleiman died or where his body was located. On February 28, the UN International Independent Investigation Commission's mandate ended; the UN Security Council had formed the commission in 2005 to investigate the 2005 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri and 22 other individuals. On March 1, the UN-appointed Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) began formal operations, and on April 29, the STL ordered the Lebanese government to release due to lack of evidence four Lebanese generals detained since late 2005 without charge for their suspected role in the assassination. The Syrian government continued to detain incommunicado and without charge Ziad Ramadan, a former work colleague of a man who confessed to participating in the killings. Responding to a UN request, authorities said they would likely try Ramadan on terrorism-related charges after he appeared before the STL. b. Disappearance.--There were reports of enforced disappearances during the year, some of which were politically motivated. On or around January 1, according to human rights sources, the Aleppo branch of the General Intelligence Directorate (GID) detained pharmacist Mahmud al-Shihabi Ibn Walid, engineer Mahmud al-Shihabi Ibn Imad, and university student Nizar al-Shihabi Ibn Ghalib in the city of al-Baab. The whereabouts of the three men and the reasons for their detention remained unknown at year's end. On February 23, according to human rights observers, Syrian Military Intelligence (SMI) took Taher Muhammed Abdulkader from his home in Aleppo and held him incommunicado in an unknown location for approximately two months. He was released in early May, but the reason for his detention remained unknown at year's end. On April 2, according to human rights sources, university student Reem Mohammed Nakhla disappeared in Damascus. When her family reportedly learned that one of the security branches was holding Nakhla for ``swearing'' and ``degrading speech,'' they informed authorities that she had a condition that sometimes prevented her from controlling her speech. Despite her family's efforts, security forces did not release her until June 27. On April 9, 26-year-old Muhammad Yasir Aswad disappeared from Aleppo, according to human rights observers. Aswad had been living in Jordan since the 1980s when his father, Muhammad Aswad, moved to escape political persecution in Syria. SMI reportedly summoned Aswad for questioning several times before the April 9 interview. On August 5, Aswad was released; authorities reportedly forced him to begin mandatory military service immediately upon his release. On May 5, according to Kurdish human rights activists, GID forces arrested Hozan Nawaf Rashed, a 24-year-old Kurd. His whereabouts and the reason for his arrest remained unknown at year's end. On June 26, intelligence agents arrested 26-year-old Abdullah Ismail Al-Zain from the village of Maratah as he entered the country from Jordan, according to the Syrian Human Rights Committee (SHRC). Al- Zain originally left the country as an infant with his family after intelligence services detained and harassed his father in the early 1980s. At year's end Al-Zain's whereabouts and the reason for his alleged detention were unknown. On September 13, Khaled Kenjo, a Kurd, disappeared for three weeks after security agents in Qamishli summoned him for questioning, according to international nongovernmental organization (NGO) Amnesty International (AI). On September 1, German authorities forcibly returned Kenjo to the country after rejecting his 2002 application for asylum. During the year authorities charged Kenjo with spreading false information abroad that could undermine the prestige of the state and imprisoned him in Qamishli, a city in northeastern Syria. Kenjo was able to meet with a lawyer on October 6. The reason for the charges against him and the supporting evidence were unknown. According to AI, one of Kenjo's brothers, Ahmad Ma'mu Kenjo, died of a brain hemorrhage in 2004, a few months after security forces allegedly beat him while he was in incommunicado detention. On October 14, state security agents ``disappeared'' civil society activist and human rights lawyer Haitham Maleh from his Damascus office. Maleh reappeared on October 20 when his case was transferred to the Military Court in Damascus. On October 21, the court charged Maleh with publishing false information to weaken the nation's will and insulting the president and the judicial system. At the time of his detention, Maleh was representing imprisoned human rights lawyer Muhanad al-Hasani. He had also recently given an interview on Barada TV in which he spoke critically of the regime. Activists suspected that this interview, his work defending Hasani, and his public writings critical of the regime were all factors leading to his arrest. On November 15, according to AI, security forces arrested Yousef Dheeb al-Hmoud, an activist with the Islamic Democratic Current, a prodemocracy political group. Although Hmoud's family member was unable to identify which security branch had detained him, he or she reported the Political Security Directorate (PSD) had questioned Hmoud earlier in November. The group is opposed to violence and is part of the Damascus Declaration, according to AI. Hmoud, who suffers from chronic kidney failure, high blood pressure, and gout, requires constant medical attention. At year's end the government was holding Hmoud incommunicado at an unknown location; there was no new information on his health status. On November 23, an armed GID patrol raided the home of Noori Ibrahim Shekho, a Kurd living in Aleppo. No official explanation was given for the arrest. At year's end Noori's wife and five sons were not aware of his whereabouts. On April 22, according to human rights observers, Mustafa Sheikh was released from detention. Unidentified authorities reportedly arrested Sheikh in March 2008 at the hospital where he worked. According to a human rights organization, the arrest may have been connected to his religious beliefs, which authorities presumably viewed as overly Islamist. At year's end there was no information relating to persons who disappeared from Deir al-Zour in August 2008 according to Human Rights Watch (HRW), including Husam Muhammad, Thabet al-Hassan, Mahmud Dameem, Abdel Hadi al-Salameh, Muhammad Taha, Bilal Hashem Sufian, Abdel Razzak al-Kubaysi, and Iyad al-Hussein. Muhammad Ameen died in custody (see section 1.a.). There were no new developments in the July 2008 disappearances of detainee Sameer al-Bahar or police officer Mu'awiyah Ali al-Dablan and his friend Bashar Aziz, nor were there developments in the 2007 disappearances of Khalid Muhammad Ahmed or Abdul Rahman Wazzan. The government continued to withhold information on the welfare and whereabouts of persons who disappeared in previous years; little was known other than the approximate date of their disappearance. The government had a long record of allegedly ``disappearing'' individuals, some of whom were believed to have died while others were likely in long-term detention, and it did not investigate or punish any security force members for their role in disappearances. The government continued to deny reports that security forces ``disappeared'' an estimated 17,000 persons in the late 1970s and early 1980s. According to HRW, the disappeared persons were mostly detained Muslim Brotherhood (MB) members and other Syrian activists, as well as hundreds of Lebanese and Palestinians who were detained in Syria or abducted from Lebanon by Syrian forces or Lebanese and Palestinian militias. The Lebanese NGO Support of Lebanese in Detention and Exile (SOLIDE) estimated that more than 600 Lebanese prisoners remained in Syria. In August 2008 Lebanese Justice Minister Ibrahim Najjar stated in a televised interview that 745 Lebanese citizens remained missing in Syria, divided into two categories: convicted criminals and victims of ``enforced disappearances.'' c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, and the penal code provides punishment for abusers. Under article 28 of the constitution, ``no one may be tortured physically or mentally or treated in a humiliating manner.'' Nevertheless, security forces reportedly continued to use torture frequently. Local human rights organizations continued to cite numerous credible cases of security forces allegedly abusing and torturing prisoners and detainees and claimed that many instances of abuse went unreported. Individuals who suffered torture or beatings while detained refused to allow their names or details of their cases to be reported for fear of government reprisal. Former prisoners, detainees, and reputable local human rights groups reported that methods of torture and abuse included electrical shocks; pulling out fingernails; burning genitalia; forcing objects into the rectum; beating, sometimes while the victim was suspended from the ceiling, other times on the soles of the feet; alternately dousing victims with freezing water and beating them in extremely cold rooms; hyperextending the spine; bending the detainees into the frame of a wheel and whipping exposed body parts; using a backward-bending chair to asphyxiate the victim or fracture the victim's spine; and stripping prisoners naked for public view. In previous years AI documented 38 types of torture and mistreatment used against detainees in the country. AI reported that torture was most likely to occur while detainees were held at one of the many detention centers operated by the various security services in the country, particularly while authorities attempted to extract a confession or information. Courts systematically used ``confessions'' extracted under duress as evidence, and defendants' claims of torture were almost never investigated. Kurdish citizens were especially likely to face torture in custody, according to an HRW report released November 26. One Kurdish political activist detained in October 2008 in the Palestine Branch of Military Intelligence said that guards ``. would make me stand on my feet for long days with my hands tied behind my back and my eyes covered with a black cloth. I was made to stand for 11 days with only brief periods of rest for 10 minutes to eat. If I would fall due to lack of sleep . they would throw cold water on me and beat me with cables.'' After his release the activist suffered from inflamed joints and stomach, kidney, and chest infections. Torture and mistreatment reported during the year included several cases of deaths in custody in which the victims' bodies showed signs of torture or authorities prevented victims' families from seeing the bodies (see section 1.a.). In another case security forces reportedly tortured several Kurdish youths arrested January 22--including Abdulazez Jamal, Shayar Masud, Serdar Abdulrahem, Ali Fawaz, Shahen Ibrahim, Dal Muhammad, and Khalid Jomaa--all of whom had participated in a demonstration organized by the Democratic Youth Movement in Hasaka. According to Kurdish civil society activists, security services pulled out at least one youth's toenails during questioning. The whereabouts of the youths and the status of their cases were unknown at year's end. On June 27, PSD agents from the al-Fayha branch in Damascus arrested Berzani Karro, a 20-year-old Kurd, at Damascus International Airport upon his forced return to the country from Cyprus. The PSD held Karro incommunicado for three months before transferring him to Adra prison, where officials allowed his family to visit him. Human rights observers reported Karro was ``reportedly subjected to prolonged beatings'' and, according to a Kurdish rights Web site, torture with electricity shocks while in PSD custody. On November 10, the military court in Damascus charged Karro with ``attempting to sever part of the Syrian territory and annex it to a foreign state'' and involvement in an unauthorized organization. There was no verdict in Karro's case at year's end, and he remained incarcerated at Adra prison. The government failed to investigate any torture cases reported in 2008. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions were generally poor and did not meet international standards for health and sanitation. At some prisons security officials demanded bribes from family members (see section 4). During the July-December 2008 Sednaya prison riots and for the first six months of the year, prison authorities denied all visits to inmates at Sednaya prison. Severe overcrowding at several prisons forced inmates to sleep on the floor. In past years activists and former inmates reported that prison officials would withhold food to punish inmates. The government did not permit visits by international human rights observers. According to local and international human rights organizations, the government held prisoners and detainees without adequate medical care and denied medical treatment to some prisoners who had significant health problems. Throughout the year local and international human rights organizations highlighted the case of political prisoner and Damascus Declaration National Council (DDNC) Secretary General Riad Seif, who the court sentenced in October 2008 to two and a half years in prison and who suffered from prostate cancer. Despite local and international human rights observers' repeated calls for Seif's humanitarian release as permitted by law, he remained in detention at year's end. Seif reportedly received limited medical attention for his illness, but his health remained poor. According to the Arab Network of Human Rights Information (ANHRI), other prisoners with untreated medical problems included lawyer Anwar al-Bunni, who has arthritis and whom prison officials restricted to an upper bunk; and writer Ali Al- Abdullah, whose hearing was failing due to perforation of the eardrum, allegedly from government agents beating him while in custody. There was no information during the year regarding the government's efforts to provide adequate security for prisoners or detainees; in previous years there were reports of prisoners beating prisoners while guards stood by and watched. There were separate detention facilities for men, women, and children. The government reportedly sometimes held minors in adult facilities. Pretrial detainees, particularly those held for political or security reasons, were usually held separately from convicted prisoners. According to local human rights organizations, political prisoners were sometimes deliberately placed in crowded cells with convicted and alleged felons and subjected to verbal and physical threats. Political prisoners also reported that they often slept on the ground due to lack of beds, were subject to frequent searches, and faced solitary confinement if authorities found impermissible items. Guards regularly eavesdropped on prisoners' conversations with their lawyers and visiting family members. Some former detainees and human rights observers reported that the government denied political prisoners access to reading materials, including the Koran. Facilities for political or national security prisoners, especially accused Islamists, were generally much worse than those for common criminals. Each branch of the four security services operated its own detention centers. Most reported torture or mistreatment cases occurred in these facilities, according to local human rights organizations. The government prohibited independent monitoring of prison or detention center conditions and publishing of any materials on prison or detention center conditions, but diplomatic and consular officials were granted limited access in some cases during the year. Nuns from the Good Shepherd convent in Damascus were granted access to the women's prison in Duma to conduct vocational training and provide preschool services for inmates' children who resided in the prison when no other family was available to care for them. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; in practice these activities persisted and remained significant problems. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The role of the security services extends far beyond strictly security matters due to a continuing state of emergency the government declared in 1963. The government justified the Emergency Law on the basis of its conflict with Israel and threats from terrorist groups. The four major branches of security forces include the SMI and Syrian Air Force Intelligence (SAFI), both part of the military; the Political Security Directorate; and the General Intelligence Directorate. The four branches operate independently and generally outside the control of the legal system, and all four devote some of their overlapping resources to monitoring internal dissent and individual citizens. The Ministry of Interior (MOI) controls the police forces, which consist of four separate divisions: emergency police, traffic police, neighborhood police, and riot police. Corruption continued to be a serious problem in the police forces and security services (see section 4). No mechanisms for investigations of security force abuse existed. In September 2008 President al-Asad issued a law that mandates that only the General Command of the Army and Armed Forces may issue an arrest warrant in the case of a crime committed by a military officer, member of the internal security forces, or customs police officer in the pursuit of his normal duties, and that such cases may be tried only in military courts. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--Upon arrest an individual is brought to a police station for processing and detained until a trial date is set. At the initial court hearing, which is sometimes months or years after the arrest, the accused may retain an attorney at personal expense or be assigned a court-appointed attorney, although lawyers are not ensured access to their clients before trial. The individual is then tried in court, where a judge renders a verdict. Although the prison code provides for prompt access to family members, human rights organizations and families reported inconsistent application of the code, with some families waiting as long as a year to see relatives. Civil and criminal defendants had the right to bail hearings and possible release from detention on their own recognizance. This right was not applied consistently throughout the legal system and was rarely available to detainees under the 1963 Emergency Law. The Emergency Law authorizes the government to conduct preventive arrests and overrides constitutional and penal code provisions against arbitrary arrest and detention, including the need to obtain warrants. In cases involving political or national security offenses, arrests were often carried out in secret with cases assigned in a seemingly arbitrary manner to military, security, or criminal courts. Suspects were detained incommunicado for prolonged periods without charge or trial and were denied the right to a judicial determination regarding pretrial detention. Unlike defendants in regular criminal and civil cases, security detainees did not have access to lawyers before or during questioning, or throughout the preparation and presentation of their defense. In most cases detainees were not informed of charges against them until their arraignment, which was often months after their arrest. Those suspected of political or national security offenses were arrested and prosecuted under ambiguous and broad articles of the penal code and were subsequently tried in either criminal or security courts. The government often failed to notify foreign governments when their citizens were arrested or detained, as required under article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, or did so only after the person was released or deported, especially when the person was detained on politically related charges. In 10 reported arrests of foreign citizens during the year, the government accused at least five of the individuals of political or security-related charges and provided no notification. In at least one case, a foreign government received a diplomatic note regarding one of its citizens accused of drug-related charges one month after the individual's arrest and subsequent release. Arbitrary and false arrests were problems, and detainees had no legal redress. The authorities detained persons critical of the government under the Emergency Law and charged them with a wide range of political crimes, including treason. Incommunicado detention was a severe problem. Many persons who disappeared in past years were believed to be in long-term detention without charge or possibly to have died in detention. Many detainees brought to trial were held incommunicado for years, and their trials often were marked by irregularities and lack of due process. Lengthy pretrial detention was caused by a shortage of available courts and the absence of legal provisions for a speedy trial or plea bargaining. According to the most recent UN survey, the country's prison population was approximately 10,600 in 2004. The prison population rate per 100,000 people was 58, more than 50 percent of whom remained in pretrial status. The accuracy of these figures was difficult to determine because there was no independent corroboration of the UN's information, which it obtained from the government. During the year the government continued to make arbitrary arrests, especially of alleged Islamists and MB members, and maintained pressure on civil society and human rights activists. Under the authority of laws that criminalize membership and activity in organizations the government deems illegal, security forces arrested a number of persons linked to local human rights groups and prodemocracy student groups, as well as scores of minorities, particularly Kurds (see section 1.e.). In April, according to the Committee for Observing Civil Society in Syria, security agents arrested Mohammad Anas al-Azem, a 32-year-old preacher, at a Damascus mosque. On April 20, the SMI reportedly arrested Muafaq Noh, a graduate of Shari'a University in Damascus and a publisher. Both men, according to the reporting NGO, were moderate Islamists. No other details about their arrest or whereabouts were known at year's end. On April 28, authorities detained Mahmud Kuftaro for 13 days and questioned him about his relationships with foreign embassies and about allegedly falsely representing himself as a cleric in connection with his tenure as president of the now-closed Center for Islamic Studies, according to civil society contacts. The government released him without charge on May 11. The center published books and held seminars on moderate Islam, activists claimed. The center was administered by Mahmud's son-in-law, Muhammad Habash, a member of parliament (MP) and a moderate cleric. On June 10, according to the Uyghur American Association (UAA), security agents detained Mahmut Damollam, a well-known and influential imam from Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang province, China, along with his family. Damollam was reportedly in the country for Islamic studies. The UAA believed the Chinese government pressured the Syrian government to return Damollam to China, where he faced possible political reprisal. In late June security forces released the family, and they reportedly traveled to Turkey. On June 20, according to human rights observers, SMI agents arrested Jakarkhon Sheikho Ali, a senior member of the Kurdish Democratic al-Wifaq Party's political bureau, in Aleppo. On June 21, authorities reportedly transferred him to the SMI branch in Damascus for interrogation. On August 12, Ali was transferred to the al-Fayha' Branch of the PSD. Ali was held incommunicado and without charges until his October 3 release. According to human rights observers, authorities tortured Ali in detention. On June 29, according to civil society contacts, security forces arrested Sheikh Salah Kuftaro (Mahmud Kuftaro's brother) for allegedly operating a charitable Islamic organization, the Abu al-Nour Center, without a license, embezzling public monies, and meeting with foreign entities without prior government approval. On August 1, according to the SHRC, authorities transferred Kuftaro's file to the Damascus criminal court, although his trial had not begun by year's end. Kuftaro reportedly remained in Adra prison at year's end. There were no new reports on reasons behind the January 2008 arrests of 13 Islamists in the al-Sfeerah area of Aleppo, including students Hamza Haaj Hamza, Hossam Qana'a, and Muhammad Moaz Qana'a, primary school teacher Muhammad Raheem, and pharmacist Barakaat al- Aswad, or the July 2008 arrest of religious scholar Sheikh Yusuf Omar Mobayyedh. There had been no reports on the release of these individuals at year's end. In January, according to human rights observers, security forces released Osama Hamdan Makarem, a businessman from Suweida detained since November 2008. Makarem, according to local human rights activists, had been a staunch Ba'athist who won a law suit against a more prominent Ba'athist party member over a business deal. Activists alleged his arrest was retribution for his legal victory. In February human rights observers reported the release of Bassam Zakia, whom SMI agents arrested in November 2008 in Hama. According to human rights observers, Zakia had come to the country from Jordan to obtain a work visa for Saudi Arabia. He had contacted the Syrian Embassy in Jordan and obtained a permit to enter the country. After he arrived in Hama, SMI officials called him to their office several times and subsequently arrested him. The reason for his arrest, detention, and release remained unknown at year's end. There were no developments in the 2007 case of Nader Sanoufi, a follower of the Islamic Studies Center who remained in detention at year's end. There were numerous reports from human rights organizations that security services arrested citizens who were not apparently involved in political activities. Security services provided no information on the reasons for the arrests, and in many cases family and friends were unable to obtain information on the whereabouts of the detained at year's end. On March 15, according to local human rights observers, security services detained two British nationals, Maryam Kallis and Zahour Ahmed, and held them incommunicado for two weeks before notifying the British Embassy. In May, according to British press reports, a spokesperson for the Syrian Embassy in London alleged Kallis had been involved with an al-Qa'ida cell in Syria. Authorities released Kallis and Ahmed on June 7. On April 11, authorities arrested Jordanian national Usama Ali Meri al-Shaidoon on the Jordanian border, according to human rights observers. Usama's father, a Syrian, died before his birth, and Usama grew up in Jordan. According to reports, Usama had unsuccessfully attempted to register with the Civil Status Register but was unable to do so because his birth was not listed in the registry. On October 26, authorities reportedly released him. On May 28, according to local human rights observers, security services arrested educator Akram Mustafa Alwani in the Education Directorate Building in al-Raqqah. His whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. There were no new developments in the April 2008 arrest of art student Waleed Muhammad Ali Hussein or in the 2007 arrests of Muhammad Naama and Omar Muhammad Khalalo. Amnesty.--The president issued amnesties to seven Lebanese prisoners being held in the country, according to human rights observers and regional media outlets. Newspaper accounts reported the seven individuals were being held as common criminals, rather than as political prisoners. The rationale for granting amnesty was not explained. According to human rights activists, the government rarely includes political prisoners in periodic presidential amnesties. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but courts were regularly subject to political influence. According to observers, approximately 95 percent of judges were Ba'athists or closely aligned to the Ba'ath Party and therefore not independent. The judicial system is composed of civil and criminal courts, under the Ministry of Justice (MOJ), and religious courts, which adjudicate matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance. The Court of Cassation is the highest court of appeal. The Supreme Constitutional Court (SCC) rules on the constitutionality of laws and decrees, hears special appeals regarding the validity of parliamentary elections, and tries the president if he is accused of criminal offenses, but it does not hear appeals from the civil and criminal justice system. The SCC is composed of five members who are appointed by the president for renewable four-year terms. Military courts have authority over cases involving soldiers or members of other military or police branches. If the charge against a soldier or member of the military or police branch is a misdemeanor, the sentence against the defendant is final. If the charge is a felony, the defendant has the right to appeal to the Military Chamber at the Court of Cassation. Military courts also have authority to try civilians in cases based on military law. Civilians have the right to appeal all sentences in military court. A military prosecutor decides the venue for a civilian defendant. In contrast to previous years, there were no reports during the year that the government operated military field courts, which reportedly observed fewer formal procedures than regular military courts, in locations outside established courtrooms. The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) tries political and national security cases and operates under the provisions of the 1963 Emergency Law, which authorizes the prosecution of anyone ``opposing the goals of the revolution'' and creating ``sectarian strife.'' Trial Procedures.--Defendants before civil and criminal courts are entitled to legal representation of their choice; the courts appoint lawyers for indigents. Defendants are presumed innocent, and they are allowed to present evidence and to confront their accusers. Trials are public, except for those involving juveniles or sex offenses. Defendants can appeal verdicts to a provincial appeals court and ultimately to the Court of Cassation. Appeals are often difficult to win because the lower courts do not provide verbatim transcripts of cases, only summaries prepared by the presiding judges. There are no juries. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government-held evidence relevant to their cases. Human rights lawyers noted that, in some politically charged cases, the prosecution case files that defense lawyers were allowed to see did not include any evidence. The law extends the above rights to all citizens in criminal cases. In some cases, such as the May 11 case of Kurdish Future Movement leader Meshaal Tammo, defendants were denied the right to speak at their trial. A number of sections of family and criminal law are based on Shari'a and do not treat men and women equally. Some personal status laws use Shari'a regardless of the religion of those involved in the case. The SSSC does not observe constitutional provisions safeguarding defendants' rights. Its verdicts are not subject to judicial appeal, but the minister of interior may ratify, nullify, or alter an SSSC ruling, and the president must approve the verdict or may ask for a retrial. Charges against defendants before the SSSC were usually vague, and authorities sometimes prevented defendants' access to their lawyers before trial. Under SSSC procedures, defendants and their lawyers are not present during the preliminary or investigative phase of the trial during which the prosecutor presents evidence. Lawyers submitted written defense pleas rather than making oral presentations. Trials took place before one to three judges and usually remained closed to the public as well as to the defendants' families. Authorities did not permit human rights NGOs to visit the SSSC, but local lawyers affiliated with local NGOs acted as defense counsel in some cases. Authorities granted diplomatic observers limited access to the SSSC during the year. Human rights organizations estimated that the SSSC tried hundreds of cases annually. Most cases during the year involved charges relating to membership in banned political groups, including religious parties such as the MB, the Islamic Liberation Party, and Syrian Kurdish parties. During the year the SSSC sentenced more than 100 citizens to sentences ranging from three years' imprisonment to execution (in all cases commuted to 12-15 years' imprisonment during the year). The SSSC is not required to keep a regular schedule. Following the July 2008 Sednaya prison riots, the SSSC suspended operations for approximately eight months. Even when the SSSC scheduled a case on a given day, the court sometimes failed to convene, offering no reason. On March 15, the SSSC sentenced Fadi Issa to death under Law 49/ 1980, which prohibits membership in the MB. The sentence was commuted to 12 years in prison. Issa, born in 1978 in Hama, had been detained since 2006, according to human rights activists. The SSSC, however, dropped the same charges against Issa's codefendant, Anas al-Jammas. On April 5, the SSSC convicted Khalid Ahmad Ibn Muhammad from the province of al-Raqqa, who had been detained since 2007, of being a member of the MB. He was sentenced to death, but the court reduced the sentence to 12 years in prison. Also on April 5, according to human rights activists, the SSSC sentenced Jamal Hafez, Rasmi Muhammad Baker, Ahmad Masom Hamdi, and Muawia Qatrangi to eight years in prison for undermining the social system. Also sentenced were Mervat al-Midani, Ali al-Atrash, and Ali Arsalan to five years each on the same charge. On April 14, the SSSC sentenced seven individuals to prison terms ranging from five to 12 years. Safwan Asad al-Bakri Ibn Shadhan from the province of Deir al-Zur, who had been detained since 2007, had been sentenced to death by the SSSC under Law 49/1980. His sentence was reduced to 12 years of hard labor. Rashad Ibrahim, Saleh Misto, Muhammad Habash Resho, and Nouri al Hussein, all Kurds, were sentenced to six years under article 267 of the penal code for belonging to a secret organization threatening the territorial integrity of the country. Latifa Murad and Zeinab Horo, both Kurds, received five years for the same reason. The SSSC sentenced Ibrahim Sheikho to seven years in prison for having contact with groups outside the country who were planning hostile actions against Syria. On June 14, the court sentenced Elias Ekkhe to four years of hard labor for ``actions against the revolution'' under article three. Ekkhe was detained in 2007, and the court decided time already served would count toward the completion of his sentence. On September 27, according to civil society activists, the SSSC convicted three Kurds for affiliation with a banned political party and for seeking to partition Syrian land and annex it to a foreign country. Cameron Khalil Mohammed and Inayat Abdul Aziz Khana were sentenced to eight years in prison, and Mustafa Rasheed Zalfu was sentenced to six years in prison. Dissident poet Mahmud Husein Sarem, detained in February 2007 and reportedly released in March 2007, still faced trial in the Military Court. There was no further information on Sarem or the status of his case at year's end. On December 13, according to human rights observers, the SSSC sentenced Omar Hayyan al-Razzouk, detained since 2005, to death for membership in the MB. The judge reduced the sentence to 12 years in prison. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--The number of political prisoners and detainees--both citizens and foreigners--remained difficult to determine due to the lack of official government information and because different branches of the security services, each of which maintained its own incarceration facilities, held significant numbers of such detainees. Authorities refused to divulge information regarding numbers or names of persons in detention on political or security-related charges. Local human rights observers continued to estimate that 1,500 to 3,000 political prisoners, including accused Islamists, were in detention. The government frequently held detainees for extended periods without trial and without information provided to their families. In 2006 the government began to try some political detainees in criminal court; once convicted on political or security-related charges, they were treated like common prisoners. For example, on March 15, Damascus Second Criminal Court sentenced cyberdissident Habib Saleh to three years in prison for inciting sectarian strife, spreading false information, and weakening national sentiment, based on his critical writings. The government did not permit regular access to political prisoners or detainees by local or international humanitarian organizations. Human rights groups reported that many political prisoners serving long-term sentences remained in prison after the expiration of their sentences. For example, April 18 marked the end of prisoner of conscience Nizar Rastanawi's jail term, but authorities did not release Rastanawi, allow his family to visit him, or provide information about his whereabouts. In 2006 the SSSC sentenced Rastanawi to four years in prison for his political activism and sent him to Sednaya prison, where periodic riots broke out in one wing from July through December 2008. Beginning in July 2008 and continuing for a year, authorities did not permit families to visit inmates. Rastanawi's family told local human rights activists that a Sednaya prisoner reported Rastanawi had been killed during the riots; at year's end there was no confirmation of Rastanawi's status or whereabouts. On July 25, Hamad Ahmad al-Khuder completed a five-year prison sentence, according to the Arabic Organization for Human Rights in Syria (AOHR); authorities reportedly failed to release Khuder and instead transferred him to Sednaya prison. His exact whereabouts and the status of his prison sentence remained unknown at year's end. During the year police and security agents arrested individuals based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular group. The government was especially harsh toward individuals allegedly involved in Kurdish political or civil society activism. On January 3, according to a Kurdish human rights group, PSD agents arrested Nassriddin Barhec, a member of the Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (``al-Party''). His whereabouts at year's end remained unknown. For example, on January 10, SMI agents arrested 62-year-old Mustafa Jum'ah, according to human rights observers. According to AI, the incarceration of Jum'ah, a senior member of the Kurdish Azadi Party, may have been politically motivated. Jum'ah, who reportedly suffers from high blood pressure and asthma, remained in detention at Adra prison at year's end. On April 14, according to human rights observers, the SSSC sentenced Kurdish activists Salih Mastu, Nouri Mustafa, Hussein and Rashid Binyaaf, Mohammed Habash Rasho, and Ibrahim Sheikh Alloush to sentences of six to seven years in prison. The government accused the seven activists, members of the PKK, of attempting to split a section of Syrian land and annex it to a foreign state, according to the SHRC. On May 4, Walid al-Buni, a physician and dissident serving a two- and-a-half year sentence handed down in October 2008 for political crimes including DDNC membership, faced a military trial on charges of making statements that ``weaken national morale.'' DDNC members Riad Seif, Akram al-Bunni, and Ali Abdullah suffered health problems in Adra prison (see section 1.c.), and there was no change in status of the other incarcerated DDNC members, including Fayez Sarah, Muhammed Haji Darwish, Marwan al-Esh, Talal Abu Dan, Ahmad Toumah, Jaber al-Shoufi, and Muhammad Yasser al-Eitti. According to activists, by December all 12 DDNC members had completed two-thirds of their sentences, thereby making them eligible for early release on good behavior. Activists reported that many of the members had written the requisite appeal letters to the court. These letters, however, required the prison warden's signature of attestation, which state security reportedly instructed him to refuse. Lawyers for the 12 members drafted letters on behalf of their clients and submitted them to the court. Authorities denied the appeals for early release. On May 11, according to the SHRC, the Damascus criminal court sentenced engineer and political activist Mashaal Al Tammo to three and one-half years in prison for allegedly spreading false news to lower the morale of the nation, weaken the national sentiment, and provoke sectarian and racial rifts. According to local human rights observers, the charges resulted from papers found in his car after security agents abducted him in August 2008. In a previous court session, authorities denied Al Tamo the right to defend himself in court, according to the SHRC. At year's end Tammo was serving his sentence in Adra prison, where prison officials denied him access to reading and writing materials provided to other prisoners. On May 12, security services arrested five political activists-- Hasan Zahra, Abbas Abbas, Tawfiq Omran, Ahmad Nihawi, and Ghassan Hasan--gathered in a house in al-Salamya, Hasaka province, reportedly for illegal political activities associated with their membership in the Communist Labor Party, according to human rights activists. All of the men except Omran had served prison sentences for their political activities in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Their whereabouts and reasons for their arrest remained unknown at year's end. On June 7, according to civil society activists, a military judge in Qamishli convicted Salah Mohammad Said Younis and Mohammad Bashar al-Mahmud for having engaged in a political or social organization of an international character and for inciting religious and ethnic sectarian strife. Both men received a sentence of one year's imprisonment. On July 28, GID agents arrested human rights lawyer Muhanad al- Hasani. Human rights observers reported that Hasani was forced to sleep on the floor of an overcrowded cell and that prison guards beat him for using another inmate's cellular phone. Prison guards also reportedly searched Hasani's possessions daily for evidence of reading and writing materials; guards allowed other prisoners to possess such materials. Prison guards also reportedly prohibited other inmates from speaking to Hasani for any reason. At year's end Hasani remained in detention. On October 29, according to the Damascus Declaration, police arrested DDNC member Khalaf al-Jarbou at the Lebanese border and transferred him to PSD custody. Although the reason for his arrest was unknown, activists speculated that authorities may have believed Jarbou was attempting to violate the conditions of his government-mandated travel ban and exit the country. His exact whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On November 15, according to diplomatic observers, the Second Criminal Court in Damascus sentenced three leaders of the banned Kurdish Azadi Party--Mustafa Jumaa Bakar (arrested January 10), Muhammad Said Hussein al-Omar, and Saadoun Sheiku (both arrested by SMI in 2008)--to three years' imprisonment each for issuing calls that weakened national sentiment or incited racial/sectarian strife, establishing an organization aimed at changing the financial or social status of the state, and undertaking acts in writings or speech that weakened national sentiment or incited religious/sectarian strife. Human rights observers reported al-Omar suffered a stroke in Adra prison in April and was taken to Ibn al-Nafis hospital. On December 12, security agents arrested Kurdish human rights activist and lawyer Mustafa Ismail in Ain al-Arab, a city on the Turkish border, according to several international human rights organizations. Authorities gave no specific reason for his arrest, but activists suspected authorities detained him for alleged public statements about the Kurds' situation in the country about which security agents had interrogated him on March 13 and October 3. On December 26, authorities in Qamishli arrested Kurdish Yeketi Party leaders Hassan Saleh, Maaruf Mala Ahmed, and Muhammad Mustafa and Kurdish activist Anwar Nasso for their participation in the Yeketi Party meeting. Authorities summoned the four men to security offices in Qamishli for questioning and arrested them. According to several activists and NGOs, the arrests were linked to a resolution passed at the meeting calling for autonomy of Syria's Kurdistan. The four men were reportedly being held at Adra prison at year's end. There were no new reports on the welfare or whereabouts of the following individuals arrested in 2008: Kurdish university student Hozan Muhammad Amin Ibrahim; Kurdish citizens Jawan Abdo, Ra'id Fawaz al-Ali, Markeen Mustafa, and Salahidin Baro; human rights lawyer and DDNC member Ghazi Qadoor; dentist and son of a prominent nuclear scientist Khaldoun al-Jaza'iri; and Kurdish Freedom Party members Muhammad Sa'id Husayn and Sa'dun Mahmud Shekho. On May 4, according to human rights observers, authorities released Sufian Muhammad Bakor from prison. The PSD in Hama arrested Bakor in 2007 and reportedly held him as leverage against his father, Muhammed Ahmed Bakor, exiled dissident and president of the Syrian Committee for Democratic Action. There were also Jordanian, Lebanese, Iraqi, Palestinian, and other foreign political prisoners and detainees. During the year various Lebanese media outlets reported the release of 20 to 300 Lebanese prisoners from Syrian prisons. Lebanese sources estimated that by year's end authorities had released a total of 130 Lebanese prisoners, all of whom were convicted criminals. In November 2008 the Jordan Times reported that Arab Organization for Human Rights representative Abdul Karim Shraideh said approximately 256 Jordanians were missing in Syria. There was no additional information on the March 2008 statement by a former prisoner that two Lebanese Christian priests, Suleiman Abu Khalil and Albert Sherfan, arrested at the Beit al-Qala' monastery in Beit Meri, Lebanon, in 1990 during a Syrian military raid against Lebanese forces, were still being detained in al-Hasaka, Syria, as of 2005. Authorities imposed a so-called rights ban on former prisoners, which lasted from the day of sentencing until seven years after the expiration of the sentence in the case of a felony and three years in the case of a misdemeanor conviction. In practice restrictions sometimes continued beyond those periods. Persons subjected to this ban were not allowed to vote, run for office, or work in the public sector; they also were often denied passports or the right to international travel. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters; in practice the courts were neither independent nor impartial. According to observers, approximately 95 percent of judges were either Ba'athists or closely aligned to the Ba'ath Party. Property Restitution.--According to the law, a municipality may expropriate property for the public good. The municipality usually compensated individuals, but many reported that the restitution was insufficient. Although individuals have the legal right to sue the municipality for more compensation, in practice only a few individuals won such cases. Security forces routinely seized detainees' property and personal items, such as computers and cellular telephones. According to local human rights contacts, the phenomenon was too common to track or record specific cases. Security forces did not appropriate, confiscate, or catalogue these materials in accordance with the law, and although detained individuals theoretically had the right to retrieve the items after release, authorities did not return many former detainees' property. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions, but the Emergency Law authorizes security services to enter homes and conduct searches without warrants if broadly defined security matters are involved. Police bypassed the normal search warrant requirement in many instances by citing security reasons or emergency grounds for entry. Security services selectively monitored telephone conversations and fax transmissions. The government opened mail addressed to both citizens and foreign residents. The government routinely monitored Internet communications, including e-mail, and blocked or monitored access to some Web sites. The government and the Ba'ath Party monitored and attempted to restrict some citizens' visits to foreign embassies and participation in cultural activities. There were reports during the year that invitees to diplomatic functions received telephone calls from the security services instructing them not to attend. The government did not permit the formation of new political parties or license politically based NGOs. In practice the government tolerated some illegal political parties, such as the Communist Union Movement. In some cases authorities harassed illegal parties, such as the Communist Action Party, the People's Party, and the Arab Social Union, but did not arrest individuals for membership. The government forbids membership in Islamist parties, and authorities immediately arrested and executed these members. The government detained relatives of detainees and fugitives to obtain a confession or surrender, respectively, and harassed and intimidated the families of activists and political prisoners. There were unconfirmed reports that security personnel forced prisoners to watch relatives being tortured to extract confessions. In September 2008, according to a June 4 report by the SHRC, security agents arrested Sheikh Jihad Mahmud Shaheen, imam of the al- Unnabi mosque in Damascus, after he had returned from a visit to his daughter, who had undergone surgery in Jordan. According to the report, security agents were suspicious of the visit because the daughter's husband was a member of the National Salvation Front, an exiled oppositionist party founded by former Syrian vice president Abdul Halim Khaddam and the MB. Following Shaheen's arrest, security agents raided his home and arrested his son, Muntasir Jihad Shaheen, an 18-year-old student. When family members asked authorities what had happened to their relatives, how long they would be detained, and their whereabouts, security officials reportedly replied that they would provide no information until Shaheen's daughter and son-in-law returned to the country and surrendered. At year's end Shaheen and his son's whereabouts remained unknown. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press. The government significantly restricted these rights in practice, relying when necessary on Emergency Law provisions that suspend such rights and supersede constitutional practices. The government strictly controlled the dissemination of information and prohibited criticism of the government and discussion of sectarian issues, including religious and ethnic minority rights. Authorities detained and abused journalists, writers, and other individuals for expressions of opinion that violated these restrictions, leading them to practice self-censorship. The government also attempted to impede criticism through monitoring of political meetings and informer networks. Emergency Law and penal code articles dealing with crimes against state security allow the government broad discretion to determine what constitutes illegal expression. The Emergency Law prohibits publication of ``false information'' that opposes ``the goals of the revolution.'' Penal code articles prohibit acts or speech inciting sectarianism. On October 22, according to several human rights groups, security agents arrested religious cleric Abdul Rahman al-Kouki upon his return from Qatar, where he had been been a guest on the October 20 episode of ``Opposite Direction,'' a news talk show broadcast by Al-Jazeera. During the broadcast Kouki criticized Egyptian Grand Sheikh Tantawi for banning the ``niqab'' at al-Azhar University in Cairo. Human rights observers believed his public criticism prompted the arrest. According to All4Syria.com, Minister of Religious Affairs Muhammad Abdulsattar al-Sayed had recently ordered clerics not to give interviews without the ministry's permission and said he was ``dissatisfied'' with Kouki's repeated appearances on Al-Jazeera. Authorities charged Kouki in the First Criminal Court with weakening national sentiment, undermining the prestige of the state, and inciting sectarian strife. The government heavily influenced the media, and the government or the Ba'ath Party owned most newspaper publishing houses. A number of quasi-independent periodicals, usually owned and produced by figures with government connections, were published during the year, including the National Progressive Front's (NPF) Communist party newspaper The People's Voice; the NPF's Socialist Union party's newspaper The Unionist; and privately owned newspapers The Nation (Al-Watan), The Economy (Al-Iqtissad), and Al-Khabar, the latter two of which were sometimes critical of the government's economic policies and performance. The government prohibited all Kurdish-language publications, although there were credible reports that such publications were available in the country. The Ministry of Information continued to deny permission to publish Al-Ousboua Al-Iqtissadi, a business weekly, and Al-Riyada wa Al-Shabab, a new magazine for young sports fans. In May Prime Minister Mohamad Naji al-Utri decreed that public-sector entities (e.g., businesses and education facilities) could not work with any media outlet except the state-run Syrian Arab News Agency. Civil society activists claimed this was an effort to marginalize the private media's access to social and economic information. At year's end it remained unclear whether the public sector was complying with the decree or how the government would enforce it. The print and electronic media were critical at times of the Ba'ath Party and government performance. They reported openly on a range of social and economic issues, such as corruption in the energy and communications sectors. The media covered some Israeli-Palestinian developments factually but in many cases inflamed local sentiments by using biased language and images. Whereas the government or the Ba'ath Party owned and operated some radio and most television companies, examples of privately owned stations included Al-Medina radio station and Ad-Dounia and Al-Rai television stations. The Ministry of Information closely monitored radio and television news and entertainment programs to ensure adherence to government policies. The government did not interfere with broadcasts from abroad. Satellite dishes were widely used and available. In February authorities shut down religious television station Al- Daawa and confiscated all of its equipment three months after the station's official opening, according to an Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR) report. The report quoted a local media source as saying ``security officials had forced the channel to announce that it had decided to stop broadcasting of its own will.'' At year's end the reasons behind the closure remained unknown. As in previous years, government forces detained, arrested, and harassed journalists and other writers for works deemed critical of the state. Harassment included banning from the country, firing for association with international organizations, and failing to respond to requests for journalists' accreditation. The government also arrested journalists and others who wrote in Kurdish or in favor of greater Kurdish rights. On January 27, SMI agents again arrested Humam Haddad, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR). Haddad wrote about human rights violations in the country for several newspapers and magazines and had participated in an Internet training session in Jordan with Front Line, an international human rights organization, according to HRW. No official reason was given for Haddad's arrest, but human rights activists attributed it to his writings. He was previously detained from May to July 2008 and again in September 2008. Security agents reportedly released Haddad after several days. On April 5, according to the Samir Kassir Foundation, PSD agents arrested Syrian Kurdish journalist Faruq Haji Mustafa in Aleppo, providing no specific reason for his arrest. Mustafa had written for regional media outlets such as Al-Watan, the London-based, pan-Arab Al- Hayat, and the Lebanon-based Al-Safir. He was reportedly released on June 17. On July 5, authorities arrested Helmi Musa, a Palestinian journalist who covers Israeli affairs for the Lebanese newspaper Al- Safeer, as he was participating in a political seminar in Damascus. According to human rights activists and press reports, Musa was aligned with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. On July 7, authorities released Musa; no reason for his detention was given. On August 2, the Ministry of Information forced the dismissal of Al-Uruba al-Homsiya editor and journalist Ahmad Takrouni, according to NGO Reporters Without Borders. Takrouni reportedly claimed he was fired for publishing a July 14 column by Hassan al-Safidi arguing that regional identity for people in the Homs area was more important than national identity. At year's end there were no reported developments in the case of writer Khaled Jamil Muhammad, detained since June 2008. The Ministry of Information and the Ministry of Culture and National Guidance (MCNG) continued to censor domestic and foreign publications prior to circulation or importation and stopped circulation when content was judged to be critical or sensitive. Publication or distribution of any material security officials deemed threatening or embarrassing to the government was prohibited. Censorship usually was greater for materials in Arabic. Journalists also practiced self-censorship. In May the MOI ordered the General Institution for Distributing Publications, the only authorized distribution agency in the country, to halt circulation of the May issue of Shabablek, a monthly periodical for young people. Media watchdogs reported the ministry's decision was based on an article in which the author wrote, ``I cannot come back to my country because I don't want to be conscripted.'' On August 13, the Ministry of Information stopped production of the television talk show Alama Farika and fired its host, Ibrahim al-Jabin. Before shutting down the program, the ministry had banned three Alama Farika shows from being shown, including one featuring an interview with MP Suleiman Haddad. At year's end the show was still not in production. On August 16, according to local media watchers, the Ministry of Information banned distribution of an issue of the weekly Al-Khabar without providing a reason. The ministry targeted Al-Khabar in the past and by year's end had banned distribution of at least 25 issues. According to an October 12 report by local media watchers, the Syrian Circulation Agency claimed the government banned distribution of an issue of the pro-Syrian Lebanese daily al-Akhbar because of an op-ed on Saudi-Syrian rapprochement and the Saudi king's visit. On November 22, state security agents arrested journalist Ma'an Akal from his workplace at al-Thawra newspaper, according to human rights observers. Although the specific reasons for his arrest were unknown at year's end, human rights observers suspected Akal's forthright reporting on corruption inside the regime may have been a contributing factor. Akal is a former political prisoner who spent nine years in prison for being a member of the ``Labor League.'' The law prohibits the publication of ``inaccurate'' information, particularly if it ``causes public unrest, disturbs international relations, violates the dignity of the state or national unity, affects the morale of the armed forces, or inflicts harm on the national economy and the safety of the monetary system.'' Persons found guilty of publishing such information are subject to prison terms ranging from one to three years and fines ranging from 500,000 to 1 million pounds ($10,000 to $20,000). The government used these laws during the year to suppress criticism. The law also imposes strict punishments for reporters who do not reveal their government sources in response to government requests. Internet Freedom.--The Internet was widely available in both dial- up and high-speed wireless connections, and Web cafes continued to proliferate throughout major cities. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union statistics, approximately 17 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The government relied on its press and publications laws, the penal code, and the Emergency Law to censor access to the Internet. The government also monitored Internet usage and in some instances blocked access to Internet sites or Web- based e-mail that contained or transmitted information deemed politically sensitive. According to an international human rights group, all three of the country's Internet service providers regularly blocked access to a variety of Web sites. The government restricted access to Web sites associated with Kurdish opposition groups, the MB, and the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood. Other electronic media the government restricted during the year included Amazon.com, social networking Web site Facebook, video sharing Web site YouTube, online pan-Arabic newspapers such as Asharq al-Awsat, online telephone service Skype, and online news services such as LevantNews.com. The proreform Web site All4syria.org has remained blocked in Syria since 2004. According to a May Syria Media Center report, the government blocked 225 Internet sites in 2008, up from 159 in 2007; 21 percent of the banned sites were Kurdish, and 15 percent were run by Syrian opposition groups. Cyberdissidents.com reported that eight cyberdissidents were imprisoned in the country and that the earliest arrests dated back to 2005. On January 19, according to Global Voices, the government blocked access to human rights activist Muhammad al-Abdallah's blog. Abdallah was previously arrested for his human rights activism, in particular for campaigning to free his father, Ali-al-Abdallah, who was jailed for his work with the Damascus Declaration. His effort to free his father led Muhammad to organize the Committee for Families of Political Prisoners in Syria. In 2006 SAFI agents arrested Abdallah's brother Omar, who was subsequently sentenced to five years in prison for his online reporting on his blog, Syrian Domari, which intelligence services allegedly have since deleted. In late February, according to human rights contacts, the government blocked the Syrian Organization for Human Rights (SWASIAH) Web site. Authorities also demanded that SWASIAH chairperson and human rights lawyer Muhanad al-Hasani, arrested later in the year (see section 1.e.), turn over all archived material to them. Also in February authorities blocked SKeyes, a Web site dedicated to the defense of media and cultural freedoms in the region. Activists claimed the reason for blocking the site was its perceived antiregime stance. On March 15, the Second Criminal Court sentenced journalist and cyberdissident Habib Saleh to three years in prison for his allegedly antiregime writings in online venues. He was convicted on three charges: inciting sectarian strife, spreading false information that could affect the morale of the country, and weakening national sentiment. Saleh was arrested in Tartous in May 2008. On September 13, the SSSC sentenced blogger Kareem Arbaji to three years in prison for publishing information aimed at weakening national morale, according to human rights activists. According to local observers and international press reports, Arbaji's conviction likely stemmed from opinions published on Akhawiya.com, a Web site the government blocked. Authorities originally arrested Arbaji in 2007 and reportedly tortured him. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government restricted academic freedom and cultural events. Teachers generally were not permitted to express ideas contrary to government policy. Authorities permitted slightly more freedom of expression at the university level, but the government imposed restrictions on the ability of public universities to associate with foreign cultural centers. Universities gave Ba'ath Party members preferential admissions treatment. On January 13, according to the Kurdish PEN Centre, security forces detained Derwesh Xalib. Xalib, a linguist, longtime member of the Kurdish PEN Center, and computer engineer from Qamishli, allegedly taught Kurdish language courses, which was against the law. Xalib's whereabouts were unknown at year's end. There were no developments in the cases of Saleh al-Ali, Tayseer Omar, nor Ammar Rashed, all of whom were professors at the Shari'a College at the University of Damascus and detained in March 2008, reportedly for public criticisms of corruption and for advocating freedom of expression. The MCNG censored films and exercised the right of approval over films shown at cultural centers operated by foreign embassies. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The constitution provides for the right of assembly, but Emergency Law provisions superseded this right, and the government did not respect it in practice. MOI permission is required for demonstrations or any gathering of more than three persons, and the government required political forums and discussion groups to obtain prior approval to hold lectures and seminars and to submit lists of all attendees. Several domestic human rights and civil society groups held meetings without registering with the government or obtaining prior approval because they assumed permission would be denied, as has regularly been the case in the past. In many instances the government took steps to disrupt such gatherings or prevent them from occurring. Either the government or the Ba'ath Party authorized and organized most public demonstrations. On February 28, Kurdish activists held a public 10-minute period of silence to protest Decree 49, a 2008 law that obstructs Kurds from buying, selling, and renting property or improving upon current property holdings. Security forces believed to be affiliated with the intelligence services arrested 26 individuals participating in the demonstration, including Human Rights Association in Syria (MAF) president Adnan Suleiman; MAF members Mahmud Omar and Akram Suleman; Kurdish Human Rights Committee (KHRC) members Suleman Muhammad Ismail and Masud Kaso; Democratic Kurdish Party Syria political leader Abdulmajid Mahmud Sabri; and Kurdish Yeketi Party member Suleman Majid Auso. On March 8, security forces raided several International Women's Day celebration sites in Qamishli, forcibly breaking up at least one group of approximately 100 women, according to human rights observers. Security authorities had reportedly informed local social clubs that had announced Women's Day events that they would be closed down if they did not cancel scheduled celebrations. On March 9 and in connection with the raids, according to Kurdish human rights observers, security forces arrested Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) Central Committee member Faisal Sabri Naso, KDP Political Bureau member Nasrelden Burhuk, and Fanar Jamil in Qamishli and held them in custody until April 20. On August 9, the Military Court in Qamishli sentenced the three men to three months in prison for being involved in a political or social organization with an ``international character'' without government approval (penal code article 288). The three men appealed the decision and at year's end were reportedly free and awaiting the outcome of the appeals process. On March 12, according to Kurdish human rights observers, university students throughout the country, especially in Aleppo and Hasaka provinces, gathered on university grounds to observe five minutes of silence in commemoration of the anniversary of the 2004 ``Kurdish Uprising.'' According to reports, authorities arrested several hundred protesters; most were quickly released. Those arrested included Ahmad Ali Baker, Abdullah Daqori, Kawi Deko, Muhammad Shekhmos Fattah, Alan Huseini, Ali Khalil Mahmud, Behzad Musallem, and Abdi Rammi. Sources also reported that universities at times denied housing to students known to have participated in the events. On March 16, authorities arrested Fuad Hasan al-Husein, a member of a Kurdish folk band, and Maher Sattam al-Hasan, a student at Damascus University, in Hasaka for observing five minutes of silence to commemorate the Iraqi military's 1988 chemical attack in Halabja, Iraq, which reportedly killed 3,000 to 5,000 Kurds. On the same day, authorities arrested Abdulsalam Mahmud in Amuda for playing a Kurdish song in his music shop to commemorate the Halabja attack. According to Kurdish rights activists, the whereabouts of the three men were unknown at year's end. On April 14, a Damascus military court judge sentenced Kurdish Yeketi Party Secretary General Fuad Aliko, Yeketi Political Committee member Hassan Saleh, and 22 other individuals to more than a year in prison for participating in a 2007 demonstration against Turkish attacks on Iraqi Kurdistan. The court commuted the sentence of Aliko and Saleh after they admitted to belonging to the Yeketi Party and instead imposed an eight-month sentence on each man for participating in a ``political or social association with an international character,'' a judgment the two men subsequently appealed. At year's end both men were free and awaiting the outcome of their appeals. Their codefendants in the case were Moussa Sabri Ageed, Abdul Karim Hussein Ahmed, Badrakhan Ibrahim Ahmed, Mazen Fendiar Hammo, Walid Hussein Hassan, Issa Ibrahim Hassou, Mohiuddin Sheikhmus Hussein, Sheikhmus Abdi Hussein, Muhammad Abdel-Halim Ibrahim, Muslim Salim Hadi Ibrahim, Shaalan Mohsen Ibrahim, Shiar Ali Khalil, Jamil Ibrahim Omar, Marwan Hamid Osman, Ghassan Muhammad Salih Osman, Abdulrahman Suleiman Ramo, Bilal Hussein Hassan Saleh, Abbas Khalil al-Sayed, Mahmud Sheikhmus Sheikho and Rami al-Hasan Sheikhmus (both released on May 2 but with trial pending), and Firas Fares Youssef. At year's end the government had not filed charges against the perpetrators of 2006 demonstrations that destroyed the Norwegian embassy and heavily damaged the buildings housing the Danish, Chilean, and Swedish embassies. The embassies received financial compensation from the government, but not enough to cover the actual cost of damages, according to diplomatic sources. Freedom of Association.--The constitution permits private associations but also grants the government the right to limit their activities. In practice the government restricted freedom of association, requiring prior registration and approval for private associations. The government often denied requests for registration or failed to act on them, presumably on political grounds. None of the approximately 14 local human rights organizations operated with a license during the year. By year's end no license had been issued to an independent association of journalists reporting for regional Arab media, according to press reports. The government continued to block the seven-year effort by journalists to form the association. The government did not permit the establishment of independent political parties (see sections 1.e. and 3). The government granted registration to some groups not engaged in political or other activities deemed sensitive. The government restricted the activities of associations and their members, and the executive boards of professional associations were not independent. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice, but it imposed some restrictions. The government discouraged public proselytism and monitored groups it viewed as practicing militant Islam. Human rights organizations reported that alleged Islamist prisoners and detainees were subject to torture and mistreatment in custody. The government continued its 1964 ban of Jehovah's Witnesses, but they continued to practice their religion privately. There is no official state religion. The constitution requires that the president be Muslim and stipulates that Islamic jurisprudence is a principal source of legislation. Sunni Muslims constituted approximately 74 percent of the population. Other Muslim groups, including Alawi, Ismailis, and Shia, constituted an estimated 13 percent of the population. The Druze accounted for an estimated 3 percent of the population, and Christian denominations accounted for the remaining 10 percent. All religions and religious orders were required to register with the government, which monitored fund-raising and required permits for all meetings by religious groups, except for worship. The constitution stipulates the separation of religious institutions and the state, but the government routinely intervened in and controlled religious groups up to and including the grand mufti, whom the government appoints. Religious groups tended to avoid involvement in internal political affairs. The government generally refrained from involvement in strictly religious issues. However, the government detained religious figures on allegedly criminal grounds, as in the cases of Mahmud and Saleh Kuftaro (see section 1.d.), and on various dates in January, according to local human rights organizations, intelligence services arrested several people in Ar-Raqqah due to their adherence to the Salafi school of Islam. Among those arrested were Muhammad al-Matar, Abdullah Abboud, Ahmad al-Adhan, and Saif al-Deen al-Hamoud. According to domestic human rights observers, authorities tortured religious teacher al-Matar, who suffered from heart disease, and he was detained in the military hospital. At year's end there were no developments in their cases. There were no developments in the February 2008 arrest of Tareq al- Hasan, Ahmad To'mah, and Ahmad al-Rumh for their alleged opposition to Shia proselytism in the province of Deir al-Zur. The government cited national security as the reason for barring Jewish citizens from government employment, serving in the armed forces, and maintaining contact with Israel. Jews were the only religious minority group whose passports and identity cards noted their religion. Jewish citizens had to obtain permission from the security services before traveling abroad and faced excessive government scrutiny when applying for licenses, deeds, or other official documents. The government enforced a law against exporting historical and cultural treasures, to prohibit the Jewish community from sending historical Torahs abroad. The government oversaw all public schools, which were nonsectarian; Christian and Druze minorities operated a number of private schools that followed the state curriculum. There was mandatory religious instruction in schools, with government-approved teachers and curricula. Religion courses were divided into separate classes for Muslim and Christian students. Although Arabic is the official language in public schools, the government permitted the teaching of Armenian, Hebrew, Syriac (Aramaic), and Chaldean as ``liturgical languages.'' Muslims and Christians are subject to their respective religious laws on marriage and divorce. Catholics used their own personal status law for adoption, inheritance, and guardianship. Orthodox and other Christians remained subject to Shari'a in matters pertaining to adoption, inheritance, and guardianship. Regardless of religion, child custody laws for all children were based on Shari'a. Although the law does not prohibit proselytizing, in practice the government discouraged such activity, deeming it a threat to relations among religious groups. Foreign missionaries were present but operated discreetly. The government considered militant Islam a threat and monitored its adherents. The government also monitored and controlled sermons and has required since 1980 that mosques (except those that are major tourist sites and a few that have received special permission) remain closed outside prayer time. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There was little evidence of societal discrimination or violence against religious minorities. Some Islamic education textbooks stated that Christians and Jews resident in Islamist states should pay a special tax called jiziah. Societal conventions as well as religious and theological proscriptions made conversions relatively rare, especially from Islam to Christianity. In many cases societal pressure forced those who undertook such conversions to relocate within the country or to leave the country altogether to practice their religion openly. There were no reported acts of physical violence against, or harassment of, Jewish persons, an estimated 100 to 200 of whom lived in the country, according to anecdotal accounts from local Jewish leaders and a 2008 article on the Israeli news Web site Haaretz.com. Leaders in the Damascus-based Jewish community reported that their ``situation'' was good and cited no specific cases of anti-Semitism. Anti-Israel material, however, was widespread in the media, and some of it carried anti-Semitic overtones, although it was less virulent than in previous years. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The constitution provides for freedom of movement ``within the territories of the state unless restricted by a judicial decision or by the implementation of laws.'' Although citizens are ostensibly free to travel internationally, the government limited freedom of movement in practice by requiring citizens to apply for exit visas. The government maintained security checkpoints, primarily in military and other restricted areas. There were few police checkpoints on main roads or in populated areas. Security services used checkpoints to conduct searches without warrants for smuggled goods, weapons, narcotics, and subversive literature. The government restricted travel near the Golan Heights, and it often objected to foreign diplomats traveling to areas along the Turkish and Iraqi borders. In June the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) declared that foreign diplomats traveling outside Damascus must notify the MFA in advance. During the year the government increased the use of travel bans to prevent more than 400 critics of the regime, human rights activists, political reformers, and civil society leaders from leaving the country, according to a 2009 study by the Syrian Center for Media and Freedom of Expression. The study named 400 individuals whose travel has been restricted; human rights observers believed the actual number of activists affected by a travel ban was in the tens of thousands, partly because many citizens learned of the ban against their travel only after they were prevented from departing the country. The government also prohibits specific types of individuals from foreign travel based exclusively on the kind of work they do. For example, in January 2008 the prime minister issued a foreign travel ban on all petroleum engineers, geologists, and geophysicists working in public oil companies, according to SyriaSteps.com. These experts were reportedly eligible to travel for training only with prior written permission from the prime minister or the minister of petroleum. The government usually applied travel bans without explanation for their basis or duration, including cases when individuals needed to travel for health reasons. Individuals the government banned from traveling internationally during the year included lawyer Nagem Dudum, who was prevented from leaving the country on April 14 to attend an ``Arabic National Conference'' in Sudan, and Bassam Zakia, released from approximately four months of SMI custody in February but since forbidden to leave the country (see section 1.d.). There were no reports on any individual having a travel ban from previous years lifted. Travel to Israel is illegal. Women older than 18 have the legal right to travel without the permission of male relatives, but a husband or a father may file a request with the MOI to prohibit the departure of his wife or minor dependents from the country. Syrian emigrants who did not complete mandatory military service could pay a fee to avoid conscription while visiting the country. Persons of Syrian origin who were born in a foreign country but were able to demonstrate service in the army of the country of birth were exempt from military service without payment. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and there were no reports of forced exile during the year. The law provides for the prosecution of any person who attempts to seek refuge in another country to escape a penalty in Syria. Persons who have unsuccessfully sought asylum in other countries and who have past connections with the MB have been prosecuted upon their return to Syria. The government routinely arrested dissidents and former citizens with no known political affiliation who tried to return to the country after years or even decades in exile. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).--During the year there were numerous reports in local, regional, and international media outlets on the sudden surge of internally displaced persons. An IWPR article estimated that extreme drought and unemployment since 2003 had forced 200,000 persons from northeastern Syria to abandon their homes. Other press reports put the number closer to 300,000. Outmigration from the al-Jazeera region to urban areas strained already limited resources in cities, increased urban unemployment, and led to the erection of tent communities on cities' fringes. The government provided limited food relief through the Syrian Arab Red Crescent (SARC). In cooperation with the SARC, international NGOs like the World Food Program and Danish Red Cross provided additional food and medical assistance. There were no government resettlement efforts for internally displaced persons. Protection of Refugees.--The government is not a party to either the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. Several laws regulate the legal status of Palestinian refugees in Syria, including the 1957 law that stipulates Palestinian refugees have the same rights as Syrians, except for those rights dependent on nationality. The law allows for the issuance of identity cards and the same government protections due to Syrian citizens. A 1963 law regulates the issuance of travel documents to Palestinian refugees residing in the country, on condition that they registered with the General Administration for Palestine Arab Refugees and hold Syrian provisional identity cards. It generally cooperated with the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) in assisting internally displaced persons, refugees, stateless persons, and asylum seekers, and it respected the UNHCR's eligibility determinations regarding asylum seekers. In practice the government provided some protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. During the year the government returned some Iraqi female refugees whom authorities had arrested on charges of prostitution, depositing them across the border in Iraq, where traffickers often subsequently brought them back into the country. There were also reports that the government deported Iraqi refugees operating illegal Internet cafes. UN agencies reported security services continued the practice of detaining Iraqi refugees for working without a permit. There were no reports of Ahvazis forcibly repatriated to Iran at year's end. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the situation of Ahvazi refugees in the country remained precarious. The government reportedly continued to deny departures for resettlement in other countries. As a result of these denials, Ahvazi refugees sometimes attempted illegal border crossings, usually to Turkey, Lebanon, or Jordan. Authorities apprehended and detained some of the refugees for illegal border crossing or use of forged documents. International NGOs knew of at least two Ahvazi refugees the government accepted for resettlement, but both remained in detention at year's end. The UNRWA reported there were approximately 460,000 registered Palestinian refugees in the country during the year, approximately 153,000 of whom resided in UNRWA-administered camps. The General Authority of Palestinian Arab Refugees in Syria, the government agency established to coordinate assistance and protection to refugees, continued to provide assistance to Palestinian refugees during the year. Palestinian refugees with Syrian travel documents generally reported little difficulty traveling in and out of the country. The government refused to permit the full integration of these Palestinians into Syrian society. At year's end there were approximately 320 Iraqi Palestinian refugees registered at al-Hol. Another group of 550 Iraqi Palestinians remained stranded between the Iraq-Syria borders at the al-Tanf crossing. Unlike in previous years, the government attempted to prevent security services from deporting some Palestinian refugees in Damascus, where they sometimes tried to blend into the larger Palestinian community or to pass themselves off as Iraqis, to the camp at al-Tanf. As of December approximately 23,000 new Iraqi refugees had registered for assistance with the UNHCR, bringing the total number of registered refugees to 218,363. Most received legal and material assistance from the UNHCR and other international and nongovernmental humanitarian organizations. The UNHCR estimated in September that approximately 1,105,000 displaced Iraqis lived in the country. It was unknown how many Iraqis were in the country without visas. The government generally continued to honor the UNHCR's request that states maintain temporary protection for all Iraqi asylum seekers and persons whose applications were rejected, and it recognized refugees whose cases resettlement countries had suspended during the year. Since 2007 the government required all Iraqis to obtain a visa before entry; citizens of other Arab League countries were able to enter the country without a visa for a renewable period of as long as three months. The extent to which authorities enforced the policy at the border remained unclear. There are no direct provisions in the law giving refugees the right to work. According to the UNRWA, the rules for employment of citizens were applicable to Palestinian refugees provided that they have been living in the country for at least 10 years. Obtaining a work permit was a lengthy and complicated process; the government rarely granted refugees a permit. Many refugees found daily labor in the informal sector mainly as guards, construction workers, street vendors, and other manual labor jobs. Most public schools were unable to accommodate the large number of children of Iraqi refugees. The government allowed Iraqi children to attend schools, and according to a UNHCR estimate, approximately 33,000 Iraqi children were enrolled in public schools during the 2008-09 academic year. Many Iraqi children did not attend school for various reasons, including overcrowding, difficulties with the curriculum, and previous psychological trauma of parents and children. Stateless Persons.--Citizenship is derived solely from the father. Following the 1962 census, approximately 120,000 Syrian Kurds lost their citizenship. As a result, those individuals and their descendants remain severely disadvantaged in terms of social and economic opportunities and in receiving government services including health and education, as well as employment open only to citizens. Stateless Kurds had limited access to university education, and lack of citizenship or identity documents restricted their travel to and from the country. The UNHCR and Refugees International estimated there were approximately 300,000 stateless Kurds. Despite the president's repeated promises to resolve the matter of stateless Kurds, most recently in his 2007 inauguration speech, there was no progress during the year. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution requires that the president be elected by referendum, and the parliament selects a presidential candidate at the discretion of the regional Ba'ath Party leadership. A presidential candidate is then approved by a majority of votes in a popular referendum. Although citizens vote for the president and MPs, in practice they did not have the right to change their government because elections were neither free nor fair. The president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, deputy prime ministers, and Council of Ministers and has the discretion to change these appointments. The president and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security services, made most political and economic decisions with a limited degree of public accountability. MPs may criticize policies and modify draft laws; however, the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. Elections and Political Participation.--The most recent presidential, parliamentary, and local elections took place in 2007. The government barred international election monitors from entering the country to observe any of the elections. Local and international human rights advocates judged all three elections as neither free nor fair and stated that they served to reassert the primacy and political monopoly of power al-Asad and the Ba'ath Party apparatus wielded. Although some opposition groups estimated voter turnout in the presidential election at significantly less than 50 percent, the government's official statistics reported voter turnout to be 96 percent, and President al-Asad reportedly won 98 percent of the vote. Outside observers uniformly dismissed the voter statistics as fraudulent and not representative of observed participation. The president and the Ba'ath Party suppressed political opposition. The constitution provides that the Ba'ath Party is the ruling party and ensures it has a majority in all government and popular associations, such as workers' and women's groups. The Ba'ath Party and nine other smaller satellite political parties comprise the NPF, originally established in 1971. The NPF represented the only framework for legal political party participation for citizens; the Ba'ath Party dominated it, and the one-party character of the political system remained. The Ba'ath Party dominated the 250-member parliament, or People's Council. During the 2007 parliamentary and local elections, NPF candidates won an overwhelming majority of offices. Some independents the government had vetted were permitted to run and win seats at both levels. The government did not permit the establishment of independent political parties. In recent years citizens have sought to establish political parties but have not received licenses from the government. In practice the government tolerated some political parties, such as the Communist Union Movement, and it subjected members of other parties, such as the Communist Action Party, the People's Party, and the Arab Social Union, to harassment but not automatic arrest for membership. Members of Islamist parties were subject to immediate arrest and execution. Including the MB and 12 Syrian Kurdish parties, there were an estimated 30 illegal opposition political parties of varying sizes and influence operating in the country. Women and minorities generally participated in the political system without formal restriction. During the year a female vice president and two female cabinet ministers were in office. Thirty of the 250 MPs were women. There was one Druze and one Kurdish minister in the parliament. Alawites, the ruling religious minority, held a large percentage of cabinet and parliamentary seats. According to human rights observers, ethnic and religious minorities outside the Alawite and Christian communities claimed they had no genuine representation in the government and that minority representatives were often more responsive to the ruling party than to their minority constituencies. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. During the year the government led a major national anticorruption campaign that produced scores of arrests; nonetheless, officials continued to engage in corrupt practices with impunity. During the year there were reports of prison guards demanding bribes from prisoners and their visitors. On August 9, White and Black magazine reported that corruption was rampant. Visiting family members who paid higher bribes enjoyed visits to detainees without police surveillance. Bribes reportedly ranged from 200 to 3,300 pounds ($4 to $75). Human rights lawyers and family members of detainees also cited solicitation of bribes for favorable decisions and provision of basic services by government officials throughout the legal process in both courts and prisons. Traffic police officers regularly solicited bribes from drivers, and child laborers reported bribing police to avoid arrest. There are no public financial disclosure laws for public officials. The prime minister's Central Commission for Control and Inspection is the main administrative body responsible for coordinating and monitoring public sector corruption. Each government body, including the ministries, has a Control and Inspection Department that reports directly to the Central Commission. There is no government body charged with monitoring private sector corruption. On February 8, according to local contacts and media sources, the government ordered the arrest of the director of customs, Brigadier General Hasan Makhlouf, along with approximately 20 other customs officials, on charges of corruption, including Bassem Jedid, Safwan Jedid, Raeef Othman, Bassam al-Kanj, Ali Yahya, Abdul Rahman Mansour, Ahed Abdul Rahman, Maher Issa, Firas Rustom, Ammar Hajal, and Firas As'ad. On February 12 and 13, the Ministry of Finance reportedly seized the assets of the officials, along with those of Makhlouf's immediate and extended family. At year's end no trial date had been set for Makhlouf, who remained in detention. There was no additional information on the status of the other 20 officials. On April 7, the prime minister fired Major General Hazem Khadra from his position as head of the General Directorate of Civil Aviation, reportedly for corruption in connection with a 40 million euro contract with the Malaysian Muhiba Company to modernize Damascus International Airport. On April 14, the Syria News Wire reported that authorities arrested 15 police officers in the Souq Al-Hamidiyeh area on corruption charges. They were accused of thefts from shops in the area and had allegedly been stealing for approximately a year. On May 5, the attorney general filed a lawsuit against senior officials in the Damascus governorate, including deputy governor Sahar al-Hafar, executive office member Khaled al-O'labi, and contractors Ayman Zohaili and Muhammad al-Halabi, on corruption and related charges. On July 15, the minister of agriculture and agrarian reform dismissed Tarek Askar from his position as the director of the Aleppo Real Estate Office due to allegations of Askar's illegal actions and abuse of power. On July 29, according to local media observers, the government closed the offices of Orient TV, an independent station owned by businessman Ghassan Aboud, and security agents interrogated staff members. On July 28, security agents had reportedly raided the channel's offices and ordered staff to vacate the premises. They gave no official reason for shutting down the offices. Some media observers speculated that a prominent businessman and cousin of President Asad, Rami Makhlouf, lobbied for the closure after the channel's owner, Ghassan Aboud, refused to make Makhlouf a partner in the business. Orient TV continued to broadcast from the United Arab Emirates at year's end. On September 23, the president issued a decree to dismiss city council head Nadia Kseibi for illegal actions and abuse of power while in office. There are no laws providing for public access to government information, and the government granted no access in practice. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights There were no legal domestic human rights groups, but approximately 14 human rights groups operated illegally in the country. During the year there were reports that the government harassed domestic human rights activists by subjecting them to regular surveillance and imposing travel bans as activists sought to attend workshops and conferences outside the country. The government stated that it responded in writing to all inquiries from NGOs regarding human rights matters, including cases of individual detainees and prisoners, through an interagency governmental committee attached to the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor (MSAL). NGOs reported that they rarely received responses from the MSAL. The government normally responded to queries from human rights organizations and foreign embassies regarding specific cases by claiming that the case was still under investigation; that the prisoner in question had violated national security laws; or, if the case was in criminal court, that the country had an independent judiciary and the executive could not interfere. In general the government remained highly suspicious of international human rights NGOs and typically did not allow them into the country. As a matter of policy, the government has denied in the past to international human rights groups that it commits human rights abuses. The government did not permit HRW or AI to visit the country during the year. At year's end the government had signed memoranda of understanding with at least 14 international humanitarian NGOs-- including Premiere Urgence, the Danish Refugee Council, the Danish Red Cross, International Medical Corps, the Qatari Red Crescent, the Institut Europeen de Cooperation et de Developpement, the Turkish Blue Crescent, Enfants du Monde-Droits de l'Homme, HELP, International Rescue Committee, Mercy Corps, and the Islamic Relief France--primarily for projects related to assisting Iraqi refugees. The government monitored this work closely and restricted outreach efforts. On February 19-20, UNRWA Deputy Commissioner-General Filippo Grandi visited, meeting with Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Faisal Miqdad to discuss the situation in Gaza and cooperation in the country. On April 25-29 and again on September 28-30, UNRWA Commissioner-General Karen AbuZayd visited a number of UNRWA-sponsored project sites, including a water supply and sanitation project in Khan Dannoun Camp in the outskirts of Damascus. On October 2, UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador Angelina Jolie visited Damascus and met with the president and first lady as well as Iraqi refugee families. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides for equal rights and equal opportunity for all citizens, and discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status is prohibited. The government did not enforce the law effectively. For example, membership in the Ba'ath Party or close familial relations with a prominent party member or powerful government official assisted in economic, social, or educational advancement. Party or government connections made it easier to gain admission into better elementary and secondary schools, to access lucrative employment, and to achieve greater power within the government, the military, and the security services. The government reserved certain prominent positions, such as provincial governors, solely for Ba'ath Party members. There was governmental and societal discrimination against stateless Kurds and Jews. Women.--Rape is a felony. There are no laws against spousal rape. According to article 439 of the penal code, ``rape is considered to occur when a man forces a woman who is not his wife to have intercourse.'' The punishment for this is at least 15 years in prison. Marital rape is not a crime. Article 508 of the penal code stipulates that ``If there is a contracted marriage between the man who commits rape, sexual abuse, kidnapping, sexual harassment and the victim, then there is no charge or the punishment is stopped.'' If the individual who commits the crime agrees to marry the victim, he faces no punishment. The victim's family sometimes agrees to this arrangement to avoid the social stigma attached to rape. If the victim is too young for marriage, the rapist receives a longer prison sentence. The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence, and violence against women occurred during the year. A 2006 study reported that as many as one in four women surveyed had been victims of domestic violence. The majority of domestic violence and sexual assault cases went unreported; victims have traditionally been reluctant to seek assistance outside the family for fear of social stigmatization. Observers reported that when some abused women tried to file a police report, the police did not respond to their claims aggressively, if at all. Women reported incidents at police stations of sexual harassment, verbal abuse, hair pulling, and slapping by police officers when attempting to file police reports, particularly at the criminal security branch at Bab Musallah in Damascus. Victims of domestic violence have the legal right to seek redress in court, but few did so because of the social stigma attached to such action. In the beginning of August, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd opened a 24-hour emergency shelter and launched a telephone hotline for female victims of domestic violence. The shelter estimated that it received more than 300 telephone calls during the year and provided direct legal or psychological counseling to approximately 50 women. Shelter workers said police had been increasingly helpful in referring women to the shelter. The Association for Women's Role Development and the Syrian Family Planning Association also provided counseling. There were at least two private shelters open to battered women in Damascus. Gender-based violence was a continuing concern among the Iraqi refugee population. The UNHCR reported that during 2008 there were 700 known cases of sexual and gender-based violence. The UNHCR reportedly supported several ``safe houses'' in Damascus that provided accommodation, food, social counseling, vocational training, and legal and medical services for women and children who suffered any form of violence in Iraq or Syria. On July 1, President al-Asad amended article 548 of the penal code, which had permitted courts to waive or reduce punishment for perpetrators of honor killings. The article's new language stipulates a mandatory two-year minimum sentence for anyone convicted in an honor killing; the minimum sentence is less severe than sentences prescribed for other forms of homicide. The government kept no official statistics on honor crimes, and when cases were reported, full names were rarely given. Advocacy groups did not release full names to protect victims. There were numerous press and anecdotal reports of honor crimes throughout the year. The MOI estimated that 38 honor crimes took place from June 2008 to June 2009, while the Syrian Women Observatory (SWO) estimated there were 200 to 300 such killings annually. Other women's rights activists agreed that the actual numbers were high but that reporting was low. As in previous years, human rights observers reported the exact dates of honor killings were often difficult to obtain. Further, families or friends willing to discuss the cases refused to divulge names for reasons of privacy or fear of retribution. On February 2, according to the SWO, two men killed their sister (a married woman) in Aleppo for wearing a hijab, in accordance with her husband's family tradition, instead of a burka, which she had formerly worn in accordance with her family's wishes. According to a July 20 IWPR article, the SWO reported that a man killed his sister, Soad, a mother of two children who lived in Damascus, after he suspected that she was working as a prostitute with her husband's permission. There was no further information on whether the alleged killer was in custody or if police were investigating the case. A December 12 report by human rights observers stated two brothers from Aleppo killed their sister, Khadija, for marrying a man from Homs to work in a cabaret. There was no further information on whether the case was under investigation or if the two brothers were in police custody. There were no new developments in any of the honor killing cases reported in 2008. In the 2007 case of Zahra al-Ezzo, the SWO reported that on October 29, the Second Criminal Court in Damascus sentenced al- Ezzo's brother, Fayez al-Ezzo, to three years in prison, but the judge reduced the sentence to two and one-half years because the killing was ``motivated by honor.'' The court counted Fayez's time already served in custody toward the sentence, which resulted in his immediate release. The SWO also reported Fayez's detailed and graphic confession to the court. The law prohibits prostitution, but it was not strictly enforced. During the year there was evidence that Iraqi women residing in the country, including minors, were increasingly resorting to prostitution. Police assigned criminal liability in nearly all the cases to the person in prostitution, not others involved. Anecdotal evidence also suggested that the country was a destination for sex tourism for men from other countries in the region. The UNHCR observed that there was a growing practice of muta'a, a temporary ``pleasure marriage'' conducted by some Shiite clerics. These marriages are of predetermined duration and become null and void once the agreed-upon term has passed. They can last as little as one day and primarily serve individuals seeking to legitimize patronizing prostitutes. Most Shiite clerics viewed the practice as suspect and did not conduct such marriages. The law prohibits sexual harassment and specifies different punishments depending on whether the victim is a minor or an adult. Sexual harassment was rarely reported. The constitution provides for equality between men and women and guarantees that ``every citizen has the right to earn his wage according to the nature and yield of the work.'' The government sought to overcome traditional discriminatory attitudes toward women and encouraged women's education by ensuring equal access to educational institutions, including universities. The Commission for Family Affairs, the MOJ, and the MSAL all shared responsibility in ensuring the legal rights of women. The government has not changed personal status, retirement, or social security laws that discriminate against women. Under criminal law, if a man and woman separately commit the same criminal act of adultery, the woman's punishment is double that of the man's. For Muslims, personal status law is based on the government's interpretation and application of Shari'a, which treats men and women differently. Husbands and wives can claim adultery as grounds for divorce; criminal law discriminates against women in this regard. A man can be charged with adultery only if his actions occur in the home he shares with his wife, but a woman can be accused of adultery regardless of venue. The court accepts any evidence a man presents when claiming adultery; if a woman attempts to file for divorce based on adultery, her husband must admit to the crime or there must be a witness to the act. During the year there were no reported cases in which a woman successfully filed for divorce based on adultery. A divorced woman is not entitled to alimony in some cases, such as if she gave up her right to alimony to persuade her husband to agree to the divorce. In addition, under the law a divorced mother loses the right to physical custody of her sons when they reach the age of 13 and of her daughters at age 15. Guardianship or control over exercise of the legal rights of the children always goes to the paternal side of the family after the age of 13 and 15, respectively. Inheritance for all citizens except Catholics is based on the government's interpretation of Shari'a. Accordingly, Muslim women usually were granted half of the inheritance share of male heirs. In all communities, male heirs must provide financial support to the female relatives who inherit less. If they do not, females have the right to sue. During the year there were reports that in some regions custom prevailed over the law, and women were denied any inheritance. Couples and individuals generally have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and the means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. Although the supply of modern contraceptives was available to less than half of the public, most of the demand for family planning was satisfied in the country, according to the Population Reference Bureau (PRB). In Damascus, grocery stores openly sold condoms. Skilled personnel attended approximately 98 percent of all births, and more than 80 percent of women who gave birth had access to postnatal care, according to the PRB. According to the latest data, the rate of prevalence of HIV/AIDS was 0.01 percent in 2001. A woman's husband or any other male relative may request that his wife's and his minor dependents' travel abroad be prohibited. Although official statistics were not available, foreign embassies reported a number of such incidents during the year. Women participated actively in public life and were represented in most professions, including the armed forces. Women were not impeded from owning or managing land or other real property. Various sources observed that women constituted 16 percent of lawyers, 65 percent of teachers below the university level, 27 percent of university professors, and 49 percent of university graduates. In addition, women accounted for 170 judges, 30 MPs, two cabinet ministers, and one vice president. Children.--The government provided free public education to citizen children from primary school through university. Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of six and 12. Noncitizen children could also attend public schools free but required prior permission from the Ministry of Education. According to a 2005 joint study by the UN Development Program and the State Planning Commission, 49.6 percent of students through the secondary level were female. Nevertheless, societal pressure for early marriage and childbearing interfered with girls' educational progress, particularly in rural areas, where the dropout rates for female students remained high. In general, Palestinians and other noncitizens, including stateless Kurds, can send their children to school and universities. Stateless Kurds are ineligible to receive a degree documenting their academic achievement. The legal age for marriage is 18 for males and 17 for females. However, a male 15 years or older and a female 13 years or older may be married if a judge deems both to be willing parties to the marriage, both are ``physically mature,'' and the father or grandfather consent. Although underage marriage has declined considerably in the past decades, it was still common. Underage marriage occurred in all communities, but was more prevalent in rural and less developed regions. The country lacked a formal law protecting children from abuse. However, the penal code stipulates penalties for those found guilty of certain forms of child abuse associated with trafficking crimes--namely kidnapping and forced prostitution, which both carry a penalty of up to three years in prison. Rape of a child under the age of 15 is punishable by up to 21 years in prison. According to a 2005 Damascus University study supported by the UN Children'd Fund (UNICEF), secondary school students reported that ``violent teacher behavior'' was common. Human rights organizations reported multiple cases in which security services detained minors and placed them in adult prisons. Trafficking in Persons.--The law treats trafficking in persons as a form of incarcerating or holding persons against their will, which the law prohibits. The government did not fully comply with the internationally agreed minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking during the year, despite efforts to do so. The country was a destination and transit point for women trafficked from South and Southeast Asia and Africa for the purpose of domestic servitude and from Eastern Europe and Iraq for sexual exploitation. There were few statistics available on the scope and type of trafficking that exists. During the year traffickers, sometimes Iraqi criminal networks, subjected Iraqi women and girls to forced commercial sexual exploitation, and some Iraqi parents sold their children into short- term pleasure marriages. No reliable statistics were available regarding the number of Iraqi refugees working as prostitutes or minors forced into sexual servitude. In a March 31 report, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) indicated that approximately 53,200 foreign domestic workers lived in the country. On the same day, government officials reported that in the past few years the government had closed more than 50 illegal domestic labor recruitment agencies. According to a February IWPR report, lawyers said efforts by the government to monitor unscrupulous recruitment agencies and employers was ineffective. Some individuals brought illegally into the country to work as domestic employees suffered conditions that constituted involuntary servitude, including physical and sexual abuse, threats of deportation or other legal consequences, denial or delayed payment of wages, withholding of passports, and restriction of movement. The IOM documented cases in which manpower agencies in the country that hired foreign domestic workers lured some victims through fraudulent or deceptive offers of employment, despite the fact that the government banned such manpower agencies. The penal code stipulates that whoever incarcerates another person is subjected to a prison sentence of six months to two years, including hard labor if the incarceration lasts for more than one month or includes torture. The law also states that any foreigner who tries to enter the country with false documentation and anyone who aids that foreigner is subject to imprisonment of three months to one year and a fine of 500 to 2,000 pounds ($10 to $40). The government did not consistently enforce these laws for antitrafficking purposes during the year. The government increased regulations on licensed employment agencies in an effort to ensure protection to foreign nationals working legally in the country and to provide statutory grounds for the prosecution of illegal employment agencies trafficking in persons for labor exploitation (see section 7.e.). Despite the government's efforts, diplomatic sources reported that over the past few years approximately 15,000 women from the Philippines came to the country as domestic workers, suggesting that the majority were trafficked. According to NGO contacts, the government housed some minors who were victims of trafficking in juvenile detention facilities and held many adult victims in the Duma women's prison on the northern outskirts of Damascus. Credible sources also reported that police detained and sometimes deported approximately six to 10 Iraqi girls and 50 to 70 women each month on charges of prostitution. Many women or girls returned to Iraq were retrafficked into the country. Police assigned criminal liability in nearly all the cases to the woman, not the trafficker. In August 2008 Oasis of Hope, a shelter for victims of domestic violence in Damascus, opened its doors under the supervision of the Association for Women's Role Development. The UNHCR also operated two safe houses in Damascus for women deemed ``at risk.'' At any given time, the shelters provided accommodation and services to between 54 and 60 women and their dependents. During the year they provided financial assistance through monthly cash grants to more than 23,000 women, 8,400 of whom were heads of household and 6,200 of whom the UNHCR considered ``at risk.'' In December 2008 the first shelter specifically for victims of trafficking in the country opened in cooperation between the IOM, the MSAL, and local NGOs. The shelter provided victims temporary safe haven, psychosocial support, life skills development, and return and reintegration assistance. It also provided direct livelihood assistance to potential vulnerable groups of Iraqi women and children and other nationalities. At year's end the facility sheltered approximately 25 women and dependents of different nationalities, most of whom were brought illegally into the country to serve as domestic workers. In addition, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd operated a women's shelter and a hotline and offered free legal counsel to women and minors who had been trafficked, were at risk of being trafficked, or who had suffered domestic violence. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities and seeks to integrate them into the public sector workforce; implementation remained inconsistent. The law protects persons with disabilities from discrimination in education, access to health, or provision of other state services. Government regulations reserve 4 percent of government and public sector jobs for persons with disabilities. There are no laws that mandate access to public buildings for persons with disabilities. The MSAL is responsible for assisting persons with disabilities and worked through dedicated charities and organizations to provide assistance, often to promote self-sufficiency through vocational training. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The government generally permitted national and ethnic minorities to conduct traditional, religious, and cultural activities; the government's actions toward the Kurdish minority remained a significant exception. Security services arrested hundreds of Kurdish citizens during the year, and the SSSC prosecuted them, in some cases on charges of seeking to annex part of Syria to another country. On January 3, according to a Kurdish news Web site, political security agents arrested Sedo Rashed Ali, a Kurd. The reason for his arrest and his whereabouts remained unknown at the end of the year. On January 4, according to the Kurdish Democratic Union Party, political security agents in Qamishli arrested Ahmad Abdullah Tajelden, a Kurd, for unknown reasons. Authorities released him on May 31. On January 11, PSD agents arrested Kurdish political activist Naser Daqori in Amoda and transferred him to the political security offices in Hasaka, according to the Kurdish Committee for Human Rights. His whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On January 12, according to Kurdish human rights observers, state security agents arrested Hatem Ahmad al-Omari, a Kurd, in Qamishli. The reasons for the arrest and his whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On January 26 and 27, according to local Kurdish activists, security patrols from the Qamishli Ministry of Supply raided the Qamishli city market and city clothing stores suspected of operating illegally. The local government allegedly levied fines ranging from 10,000 to 15,000 pounds ($200 to $300) on shop owners for not keeping business records. Several shops were forced to close. Kurdish activists cited this narrowly targeted law enforcement campaign as an example of government harassment. On February 4, according to local Kurdish activists, security services in Hasaka arrested Burhan Tami and Idris Tamosh, both Kurds and members of the Syrian Communist Party. The two men were allegedly collecting signatures for a petition to protest the discriminatory nature of Decree 49, issued in 2008, which Kurdish activists said was intended to obstruct Kurds' right to buy, sell, or inherit property. Their whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On March 20, security services raided multiple Nowruz (Kurdish New Year) celebration sites throughout the country, especially in Aleppo and Hasaka provinces. At one candlelight vigil commemorating three Kurds killed by security forces during 2008 Nowruz celebrations in Aleppo province, security forces detained at least 100 Kurds, according to Kurdish human rights observers. Activists reported that police officers attacked the crowds with batons and tear gas and arrested celebrants in the street as well as in their homes. Individuals the government arrested in Aleppo included Adel Ahmad, Mustafa Ali, Farzand Ahmad, Mustafa Ahmad, Farhad Ahmad, Khaled Abdulhanan, Esmat Ali, Jan Muhammad, and Husein Muhammad. Those the government arrested in Hasaka included Kurdish Yeketi Party leader Suleiman Majid Osso (released June 22), Delkhwas Darwish, Shebal Darwish, Saud Farhan Shekhi, Bendwar Bahri Shekhi, and Sewar Bahri Shekhi (released May 31). Those arrested in Amoda included Hafand Husein (released May 31) and Jawan Jalal Saed. The status of the other individuals was unknown at year's end. On March 23, police arrested Rashed Ramadan Haso, Mazlom Kafi, and Riad Ahmad, according to Kurdish activists, for holding up photos of Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) leader Abdullah Ocalan during Kurdish New Year (Nowruz) celebrations in Hasaka province. Police transferred custody of the men to PSD security services. The government reportedly released Kafi on May 24. The status of the other individuals remained unknown at year's end. On May 5, between the hours of 2:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m., a joint patrol of GID and criminal security agents in Aleppo and Idleb provinces executed a series of simultaneous raids on homes, resulting in the detention of at least eight Kurdish individuals, including Akram Mohammad Hamdosh, Walid Mohammad Hamdosh, Akeed Abdul Rahman Hamdosh, Ali Ali (aka Abu Zuhair), Ahmed Hamdush, Badr Ibn Mohammad Bakr, Mohammad Chichek, and Hassan Ebo. According to activists, the arrests occurred without a warrant. The whereabouts and reasons for detention of those arrested remained unknown at year's end. On July 26, security agents arrested Al Hasan Husain, a Kurd, as he was on his way to work in the city of Afrin, according to Kurdish human rights observers. The reasons for his arrest and whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On August 17, according to Kurdish activists, PSD agents arrested the following Kurds: Hashem Basher Muhammad, Joli Ibrahim Joli, Osama Ibrahim, Hozan Ossi, Zuhair Khania, and Idres Shaker, all from Hasaka. The reasons for their arrest and their whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. On October 3, according to a Kurdish Web site, security agents arrested four Kurdish musicians in Deyrik, allegedly for playing Kurdish songs. The four men were Nihad Hussein, Djawar Munir Abdullah, Juan Munir Abdullah, and Jamal Sadoun. The four men remained in prison at year's end. There were no known developments in the 2008 cases of Jehan Muhammad Ali, Hanifa Habo, Nalin Jamal Sarik, Muhammad Rasho, Bakara Muslim, Saema Ismae, Hussein Biro Darwish, or Saadun Mahmoud Sheykho, or the 2007 case of Muhammad Khalil Abo Zaid. Although the government contended there was no discrimination against the Kurdish population, it placed limits on the use and teaching of the Kurdish language. It also restricted the publication of books and other materials in Kurdish, Kurdish cultural expression, and at times the celebration of Kurdish festivals. During the year, according to the IWPR, authorities began enforcing a years-old ruling that requires at least 60 percent of the words on signs in shops and restaurants to be in Arabic. Officials enforcing the ruling reportedly sent patrols into commercial districts to threaten shop owners with closure if they refused to change the names of their stores into Arabic. Minority groups--especially Kurds, who the government appeared to target specifically--regarded the step as a further attempt to undermine their cultural identity. On January 17, political security agents arrested Fawaz Kano and Zaki Ismael Khalil in al-Hasaka for printing and distributing graduation certificates for Kurdish language courses, according to local human rights observers. Authorities released Khalil on January 25. There were no further reports on Kano's whereabouts at year's end. On April 24, security agents detained Fawaz Ahmed Hassan at the Damascus train station as he prepared to return to his home in Hasaka City. Agents stopped Hassan, inspected his luggage, and discovered Kurdish language instruction materials. At year's end Hassan remained in detention. There were no further reports on the 2008 arrests of Ali Tajo or the four Hamdo brothers, Joma'a, Ahmad, Muhammad, and Bahaman. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--The law criminalizes homosexual conduct under penal code article 520, which states that each sexual act ``contrary to nature'' is punishable by as long as three years in prison. Because homosexual conduct was both unlawful and considered shameful, the law made homosexuals and transgendered individuals vulnerable to honor crime retaliation. Penal code article 192 permits judges to reduce legal penalties in cases when an individual's motive for murder is a sense of honor. There were no reports of prosecutions under these laws during the year nor evidence of honor crimes against gays and lesbians; however, reports indicated that dozens of gay men and lesbians have been imprisoned over the past several years after being arrested on vague charges such as abusing social values. There were no reports of punishment for female homosexual behavior. In a November 22 article from Middle-East-Online.com, Muhammad Habash, the head of the now-closed Center for Islamic Studies in Damascus, stated that some Muslim clerics overtly incited the killing of homosexuals and that others recommended providing gay men and lesbians with social support to help them ``overcome their illness.'' The size of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community was unclear, as many individuals feared identifying themselves as such due to societal discrimination. There were no NGOs focused on LGBT matters. There were several online networking communities, including Facebook.com sites (blocked in the country but easily accessed through proxy servers) that served the local LGBT community. According to an October article in Syria Today, 200 individuals formed a Facebook community called ``I'm Just Like You,'' which ``published an appeal for tolerance'' during the year. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There were no reports of violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS. Human rights activists believed that the extent of the problem was widely underreported. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--Although the constitution provides for the right of association and to form unions, in practice workers were not free to establish unions independent of the government. Foreign workers, according to a 2008 International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) survey, may join the union representing their profession but may not stand for election to union office. The survey also observed that although the law does not prohibit labor strikes, they are severely restricted by threat of punishment and fines. All unions belonged to the General Federation of Trade Unions (GFTU), which was dominated by Ba'ath Party members and was part of the government's bureaucratic structure. The GFTU advised the government on legislation, organized workers, and formulated rules for member unions, effectively controlling nearly all aspects of union activity. Union elections were generally free of direct, overt GFTU interference, but successful campaigns usually required membership in the Ba'ath Party. The GFTU president was a senior member of the Ba'ath Party, and he and his deputy could attend cabinet meetings on economic affairs. According to the government-published 2007 Statistical Abstract, the most recent to include information on union membership, there were 204 trade unions filling the ranks of the GFTU with a collective membership of 808,419 workers, representing less than one-third of the total labor force. The abstract also listed 5,622 agricultural cooperatives with 994,820 members; 101 passenger transport cooperatives with 38,269 members; and 24 transport services cooperatives with 9,561 members. By the end of the year, there were no reports that any individual union, the GFTU, or any cooperatives had exercised their right to collective bargaining. There were no reports of strikes at the end of the year. The law does not prohibit strikes. Previous government crackdowns, including fines and prison sentences, deterred workers from striking. Forced labor was imposed on individuals who caused ``prejudice to the general production plan.'' b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law provides for the right to bargain collectively; this right did not exist in practice, as the unions were effectively led by Ba'ath Party officials closely tied to the government. Government representatives were part of the bargaining process in the public sector. Public sector unions did not normally bargain collectively on wage issues, but union representatives participated with representatives of employers from the government-affiliated Chambers of Industry and Commerce and the supervising ministry in establishing minimum wages, hours, and conditions of employment in the private sector. Workers served on the boards of directors of public enterprises, and union representatives were included on the boards. The law provides for collective bargaining in the private sector, although past government repression dissuaded most workers from exercising this right. Unions have the right to litigate disputes over work contracts and other workers' interests with employers and may ask for binding arbitration. In practice labor and management representatives settled most disputes without resort to legal remedies or arbitration. Management has the right to request arbitration, but that right seldom was exercised. Arbitration authority is vested in the MOJ's Administrative Petition Court. In practice this court did little more than certify agreements and had almost no role in arbitrating disputes, since such disputes did not occur often. There were no reports of antiunion discrimination. As the unions are part of the government's bureaucratic structure, the law protects union members from such discrimination. There were no unions in the seven free trade zones (FTZs). Firms in the zones were exempt from the laws and regulations governing hiring and firing, although they were required to observe some provisions on health, safety, hours, and sick and annual leave. Ninety percent of the workers in the FTZs were citizens. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law does not prohibit all forms of forced or compulsory labor, and the problem existed. The governments of Sri Lanka and the Philippines banned their citizens from taking employment as domestic workers in the country because of abuses and the lack of a mechanism to protect the rights of their citizens. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The labor law provides for the protection of children from exploitation in the workplace. Independent information and audits regarding government enforcement were not available. The private sector minimum age for employment is 15 years for most types of nonagricultural labor and 17 years for heavy work. Youths of legal age may work only six hours a day and may not work during night shifts, weekends, or on official holidays. In all cases parental permission is required for children younger than 16 to work. Most children younger than 16 who worked did so for their parents in the agricultural sector without remuneration. Although the law prohibits children from working at night, it applies only to children who work for a salary. Those who work in family businesses and who are technically not paid a salary--a common occurrence--do not fall under the law. The law prohibits children younger than 15 from working in mines, at petroleum sites, or in other dangerous areas. Children are not allowed to lift, carry, or drag heavy objects. During the year increasing numbers of children were compelled to work, according to human rights advocates. According to a 2007 study conducted by UNICEF in collaboration with the Bureau of Statistics, there were 620,000 working children between the ages of 10 and 17, representing 18 percent of all children in the country. Sixty-five percent of these children worked seasonally in the agricultural sector, many of them on the land of family and friends. A 2006 UNICEF-funded study estimated that at least 4 percent of children five to 14 years of age were involved in child labor, the majority of them younger than 11. According to a June article in the magazine Syria Today, children working in Damascus reported they regularly bribed the police with approximately 200 pounds ($4) each to avoid arrest. There was evidence that children engaged in some of the worst forms of child labor during the year, including forced labor and prostitution. The government did little to address the problem. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs monitored employment conditions for persons younger than 18, but there were too few inspectors to ensure compliance with the laws. The Labor Inspection Department performed unannounced spot checks of employers daily to enforce the law, but the scope of these checks was unknown. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The public sector minimum wage is divided into five categories based on job type and/or level of education. The minimum monthly wage for an individual with four to five years of university education was 9,645 to 9,965 pounds ($211 to $218), plus benefits; with a high school diploma up to two years of university education, 7,750 to 8,465 pounds ($169 to $185); with a junior high school diploma, 6,765 pounds ($148); for drivers, 6,200 pounds ($136); and laborers or janitors, 6,010 pounds ($131). Benefits included compensation for meals, uniforms, and transportation. The minimum wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Private sector companies usually paid much higher wages than the minimum. Also, many workers in both the public and private sectors took additional jobs or were supported by their extended families. The labor and social affairs minister was responsible for enforcing the minimum wage. The public sector workweek was 35 hours; the private sector's was 48 hours. Workers were guaranteed one 30-minute lunch break per day at minimum, although anecdotal evidence suggested that many workers enjoyed longer lunch breaks and short, informal breaks during the day. Premium pay exists for overtime worked, and a prohibition on excessive compulsory overtime exists in several sectors. Officials from the Ministries of Health and Labor were designated to inspect work sites for compliance with health and safety standards; such inspections were sporadic, apart from those conducted in hotels and other facilities that catered to foreigners. The enforcement of labor laws in rural areas was more lax than in urban areas, where there were more inspectors. Workers may lodge complaints about health and safety conditions with special committees established to adjudicate such cases. Workers have the right to remove themselves from hazardous conditions without risking loss of employment. On March 24, the Ministry of Labor issued a regulation stipulating that all domestic workers should be hired through a licensed office, outlining necessary fees and limits on workers' residency and describing workers' rights, including timely payment of salary, transfer upon request, and working in a safe and abuse-free environment. It provides domestic workers the right to sue their employers in case of a dispute. Offices recruiting domestic workers must display a copy of the regulation in Arabic and English to enable workers to understand their rights. On December 20, the prime minister issued Decision No. 108, which granted the minister specific authorities to revoke and/or suspend the licenses of agencies importing foreign labor. The new decision raised from 5 million pounds to 15 million pounds ($110,000 to $330,000) the mandatory ``guarantee'' deposit required of anyone applying to start a labor agency. The grounds for license revocation include but are not limited to importing domestic employees younger than 18; physical abuse, torture, or exploitation by either the agency or the employer; and discrimination based on race, sex, religion, social class, nationality, or any other form of discrimination prohibited by the international conventions in force. Although these laws and regulations provided protection for foreign workers who reside legally in the country, they did not cover the unknown number of illegal workers in the country. __________ TUNISIA Tunisia is a constitutional republic with a population of approximately 10 million, dominated by a single political party, the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD). Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has been the president since 1987. On October 25, President Ben Ali ran against three opposition candidates and was declared the winner with 89.6 percent of the popular vote to win a fifth five-year term. In concurrent elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the RCD won 161 of 214 seats. Restrictions imposed upon candidates and various procedural aspects of the elections raised doubts about whether either the presidential or legislative elections were free and fair. In 2008 indirect elections for some members of the Chamber of Advisors, the upper house of parliament, resulted in a heavily pro-RCD body. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. There were significant limitations on citizens' right to change their government. Local and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that security forces tortured and physically abused prisoners and detainees and arbitrarily arrested and detained individuals. Security forces acted with impunity, sanctioned by high- ranking officials. There were also reports of lengthy pretrial and incommunicado detention. Government imposition of severe restrictions on freedoms of speech, press, and association worsened in the lead-up to the October elections. The government remained intolerant of public criticism, and there were widespread reports that it used intimidation, criminal investigations, the judicial system, arbitrary arrests, residential restrictions, and travel controls to discourage criticism. Corruption was a problem. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings during the year. There were no developments in the case of the May 2008 death by electrocution of protestor Hichem Alaimi at a power station in Redeyef or the investigation into the June 2008 shootings of Hafnaoui Al- Maghzaoui and Abdelkhalak Amaidi by security forces during an unemployment protest in Redeyef. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices; however, according to human rights organizations, security forces tortured detainees to elicit confessions and discourage resistance, and engaged in beatings and other cruel treatments and punishments. Reported methods of torture included sexual abuse; sleep deprivation; electric shock; death threats; submersion of the head in water; beatings with hands, sticks, and police batons; suspension, sometimes manacled, from cell doors and rods, resulting in loss of consciousness; and cigarette burns. According to international human rights groups, on occasion police and prison officials used threats of sexual assault against prisoners' wives and daughters to extract information, intimidate, and punish. Charges of torture in specific cases were difficult to prove, and authorities generally did not take steps to investigate allegations or punish perpetrators. There were several allegations that authorities denied victims of torture access to medical care until evidence of abuse disappeared. The government maintained that it investigated all complaints of torture and mistreatment filed with the prosecutor's office and noted that alleged victims sometimes accused police of torture without filing the complaint that is a prerequisite for an investigation. According to defense attorneys and local and international human rights groups, police routinely refused to register complaints. Judges sometimes dismissed complaints without investigation and accepted as evidence confessions allegedly extracted through torture. The government can open an administrative investigation of allegations of torture or mistreatment of prisoners without a formal complaint; however, in those cases the results were not made public or available to the lawyers representing affected prisoners. Reports of torture were most frequently associated with the initial phases of interrogation/investigation and more often in pretrial detention centers than prisons. Human rights activists, citing prisoner accounts, identified facilities at the Ministry of Interior and Local Development (MOI) as the most common location for torture. Political prisoners, Islamists, and persons detained on terrorism-related charges allegedly received harsher treatment than other prisoners and detainees. On March 12, state security forces reportedly suspended Abdelmottaleb Ben Marzoug from his ankles in a ``roasted chicken'' position to extract a confession of his alleged participation in a physical altercation that took place in a bar. Marzoug had been in MOI detention since February 19, when state security officials arrested him in Gabes. According to local human rights monitors, Marzoug reported the torture to the investigating judge, and Marzoug's lawyer stated that there were visible bruises on Marzoug's ankles. Authorities did not offer Marzoug any medical treatment for his injuries, and they subsequently charged him under the antiterrorism law for allegedly belonging to a terrorist cell. At year's end Marzoug remained in prison, and the investigating judge had not ordered an investigation into Marzoug's allegations. On April 30, according to local human rights monitors, prison guards tortured Ramzi Romdhani, who was serving a 29-year sentence on terrorism-related charges at Al Mornaguia Prison in Tunis. The guards reportedly kicked him, causing him to lose several teeth, burned him with cigarettes, and submerged his head until he fainted. He was subsequently taken to the prison infirmary, put on a respirator for two days, and given medical treatment for his injuries. The actions were reportedly precipitated by Romdhani's protest of prison officials' decision to deny him visitation privileges with his two-year-old daughter. Following an intervention by Amnesty International (AI), authorities permitted Romdhani to see his family and daughter in May. On June 27, authorities released from prison Wahid Brahmi, who had been sentenced to two years and four months for spreading false information on criminal actions taken by state authorities against several individuals and for publicly posting false information in his university. On September 11, Brahmi published a letter in the Progressive Democratic Party's (PDP) Arabic-language weekly, Al-Mowqif, detailing his torture in Gafsa Prison. He confirmed previous reports that prison guards repeatedly raped him beginning in February 2008 and further alleged that they administered electric shocks to his body, stripped him of all his clothing, hung him from his feet, beat him repeatedly on his genitals while his mouth was taped shut, poured freezing water on his naked body, submerged his head into contaminated water until he vomited blood and lost consciousness, forced him to drink his own urine, and deprived him of food and sleep. On September 14, the Tunis public prosecutor issued a subpoena for Brahmi to appear before him and gave him 10 days to retract his ``false'' statements. Brahmi refused and stated he was ready to submit to a medical exam to prove his allegations. The case was pending at year's end. On November 5, authorities conditionally released the remaining 68 protestors they arrested and allegedly tortured during the January to June 2008 unemployment protests. There was no investigation into their allegations of torture. There were no developments in the cases of the July 2008 alleged rape in prison of teacher, journalist, and opposition party member Zakia Dhifaoui; the 2007 mistreatment in Mornaguia Prison of Oualid Layouni; the 2007 allegations that prison officials tortured and raped Ramzi el Aifi, Ousama Abbadi, and Mahdi Ben Elhaj Ali; or the 2007 case of 30 citizens who claimed that security forces tortured them. The 30 citizens, allegedly part of the Salafi terror group, were convicted of planning a terrorist attack against targeted foreigners in early 2007. During the year government forces also abused individuals outside custody, most commonly human rights or opposition activists, allegedly for purposes of intimidation or retaliation for unauthorized activities. On October 28, several assailants, allegedly plainclothes police, abducted prominent independent journalist Slim Boukdhir. Boukdhir reported the assailants blindfolded and bound him, taking him to a park where they beat and verbally assaulted him. The assailants also threatened to kill him. Earlier that day, before his abduction, Boukdhir gave an interview to BBC Arabic radio in which he accused the first lady of corruption. His assailants took his shoes, clothes, wallet, and cell phone and warned him to ``leave the woman alone.'' On May 15, according to international NGOs, six police officers, including police chief Sami Yahyaoui, assaulted Ammar Amroussia, a human rights defender and journalist for the banned newspaper El Badil (Alternative) in the city of Gafsa. Amroussia was on his way to Kasserine to meet with the wife of Adnan Hajji, one of the leaders of the January-June 2008 protests. On May 16, a group of police officers, including Gafsa deputy police chief Mohammed Yousfi, publicly insulted Amroussia and warned him he might be killed if he continued his reporting. On May 21, authorities forcibly prevented him from meeting with his lawyer, Radia Nasraoui. On June 23, civil society sources reported that state security forces assaulted human rights attorneys Abdel-Raouf Ayadi, Radia Nasraoui, and Abdelwahed Maatar at the Tunis and Sfax airports. All three were returning from Geneva, where they had denounced the government's human rights record to a conference of exiles. The officers pushed, beat, and kicked Ayadi while he lay prostrate on the floor, then searched him and his belongings. A state security officer twisted Nasraoui's arm to knock away her cell phone as she attempted to call her husband for assistance. Officers hit Maatar in the face, breaking his glasses, and detained him for two hours after he refused a full body search. On September 29, plainclothes police officers again assaulted Nasraoui, along with her husband, Hamma Hamami, official spokesperson of the banned Communist Party of State Workers, at the airport upon their return from Paris. While in Paris, Hamami gave an interview with Al Jazeera television accusing the government of repression. On June 6, a group armed with sticks, stones, and knives attacked PDP secretary general Maya Jribi and other party members in Sidi Bouzid. The group was holding a small-scale, private celebration of the release of a PDP member from prison. The local police chief and three deputies were present when the group attacked the delegation, but they offered no assistance. The delegation reported that inaction by police incited the group to further violence. Jribi contacted the MOI during the attack but did not receive any assistance. There were no developments in the following cases from earlier years: the alleged February 2008 assault by security forces on Fatma Ksila, secretary general of the Committee for the Respect of Freedom and Human Rights in Tunisia and Samia Abbou, a member of the Tunisian Association for Combating Terrorism. The assault prevented the two from meeting with torture victims' families; the April 2008 assault on a PDP member who was selling copies of the party's weekly newspaper, Al- Mowqif; the June 2008 assault on Hamma Hammami, a member of an unregistered political party; or the 2007 cases of assault on regional union leader Khaled Barhoumi and journalist Aymen Rezgui. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions generally did not meet international standards. Overcrowding and limited medical care posed significant threats to prisoners' health. During the year there were credible reports that authorities sometimes denied injured or sick prisoners prompt access to medical care. The government permitted the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) access to prisons, but did not grant access to other independent human rights observers. According to human rights organizations, prison conditions in the country continued to fall short of minimum adequate standards. Hygiene was extremely poor, and prisoners rarely had access to showers and washing facilities. Sources reported that 40 to 50 prisoners were typically confined to a single 194-square-foot cell, and as many as 140 prisoners shared a 323-square-foot cell. Most prisoners were forced to share beds or sleep on the floor. Current and former prisoners reported that the lack of basic facilities forced inmates to share a single water and toilet facility with more than 100 cellmates, creating serious sanitation problems. Contagious diseases, particularly scabies, were widespread, and prisoners did not have access to adequate medical care. According to prisoners' families, the government imposed arbitrary restrictions, such as limiting family visits, when prisoners sought redress for grievances about treatment and conditions. On April 10, several families of prisoners arrested on terror charges published a letter on the Internet (tunisnews.net) to protest the cruel detention conditions in which their family members were being held throughout the country. The families alleged that the prisons were overcrowded, detainees were denied needed medical attention, denied access to family visits, and arbitrarily placed in solitary confinement. On January 11, according to the International Association for the Support of Political Prisoners (AISPP), Anouar Ferjani died in custody in Mornaguia Prison as a result of deliberate neglect and denial of medical care. Ferjani had been sentenced to two years in prison in 2008 on terrorism-related charges. In September Kasserine Prison officials refused to allow Adnan Hajji, who suffers from kidney disease, to receive medication furnished by his wife. In December 2008 a Gafsa court sentenced Hajji to 10 years in prison on charges of forming a criminal group with the intent of destroying public and private property, leading an armed rebellion, and assaulting officials during the exercise of their duties. Hajji was conditionally released on November 5. Political prisoners were separated from the general prison population and were under the authority of security forces working for the Department of State Security in the MOI instead of Ministry of Justice and Human Rights (MOJ) officials. Prison administrators and guards allegedly instructed other inmates to stay away from political prisoners and punished them severely for making contact with them. Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported in early 2008 that the government was keeping some political prisoners, most of whom were outlawed Islamist party An-Nahdha leaders, in small-group isolation (see section 1.e.). According to prisoner and detainee testimony, prison conditions for women were generally better than those for men. In July 2008 the government passed a law mandating that prisons have separate areas for pregnant women and nursing mothers. The law also reduced the period of time infants and toddlers were allowed to reside with their mothers from three years to one. The law requires that pretrial detainees be held separately from convicted prisoners, but in practice they were not always separated. The ICRC continued to visit detainees in prisons and detention facilities. According to the ICRC's 2009 Annual Report, the ICRC conducted 56 visits to 37 detention centers. These centers held a total of 26,319 detainees, and the ICRC held individual interviews with 546 detainees during the year. However, the government did not permit media or independent local or international human rights groups to inspect or monitor prison conditions. Per ICRC standard modalities, it shared its observations and recommendations only on a confidential and bilateral basis with the authorities. Although the government pledged to the UN Human Rights Committee in March 2008 that it would allow HRW to visit prisons, at year's end negotiations between the government and HRW had stagnated due to the government's refusal to permit HRW to meet with specific prisoners by request. The governmental Higher Commission on Human Rights and Civil Liberties (HCHR) continued to make unannounced prison visits and inspections of MOJ facilities during the year; however, the HCHR's reports were not made public. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, but the government did not observe these prohibitions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The MOI controls several law enforcement organizations including the police, who have primary responsibility for law enforcement in the major cities; the National Guard, which has responsibility for border security and policing smaller cities and the countryside; and state security forces, which monitor groups and individuals that the government viewed as posing a threat, such as opposition parties and leaders, the media, Islamists, and human rights activists. In general, law enforcement groups were disciplined, organized, and effective; however, incidents of petty corruption and police brutality took place. Law enforcement organizations sometimes operated with impunity, sanctioned by high-ranking officials. Police attacked dissidents and oppositionists. The MOI's Higher Institute of Internal Security Forces and Customs has oversight of law enforcement officers in the ministries of interior and customs. The organization's stated mission was to reinforce human rights and improve law enforcement; however, no information was available about its operations, and no information was available about any punishment of police or prison guards. Arrest and Detention.--The law provides that police must have a warrant to arrest a suspect, unless the crime committed is a felony or is in progress; however, arbitrary arrests and detentions occurred. The penal code permits detention for as long as six days before arraignment, during which time the government may hold suspects incommunicado. This time limit was not always observed. For example, a 2007 National Council for Freedom and Labor (CNLT) report documented 24 cases in 2007 in which the prearraignment detention exceeded six days. Arresting officers must inform detainees of their rights, immediately inform detainees' families of the arrest, and make a complete record of the times and dates of such notifications, but police sometimes ignored those rules. Detainees not being held incommunicado were allowed access to family members, although the government did not always facilitate the efforts of family members to identify the whereabouts of their detained relatives. Detainees have the right to know the grounds of their arrest before questioning and may request a medical examination. They do not have a right to legal representation during prearraignment detention. Attorneys, human rights monitors, and former detainees maintained that authorities illegally extended detention by falsifying arrest dates. Police reportedly extorted money from families of detainees in exchange for dropping charges against them. The law permits the release of accused persons on bail, and detainees have the right to representation by counsel during arraignment. The government provides legal representation for indigents. At arraignment the examining magistrate may decide to release the accused or remand him or her to pretrial detention. In cases involving crimes for which the sentence may exceed five years or that involve national security, pretrial detention may last an initial period of six months and may be extended by court order for two additional four-month periods. For crimes in which the sentence may not exceed five years, the court may extend the initial six-month pretrial detention only by an additional three months. During this pretrial stage, the court conducts an investigation, hears arguments, and accepts evidence and motions from both parties. Complaints of prolonged pretrial detention were common. On February 19, state security officers arrested Abdelmottaleb Ben Marzoug in Gabes and transferred him to the MOI in Tunis the same day but failed to notify his family. On February 26, the public prosecutor informed Marzoug's lawyer that he had no information on Marzoug's arrest or whereabouts. Marzoug's attorney also reported that Marzoug told the presiding judge that officials tortured him during his detention (see section 1.c.). On April 10, lawyer Najet Labidi conducted a sit-in at the Tunis Bar Association president's office to protest the Mornaguia Prison director's decision to deny her access to her client, Mehdi Batout, despite Labidi's receipt of MOJ authorization to visit him. Authorities subsequently allowed her to visit him after a three-month wait. Throughout the year, Labidi volunteered to defend political prisoners and authorities reportedly often denied her access to clients. On October 22, authorities arrested Mohamed Soudani, student leader of the General Union of Tunisian Students (UGET), after he met with two French journalists covering the national and legislative elections. On the evening of his arrest, Soudani called his lawyers and family and informed them of a heavy police presence where he met the journalists and of the likelihood that he would be detained. Soudani's lawyer filed a complaint with the Tunis public prosecutor on October 23, when Soudani failed to return home. Authorities did not inform Soudani's family of his arrest as required by law nor did they provide information on his whereabouts. On October 24, Soudani was brought before the court in the town of Mahdia and given a four-month jail sentence on charges of drunkenness and disorderly and immoral conduct. There were no developments in the June 2008 arrest of Zied Fakraoui. Police failed to notify Zied's family of his whereabouts until July 2008, when local government officials told Fakraoui's lawyers he had been brought before an investigating magistrate without the presence of counsel. At year's end Fakraoui was believed to be still in custody. On March 30, a Bizerte court issued a three-year suspended sentence to AISPP member Tarek Soussi. In August 2008 police arrested Soussi shortly after his interview with Al Jazeera regarding several arrests. According to Reporters Without Borders (RWB), security forces did not present a warrant at the time of Soussi's arrest and posed as electric company employees to gain entrance to his home. There were no developments in the 2007 case of founding AISPP member Lassaad Jouhri, whom police reportedly detained for approximately 12 hours and questioned on his plans to accompany international NGO Human Rights First and a crew from the US public television program Frontline to El Kef Prison. According to international and domestic human rights organizations, police arrested individuals (more than 1,000 since late 2006) following security operations to disrupt an armed cell that was reportedly plotting terrorist attacks. Families made inquiries about the individuals, but authorities provided no information. Local and international groups have expressed concern that authorities held the arrested in incommunicado detention at the MOI State Security Department, where they would be at risk of torture and other mistreatment. Courts convicted 30 suspects charged with plotting against state security; the total number remaining in pretrial detention was unknown at year's end. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the executive branch and the president strongly influenced judicial procedures, particularly in cases involving political dissidents and oppositionists. The executive branch exercised indirect authority over the judiciary through the appointment, assignment, tenure, and transfer of judges, rendering the system susceptible to pressure. Defendants may request a different judge if they believe the one assigned is not impartial; however, judges are not required to recuse themselves. The Tunisian Bar Association initially opposed a judicial training institute inaugurated in October 2008, arguing that the institute gave the government control of those admitted to the bar, but the bar association accepted the institute once the government granted the bar association a management role. The president headed the Supreme Council of Judges, composed primarily of presidential appointees. The civil court system is a three-tiered hierarchy. At the first level, there are 51 district courts, in which a single judge hears each case. At the second level there are 24 courts of first instance, which serve as appellate courts for the district courts but also have original jurisdiction for more serious cases. The Court of Cassation (or Supreme Court) serves as the final court of appeals. The Supreme Court considers only arguments pertaining to points of law. The organization of the criminal court system is similar to that of the civil court system. In most cases the presiding judge or a panel of judges dominates a trial, and attorneys have little opportunity to participate substantively. Military courts fall under the Ministry of Defense. Military tribunals have the authority to try cases involving military personnel and civilians accused of national security crimes. A defendant may appeal a military tribunal's verdict to the civilian Supreme Court. In 2007, according to AI, military courts sentenced at least 15 civilians to as long as 10 years' imprisonment for alleged national security crimes. There is also an administrative tribunal, which hears administrative cases between citizens and the government. Trial Procedures.--The law employs the same trial procedures for all citizens, and it provides for the right to a fair trial; however, according to international and domestic NGOs, this did not often occur in practice. The law provides that defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty; however, that presumption was sometimes ignored in practice, especially in politically sensitive cases. Trials in the regular courts of first instance and in the courts of appeal are open to the public. The government permitted observers from diplomatic missions and foreign journalists to monitor trials. Observers may be allowed to attend sessions of military tribunals at the court's discretion. There are no jury trials. By law accused persons have the right to be present at trial, to be represented by counsel (provided at public expense for the indigent), to question witnesses against them, and to present witnesses or evidence on their behalf; however, judges did not always observe these rights in practice. The law permits the trial in absentia of fugitives from the law. Both the accused and the prosecutor may appeal decisions of the lower courts. Lengthy trial delays remained a problem. Defendants do not have the right to a speedy trial, nor is there any time limit on cases. Defense lawyers claimed that judges sometimes refused to let them call witnesses on their clients' behalf or to question key government witnesses. Defense lawyers contended that the courts often failed to grant adequate notice of trial dates or allow time to prepare their cases. There were reports that judges restricted access to court records and evidence, especially to records and evidence the government held, and in some cases required all the lawyers working on a case to examine documents together on a single date in judges' chambers, without allowing them to copy relevant documents. Lawyers and human rights organizations reported that courts routinely failed to investigate allegations of torture and mistreatment and accepted as evidence confessions extracted through torture. These groups also reported that the summary nature of court sessions sometimes prevented reasoned deliberation and that erratic court schedules and procedures deterred would-be observers from attending political trials. Although family and inheritance law is codified, civil law judges were known to apply Shari'a (Islamic law) in family cases if the two systems conflicted. Some families avoided the application of Shari'a inheritance rules by executing sales contracts between parents and children to ensure that daughters received shares of property equal to that of sons. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--The number of political prisoners remained unknown. Human rights organizations alleged that the government had arrested and imprisoned more than 2,000 persons under the terrorism law since 2005 without sufficient evidence that they had committed or planned to commit terrorist acts. Human rights activists and lawyers alleged that many of these detainees were tortured in MOI facilities and forced to sign confessions under duress. On May 27, Becchir Tekkari, the minister of justice and human rights, reportedly said the government had sentenced only 300 individuals under the antiterrorism law. In November 2008 the government conditionally released the An- Nahdha leaders remaining in prison; however, in December 2008 the government rearrested former An-Nahda president Sadok Chorou shortly after he gave an interview to the London-based satellite television station Al-Hiwar, and sentenced him to one year in prison for membership in an unauthorized organization. On August 18, according to local NGO Freedom and Equity, Chorou's wife visited him in prison. She subsequently alleged that Chorou had been restricted to a diet of bread and olive oil for the previous 40 days and was subject to harassment by inmates under the guidance of prison officials. Family members of political prisoners claim that prisoners are poorly treated, their visitation rights limited, their religious beliefs insulted, and that they are subjected to arbitrary solitary confinement. Former political prisoners stated that upon their release, officials failed to return their identification cards, marked their identification cards in a specific way, or denied them certificates attesting that they had served their sentences and were permitted to work. They also reported that both uniformed and plainclothes police closely monitored them. The ICRC had access to political prisoners in MOJ-controlled prisons and detention facilities, but generally not to those in MOI facilities. The government did not permit any other international humanitarian organizations access to such prisoners. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Although a court system existed through which citizens could make human rights complaints, the judiciary was not independent and impartial in cases involving human rights violations when the government was involved. Administrative remedies were available through the Office of the Ombudsman or the Administrative Court. These institutions' decisions were not binding, and other government departments and agencies often ignored them. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such actions ``except in exceptional cases defined by law''; however, the government generally did not respect these prohibitions in practice. Police sometimes ignored the requirement to have a warrant before conducting searches if authorities cited state security considerations. Domestic NGOs and civil society activists reported that members of the security forces entered their offices when they were not present and searched without a warrant. Authorities may invoke state security considerations to justify telephone surveillance. According to numerous reports by NGOs and the news media, the government intercepted faxes and e-mails. The law does not explicitly authorize these activities, but the government stated that the code of criminal procedure implicitly gives investigating magistrates such authority. Opposition political activists experienced frequent and sometimes extended interruptions of service to home and business telephones, faxes, and the Internet. Human rights activists accused the government of using the postal code, with its broad and undefined prohibition against mail that threatens the public order, to interfere with their correspondence and interrupt the delivery of foreign publications. Authorities reportedly opened and read letters, many of which never reached their recipients. Security forces routinely monitored the activities, telephones, and Internet exchanges of opposition, Islamist, and human rights activists, as well as journalists, and placed some individuals under surveillance. According to HRW, from October 10 through the October 25 elections, plainclothes police surrounded the home of Hamma Hamami, spokesperson of a banned political party. Hamami, reportedly fearing for the safety of his daughter, left his home for a private location. At year's end plainclothes police maintained a limited but visible presence around the home of Hamami and his wife, Nadia Nasraoui. Human rights activists claimed the government punished family members of Islamist activists by denying them jobs, educational opportunities, business licenses, and travel, due to their relatives' activism. Police also subjected relatives to surveillance and questioning. On June 5, with no explanation, police surrounded the home of former prisoner Hamadi Jebali. Jebali was the publication director for the Islamist newspaper Al-Fajr, which the government closed in the early 1990s. The government arrested Jebali in 1990 and released him in 2006. Jebali reported to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) that, as of year's end, both he and his wife remained under constant police surveillance. Human rights activists reported that the government made it difficult for released prisoners suspected of An-Nahdha membership to find employment. Other released political prisoners who had been detained but not convicted found it hard to obtain MOI statements that they had no criminal records, and even when not imprisoned, political activists and Islamists had their identification cards confiscated, which created problems with receiving health care, signing a lease, buying or driving a car, and accessing bank accounts and pensions. Police may demand identification cards at any time and may detain those unable to produce their cards until police establish their identity. AISPP member Lasaad Johri has not had an identification card since 1999. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for limited freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government generally did not respect these rights in practice. The government restricted media freedom and severely intimidated journalists, editors, and publishers into practicing self-censorship. Security forces closely monitored both foreign and domestic media activity. Individuals were not free to criticize the government without fear of reprisal, and the government restricted some types of speech. The law prohibits individuals from discussing national politics on foreign radio or television channels during the two weeks prior to national elections, with a fine of up to 25,000 dinar ($20,833) per offense. Security forces often questioned citizens seen talking with foreign visitors or residents, particularly with visiting international human rights monitors and journalists. The government also attempted to prevent private meetings of citizens with foreign diplomats and to influence public meetings by surrounding meeting places with scores of plainclothes police. The government does not require licensing of print media; however, it rigidly controls print media through a publishing permit process. Print media must request a copyright registration from the MOI, which issues a receipt that constitutes an official permit to publish for one year. The press code requires that the receipt be issued before printing, effectively prohibiting any unlicensed publications. The code also requires the publisher to inform the MOI of any change of printer. Printers and publishers violating these rules are subject to substantial, per copy, personal fines under the press code. CNLT produced the online newsmagazine Kalima without a license, but it was accessible only from outside the country. In April 2008 CNLT made its fifth attempt to register Kalima, but government officials refused to acknowledge they had received their application. International human rights NGOs alleged that the government refused registration of Kalima due to its criticism of the government. In October 2008 the Kalima Web site was hacked and its archives destroyed. The government stated that there were 950 foreign publications and newspapers distributed in the country and that 90 percent of domestic newspapers were ``privately owned and editorially independent.'' However, two of the eight mainstream dailies were government-owned, the ruling party owned two, and two, although nominally private, reportedly took editorial direction from senior government officials. All media were subject to significant governmental pressure over subject matter. There were seven opposition party newspapers with small circulations. Five of them received government subsidies under a law that provides government financing to papers representing opposition parties that have seats in parliament. Broadcast media must receive a grant or denial of a frequency from the Tunisian Frequencies Agency, a part of the Ministry of Communications Technologies. These licenses, or acceptance of the application, are tightly restricted. On January 30, according to the CPJ, police confiscated the equipment and shut down the offices of Radio Kalima, an independent Internet radio station that was critical of the government. The MOI launched a legal case against Radio Kalima's managing director Sihem Bensedrine for ``broadcasting on frequencies without a legal permit.'' Radio Kalima applied on five separate occasions for a permit during its eight years of existence. The station last applied in 2007 and subsequently filed a case with the administrative court to protest the MOI's refusal to grant a receipt proving that the Ministry received Radio Kalima's permit application. The administrative court refused to hear the case. At year's end, the government continued to block access to the Radio Kalima office. On October 22, police entered the offices of independent Internet radio station Radio 6 with a search warrant and seized all computers and related equipment. Police sealed the doors to the station with heavy-duty padlocks and informed the station manager that his operation was illegal. The station manager had last applied for a radio license in 2008, but the government failed to respond to the application or issue a license. Prior to the police seizure, the station manager, along with other colleagues, organized an on-air sit-in to protest the government's refusal to allow independent radio and other media outlets to operate legally in the country. Government regulations required foreign correspondents to obtain written approval before recording video in public. The government controlled the satellite transmissions of local correspondents reporting for foreign television stations by refusing to license correspondents and insisting that all correspondents use government- owned facilities for satellite uplink. On May 4, progovernment journalists initiated an open campaign against the executive board of the National Syndicate of Tunisian Journalists (SNJT), following the union's announcement of its second annual press freedom report. Progovernment members of the board resigned and began circulating a petition to the union membership calling for an extraordinary congress to conduct new elections. Some journalists were reportedly threatened with dismissal if they did not sign. After holding the congress on August 15, the progovernment faction sued for control of the SNJT. On September 8, plainclothes police surrounded the SNJT offices, and approximately 20 police officers beat SNJT president Neji B'ghouri as he attempted to access the offices. The same day, a Tunis court ruled in favor of the progovernment faction. Police enforced the court order immediately and evicted the independent SNJT board from the offices. On August 12, B'ghouri's independent group filed a legal challenge to the progovernment takeover. On October 26, the court examined the legal challenge and postponed the case to December 7. At year's end the case remained pending. There were widespread reports during the year that the government blocked most criticism of the authorities in the mainstream press and also that it harassed, arrested, and abused journalists, especially those active in opposition activities. The government cited the need to preserve public order as grounds to suppress criticism and used defamation laws to prosecute journalists. Journalists most often faced charges of unrelated offenses (such as counterfeiting), often by private parties. The law authorizes sentences as long as five years in prison for offensive statements against the president and as long as three years for defamation of constitutional bodies, including the Chamber of Deputies, Chamber of Advisors, constitutional councils, the administration, government members, or deputies. On July 13, according to the CPJ, seven plainclothes police officers followed Radio Kalima reporter Mouldi Zwabi while he covered a union event in the town of Beja. Police observed and listened to all his interviews and attempted to intimidate unionists into stopping the interviews. Police subsequently interrogated all those Zwabi had interviewed. On September 15, police temporarily detained journalist Abdullah Zouari, who once worked for Al-Fajr, the An-Nahdha party's weekly newspaper, and asked him to stop writing and publishing articles that were ``detrimental'' to the country's world image. The officers reportedly threatened to circulate alleged photo-shopped pornographic material of Zouari if he did not stop. Zouari was under ``administrative control'' (a form of internal exile) for seven years, ending on August 2; he remained under constant police surveillance at year's end. On December 1, independent journalist Zouhaier Makhlouf was sentenced to three months in prison and fined 6,000 dinars ($4,700) on charges of ``harming others on the Internet.'' Makhlouf posted footage he filmed documenting environmental damage and dangerous working conditions in an industrial district of Nabeul, a town 50 miles southeast of Tunis. The government has targeted Makhlouf for contributing to an independent news Web site (assabilonline.com) filled with anti-government material and for posting material critical of the government on Facebook and YouTube. On July 27, prior to the arrest that led to his December 1 conviction, plainclothes police officers forcibly prevented Makhlouf and his wife from entering the Carthage amphitheatre for a concert by Lebanese musician Marcel Khalifa. Police ripped up their tickets and assaulted Makhlouf in the presence of his wife. A journalist for Tunis Radio 6, Mohamed Mzem, was the victim of similar harassment on July 28 when he attempted to attend the same concert. The CPJ reported that the government regularly targeted both Mzem and Makhlouf for their numerous articles critical of the government. According to the CPJ, both journalists intended to cover Khalifa's performance for their independent Internet stations. Khalifa has been closely monitored following a 2005 media interview in which he stated that his songs were limited, and in some cases banned, by the government-controlled radio and television stations. On November 26, prominent independent journalist Taoufik Ben Brik was convicted of assault and given a six-month prison sentence. Arrested October 29 on charges of public indecency, assault, defamation, destruction of private property, and blasphemy, Ben Brik claimed he was sitting in his parked vehicle when another vehicle driven by an unidentified woman collided with his. When he exited his vehicle to check the damage, the woman driver began screaming, tore at her clothes, and ran away. The woman later reported to the police that Ben Brik attempted to rape her. Civil society, independent journalists, and Ben Brik's lawyer described the arrest as a government attempt to silence legitimate and free journalism. The incident followed Ben Brik's publication in the French press of opinion articles critical of the government. On February 4, an appeals court in Gafsa upheld the December 2008 six-year prison sentence in absentia against Fahem Boukadous for ``belonging to a criminal association'' and spreading materials ``likely to harm public order.'' Boukados covered the January-June 2008 unemployment protests in the southwestern Tunisia for the satellite television station, Al-Hiwar Al-Tunisia. Boukadous emerged from hiding, after six and a half months, on November 24. RWB reported that Boukadous went before the court in Gafsa on November 24 to plead his case and benefit from the conditional pardon granted by President Ben Ali on November 5 that allowed for the release of the remaining prisoners arrested following the January-June Gafsa protests. Upon presenting himself to the court on November 24, police reportedly held and interrogated Bakadous for several hours, before they brought him before the judge. The Gafsa court conditionally released Bakadous and scheduled a hearing for December 2 to revisit Bakodous' original conviction in absentia. At year's end Bakadous remained free, and the court had yet to vacate the conviction in absentia. There were no developments in the following cases from earlier years: the March and August 2008 assaults on human rights journalist Sihem Bensedrine and her husband, Omar Mestiri; the July 2008 questioning of former PDP secretary general Nejib Chebbi on charges relating to defamation of the judicial system; the November 2008 police arrest of and assault on Radio Kalima reporter Fatine Al-Hamdi; the 2007 conviction in absentia of journalist and press freedom advocate Mohamed Fourati to 14 months in prison for membership in the unauthorized An-Nahdha party; or the reported police assault on journalists Lotfi Hajji and Aymen Rezki. The law prohibits censorship of domestic newspapers, magazines, and books; however, the government continued to censor international as well as domestic media. For example, it banned distribution of the March 6 issue of As-Sada, a weekly magazine published in the United Arab Emirates. The edition carried an article claiming that Tunisia's ban on polygamy led to wealthy citizens having extramarital affairs. On October 21, the government reportedly barred French journalist Florence Beauge from entering Tunisia four days before the national and legislative elections. Government authorities blocked Beauge, a reporter specializing in North African issues for French daily Le Monde, at the Tunis Carthage airport on the grounds that she landed without proper authorization. Tunisian officials also stated in press reports that Beauge conducted ``dubious activities'' and showed ``blatant malevolence'' towards Tunisia in the past. Earlier in the same month, Beauge issued reports from Tunisia that the government viewed as unfavorable. The government also reportedly banned distribution of the October 29 issue of the The Economist for an article that covered the results of the national elections titled: ``One-man show: Another meaningless election.'' The government routinely seized and prevented distribution of domestic newspapers when it found articles or photos contrary to government policies. For example, authorities reportedly suppressed February and March issues of the opposition weekly al-Mowqif, which carried articles on judicial independence, the PDP candidate for president, unemployment, and democracy. According to journalists and nonjournalist sources, senior government officials routinely called news directors and editors to inform them which issues they were forbidden to cover or publish and to direct editorial content and news coverage. The government also often pressured newspapers to carry the government wire service's version of an event, even when the newspapers' own journalists were present. The Tunisian Agency for External Communications enforced these informal censorship mechanisms by favoring certain publications for placement of government advertising. Private companies that wanted to avoid association with publications the government viewed unfavorably pulled their advertisements from those publications. Directors and owners of existing private media, as well as journalists working for government- and ruling-party-owned media, practiced a high degree of self-censorship. Journalists in the mainstream media regularly refrained from investigative reporting on national issues. Only the small opposition media reported regularly on controversial national issues. The law stipulates that the government may restrict the publication, introduction, and circulation of foreign works. The Ministry of Culture required book fair publishing representatives to deposit publication titles in advance; it reportedly rejected several thousand religious books 25 publishing houses proposed to present for an April 24-May 3 book fair. Authorities also prevented the sale by restricting entry into Tunisia of foreign publications that included articles deemed critical of the country or that the government determined could prompt a security threat. On October 1, authorities banned the sale and distribution of The Regent of Carthage, a book by French journalists Nicolas Beau and Catherine Graciet. The book detailed allegations of corruption by President Ben Ali, first lady Leila Ben Ali, and their respective families. Internet Freedom.--Widespread use and interest in the Internet remained the driving force behind Tunisia's rapidly and continuously developing telecommunications infrastructure. According to 2008 International Telecommunication Union statistics, approximately 28 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet. The law allows the government to block or censor Internet content deemed obscene or content threatening public order, defined as ``incitement to hate, violence, terrorism, and all forms of discrimination and bigoted behavior that violate the integrity and dignity of the human person, or are prejudicial to children and adolescents.'' During the year the government also blocked access to a wide variety of Internet sites that did not fit this definition. There were reports that the government monitored Internet usage and communications. In early May judiciary police summoned university professor Khedija Arfaoui to their headquarters in Tunis and questioned her for approximately eight hours after she posted a message on her Facebook page about the incidence of child kidnappings in the country. The message Arfaoui posted was related to rumors that had already circulated within the country and had been discussed in the local media. On July 4, Arfaoui was sentenced to eight months in prison for ``disturbing public order.'' On December 2, the Tunis Court of Appeals heard Arfaoui's case. Arfaoui stated that she received the posted e- mail from a young woman living in France, and claimed she had posted the message in good faith. The court scheduled another hearing for December 20, and at year's end Arfaoui remained free. The government blocked nearly all sites belonging to domestic human rights, opposition, and Islamist groups, including discussion sites. The government periodically blocked opposition news sites and Internet discussion sites throughout the year. Some foreign Web sites remained blocked at year's end, including RWB's site and YouTube, which has been blocked since 2007. According to RWB, the Journaliste Tunisien blog was blocked in October 2008, one day after it posted RWB's 2008 Press Freedom Index. The 2009 OpenNet Initiative (ONI) report indicated that the government continued to block Web sites of political opposition groups, opposition news pages, human rights groups, and sites allegedly critical of the Koran and Islam. According to ONI, the government used a commercial software program loaded onto government-controlled servers to consistently block sites on the servers of the country's 11 Internet service providers (ISPs). In addition to filtering software, the government reportedly used regulatory means and surveillance to monitor and control Internet usage. The AISPP reported that authorities continued to arrest individuals for visiting Web sites the government associated with terrorism and detained them without proper legal procedures or sufficient evidence of commission of a crime. The law requires all ISPs to obtain a license from the Ministry of Communications Technologies. Each ISP must submit a monthly list of its subscribers to the quasi-governmental Tunisian Internet Agency (ATI). Internet users and those who maintain Web sites and servers are also responsible for infractions of the law. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government limited academic freedom and fostered a culture of self-censorship in universities. The government closely monitored administrators, teachers, and students to identify political activity. Both uniformed and plainclothes police maintained a significant presence on university campuses and discouraged students from openly expressing dissent. Authorities subjected academic publications for the Ministry of Culture's approval before publication, and university libraries did not purchase foreign books or subscribe to foreign magazines deemed critical of the government by the Ministry of Culture. Close government control over academic research funds prevented university administrators from authorizing or applying for grants on research topics they believed the government would find objectionable. Professors avoided teaching classes on subjects considered sensitive, such as legal courses on political systems, comparative politics, and classes on civil liberties. University professors often avoided discussion of subjects deemed sensitive enough to interest the government, and faculty members reported that they were hesitant to gather outside the classroom. Faculty members had to request Ministry of Higher Education approval to hold conferences and were required to submit conference topics and invitee lists. On July 20, the government adopted a law requiring all foreign theatrical and artistic productions not sponsored by the government to undergo Ministry of Culture clearance prior to public performance or release. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The law provides for freedom of assembly and association, but the government severely restricted this right in practice. Freedom of Assembly.--The law requires groups wishing to hold a public meeting, rally, or march to obtain a permit from the MOI at least three days prior to the proposed event and to submit a list of participants. Authorities routinely approved permits for groups supporting the government and generally refused permission for dissenting groups. As in previous years, NGO leaders reported difficulty in renting space to hold large meetings, maintaining that police pressured venue managers not to rent to certain groups. Hotel managers and businesses denied any specific ban on renting space to opposition groups; however, they acknowledged cooperating with the MOI and accommodating its requests when possible. The government consistently blocked meetings of the Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH) in its headquarters in Tunis and in regional offices. On January 24, prior to a public civil society event to introduce a newly created organization to facilitate coordination among human rights leagues in the Maghreb, a large number of plainclothes police officers reportedly surrounded the LTDH headquarters and blocked the entrance, denying access to all guests except the LTDH steering committee. The guest of honor, Mohamed Ismail from the Algerian Human Rights League, was also denied entry, as were several journalists, civil society leaders, and foreign diplomats. The event was originally scheduled to be held at the headquarters of the Tunisian Women's Association for Research and Development, but according to the LTDH, a high-level MOI official contacted the association's president and informed her that the association could not hold the meeting at its headquarters. On May 8, plainclothes police prevented the LTDH from celebrating its 32nd anniversary. Only LTDH steering committee members were allowed into the organization's headquarters, and all other guests, including foreign diplomats, were turned away. On April 9, according to local NGO Freedom & Equity, plainclothes police surrounded approximately 80 members of the UGET at their organization's headquarters in Tunis and prevented them from traveling to Bizerte to attend the 25th congress of the organization. Police reportedly assaulted some student leaders, and the congress was cancelled. At year's end there were no further developments. The government used police and other state security forces to monitor, control, and sometimes break up demonstrations. In general, demonstrators and security forces did not resort to violence; however, there were some exceptions, such as scuffles ensuing from protestors' attempts to cross police lines barring access to a demonstration site or from protestors not dispersing when police ordered them to do so. There was no further unrest in the aftermath of the January-June 2008 protests in southwestern town of Redeyef. The protest began in January 2008 after the region's biggest employer, the Phosphates Company, announced the results of a recruitment competition. The local branch of the Tunisian General Labor Union (UGTT) and many of the unsuccessful candidates protested that there had been fraud. The protest climaxed in April 2008 following the arrest of dozens of demonstrators. One demonstrator was fatally shot and 18 others wounded in June 2008. There have been no developments in the investigation into this fatal shooting. The government maintained that the protests were violent while domestic NGOS claimed they were peaceful. The remaining 68 prisoners incarcerated following the protest were conditionally freed on November 5. The specific terms of their conditional release were not made public but are understood to imply no further political activity. The government previously released 23 prisoners in October 2008. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association; however, the government generally did not respect this right in practice. The law requires that new NGOs apply for registration with the government. If the government does not reject the application within 90 days, the NGO is automatically registered. The government routinely blocked registration of new independent NGOs by refusing to provide receipts for their applications. Without such a receipt, NGOs were unable to counter the government's assertions that they had not applied to register and therefore were not allowed to operate. In such cases the government could shut down these NGOs, seize their property, and prosecute their members for ``membership in an illegal organization.'' Authorities arrested and prosecuted several individuals on this charge after they participated in the January-June 2008 Gafsa protests. There were reports that significant numbers of RCD members attempted to join independent NGOs or labor unions with the apparent intent of limiting the organizations' independence by gaining control through elections or disrupting operations. For example, on September 8, a progovernment faction took over leadership of the journalists' union. On June 11, the Court of Cassation affirmed a 2001 ruling annulling all decisions and organs resulting from the LTDH's fifth congress, including its newly elected steering committee, and it tasked the LTDH with holding a new congress. According to LTDH leadership, the only way for the LTDH to continue its human rights work was to ensure that progovernment members were elected to the NGO's steering committee. At year's end the LTDH had not planned a sixth congress or scheduled elections for its steering committee. c. Freedom of Religion.--The law provides for freedom of religion on the condition that religious practice does not disturb public order; however, the government restricted and abused this right in practice. Islam is the state religion, and the law stipulates that the president must be a Muslim. The government recognized all Christian and Jewish religious organizations established in the country before independence in 1956. Although it permitted other Christian denominations to operate, the government formally recognized only the Roman Catholic Church. The Provisional Committee of the Jewish community met weekly and performed religious activities and charity work, although the government had not granted it permanent registration. The government regarded the Baha'i faith as a heretical sect of Islam and permitted its adherents to practice their faith only in private. The law provides that only persons appointed by the government may lead activities in mosques, and the government pays the salaries of imams. The government required that mosques remain closed except during prayers and other authorized religious ceremonies, such as marriages or funerals. Authorities instructed imams to espouse the government's social and economic programs during prayer times in mosques. The government required Islamic religious education in public schools, and religious curriculum for secondary school students also included histories of Judaism and Christianity. The government allowed Jewish communities to operate private religious schools. Jewish children on the island of Djerba were permitted to divide their academic day between public secular schools and private religious schools. Although it was not illegal to change religions, government officials occasionally discriminated against converts from Islam to another religion using legal and social pressure to discourage conversion. Customary law based on Shari'a forbids Muslim women from marrying outside their religion. The government required a non-Muslim man to convert to Islam before marrying a Muslim woman. The government did not allow married Muslim couples to register their children with non-Muslim names. The government prohibits efforts to proselytize Muslims. While authorities did not deport foreigners suspected of proselytizing, they did not renew the visas of suspected missionaries. The government did not permit the establishment of political parties based on religion, and it used this prohibition to continue to refuse to register the Islamist An-Nahdha party and to prosecute suspected An-Nahdha members for ``membership in an illegal organization.'' The government continued to maintain tight surveillance over Islamists and monitored activity in mosques. According to human rights lawyers, the government also continued to question individuals observed praying frequently in mosques. The government subjected religious publications to the same restrictions on freedom of expression as secular publications. Christian groups could distribute religious documents only in European languages. Only sanctioned Muslim religious groups could distribute religious documents. In the government's view, distribution by other groups constituted an illegal ``threat to public order.'' The government sought to suppress certain outward signs of citizens' religious practices, such as the wearing of head scarves (hijabs) by women and the growing of conspicuous facial hair by men. Authorities characterized the hijab as a ``garment of foreign origin having a sectarian connotation'' and sought to restrict its use in public institutions. Police continued efforts to eradicate sectarian dress (including the hijab) in official buildings, schools, and universities. During the year authorities detained some women in public places and told them to remove their hijabs. On September 7, according to domestic NGOs, the head of the National School for Rural Development at Medjez El Bab refused to allow female students wearing hijabs to register for classes unless they removed their hijabs and stated in writing that they would cease wearing hijabs to school. Police also reportedly detained and harassed men with ``Islamic'' beards, forcing them to shave at a police station or threatening them with arrest unless they returned home immediately to shave. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Societal discrimination based on religion continued during the year. Muslims who converted to other religions were often ostracized. The government cooperated closely with and protected the 1,500-person Jewish population, 900 in Djerba and the remainder in and around Tunis, although Jews faced some defamation in the media. Cartoons in some mainstream newspapers used derogatory images of historically stereotypical Jews to portray the state of Israel and Israeli interests. Most of these cartoons were drawn outside of the country and reprinted locally. The government promoted anti-bias and tolerance education through a series of lectures regarding religious tolerance. Jewish community leaders reported that the government actively protected synagogues, particularly during Jewish holidays, paid the salary of the grand rabbi, and partially subsidized restoration and maintenance costs for some synagogues. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; however, the government did not always respect these rights in practice. The government restricted the in-country and foreign travel of some dissidents, Islamists, and their relatives. The government also may impose five years of ``administrative control'' at sentencing on certain former prisoners that constitutes a type of internal exile, limiting their ability to travel within and outside of the country. The government generally cooperated with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees, asylum seekers, and other persons of concern; however, the government did not provide protection for such persons, nor did it permit the UNHCR access to detention centers. In the absence of specific legislation on refugee matters, refugees were treated like foreigners, and there was no official government restriction on their movement. The law authorizes the courts to cancel passports and contains broad provisions that permit courts and the Ministry of the Interior to seize passports on national security grounds and deny citizens the right to present their cases against seizure or to appeal the judges' decision. The MOI is required to submit to the courts, through the public prosecutor, requests to seize or withhold a citizen's passport; however, the ministry routinely bypassed the public prosecutor with impunity. Many citizens, particularly journalists, reported difficulty applying for or renewing their passports and accused the government of blocking their applications solely on the basis of political opposition. During the year the government reportedly severely restricted the in-country movement of Islamist Hamadi Jebali and his wife from their city of residence, Sousse. The government had continued to ignore the passport requests by both Hamadi and his wife made in November 2008. On March 3, according to RWB, authorities temporarily detained human rights lawyer Mohamed Abbou at the Tunis airport and prevented him from traveling to an AI-organized conference in London on terrorism, security, and human rights in Tunisia. On March 14, national security agents again prevented Abbou from leaving Tunis to participate in a roundtable discussion on press freedom and human rights in Acabba, 96 miles away. Authorities also prevented Al Jazeera correspondent Lotfi Haji from leaving his hometown of Bizerte to attend the same conference. At year's end journalist and former prisoner Slim Boukdhir reported that the government had failed to grant him a passport. Boukdhir, who filed his original request for a passport in 2003, was arrested in November 2007 and spent nine months in prison on charges of insulting a public official, public indecency, and refusal to present his identity card to a security official. Former An-Nahdha leader Mohamed Sedki Labidi has been deprived of his passport for the last 13 years without a court decision. According to the constitution, no citizen can be exiled from the country nor prevented from returning; however, the government used administrative control as a type of punitive internal exile. Administrative control measures, which take effect upon a convict's release from prison, are similar to parole restrictions, except that they may be applied to prisoners even after they have completed their sentences. The government requires these individuals to stay ``in the area of their residence,'' which the government determines and may be anywhere in the country. They also may be required to report to a police station frequently, at times determined only the previous evening. At the police station, they may be forced to wait hours before they are allowed to sign in, making normal employment impossible. Numerous Islamists released from prison in recent years have been subjected to such requirements. By law administrative control measures may only be imposed at sentencing; however, a former high school teacher and An-Nahdha member, Nouri Chniti, claimed he has been subject to extrajudicial administrative control measures since 1991, when he received a suspended sentence that did not include such measures. The government prevented some political opponents in self-imposed exile abroad from obtaining or renewing their passports to return to the country. On August 21, Sihem Bensedrine, the CNLT spokeswoman and Kalima editor in chief, staged a sit-in with her son at the Tunisian consulate in Toulouse, France, to protest the consulate's alleged arbitrary refusal to renew her son's passport due to her political activism. Her son was subsequently granted the passport. Protection of Refugees.--The country is party to the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, and the 1969 African Union Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of the Refugee Problem in Africa. The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status; however the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees or other persons of concern. In practice the government did not protect against the expulsion or return of persons to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. In the absence of official and specific refugee laws and administrative measures to govern refugee and asylum matters, the UNHCR conducted all refugee status-determination procedures. The UNHCR maintained a liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in particular the consular service, in connection with all refugee determinations. Refugees were subject to the foreign labor policies within the national labor code prior to qualifying for work permits. A large majority of refugees worked in the informal sector with risk of exploitation. Refugees had access to all available public national health care facilities, subject to the same standard fees as applied to Tunisian nationals, and also access to law enforcement services. The government's recognition of the rights of all children also extended to refugees. Children born to refugees and asylum seekers were registered and received birth certificates but were not granted citizenship. Refugees requested residence permits from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs upon their proper determination as refugees by the UNHCR. Issuance and renewal of a residence permit was subject to the approval of the government and was not automatic. In several cases, the government arbitrarily denied residence permits to certain refugees despite their classification as refugees by the UNHCR. Although the UNHCR under its mandate sought resettlement for refugees under specific protection needs, the government did not approve any resettlement requests and at year's end, there were numerous cases pending of third country nationals seeking naturalization. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully; however, there were significant limitations on citizens' right to do so. The law provides that citizens shall directly elect the president and members of the Chamber of Deputies for five- year terms, but irregularities routinely called into question the legitimacy of elections. The president appoints the prime minister, the cabinet, and the 24 governors. The ruling party has maintained power continuously since the country's independence in 1956, dominating the cabinet, the legislature, and regional and local governments. Elections and Political Participation.--In the October 25 national elections, President Ben Ali faced three candidates and was reelected for a fifth five-year term. Ben Ali has ruled since 1987. The government reported electoral participation was at 89 percent of the 4.9 million eligible voters. Anecdotal observation suggested this may have been inflated. The government rejected 15 of the 26 legislative candidate slates the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP) proposed and 12 of the 26 proposed by the Ettajdid Movement. In some cases, the government rejected candidate slates without explanation. By contrast, five ``opposition'' parties viewed as friendly to the government had no more than five of their 26 candidate slates rejected. In March 2008 the Chamber of Deputies amended the electoral code. This changed the legal voting age from 20 to 18 and allowed for an increase in the total number of Deputies from 189 to 214. The number of seats reserved for the seven officially recognized opposition parties increased from 20 percent to 25 percent. Irregularities and imbalances characterized the period prior to the elections. A coalition of three local independent NGOs--the LTDH, the CNLT, and the Tunisian Association of Democratic Women (ATFD)--cited as serious problems the opposition's lack of media access during the campaign and media bias in favor of the ruling party. Opposition candidates and other observers also cited voter intimidation as well as restrictions on disseminating campaign materials and organizing campaign events. In July 2008 the president approved a law requiring any presidential candidate to be an elected head of a political party and to have had held that position for at least two years. At least two opposition parties did not have candidates who met those criteria. Political parties other than the ruling RCD faced restrictions. By law the establishment of political parties based on religion, language, race, or gender is prohibited. The government and the RCD are closely integrated; current and former senior government officials constitute the top ranks of the party. The president of the country is also the president of the RCD, and the party's vice president and secretary general hold the rank of minister. All members of the RCD Politburo hold ministerial rank based on their current or former government service. RCD membership conferred tangible advantages. For example, there were widespread reports that RCD members and their families were more likely to receive educational and housing benefits, small business permits, and waivers on zoning restrictions. To reduce the advantages wielded by the ruling party, the electoral code reserves 25 percent of seats in the Chamber of Deputies for the seven officially recognized opposition parties and distributes them on a proportional basis to parties that won at least one directly elected district seat. In the October 25 elections, five of the opposition parties gained seats under that provision. The RCD holds the remaining 161 seats. The government continued to refuse to recognize an environmental political party, the Green Tunisia Party, although it first applied for recognition in 2004. There were 77 women in the 326-seat legislature, one woman in the 29-seat cabinet, and five women among the 15 secretaries of state (regarded as junior cabinet members). Three women served as presidents of chambers on the Supreme Court, and two women served on the 15-member Higher Council of the Magistracy. The constitution provides for the same rights, duties, and protection for all citizens. Generally, the government did not classify or interact with any group as a racial, ethnic, religious or indigenous minority. There was one member of the Jewish community in the legislature. There was no set allocation of political party positions or parliamentary seats for members of a minority group. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the incidence of corruption was on the rise; however, corruption allegations were difficult to prove. Public officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. On April 9, a government employee was sentenced to 10 years in prison for involvement in a corruption scheme and for false use of an official stamp. On May 20, a Tunis court sentenced a municipal employee to two years in prison on corruption charges. There were no developments in the 2007 case of a National Pedagogical Center employee charged with corruption and misappropriation of foreign currency. At year's end the court had not handed down a verdict. The Higher Institute of Security Forces and Customs is tasked with reinforcing human rights, improving law enforcement, and reducing corruption. There were no public reports of the organization's activities during the year. There is no law that requires public access to government documents upon request. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government actively hindered investigations of human rights abuses by domestic and international NGOs, who had difficulty investigating and publishing their findings, and the government sought to monitor and control the activities of some foreign NGOs within the country. There were approximately 12 domestic human rights NGOs, although only half were authorized. Some NGOs loyal to the government received government funding. The government met with registered domestic human rights NGOs and on occasion responded to their inquiries; however, it also harassed, targeted, and prosecuted some individuals. The LTDH traditionally was one of the most active independent advocacy organizations, with 41 branches throughout the country, although the blockage of LTDH activities by the government limited its operational effectiveness (see section 2.b.). The organization received and investigated complaints and protested abuses, yet the government rarely responded to LTDH communiques. The government continued to block an EU grant to the LTDH, citing a law on NGO financing that includes broad prohibitions on the funding of NGOs without government approval. Since 1998 the government has refused to authorize the CNLT's registration as an NGO. The CNLT issued statements sharply criticizing the government's human rights practices. Government officials have accused CNLT members of violating the pro forma submission requirements by publishing communiques without prior government approval. On July 29, domestic NGO Freedom and Equity, an organization that tracks human rights abuses and political prisoners, announced that authorities had mobilized 66 police officers to follow 11 of its members and surveil their homes and offices. The government sought to monitor and control the activities of some foreign NGOs within the country. The government arbitrarily denied entry to some international NGO human rights observers and reportedly monitored the activities of those who were allowed into the country. On January 23, authorities prevented Abdelhamid Amine, secretary general of the Human Rights Coordinating Group for the Maghreb (CMODH), from entering the country. Amine was forced to return to Morocco. Three of the CMODH's member organizations were Tunisian. Amine was planning to introduce the CMODH representatives in the country to the government and the public. Although the government generally maintained good working relationships with UN agencies and other international bodies, it monitored and controlled their activities. On November 13, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network (EMHRN), led by Mark Boulsin, made a trip to Tunisia. The delegation met with prominent members of civil society such as members of the ATFD, Sihem Bensedrinne, and independent writer Jalloul Ben Azzouna, who hosted the delegation at his home. The following day, plainclothes police took Ben Azzouna to a police station and interrogated him about the meeting. The MOI also reportedly called the head of the EMHRN delegation to instruct him that the objective of his visit was tourism and not to meet with Tunisian human rights observers and political dissidents. There were credible reports that police prevented some family members of prisoners from visiting ICRC offices and that they monitored, occasionally harassing, families that visited ICRC offices. The ICRC regularly visited detainees in all facilities under the jurisdiction of the MOJ, as well as pretrial detainees under the jurisdiction of the MOI. The MOJ has the lead on government policy regarding human rights, although other ministries also had human rights offices. The ministry did not release any public reports of cases or investigations. The HCHR, a government-appointed and -funded body, received, addressed, and occasionally resolved human rights complaints about prison conditions, amnesty requests by families of prisoners, and other issues. The commission published two reports annually; one confidential, submitted directly to the president and not available to the public, and a second, for public distribution. The public report detailed the HCHR's efforts in facilitating prison visits for families and improvements in some detention conditions. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides that all citizens are equal before the law, and the government generally respected this provision in practice; however, inheritance and family law, as well as biased gender-based provisions in the civil code, adversely affected women. Women.--The penal code specifically prohibits rape, including spousal rape, and the government enforced the laws vigorously, giving significant press coverage to rape cases. There were no reports of prosecution for spousal rape. The penalty for rape with the use of violence or threat with a weapon is death. For all other rape cases, the penalty is life imprisonment. Cultural factors likely contributed to underreporting of rape, including spousal rape. Laws against domestic violence provide penalties for assault committed by a spouse or family member that are double those for the same crimes committed by an unrelated individual, but enforcement was rare. Domestic violence was considered a serious problem. According to the government-sponsored National Union of Tunisian Women (UNFT), which ran a center to assist women and children in difficulty and sponsored national educational campaigns for women, the women's shelter in Tunis received 489 new cases of domestic violence during the year, 218 of which involved physical violence. In addition the shelter had more than 500 ongoing cases from earlier years. The ATFD has provided services for more than 2,000 victims of domestic violence since opening its women's center in 1993. During the year the ATFD received 65 new cases of domestic violence and had 42 cases from 2008. The penal code prohibits prostitution with penalties of up to two years' imprisonment. Few persons were convicted of violating this law. However, there were government-sanctioned brothels in which the workers reportedly had regular medical exams. There were no penalties for visiting these brothels. Sexual harassment was a problem, although there were no comprehensive data to measure its extent. Civil society groups criticized the law on harassment as too vague and susceptible to abuse. Victims of sexual harassment are required to file a complaint in criminal court where the allegations are then legally investigated. According to the Criminal Code, the penalty for sexual harassment is one year in prison and a 3,000 dinar ($2,307) fine. There were no reports of government interference in the right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. Women had free access to contraception. In collaboration with NGOs, the government maintained its national policy of keeping the national birth rate low through public awareness campaigns. The government also provided essential healthcare for women, including skilled attendance during childbirth and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Women faced discrimination under the law. Codified civil law is based on the Napoleonic code, although judges often used Shari'a as a basis for customary law in family and inheritance. Most property acquired during marriage, including property acquired solely by the wife, was held in the name of the husband. Married couples may choose between joint or separate property systems when they sign marriage contracts. Customary law based on Shari'a prohibits women from marrying outside their religion. Application of Shari'a inheritance law continued to discriminate against women, and there was a double standard based on gender and religion: non-Muslim women and Muslim men who are married may not inherit from each other. The government considers all children from those marriages to be Muslim and forbids those children from inheriting from their mothers. Female citizens can transmit citizenship to children regardless of the father's citizenship. The law explicitly requires equal pay for equal work; however, it also allows some female employees in the public sector to work part- time and receive two-thirds of their original full-time salary. The government defended the law as allowing women to balance family and professional life, but some women's rights advocates, including the ATFD, believed treating women and men differently under the law was a major setback to women's rights. The government continued support and funding of the UNFT; the Center for Research, Documentation, and Information on Women; and women's professional associations. Children.--Citizenship is derived from a Tunisian father, a Tunisian mother and an unknown father, a Tunisian mother and a father who has no nationality, or from birth in Tunisia to a Tunisian mother and a foreign father. The government provided free education up to the university level, with mandatory attendance for children up to the age of 16. Convictions for abandoning or assaulting minors carried severe penalties; however, there were no reported specific incidents of child abuse during the year. Public media generally did not report on violence and abuse of children. Government social workers provided direct assistance to abused women and children in two shelters operated by a local NGO. The Ministry of Women's Affairs, Family, Children, and Elderly Persons employed a child protection delegate in each of the country's 24 districts to intervene in cases of sexual, economic, or criminal exploitation of children. There were no public reports of cases of children involved in prostitution for survival without third party involvement. The law mandates a three to five year prison sentence for any party who forces a minor into prostitution and a three year prison sentence for incitement of a minor to vice. The law sets the minimum age for consensual sex at 20 for both sexes. Consent must be given without material remuneration, otherwise it is considered ``clandestine prostitution.'' Parties under the age of 13 are not considered to have the legal capacity to consent. Sex with a party between 13 and 15 is punishable by six years in prison. If the party is older than 15 but less than 20, it is punishable by five years in prison. The law also provides that the marriage of the perpetrator and the victim suspends all criminal proceedings against the perpetrator. The perpetrator may still be criminally liable in the event of a divorce and an official request is made to the authorities to pursue criminal proceedings no later than two years following the divorce. Trafficking in Persons.--Tunisia is a source, destination, and possible transit country for small numbers of men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Some Tunisian girls are trafficked within the country for domestic servitude. In April a Tunis court convicted and sentenced a Tunisian woman to three years' imprisonment for subjecting a seven- year-old girl to domestic servitude and physical abuse. The law does not prohibit all forms of trafficking, but traffickers may be prosecuted under laws prohibiting forced labor, forced prostitution, participation in armed conflict, or servitude. The MOI and the Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity, and Tunisians Abroad were the agencies responsible for enforcing these efforts. There were no specific government campaigns to prevent trafficking. The government did not have measures to identify trafficking victims from those persons smuggled voluntarily. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities and mandates that at least 1 percent of public and private sector jobs be reserved for persons who have disabilities; however, NGOs reported that this law was not widely enforced, and many employers were unaware of its existence. There was some discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government increased vocational training programs in handicrafts geared toward persons who have disabilities, with the goal of future employment. As of 1991, all new public buildings must be accessible to persons who have physical disabilities, and this was enforced, but persons with disabilities did not have access to most older buildings. The government issued cards to persons with disabilities for benefits such as unrestricted parking, priority medical services, preferential seating on public transportation, and consumer discounts. The government provided tax incentives to companies to encourage the hiring of persons with physical disabilities, and it strongly supported NGOs working on behalf of persons with disabilities. Although there is still a social stigma associated with mental illness, at a societal level several active NGOs provided educational, vocational, and recreational assistance to children and young adults with mental disabilities. The government and international organizations funded several programs. The Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity, and Tunisians Abroad were charged with protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexuality is illegal and the penal code (article 230) criminalizes homosexuality with sentences up to three years in prison. There was anecdotal evidence that gay persons faced discrimination, including allegations that police officers sometimes brutalized openly gay persons and accused them of being the source of AIDS. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was anecdotal evidence that people with HIV/AIDS faced some forms of discrimination. While there were NGOs to assist persons living with HIV, they faced discrimination in the quality of, and access to, medical care. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides workers the right to organize and form unions, but this right was not always respected in practice. The UGTT was the country's only labor federation and claimed approximately 14 percent of the workforce as members, including civil servants and employees of state-owned enterprises. Union contracts covered a considerably larger proportion of the workforce than union membership. A court order is the only means to dissolve a union. The UGTT and its member unions were legally independent of the government and the ruling party and had the right to decide union leadership; however, they operated under regulations that limited their freedom of action, and union leaders who worked in government-owned companies were often harassed, threatened, and punished. The UGTT included persons associated with all political tendencies. UGTT funding came from modest union dues, revenue from an insurance company, and a percentage of annual contributions to the National Social Security Fund. The government provided the UGTT with land and construction support for its new headquarters. Central UGTT leadership generally cooperated with the government's economic reform program. During the year the UGTT again refused to submit a list of candidates for 14 UGTT- designated seats for elections to the newly created Chamber of Advisors, citing a lack of independence and democracy in the selection process and an unfair distribution of seats. The UGTT supported the LTDH and agreed to let LTDH regional chapters use UGTT facilities for conferences and meetings. Unions, including those representing civil servants, have the right to strike, provided they give 10 days' advance notice to the UGTT and it grants approval. The decision to approve or deny is on a case-by- case basis. The International Trade Union Conference characterized the requirement for prior UGTT approval of strikes as a violation of worker rights, but unions rarely sought advance approval in practice. The law prohibited retribution against strikers, and the government generally respected this provision. Conciliation panels, in which labor and management were represented equally, settled labor disputes. Tripartite regional arbitration commissions settle industrial disputes when conciliation fails. Members from the Ministry of Social Affairs, the UGTT, and the Tunisian Association for Industry, Commerce and Handicraft composed the commissions. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The law protects the right to organize and bargain collectively, and the government protected this right in practice. The government reported that during the year collective bargaining agreements covered over 45 percent, or 1.5 million, of the 3.3 million-person workforce. UGTT member unions, the government, and employers set wages and working conditions in triennial negotiations, while the government and employers represent the interests of workers not affiliated with the UGTT. Numerous collective bargaining agreements set standards for industries in the private sector and covered 80 percent of the private sector. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination by employers, although the UGTT claimed that there was antiunion activity among private sector employers, such as firing union activists and using temporary workers to avoid unionization. In certain industries, such as textiles, hotels, and construction, temporary workers accounted for a strong majority of the workforce. The labor code protects temporary workers, but enforcement was more difficult than for permanent workers. A committee chaired by an officer from the Labor Division of the Office of the Inspector General approved all worker dismissals. The committee was composed of representatives from the Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity, and Tunisians Abroad, the UGTT, and the company dismissing the worker. Legally, workers have the right to reinstatement, but in practice this was not enforced. There are no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced and compulsory labor. Some girls were trafficked within the country for domestic servitude, although the government did not report that such practices occurred. A 2008 survey of 130 domestic workers in the greater Tunis region, conducted by a professor at the University of Tunis, found that 52 percent were younger than 16; 23 percent claimed to be victims of physical violence, and 11 percent claimed to be victims of sexual violence. The majority received salaries below the minimum wage, and 99 percent indicated they had no work contracts. These conditions are indicators of possible forced labor. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits the employment of children younger than 18 in jobs that present serious threats to their health, security, and morality, and the UGTT and the National Social Security Fund conducted inspection tours of factories and industrial sites to ensure compliance. The law generally prohibits the employment of children younger than 16, the age for completing educational requirements, and inspectors of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity, and Tunisians Abroad examined the records of employees to verify that employers complied with the minimum-age law. There were no reports of sanctions against offending employers. The minimum age for light work in the nonindustrial and agricultural sectors during nonschool hours was 13 years. Workers between the ages of 14 and 18 must have 12 hours of rest per day, which must include the hours between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. In nonagricultural sectors, children between the ages of 14 and 16 years may work no more than two hours per day. The total time that children spend at school and work may not exceed seven hours per day. Nonetheless, young children sometimes performed agricultural work in rural areas and worked as vendors in towns, primarily during the summer school vacation. Child labor also existed in the informal sector as apprenticeship, particularly in the handicraft industry. Older girls worked as domestic servants. The penal code prescribes 10 years' imprisonment for capturing, detaining, or sequestering a person for forced labor and one-to-two years' imprisonment for forced child begging. The Department of Labor's 2008 findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported children working as mechanics in small shops and selling products to tourists. The law mandates a three- to five-year prison sentence for any party who forces a minor into prostitution and a three-year prison sentence for incitement of a minor to vice. On June 2, a Tunis court convicted and sentenced a woman to three years' imprisonment under Article 218 of the penal code (violence with premeditation) for subjecting to domestic servitude and physically abusing a seven-year-old girl. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--The labor code provides for a range of administratively determined minimum wages. On August 3, the government raised the industrial minimum wage to 261 dinars ($201) per month for a 48-hour workweek and to 225 dinars ($173) per month for a 40-hour workweek. The agricultural daily minimum wage was eight dinars ($6) per day. With the addition of transportation and family allowances, the minimum wage provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family, although that income was only enough to cover essential costs. More than 500,000 workers were employed in the informal sector, which labor laws did not cover. Regional labor inspectors enforced standards related to hourly wage regulations. The country's cadre of 380 inspectors inspected most firms approximately once every two years. The government often had difficulty enforcing the minimum wage law, particularly in nonunionized sectors of the economy. The labor code sets a standard 48-hour workweek for most sectors; requires one 24-hour rest period per week and 125 percent premium pay for overtime; and prohibits excessive compulsory overtime, although this prohibition is not always enforced. Special government regulations regulated employment in hazardous occupations such as mining, petroleum engineering, and construction. The Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity, and Tunisians Abroad had responsibility for enforcing health and safety standards in the workplace. Working conditions and standards generally were better in export-oriented firms, which were mostly foreign owned, than in those firms producing exclusively for the domestic market. Workers were free to remove themselves from dangerous situations without jeopardizing their employment, and they could take legal action against employers who retaliated against them for exercising this right. __________ UNITED ARAB EMIRATES The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation of seven semiautonomous emirates with a resident population of approximately six million, of whom fewer than 20 percent (one million) are citizens. The seven emirate rulers constitute the Federal Supreme Council, the highest legislative and executive body. The council selects a president and a vice president from its membership, and the president appoints the prime minister and cabinet. In 2004 the council selected Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al-Nahyan, ruler of Abu Dhabi Emirate, as head of state for a five-year term. On November 3, the council reelected Sheikh Khalifa to a second term as president. Traditionally, the emirates are under patriarchal rule with political allegiance defined by loyalty to tribal leaders, to leaders of the individual emirates, and to leaders of the federation. There are no democratically elected legislative institutions or political parties. There are no general elections. Citizens express their concerns directly to their leaders through traditional, consultative mechanisms such as the open ``majlis'' (council). The Federal National Council (FNC), a consultative body, consists of 40 advisors, 20 of whom were elected by an appointed electoral college in 2006. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Citizens did not have the right to change their government. There were unverified reports of torture during the year, and security forces sometimes employed flogging as judicially sanctioned punishment. Arbitrary and incommunicado detention remained a problem. The judiciary lacked full independence. The government interfered with privacy and restricted civil liberties, including freedom of speech, press (including the Internet), assembly, association, and religion. There were limited reports of corruption, and the government lacked transparency. Domestic abuse of women remained a problem, and there were allegations that police sometimes enabled domestic abuse. Legal and societal discrimination against women and noncitizens was pervasive. Trafficking in persons continued, the government severely restricted the rights of foreign workers, and abuse of foreign domestic servants was common. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. b. Disappearance.--There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The constitution prohibits torture; however, there were unverifiable allegations of tortured prisoners during the year, including a U.S. citizen on trial for terrorism charges, whose attorney stated that he confessed under duress. A ruling family member of Abu Dhabi, implicated by videotape for the 2004 torture of a foreign national allegedly over a grain sale, remained under detention pending trial at year's end. In addition, Shari'a courts sometimes imposed flogging sentences as punishment for adultery, prostitution, consensual premarital sex, pregnancy outside marriage, defamation of character, and drug or alcohol abuse. Authorities used canes to administer floggings, resulting in substantial bruising, welts, and open wounds on those flogged. There were also reports of prison guard brutality during the year. In July 2008 a Dubai court sentenced 25 jail wardens and a former prison director of the Dubai central detention facility to three- to six-month prison terms for abusing their authority and beating inmates. The defendants appealed the ruling and the Dubai Court of Appeals suspended the sentences of the 25 jail wardens in November 2008. At year's end, the prison director's appeal was pending, and the court released the group on bail. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Prison conditions varied widely from emirate to emirate. Some prisons were overcrowded, particularly in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Conditions for female prisoners were equal to or slightly better than those for men. Prisoners convicted on national security grounds were held separately from the general population. Conditions in these special sections were not significantly different from other parts of the prisons. There were credible reports that government officials discriminated against prisoners with HIV by separating them from the general prison population and by not granting commuted sentences or parole that other prisoners with similar records received. On October 22, a Dubai central jail inmate committed suicide in solitary confinement. The inmate reportedly was receiving treatment and medication for drug addiction while he was serving a one-year sentence for illegal drug use. He had threatened to kill himself if he was not released from solitary confinement, where he was moved for refusing to wear his prison uniform. Police in Dubai and Abu Dhabi stated that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the International Committee of the Red Cross had access to observe prison conditions if requested. However, in September 2008, when members of the NGO Emirates Human Rights Association (EHRA) went to visit female inmates at Dubai's Al-Aweer Detention Facility, prison authorities denied the monitors access ``to protect the prisoners' social and psychological rights.'' Although charitable NGOs visited prisons during the year, they were permitted to provide only material support. They were unable to determine the welfare of the prisoners. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, there were reports that the government held persons in official custody without charge or a preliminary judicial hearing. The law permits indefinite, routine, incommunicado detention without appeal. Under this procedure, the detainee may contact only an attorney. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The federal Ministry of Interior (MOI) oversees police general directorates in each of the seven emirates; each emirate, under its corresponding police general directorate, maintains its own police force and supervises the police stations. Although all emirate police forces theoretically are branches of the ministry, in practice they operated with considerable autonomy and varying degrees of efficiency. The police forces, under the umbrella of the MOI, are responsible for internal security, and the federal armed forces are responsible for external security. Although reported incidents of police corruption were uncommon, the MOI intervened several times in criminal cases to ensure that local police were compliant with federal law and policy. Although the local police are semi-autonomous in each emirate, the MOI has broad authority to investigate abuses and ensure compliance with federal law. On September 18, Dubai prosecutors charged a Sharjah police officer with kidnap and rape after he entered a female acquaintance's apartment and found her roommate, whom he allegedly slapped, dragged by her hair to his vehicle, and raped. The verdict was pending at year's end. Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the local police forces, and the government had effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving security forces during the year. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law prohibits arrest or search without probable cause; however, incidents occurred in practice. There were credible reports that security forces failed to obtain warrants in some cases. Police stations received complaints from the public, made arrests, and forwarded cases to the public prosecutor. The public prosecutor then transferred cases to the courts. In cases involving foreign defendants, especially for crimes of moral turpitude, authorities often summarily deported the defendants upon completion of their jail terms. Police must report an arrest within 48 hours to the public prosecutor, who then must determine within 24 hours whether to charge, release, or further detain the suspect. In practice the public prosecutor did not always meet the 24-hour time limit, although police usually adhered to their 48-hour deadline. Public prosecutors may order detainees to be held as long as 21 days without charge or longer, in some cases, with a court order. Courts may not grant an extension of more than 30 days of detention without charge; however, judges may renew 30-day extensions indefinitely. Public prosecutors may hold suspects in terrorism-related cases without charge for six months. Once a suspect is charged, the Supreme Court handles terrorism cases, which may extend the detention period indefinitely. There is no formal system of bail; however, authorities temporarily can release detainees who deposit money, a passport, or an unsecured personal guarantee statement signed by a third party. Defendants in cases involving loss of life, including involuntary manslaughter, may be denied release in accordance with the law. Release usually is permitted after payment to the victim's family of compensation, commonly called ``diya'' or ``blood money,'' a form of financial penalty imposed on defendants in criminal cases involving a death. A defendant is entitled to an attorney only after police have completed their investigation. Police sometimes questioned accused persons for days or weeks without allowing them access to counsel. Family members generally were granted prompt access to persons arrested on charges unrelated to security. The government may provide counsel, at its discretion, to indigent defendants charged with felonies that are punishable by imprisonment of three to 15 years. Amnesty.--On religious and national holidays, the rulers of the individual emirates regularly pardon and pay the debts of many prisoners. According to press reports, rulers pardoned at least 900 prisoners and paid their debts during the year. The government deported most of the foreign nationals who were pardoned. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, in practice, court decisions remained subject to review by the political leadership. There were reports that the Directorate of State Security, the federal intelligence service, intervened in judicial affairs. The judiciary was composed largely of contracted foreign nationals potentially subject to deportation. By tradition the local rulers' offices, or ``diwans,'' maintained the practice of reviewing some criminal and civil offenses before they referred cases to prosecutors. They also reviewed sentences judges passed, returned cases to the court on appeal if they did not approve of the verdict, and approved the release of every prisoner who had completed a sentence. The diwans' involvement--usually in cases between two citizens or between a citizen and noncitizen--led to lengthy delays prior to and following the judicial process and lengthened the time defendants served in prison. The diwan's decision in any court case is considered final, and when a judge and diwan disagree, the diwan's decision prevails. Because diwans report to the MOI, there was often no functional separation between the executive and judicial branches. There is a dual court system. Shari'a courts adjudicate criminal and family law matters based on each emirate's interpretation of Shari'a. Civil courts adjudicate civil law matters and, except in the emirates of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Ras al-Khaimah, are accountable to the Federal Supreme Court, which has the power of judicial review, as well as original jurisdiction in disputes between emirates or between the federal government and individual emirates. The emirates of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Ras al-Khaimah have their own local and appellate courts, which have jurisdiction over matters within their territories that federal legislation and the constitution do not specifically reserve for the federal system. These emirates did not refer cases in their courts to the Federal Supreme Court for judicial review, although they maintained a liaison with the federal Ministry of Justice. In some emirates, Shari'a courts considered all types of civil and commercial cases as well as criminal cases and family matters. The courts acted in accordance with their interpretation of Shari'a but were required to answer to the Federal Supreme Court, with the exception of courts in the emirates of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Ras al- Khaimah. In criminal cases, Shari'a was applied first and, if evidence Shari'a required was found insufficient, the penal code was applied. Dubai had a special Shia council to act on matters pertaining to Shia family law. The military has its own court system and military tribunals try only military personnel. Only the Federal Supreme Court hears national security cases. Trial Procedures.--According to the law, defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty. The constitution provides the right to a public trial, except in national security cases or cases the judge deems harmful to public morality. There are no jury trials. Defendants have the right to be present at their trial and a limited right to legal counsel in court. While awaiting a decision on official charges at the police station or the prosecutor's office, a defendant is not entitled to legal counsel. In all cases involving a capital crime or possible life imprisonment, the defendant has a right to government- provided counsel. The government may also provide counsel, at its discretion, to indigent defendants charged with felonies punishable by imprisonment of three to 15 years. The law provides prosecutors discretion to bar defense counsel from any investigation. Defendants and their attorneys can present witnesses and question witnesses against them. Defense counsel has access to relevant government-held evidence. By law, all prosecutions are conducted in Arabic. Despite the defendant's procedural right to a translator, in some cases involving deportation of illegal residents, the court provided translation only at sentencing. Each court system has an appeals process. Death sentences may be appealed to the ruler of the emirate in which the offense is committed or to the president of the federation. In the case of murder, only the victim's family may commute a death sentence. The government normally negotiates with victims' families for the defendant to offer diya in exchange for forgiveness and a commuted death sentence. In a case in which a defendant is acquitted, the prosecutor may appeal and provide new or additional evidence to a higher court. An appellate court must reach unanimous agreement to overturn an acquittal. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees; however, there were persons reportedly held incommunicado and without charge for unknown reasons. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--Citizens and noncitizens had access to the courts to seek damages for, or cessation of, human rights violations. The civil courts, like all courts in the country, lacked full independence. Administrative remedies were available for labor complaints and were particularly common in cases regarding physical abuse of domestic workers. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The constitution prohibits entry into a home without the owner's permission, except when police present a warrant in accordance with the law; however, there were credible reports that security forces sometimes failed to obtain warrants. Officers' actions in searching premises were subject to review by the MOI, and officers were liable to disciplinary action if their actions were judged irresponsible. There were reports of censorship of incoming international mail during the year. The constitution provides for freedom and confidentiality of correspondence by mail, telegram, and all other means of communication. However, on July 8, Etisalat, the country's primary telecommunications provider, issued an update to its BlackBerry subscribers that it described as a performance enhancing patch but was actually surveillance and interception software. On July 20, Etisalat, which did not acknowledge using spyware or explain its purpose, called the matter a ``slight technical fault'' and provided its customers with instructions on how to remove the program. Local interpretation of Shari'a law prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslims and Muslim men from marrying women not ``of the book,'' that is, adherents of religions other than Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government restricted these rights in practice. The law prohibits criticism of rulers and speech that may create or encourage social unrest. Journalists and editors practiced extensive self-censorship for fear of government retribution, particularly since most journalists were of foreign origin and feared deportation. Public criticism of the government and ministers was permissible in a limited context, but criticism of ruling families, particularly sheikhs, was not permitted. Nevertheless, criticism of sheikhs occurred, albeit with extreme caution and in private. On April 20, the government denied the FNC the right to discuss publicly the global financial crisis and the economic downturn's ramifications in the country. The government owned three of the country's newspapers and heavily influenced the privately owned media, particularly through government subsidies. The government-owned Emirates News Agency regularly provided material in English and Arabic that some newspapers printed verbatim. Except for media located in Dubai's ``Media Free Zone'' and foreign language media targeted to foreign residents, most television and radio stations were government-owned and conformed to unpublished government reporting guidelines. Foreign journalists and news organizations operating from the Dubai Media Free Zone reported no restrictions on the content of print and broadcast material produced for use outside the country. Satellite receiving dishes were widespread and provided access to international broadcasts without apparent censorship. In June 2008 the Pakistani television channel GEO News permanently relocated its office and staff to an undisclosed country. Station managers claimed they were given 48 hours to leave the Dubai Media Free Zone or halt the broadcasting of two shows. The shows allegedly covered efforts to reinstate judges dismissed by Pervez Musharraf, Pakistan's former president. By law the National Media Council (NMC), appointed by the president, licenses and censors all publications, including private association publications. Media outlets must inform the NMC of the appointment of editors, and the NMC is responsible for issuing press credentials. The law authorizes censorship of domestic and foreign publications to remove criticism of the government, ruling families, or friendly governments, as well as other statements that ``threaten social stability.'' According to the council and Dubai police officials, journalists were not given specific publishing instructions; however, government officials reportedly warned journalists when they published material deemed politically or culturally sensitive. Journalists practiced extensive self-censorship regarding the issues they chose to cover. On July 6, Abu Dhabi's federal court of appeal enforced a previous ruling to prohibit the Emarat Al Youm daily newspaper from publishing for 20 days in a defamation case raised by the Emirati Warsan Stables owners, who were members of the ruling family. The case revolved around a 2006 article alleging that the stable was doping its horses. The court enforced fines of 20,000 dirhams ($5,500) each against the newspaper's chief executive officer and editor in chief. The newspaper resumed publishing after the 20-day prohibition. The government used libel laws to suppress criticism of its leaders. No journalists have received prison sentences for defamation since 2007, when the leader of Dubai and vice president and prime minister of the country, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al-Maktoum, ordered that journalists no longer be imprisoned for such violations. However, other punishments for violations of libel laws remained in force, including suspension of publishing for a specified period of time and penalties of five million dirhams ($1.4 million) for disparaging senior officials or royal family members and 500,000 dirhams ($140,000) for misleading the public and harming the country's reputation, foreign relations, or economy. The NMC censors reviewed all imported media and prohibited or censored before distribution any material considered pornographic, excessively violent, derogatory to Islam, supportive of certain Israeli government positions, unduly critical of friendly countries, or critical of the government or ruling families. The authorities treated the publication of books in the same manner. During the year the Ministry of State for FNC Affairs organized a series of workshops for local media focused on political communication, including media coverage of FNC activities and elections, in an effort to foster government transparency and strengthen the independent media. Internet Freedom.--The government restricted access to some Web sites and monitored chat rooms, instant messaging services, and blogs. Individuals and groups generally engaged in peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. There were few reports of government prosecution or punishment, although self-censorship was apparent in many chat rooms and blogs. The UN Human Development Report estimated there were more than 300 Internet users per 1,000 persons. Etisalat, the country's only Internet service provider, used a proxy server to block material deemed inconsistent with the country's values. Blocked material included dating and matrimonial sites; gay and lesbian sites; sites concerning the Baha'i faith; sites originating in Israel; and sites explaining how to circumvent the proxy server. The proxy server occasionally blocked broad categories of sites. Etisalat populated its proxy server list of blocked sites primarily from lists purchased from private companies, although individuals could also report offensive sites. The social Web site Orkut and the politically oriented Web sites ArabTimes.com and UAEPrison.com remained blocked during the year. Etisalat denied having the authority to block any site and referred all complaints and suggestions to the NMC. The law explicitly criminalizes the use of the Internet to commit a wide variety of offenses and provides fines and prison terms for Internet users who violate political, social, and religious norms. In addition to criminalizing acts commonly associated with ``cyber crimes,'' such as hacking, phishing, scams, and other forms of financial fraud. The law also provides penalties for using the Internet to oppose Islam, proselytize Muslims to join other religions, ``abuse'' a holy shrine or ritual of any religion, insult any religion, incite someone to commit sin, or transcend ``family values'' by publishing news or photos pertaining to a person's private life or family. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government restricted academic freedom and censored academic materials for schools. The government prohibited students from reading texts featuring sexuality or pictures of the human body. The government also restricted participation in certain cultural events, primarily events it deemed un-Islamic. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association; however, in practice the government did not respect these rights. Freedom of Assembly.--The law requires a government-issued permit for organized public gatherings. On June 19, Dubai authorities prohibited demonstrations by Iranian immigrants protesting the June 12 reelection of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. An estimated 200 persons demonstrated outside the Iranian Consulate in Dubai for five consecutive days before the government took action to end the protests peacefully. There were reports of smaller demonstrations outside the Iranian Embassy in Abu Dhabi. In practice the government did not interfere regularly with informal nonpolitical gatherings held without a government permit in public places unless there were complaints. During the year there continued to be periodic gatherings without government permission, including at least two cases of laborers protesting wages. The government dispersed the gatherings peacefully. Citizens normally confined political discussions to informal gatherings (majlises) held in private homes. Freedom of Association.--Political organizations, political parties, and trade unions are illegal. All NGOs were required to register with the Ministry of Social Affairs, and many received government subsidies. Approximately 100 domestic NGOs were registered with the ministry, mostly citizens' associations for economic, religious, social, cultural, athletic, and other purposes. More than 20 unregistered local NGOs that focused on nonpolitical topics operated with little to no government interference. Associations must follow the government's censorship guidelines and receive prior government approval before publishing any material. The government directed and subsidized participation by NGO members in events outside the country. Participants must obtain government permission before attending such events, even if they are not speakers. In June 2008, 83 former teachers lodged protests with the Ministry of Education over their transfers to nonteaching positions, alleging that the government was suspicious of their membership in the Reform and Social Guidance Association. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution provides for freedom of religion in accordance with established customs; however, the law denies Muslims the freedom to change religion, and the government restricted religious freedom in practice. The federal constitution declares that Islam is the official religion of the country. The government viewed conversion to Islam favorably, and the government funded or subsidized approximately 95 percent of Sunni Muslim mosques. Individual emirates exercised considerable autonomy in religious matters. According to the General Authority of Islamic Affairs and Endowments (GAIAE), there was no formal method of granting official status to religious groups other than granting them the use of land for the construction of a building. Land grant applications were filed at the local level but could include a letter from the GAIAE. Several non- Muslim groups operated houses of worship where they practiced their religion freely. Groups that did not have their own buildings were limited in their ability to assemble for worship; they were required to use the facilities of other religious organizations or to worship in private homes. Police or other security forces did not interfere with these gatherings during the year. Members of the country's large Hindu community had to obtain official permission to use one of the two cremation facilities and associated cemeteries. Islamic studies were mandatory for all students in public schools and for all Muslim students in private schools. The government prohibited Muslims from converting to other religions. Under Shari'a the ultimate penalty for converting from Islam to another religion is death; however, there were no reports that the penalty has been applied to any case of conversion in recent years. Non-Muslims were subject to criminal prosecution, imprisonment, and deportation if they proselytized or distributed religious literature to Muslims. In August a foreign Christian organization distributed audio Bibles and held discussion sessions in Dubai labor camps, but no arrests were reported. Missionaries continued to perform humanitarian work in the country but reported no restrictions on proselytizing non- Muslims. In the past, the government allegedly threatened to revoke the residence permits of persons suspected of proselytizing for religions other than Islam. The government monitored religious groups, including those professing adherence to Islam. A GAIAE committee drafted and distributed all Friday sermons to Sunni and Shia imams, and the government monitored the sermons for adherence to the scripted content. The Emirate of Dubai had approval authority over preachers in private mosques. The government prohibited or censored certain religious publications and sometimes blocked Web sites containing religious information. These sites included information on the Baha'i faith, Judaism, negative critiques of Islam, and testimonies of former Muslims who had converted to Christianity. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--There were no reports of societal abuses based on religion; however, some discrimination existed, and anti-Semitism was present in the media. There were no synagogues for the small foreign Jewish population in residence. Anti-Semitism was apparent in news articles and editorial cartoons depicting negative images of Jews. These expressions occurred primarily in daily newspapers without government response. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice; however, the government imposed legal restrictions on foreign travel. The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations on a humanitarian basis, but it did not grant refugee status or asylum. Male citizens involved in legal disputes under adjudication were not permitted to travel overseas. Custom dictates that a husband can prevent his wife, minor children, and adult unmarried daughters from leaving the country by taking custody of their passports. The government may revoke naturalized citizens' passports and citizenship status for criminal or politically provocative actions. However, such revocations are rare, and there were no such reports during the year. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and there were no reported cases during the year. Protection of Refugees.--The country is not a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. Its laws do not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status; there is no system for providing protection to refugees; and the government did not provide protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The government continued to detain some persons seeking refugee status, particularly Palestinians and non-Arabs, while they awaited resettlement in third countries. Access to employment, education, and other public services is based on an individual's status as a legal resident, which a refugee is not. Stateless Persons.--Estimates suggested that 20,000 to 100,000 persons without any citizenship or proof of citizenship lived in the country; however, the government continued to improve naturalization procedures for these stateless residents (known as Bidoon) during the year. On May 24, the government granted nationality to 70 previously stateless persons, compared with 51 persons in 2008. Citizenship generally is derived from one's parents. Children of female citizens married to noncitizens do not acquire citizenship at birth; however, female citizens under these circumstances could apply for citizenship for their children, and the government generally granted it. A foreign woman may receive citizenship through marriage to a citizen after 10 years of marriage, and anyone may receive a passport by presidential fiat. On July 27, a MOI committee went to Cairo to meet 22 children of Emirati fathers and Egyptian mothers. The committee, carrying out a ministerial directive to verify paternity that would give the children the option of residency in the country, also traveled to Syria and India to review a number of nationality cases. The government registered Bidoon births but did not grant citizenship to the children. Most Bidoon lacked citizenship because they did not have the preferred tribal affiliation used to determine citizenship when the country was established. Others had entered the country, legally or illegally, in search of employment. The Bidoon faced discrimination in employment and had limited access to medical care and education. Without passports or other identity documents, their movement was restricted, both within the country and internationally. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law does not provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully. There were no democratic general elections or institutions, and citizens did not have the right to form political parties. Elections and Political Participation.--In 2006 a 6,689-member- appointed electorate elected half of the 40-seat FNC. In December 2008 the Federal Supreme Council announced a constitutional amendment that extended the term of FNC members from two to four years. Federal executive and legislative power is in the hands of the Federal Supreme Council, a body composed of the hereditary rulers of the seven emirates. It elects from its members the country's president and vice president. Decisions at the federal level generally represented consensus among the rulers, their families, and other leading families. The ruling families, in consultation with other prominent tribal figures, also choose new emirate rulers. Although the FNC has no legislative authority, it generally reviewed all federal draft laws and decrees before the federal supreme council officially adopted them, and it could send legislation back for amendment. The FNC also has the authority to question any government minister. Former and present FNC members called during the year for greater legislative powers. Despite laws discouraging women's political activities, some women were active in political life, mostly at the federal level. Four women were appointed ministers in the cabinet; nine women, one of whom was elected, served in the FNC; and several women served as public prosecutors or judges. In Sharjah, seven women served on the 40-seat Consultative Council and two women served as directors of local departments. No women held nonfederal senior government positions in the other emirates and women were only 17 percent of the fewer than 7,000-person electorate hand-picked by Emirati rulers to vote in FNC elections. Except in the judiciary, minorities, including Shia, did not serve in senior federal positions. A number of judges were contracted foreign nationals. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented the law effectively. Government corruption reportedly occurred at the administrative level. There were no financial disclosure laws for public officials. On November 23, a former government minister being retried on charges of fraud and breach of public trust was acquitted of allegedly cheating a Lebanese woman of her late brother's inheritance. Earlier in the year, the minister had been cleared of a breach of public trust charge but sentenced to two years' imprisonment for fraud. In October 2008 the Department of Accountability returned to the treasury approximately 300 million dirhams ($82 million) employees had embezzled. At year's end, there was no information regarding what had happened to the employees. The law provides for public access to government information, but the government followed this provision selectively. Requests for access usually went unanswered. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights The government generally did not permit organizations to focus on political issues. Two recognized local human rights organizations existed: the quasi-independent Emirates Human Rights Association (EHRA), which focused on human rights issues and complaints such as labor rights, stateless persons' rights, and prisoners' well-being and humane treatment; and the government-subsidized Jurists' Association Human Rights Committee, which focused on human rights education and conducted seminars and symposia subject to government approval. Although a government prosecutor headed the EHRA, it generally operated without government interference, apart from the requirements that apply to all associations in the country. EHRA members met with MOI officials and prisoners during visits to several detention facilities. During the year the Ministry of Social Affairs rejected applications by the Jurists' Association to join the Arab Coalition for Development, Democracy, and Human Rights and the International Bar Association, and the government prevented Jurists' Association Human Rights Committee members from traveling to meetings outside the country, including meetings of the Arab Jurists Union and the Gulf Jurists Union. The government did not allow international human rights NGOs to be based in the country but allowed representatives to visit on a limited basis. There were no transparent standards governing visits from international NGO representatives. The government generally cooperated with other international organizations, including the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the UNHCR. On January 12, the government accepted a recommendation of the UN Human Rights Council Universal Periodic Review Working Group to invite the UN special rapporteur on trafficking in persons to visit the country. At year's end, the visit had not taken place. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs maintained an office in the country, and in October the government hosted the UN special rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution provides for equality before the law without regard to race, nationality, or social status, and the law prohibits discrimination based on disability; however, legal and cultural discrimination existed and went unpunished. Women.--Rape is punishable by death under the penal code, but in Shari'a courts the extremely high burden of proof often meant that there were few convictions. The penal code does not specifically address spousal rape. Domestic abuse against women, including spousal abuse, was a pervasive problem. The penal code allows men to use physical means, including violence, at their discretion against female and minor family members. Nevertheless, some domestic abuse cases may be filed as assault without intent to kill, punishable by 10 years in prison if death results, seven years for permanent disability, and one year for temporary injury. Victims of domestic abuse may file complaints with police units stationed in major public hospitals. Social workers and counselors, usually female, also maintained offices in public hospitals and police stations. Women often were reluctant to file formal charges of abuse for social, cultural, and economic reasons. There were several reports that police refused to protect women and instead encouraged them to return home. In some cases, authorities contacted the allegedly abusive husbands to transport their wives home. Early in the year, Abu Dhabi opened a new shelter to serve victims of human trafficking and domestic violence. There were no specific reports of honor crimes or killings, although such incidents were rumored to occur within the Muslim foreign resident population. Prostitution is illegal; however, it has become an increasing problem in recent years, particularly in Dubai. Although prostitution was widely acknowledged to exist, the government did not publicly address the issue. During the year the media reported several arrests for prostitution, trafficking, and operating a brothel. During the year the press reported that men were arrested and prosecuted for harassing women in public. The penal code prohibits ``disgracing or dishonoring'' a person in public, punishable by a minimum of one year in prison and as long as 15 years if the victim is younger than 14. An ``infamous'' act against the rules of decency carries a penalty of six months in prison, and ``dishonoring a woman by word or deed on a public roadway'' may result in up to one year in prison and a 10,000 dirham ($2,700) fine. Couples and individuals had the right to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children, and the means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. According to the Population Reference Bureau, skilled personnel attended 99 percent of births. There was no information on whether women received postnatal care visits. Statistics on the use of modern contraceptive methods available to both married and single women were unavailable; however, it reports indicate that various contraceptives were available widely. There was no information on the rate of HIV/AIDS and treatment for sexually transmitted infections for women. Women faced legal and economic discrimination. The government's interpretation of Shari'a applied in personal status cases and family law. Muslim women were forbidden to marry non-Muslims. Unlike men, female citizens married to noncitizens did not automatically pass citizenship to their children. The law permits a man to have as many as four wives. Women normally inherited less than men under the government's interpretation of Shari'a. For example, a son may inherit double what a daughter inherits when their parent dies. It was difficult for a woman to obtain a divorce, as she must prove that her husband has inflicted physical or moral harm upon her, has abandoned her for at least three months, or has not maintained her upkeep or that of their children. Alternatively, women may divorce by paying compensation or surrendering their dowry to their husbands. The law gives divorced men custody of female children after the age of 13 and male children after the age of 10. Fornication is a crime, and the government may imprison and deport noncitizen women if they bear children out of wedlock. Paternity denial was an emerging problem in the courts. Despite DNA tests proving paternity, the courts could not force a man to accept paternal responsibility. In the absence of an acknowledged father, the mothers of these children faced potential legal charges of adultery. No law prohibits women from working or owning businesses, and a man has no right under the government's interpretation of Shari'a to ban his wife from working if she was employed at the time of their marriage; however, some husbands reportedly did so. Women who worked outside the home sometimes did not receive equal benefits, and women also reportedly faced discrimination in promotion. Women constituted approximately 75 percent of university students. Coeducation is prohibited in public schools and universities except at the United Arab Emirate University executive Master of Business Administration program. Several private schools, private universities, and institutions were coeducational. The government continued to make efforts to integrate women more fully into society. On May 17, one new female judge was sworn in; on June 30, 24 female Department of Labor (DOL) inspectors began work, bringing the number of female inspectors to 75. Women constituted 10 percent of the country's diplomatic corps. Children.--The government registered Bidoon births, but it did not grant citizenship to the children. Education is compulsory through the ninth grade; however, compulsory education was not enforced, and some children did not attend school. Noncitizen children could enroll in public schools only if they scored at least 90 percent on entrance examinations. The government provided primary education free to citizens, but not to noncitizens. Public schools were not coeducational after kindergarten. Statistically, girls and women in every age group were more academically successful and continued to higher levels of education than their male peers. Child abuse was not prevalent, although there was some evidence that societal influences prevented cases from being reported. The law protects children from abuse and trafficking, and the government provides some shelter and help for victims. The law does not address female genital mutilation (FGM), which some Somali, Omani, and Sudanese foreign residents practiced. The Ministry of Health prohibits hospitals and clinics from performing FGM, but some private clinics in the northern emirates and rural areas continued to carry out the procedure. Trafficking in Persons.--The law prohibits trafficking in persons for all purposes; however, trafficking in persons continued to be a serious problem. The country was a destination for men, women, and children from South, Southeast, and East Asia, Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East for involuntary servitude and sexual exploitation; the country also was a transit point for women trafficked into Oman and men into Iraq. Some women from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Philippines migrated willingly to the country to work as domestic servants, but some faced debt bondage to recruiters; conditions of involuntary servitude, such as excessive work hours without pay; verbal, mental, physical, or sexual abuse; and restrictions on movement. Men from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who came to the country to work in the construction industry occasionally were subject to involuntary servitude and debt bondage to pay recruitment costs. It was illegal but customary for employers to take custody of workers' passports. Observers believed that resident citizen employment sponsors and foreign-based traffickers partnered to traffic women and girls into the country, especially to Dubai, for commercial sexual exploitation. A trafficker may promise a legal employment opportunity and supply a victim with a fraudulent passport after the victim enters the country on a visitor's or worker's visa. A fraudulent employment sponsor might force the victim into commercial sexual exploitation. On December 22, a court sentenced an Iraqi husband and wife to three years in prison for human trafficking. The couple allegedly bought a 13-year-old girl from her Iraqi parents in Syria and brought her to the country to engage in prostitution. The law prescribes punishments for those convicted of trafficking in persons, whether for commercial sexual exploitation or involuntary servitude. Although the country prosecuted more than 30 cases of trafficking for sexual exploitation, at year's end, there had not been any labor trafficking prosecutions. Prison terms for convicted traffickers ranged from three to 10 years, with two recent convictions resulting in a life sentence. In coordination with law enforcement and government ministries, the National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking was the government entity responsible for combating trafficking in persons. The government coordinated antitrafficking efforts with labor ministries in source countries and, at year's end, had agreements in place with India, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, and Thailand. The agreements require the involvement of government labor ministries or other appropriate offices in the contracting of foreign laborers as a means of undermining illegitimate private recruiting agencies. Trafficking victims who did not identify themselves to authorities were believed to have been deported on criminal charges without access to protective services or without being able to testify against their traffickers. There were reports from foreign embassies that some police authorities pressured victims not to pursue complaints against their employers and assisted employers in repatriating victims before a criminal complaint could be filed. Victims who were unable to provide evidence of trafficking occasionally were provided food and shelter until they acquired travel documents to return home. At least two official shelters, one in Dubai and one in Abu Dhabi, assisted victims of abuse and trafficking. City of Hope, the country's only NGO women's shelter, closed on June 2. The National Committee for Combating Human Trafficking increased its efforts to eliminate trafficking through awareness campaigns in labor ministries and embassies abroad, training of law enforcement personnel, and coordination of government efforts. In January the government appointed additional public prosecutors to the committee to assist in the identification and prosecution of traffickers. On February 25, antitrafficking experts from the International Organization for Migration trained law enforcement officials and NGO representatives in identifying trafficked persons and traffickers and in methods for interviewing victims. The government continued a program with UNICEF and other countries to repatriate and rehabilitate former camel jockeys. On September 14, the government provided funding for the educational and occupational rehabilitation of 1,000 underage former camel jockeys who had previously been repatriated to Pakistan. In May officials traveled to Bangladesh to present $1.43 million in compensation to be divided among 879 former camel jockeys. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at http://www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--The law prohibits discrimination against persons who have physical and mental disabilities. Most public buildings provided some form of access for persons with disabilities in accordance with the law. There were no reported incidents of discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment or education; however, health care provided in the Ministry of Labor's five federal rehabilitation centers, as well as that in private centers, reportedly was inadequate. Moreover, the public centers were not available to noncitizens. Various departments within the ministries of labor and education were responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities, and the government effectively enforced these rights. One percent of all federal government jobs and 2 percent of government jobs in Abu Dhabi were reserved for persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--Approximately 80 percent of the resident population were noncitizens originating primarily from the Indian subcontinent. Societal discrimination against noncitizens was prevalent and occurred in most areas of daily life, including employment, education, housing, social interaction, and health care. Although the government had pledged to improve standards of living for all residents, there were few programs to improve conditions for noncitizens. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Both civil law and Shari'a criminalize homosexual activity, and Islamic religious law sets the death penalty as punishment for individuals who engage in consensual homosexual activity. During the year, there were reports that the government deported and sentenced individuals to prison for openly homosexual activity. Under the law, cross-dressing is a punishable offense. The government deported cross-dressing foreign residents and referred citizens to public prosecutors. On August 3, the Ministry of Social Affairs launched a social awareness campaign and offered psychological treatment and social counseling to combat a trend of girls dressing as men. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--Persons with HIV/AIDS and other diseases faced discrimination. There were credible reports that government officials discriminated against prisoners with HIV by not granting commuted sentences or parole that other prisoners with similar records had received. Noncitizen residents infected with HIV, hepatitis types B and C, and tuberculosis were denied all health benefits, quarantined, and deported. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law does not permit workers to form or join unions, and no unions existed. Professional organizations, such as lawyers' associations, existed; however, they had to receive government approval for international affiliation. The law explicitly does not prohibit strikes by private sector workers, but it allows an employer to suspend an employee for striking. In addition, the government may cancel the work permit of and deport for up to one year any foreign worker who is absent from work for more than seven days without a valid reason. The government forbids strikes by public sector employees, citing national security. A public sector employee may file an administrative grievance or a case in the civil courts to address a labor-related dispute or complaint; however, there was no evidence of any such grievances or cases. The government generally did not punish workers for nonviolent protests in response to nonpayment of wages by employers. During the year the government dispersed nonviolent protests. Only two major labor demonstrations took place during the year involving 1,500 persons, compared to at least seven strikes involving an estimated 10,000 participants in 2008. Most grievances related to unpaid wages and hazardous or abusive working conditions. The Ministry of Labor generally contacted the business owner, which usually prompted a settlement privately. On October 25, an estimated 300 foreign workers went on strike in Dubai, claiming nonpayment of wages for the previous three months. On August 31, approximately 1,200 foreign laborers in Dubai protested low wages and reduced overtime. Dubai police and Ministry of Labor officials responded to both demonstrations immediately and peacefully dispersed the protesters. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--Employees covered by the labor law--which excludes domestic, agricultural, and government workers--may file collective employment dispute complaints with the Ministry of Labor, which serves as mediator between the parties. Employees may file unresolved disputes with the labor court system, which in turn are forwarded to the conciliation council. In practice most cases were resolved through direct mediation. The government granted some professional associations with a majority citizen membership a limited ability to raise work-related issues, to petition the government for redress, and to file grievances with the government. Foreign workers may belong to these professional associations as well; however, they do not have voting rights and cannot serve on the organizations' boards. Businesses in free trade zones (FTZs) are not subject to labor statutes. The Ministry of Labor does not regulate the FTZs; instead, each FTZ maintained its own labor department. Unions and strikes are not allowed in any FTZs. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were instances when such practices occurred, predominantly involving noncitizens. Some employment agents continued to bring numerous foreign workers to the country to work under forced or compulsory conditions, and there continued to be reports of worker suicides. Some women were brought to the country under false promises of legitimate employment and forced into prostitution. Low-paid unskilled and semiskilled workers were also victims of contract switching, which occurred when a worker was offered a certain position but received a visa labor card for a different position. Foreign workers frequently did not receive their wages, sometimes for extended periods. In June 2008, to reduce the problem of unpaid wages, the Ministry of Labor and the Central Bank signed a memorandum of understanding that facilitated direct deposits of laborers' salaries. On August 26, the government announced that 500,000 laborers were receiving their wages in this manner and set a May 31, 2010, deadline for all employers to adopt the system, which would cover more than four million workers. Some domestic and agricultural workers were subject to what was in fact compulsory, unpaid labor to repay their employers for hiring expenses. Employers routinely held employees' passports, severely restricting their freedom of movement. There were increasing incidents of employees prevented from changing jobs because their contracts stipulated that they were prohibited from working for a ``competitor'' for six months after their original employment ended. The only way to overcome the six-month restriction was to seek a letter of ``no objection'' from the original employer; some employers, as retribution for losing the employee to another employer, refused to sign such letters. The Ministry of Labor made exceptions during the year by not requiring ``no objection'' letters if the employee had completed three years in the original position or if the employer had withheld salary. In July Emirati and Indian media reported that more than 100 workers in a labor camp outside Abu Dhabi were stranded without work, wages, or legal residency documentation after their employment sponsor went bankrupt. Local charities provided food for the workers, who were seeking assistance from the courts. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The law prohibits employment of persons younger than age 15 and has special provisions for employing persons 15 to 18 years of age, including foreign resident children 16 or older. The Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcing these regulations and generally enforced them effectively. However, there were rare reports of foreign children who came to the country under their parents' work permits and subsequently were pressured to work. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There is no established minimum wage, leaving much of the workforce without sufficient compensation for more than minimal subsistence. Salaries, which depend on the occupation and employer, were estimated to be at least 400 dirhams ($110) per month for domestic or agricultural workers and 600 dirhams ($164) per month for construction workers. Highly skilled and white-collar employees generally received higher salaries. According to the labor law, the workday is eight hours and the workweek six days; however, these standards were not enforced. There were laws regulating minimum rest periods and hours worked, which varied depending on the nature of the work. There was no legal provision requiring overtime pay, nor was there a prohibition on excessive compulsory overtime. Domestic workers are under the jurisdiction of the MOI, which has a special office for assisting domestic laborers, although current labor laws do not regulate domestic workers. The unregulated conditions of domestic workers left them vulnerable to long work days and underpayment. The Ministry of Labor requires a break from 12:30 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. for most outdoor laborers during July and August, the hottest months of the year; however, oil sector and asphalt and cement companies, among others, were not required to give their employees this break, putting workers at risk for heat exhaustion. The government routinely fined employers for violating the midday break rule and published compliance statistics. For the first offense, an employer is fined 10,000 dirhams ($2,725) and is prohibited from issuing new labor permits for three months. A second offense results in a 20,000 dirham fine ($5,450) and a six-month prohibition. A third offense carries a 30,000 dirham fine ($8,175) and a one-year prohibition on new permits. In June the Ministry of Labor set up a toll-free hot line for laborers to report companies that violated break rules or delayed wage payments. The law requires employers to provide employees with a safe work and living environment; however, despite recent increases in the number of Ministry of Labor inspectors, the government did not uniformly enforce health and safety standards. On June 30, the ministry hired 134 more safety and health inspectors, bringing the total to more than 400. Inspections of primarily construction sites took place throughout the year, resulting in fines for employers who violated workplace safety or midday break rules. The ministry also employed language interpreters to assist foreign workers in understanding employment guidelines. Despite efforts to improve housing facilities, some low-skilled and foreign employees continued to face substandard living conditions, including overcrowded apartments or lodging in unsafe and unhygienic ``labor camps,'' which sometimes lacked electricity, potable water, and adequate cooking and bathing facilities. Construction of newer worker accommodations was ongoing. During the year the press reported a number of cases of workers who were injured or killed on job sites due to inadequate safety measures. Although the law requires the government to track job-related injuries and deaths, in practice the government registered the cases but did not always follow up on them. Domestic workers routinely were subject to physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. In August police in Ajman arrested a woman accused of beating her maid with an electrical cord, breaking her ribs, and burning her feet with an iron. The court case was pending at year's end. Workers' jobs were not protected if they removed themselves from what they considered to be unsafe working conditions; however, all workers have the right to lodge labor-related grievances to the Ministry of Labor. If ministry arbitration could not resolve the issue, it was referred to the judiciary. __________ YEMEN Yemen, with a population of approximately 23 million, is a republic whose law provides for presidential election by popular vote from among at least two candidates endorsed by parliament. In 2006 citizens reelected President Ali Abdullah Saleh to another seven-year term in a generally open and competitive election, characterized by multiple problems with the voting process and the use of state resources on behalf of the ruling party. Saleh has led the country since 1978. The president appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. The prime minister, in consultation with the president, selects the council of ministers. Although there are a number of parties, President Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC) party dominated the government. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces, although there were instances in which security forces acted independently of government authority. Serious human rights problems increased significantly during the year. Severe limitations on citizens' ability to change their government included corruption, fraudulent voter registration, administrative weakness, and close political-military relationships at high levels. The ruling and opposition parties denied opportunities for change when they agreed to postpone for two years April's parliamentary elections after the two sides failed to reach an agreement on electoral reform. There were reports of arbitrary and unlawful killings by government forces, politically motivated disappearances, and torture in prisons. Prison conditions were poor. Arbitrary arrest, prolonged detention, and other abuses increased, particularly with the ongoing protest movement in the southern governorates, where authorities reportedly temporarily jailed thousands of southerners during the year. The judiciary was weak, corrupt, and lacked independence. The government significantly increased restrictions on freedom of speech, press, and assembly, and there were reports of government use of excessive force against demonstrators. Journalists and opposition members were harassed and intimidated. Academic freedom was restricted, and official corruption was a problem. International humanitarian groups estimated that more than 175,400 persons were internally displaced as a result of the Saada conflict. Pervasive and significant discrimination against women continued, as did early marriage, child labor, and child trafficking. The right of workers to associate was also restricted. During an ongoing internal conflict that began in 2004, the government used heavy force in an attempt to suppress the Houthi rebels in Saada. After 13 months of relative quiet, the sixth round of the conflict began in August with fighting and internally displaced persons (IDPs) spreading across four governorates in the North. The government waged an extensive campaign of aerial bombardment in the Saada and Amran governorates, destroying many villages and killing hundreds of civilians, according to press reports. Saudi Arabia joined the fighting in November and continued to participate at year's end. Although the toll of the conflict during the year was unknown, journalists estimated at year's end that hundreds of government troops had been killed and thousands wounded. The number of rebel deaths reportedly was in the hundreds. respect for human rights Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life.--There were reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings during the year, including politically motivated killings. Security forces reportedly killed or injured suspects during apprehensions and public demonstrations in actions that appeared to be politically motivated. During protests in the southern governorates throughout the year, security forces killed dozens of persons and arrested and injured hundreds of others. Members of the southern protest movement alleged that there were 86 extrajudicial deaths in the southern governorates during the year. The domestic nongovernmental organization (NGO) Yemen Observatory for Human Rights (YOHR) identified 49 unlawful killings of demonstrators. The domestic NGO Yemeni Organization for the Defense of Rights and Freedoms (HOOD) put the number at 42 (see section 1.g.). On January 13, security forces opened fire on demonstrators in Aden, injuring five persons; 17-year-old Omer Abdul-Aziz Salim al-Haj died from his injuries on January 19. Security forces also arrested 500 individuals participating in the demonstration, according to YOHR. Between April 27 and May 3, eight persons were killed and 21 injured in clashes between security forces and demonstrators across the southern governorates. On May 21, four persons were killed and scores injured and arrested after a violent protest in the southern city of Aden. The government said it detained 248 persons, but southern movement leaders said the number was closer to 500. Among those arrested were medical professionals attempting to treat the wounded in local hospitals, according to media reports. On July 23, during clashes in the southern town of Zinjibar, 20 persons were killed and 40 injured, including an unknown number from the security forces, who dispersed a crowd of approximately 5,000 protestors by using live ammunition. Some detainees died in custody. On October 5, according to HOOD, Basam Tawfiq Abu Taleb died without having been charged after two and one-half years in the Sana'a Political Security Organization (PSO) prison in connection with the war in Saada. There was no investigation into the 2008 reported security force killings of Saleh Abubakr al-Sayed, Muhammad Ali Muhammad, Saleh Taleb Saeed, Abdelfatah Saif Abdullah, and Hisham Ahmed Muhsen, nor was there any investigation into the 2007 deaths in custody of Muhammad Muhammad Ahmad al-Qadi, Muhammad al-Shoaibi, or Hashem Abdullah Yahya Hajar. Tribal violence resulted in a number of killings and other abuses, and the government's ability to control tribal elements remained limited. Other incidents of fatal shootings and violence continued throughout the year. In most cases it was impossible to determine the perpetrator or motive, and there were rarely claims of responsibility. Some killings may have had criminal, religious, or political motives, and others appeared to involve land disputes or cases of tribal revenge. Terrorist activity continued during the year, including training camps for actions in other countries, although there were fewer incidents than in the previous year. On March 15, a suicide bomber attacked a group of tourists in the city of Shibam, Hadramout governorate, killing four South Koreans and their local tour guide. The attack also injured four South Koreans. On June 12, unknown actors--likely Al Qa'ida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) affiliates--kidnapped seven Germans, one South Korean, and one British citizen in Saada. The bodies of three women from the group were found on June 16. At year's end the other six hostages remained missing. The country was contaminated with mines and unexploded ordnance from several conflicts, including the 1962-70 war in the north between republicans and royalists, the 1963-67 war of independence in the south, the 1970-83 war against left-wing guerrillas, and the 1994 separatist war. The majority of mines were in border areas between the former North Yemen and South Yemen and in the southern governorates. Mines in the southern governorates were unmapped along beach areas and valleys that lead to the coast. According to the governmental Yemen Executive Mine Action Center (YEMAC), during the year antipersonnel mines injured eight persons but caused no deaths. YEMAC tallied eight deaths from mines and explosive remnants of war in 2008 and 18 casualties in 2007, including 12 killed and six injured. YEMAC reported that approximately 58.6 square miles of land remained to be demined at the end of the year. From November 4 to year's end, armed groups of Houthi rebels from Yemen and Saudi forces engaged in cross-border conflict. The Saudi government claimed the attacks were within Saudi territory and intended to eliminate armed groups of Houthi rebels who had entered Saudi territory and had killed three border guards and wounded 15 other members of the security forces in the border region of Jebel al-Dukhan. According to press reporting, Saudi attacks killed 54 civilians in the town of Al-Nadheer and injured an unknown number. b. Disappearance.--During the year there were reports of politically motivated disappearances of individuals associated with southern protests and the conflict in Saada. Although many disappearances were short-term detentions followed by releases, the whereabouts of other individuals remained unconfirmed by authorities for months or longer. Civil society groups accused the government of using sporadic disappearances to intimidate the populace. Tribal kidnappings, traditionally carried out to attract government attention to specific grievances, also occurred. On September 17, in Sana'a, a group of plainclothes security personnel abducted Mohammed al-Maqaleh, a journalist and member of the opposition Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP), according to human rights activists; al-Maqaleh had criticized government actions in Saada. In late December, after months of denying any knowledge of al-Maqaleh's whereabouts, officials admitted that he was in PSO custody. On October 13, armed men kidnapped lawyer, human rights activist, and local council member Mohammed Mus'id Naji al-Uqlah in Dhale' governorate. His whereabouts remained unknown at year's end. In July 2008 authorities arrested Ali Yahya al-Imad, allegedly in connection with the Saada conflict. His whereabouts were unknown until his release from the PSO prison in Sana'a in December 2008. Imad was allegedly tortured in prison, according to HOOD. Tribal kidnappings continued throughout the year. On March 31, tribesmen near Sana'a released unharmed two Dutch citizens after two weeks in captivity. On June 11, tribesmen in Saada kidnapped 23 Yemeni and foreign medical workers whom they released unharmed on June 12, reportedly after receiving government assurances that two prisoners would be released in return. On July 13, tribesmen from Bani Dabyan, outside Sana'a, kidnapped businessman Abdul-Malik al-Khamery, whom they released unharmed on November 24, following undisclosed negotiations between his family and his captors. On September 15, Marib tribesmen in Sana'a kidnapped businessman Jamal Abdulwase Hael Saeed, whom they released unharmed two weeks later. On November 15, tribesmen in Arhab, north of Sana'a, kidnapped a Japanese engineer and released him unharmed after nine days in captivity c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.--The law prohibits such practices, but, according to human rights NGOs and former detainees, authorities tortured and abused persons in detention. The PSO, a security apparatus reporting directly to the president, has previously stated torture does not occur at its facilities. It noted that new PSO officers must sign a document certifying that they recognize torture is illegal according to the laws and constitution of the country and that those who torture prisoners would be punished according to the law. Amnesty International's (AI) 2009 annual report claimed police brutality and torture of detainees was widespread in connection with politically motivated acts or protests as well as ordinary criminal suspects, and officials committed these acts with impunity. Reported techniques included beatings with fists, sticks, and rifle butts; kicking; scalding with hot water; excessively tight handcuffs; prolonged blindfolding and suspension by the wrists or ankles; denial of water or access to toilets; burning with cigarettes; stripping naked; denial of food and prompt access to medical help; threats of sexual abuse; and death threats. Sleep deprivation and solitary confinement were other forms of abuse reported in PSO prisons. Ministry of Interior (MOI) officers reportedly used force during interrogations, especially against those arrested for violent crimes, although according to the Ministry of Human Rights (MOHR), torture was not part of MOI policy. Penal law, based on the government's interpretation of Shari'a (Islamic law), permits amputations and physical abuse such as flogging as punishment for some crimes. In January the specialized criminal court (SCC) sentenced Tawfiq al-Masouri to death for committing a murder. Police in Sana'a reportedly tortured him while holding him incommunicado for three months. According to AI, he said he confessed because of torture, and a medical examination carried out at his lawyer's request found marks consistent with his allegations. There was no further known investigation. During the year the MOHR reported it received no complaints concerning alleged torture at the hands of the military, police, or security services but acknowledged that isolated incidents might have occurred during the year. HOOD claimed it received dozens of complaints of torture during the year, but because the complainants often brought their cases weeks or months after the alleged torture occurred, their claims were difficult to verify. Security forces reportedly physically abused detainees and prisoners. On August 13, the families of political prisoners Ali Miqdad, Saeed Bafaraj, and Nasser Bamithgal, held at the Mukullah central prison, said personnel from the MOI's Central Security Forces (CSF) assaulted the prisoners with sticks, batons, and tear gas, according to an open letter from local advocacy group Popular Human Rights Committee of Hadramout. The CSF said the prisoners were participating in riots, a claim the families denied. In May 2008 Adel al-Azani died because of torture in a Criminal Investigation Department (CID) prison, according to HOOD. Security elements reported that the cause of al-Azani's death was suicide. His family affirmed that al-Azani died of torture, reporting that wounds were still visible on his body when they retrieved him from the prison. At year's end there had been no investigation in the 2007 torture case of Shaif al-Haimi, who continued to await trial for impersonating a National Security Bureau (NSB) officer. At year's end the MOHR was unable to provide any updated information on the torture case of Muhammad Saleh al-Amari, which it first reported in 2007. At year's end the court case of PSO officer Jamal Abdul Naser al- Maghreb continued, although he attended no court sessions during the year. Al-Maghreb was charged with the 2007 beating of Azim Hasan Abdullah al-Wosabi. Prison and Detention Center Conditions.--Local and international observers reported prison conditions remained poor and did not meet internationally recognized standards. Prison conditions deteriorated during the year due to the marked increase in the number of prisoners, according to HOOD. Many prisons, particularly in rural areas, were overcrowded, with poor sanitary conditions, inadequate food, and inadequate medical care. In some cases, prison authorities extracted bribes from prisoners to obtain privileges or refused to release prisoners who had completed their sentences until the prisoners' family members paid authorities. In some rural and women's prisons, children were held with adults. By custom young children and babies born in prison remained in custody with their mothers. For the first time, local NGOs asserted that children were held with adults in Sana'a jails. Pretrial detainees were held with convicted criminals. Local tradition requires male relatives of female prisoners to arrange for their release. Authorities regularly held female prisoners in jail after the end of their sentences if male relatives refused to authorize their release, usually because of the shame associated with the return of an imprisoned female family member. Unauthorized ``private'' prisons in rural areas, often controlled by tribes, continued to operate. Tribal leaders misused the prison system by placing ``problem'' tribesmen in private jails, sometimes simply rooms in a tribal sheikh's house, either to punish them for noncriminal actions or to protect them from retaliation. Persons often were detained in such prisons for strictly personal or tribal reasons without trial or judicial sentencing. Authorities granted limited access to family members of PSO prisoners and detainees but routinely denied parliamentarians' and NGOs' requests for access to investigate human rights violation claims. The PSO argued that prospective visitors failed to comply with proper notification procedures. Prison authorities granted the MOHR and some local NGOs, including HOOD, access to MOI prisons. NGO representatives met with MOI prisoners as private visitors. The MOHR said it met with NGOs frequently throughout the year and served as a mediator between NGOs and the government. The government did not allow independent human rights observers access to PSO prisons during the year, according to MOHR. Most NGOs had no access to CID prisons, but, after years of effort, HOOD visited the CID prison in Sana'a during the year. The MOHR stated it conducted 10 prison visits in five governorates during the year, including surprise visits and visits conducted by the minister and that its recommendations led to replacement of some prison directors. Despite contradictory reports from leading human rights NGOs, the MOHR reported the successful implementation of most recommendations from its 2007 report on prisons, such as the separation of incarcerated adults and minors and provision of educational instruction to prisoners. In March 2008 the MOHR recommended to the president's cabinet additional improvements in prison and detention facility conditions; some recommendations had been partially implemented at year's end. In 2004 the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) suspended visits to PSO prisons, citing the PSO's failure to agree to ICRC's universally applied procedures, which include regular access to and private interviews with all detainees. Consequently, the ICRC did not visit any PSO prisons during the year. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.--The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, but the government generally did not observe these prohibitions. Enforcement of the law was inconsistent, particularly in cases involving suspected security offenses. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus.--The primary state security and intelligence-gathering entities, the PSO and the NSB, report directly to the president. There was no clear definition of many of the NSB's duties, which appeared to overlap with those of the PSO. The police CID reports to the MOI and conducted most criminal investigations and arrests. The CSO, also a part of the MOI, maintains a paramilitary force, the CSF. The CSF is active in maintaining order in restive regions in the country, including Saada and the southern governorates, and was often accused of using excessive force during crowd control. Corruption and impunity were serious problems throughout these security and intelligence organizations. There were no public governmental investigations of police corruption during the year. Some police stations reportedly maintained an internal affairs section to investigate security force abuses, and citizens had the right to file complaints with the prosecutor's office. Enforcement of this right was inconsistent, and there were no effective investigations reported. The MOI had a fax line for citizens to file claims of abuse for investigation. It was unknown how many fax complaints the MOI received and how many it investigated. Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention.--The law provides that an individual cannot be arrested unless apprehended in a criminal act or served with a summons and that a detainee must be arraigned within 24 hours or be released. The judge or prosecuting attorney must inform the accused of the basis for the arrest and decide whether detention is required. The law stipulates that a detainee may not be held longer than seven days without a court order. Despite the law, arbitrary arrest and prolonged detention without charge--or, if charged, without a public preliminary judicial hearing within a reasonable time--were common practices. For example, authorities arbitrarily arrested numerous southern demonstration leaders and persons with alleged associations to the Houthi movement throughout the year and detained them for prolonged periods. There are legal provisions for bail, but some authorities abided by these provisions only if they received a bribe. The law prohibits incommunicado detention and provides detainees the right to inform their families of their arrests and to decline to answer questions without an attorney present, but these rights were not always respected. The law states that the government must provide attorneys for indigent detainees, but in practice it often did not do so. Tribal mediators reportedly settled almost all rural cases out of court. Citizens regularly claimed security officials did not observe due process when arresting and detaining suspects and demonstrators. Members of the security forces continued to arrest or detain persons for varying periods without charge, family notification, or hearings. Detainees were often unclear about which investigating agency had arrested them, and the agencies frequently complicated the situation by unofficially transferring custodial authority of individuals among agencies. Security forces routinely detained relatives of fugitives as hostages until the suspect was located. Authorities stated they detained relatives only when the relatives obstructed justice. Human rights organizations rejected this claim. Local NGOs estimated the number of individuals arrested in connection with the southern protest movement to be between 1,000 and 1,500. Determining exact figures was difficult, as many detainees' names were not recorded, some detainees were never transferred to official detention centers, and many were arrested and released multiple times during the year. According to the domestic NGO Yemeni Organization for the Defense of Public Rights and Liberties (YODPRL), the government arrested 1,560 persons with alleged connections to the Saada conflict during the year (see section 1.g.). On June 8, security forces arrested University of Aden geography professor Hussein al-Agil and detained him in the Sabr Prison in southern Lahj governorate. On June 22, authorities transferred him to the CID prison and then allegedly moved him to the PSO prison on an unknown date. He was allegedly held without charge at year's end in connection with an article he wrote about the oil resources of the southern part of the country. On February 3, military police arrested 92-year-old Ali Ali Ahmed Shubaih as a hostage to pressure his son, wanted in connection with a land dispute case, to surrender to authorities. The authorities did not reveal Shubaih's whereabouts to his family for weeks and released him in late June. YODPRL reported that, as of year's end, Taha Suhaili had been detained at the PSO prison in Sana'a for five years without charge or trial. The PSO arrested Suhaili in Sana'a in 2004 for alleged connections to the Houthi rebels. Although both denied it, the MOI and the PSO both operated extrajudicial detention facilities. Unauthorized private prisons also existed. Members of the security forces continued to detain journalists for publishing articles the government deemed controversial (see section 2.a.). During the year the government also continued to detain suspects accused of links to terrorism, at times without due process. HOOD reported that the government held 150 persons in Sana'a and Hudeidah on suspicion of terrorist affiliations or activities. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial.--The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but corruption and executive branch interference severely hampered a weak judiciary. Litigants maintained, and the government acknowledged, that a judge's social ties and occasional bribery influenced verdicts. Many judges were poorly trained, and some were closely associated with the ruling party. The government's frequent reluctance to enforce judgments further undermined the integrity of the judiciary. Tribal members at times threatened and harassed members of the judiciary. The judicial system is organized in a three-tier court structure. Courts of first instance are broadly empowered to hear all civil, criminal, commercial, and family matters. A single judge may hear a case in these courts. Decisions in the courts of first instance may be appealed to the courts of appeal. Each court of appeal includes separate divisions for criminal, military, civil, and family issues. Each division is composed of three judges. Above the courts of appeal is the Supreme Court, which is empowered to settle jurisdictional disputes between different courts, hear cases brought against high government officials, and serve as the final court of appeal for all lower court decisions. The Supreme Court has eight separate divisions: constitutional (composed of seven judges including the chief justice), appeals scrutiny, criminal, military, civil, family, commercial, and administrative. The Supreme Court has special panels to determine the constitutionality of laws and regulations. In addition to the regular hierarchy of courts, there are courts for military, juvenile, tax, customs, and labor matters whose decisions may be appealed to the courts of appeal. In 1999 the government first established a specialized criminal court under the Ministry of Justice to try persons charged with kidnapping, carjacking, attacking oil pipelines, and other acts considered a ``public danger,'' such as banditry and sabotage; however, during the year the court heard cases that were not security-related. According to a leading local NGO, the specialized criminal court does not provide defendants with the same rights provided in the regular courts. AI and local NGOs characterized specialized criminal courts as unconstitutional. Defense lawyers reportedly did not have full access to the charges against their clients or relevant government evidence and court files. In May the government for the first time established a special court to try media and publication cases. Trials of a number of journalists and newspapers took place during the year. The court found most defendants guilty and suspended them from journalism for a number of months or assessed fines that might typically amount to 50,000 riyals (approximately $233). The court imposed the most severe sentences on Al-Masdar editor Samir Jubran and journalist Munir al- Mawri, who received prison sentences and bans from journalism (see section 2.a.). Trial Procedures.--Laws are a mixture of Egyptian law, Napoleonic tradition, and Shari'a. The codified law, social custom, and Shari'a, as interpreted in the country, discriminated against women, particularly in domestic matters. By law prosecutors are a part of the judiciary and independent of the government. Prosecutors also investigate criminal cases. The police were generally weak and played a limited role in developing cases. The security services continued to arrest, charge, and submit cases to the prosecutor's office of persons with alleged links to shootings, explosions, and other acts of violence. Citizens and human rights groups alleged that the security forces and the judiciary did not normally observe due process. Foreign litigants in commercial disputes complained of biased rulings. The accused are considered innocent until proven guilty. Trials were generally public, but all courts may conduct closed sessions ``for reasons of public security or morals.'' There are no jury trials. Judges, who play an active role in questioning witnesses and the accused, adjudicate criminal cases. Defense attorneys are allowed to counsel their clients, address the court, and examine witnesses and any relevant evidence. The law provides for the government to furnish attorneys for indigent defendants in serious criminal (felony) cases; in practice counsel was not always provided. All defendants, including women and minorities, have the right to appeal their sentences. In addition to regular courts, there is a system of tribal adjudication for noncriminal issues; in practice tribal judges often adjudicated criminal cases. The results carried the same, if not greater, weight as court judgments. Persons tried under the tribal system usually had not been formally charged with a crime but had been publicly accused. The law grants the parliament exclusive jurisdiction over executive branch officials for crimes including bribery, interference, and embezzlement. No government official was investigated or tried under this law during the year. Political Prisoners and Detainees.--During the year there was a significant increase in the number of political prisoners and detainees related to the southern protest movement and the renewed conflict in Saada (see section 1.g.). Human rights organizations reported there were thousands of political prisoners and detainees held during the year; thousands were arrested and released on the same day, and hundreds were held for weeks or months. Confirmation of the number of detainees was difficult because the government severely restricted or completely barred access to such detainees by local or international humanitarian organizations. Local human rights organization Women Journalists Without Chains (WJWC) reported the following numbers of political prisoners held in connection to the southern protest movement at year's end: 14 in Sana'a, 83 in Aden, seven in Lahj governorate, and hundreds in Hadramout governorate. At year's end the government held more than 300 prisoners in connection to the Saada conflict, according to HOOD, which also reported that approximately 150 detainees with suspected links to AQAP remained in PSO prisons without charge. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies.--The law provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters, but there were limitations in practice. In 2006 HOOD filed the first-ever civil suit against the president, on behalf of Ahmad Ali bin Maeili, who claimed that the PSO detained him without charge for seven years. After the court rejected the case, HOOD appealed to the Supreme Court. In January the prosecution dropped the case and released Maeili because the legal deadline to charge him had passed. f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence.--The law prohibits such action, but PSO and MOI personnel routinely searched homes and private offices, monitored telephone calls, read personal mail and e-mail, and otherwise intruded into personal matters claiming security reasons. Human rights organizations claimed that security forces undertook such activities without legally issued warrants or judicial supervision. The PSO and MOI rejected these claims. The PSO said its policies require the attorney general personally to authorize monitoring telephone calls and reading personal mail and e-mail. The PSO reported that to do a house search, it first obtains a warrant and a signed certification by the head of the neighborhood, and two neighbors who serve as witnesses accompany officers on the search. HOOD reported that security services illegally raided 20 houses in Sana'a in connection to the terrorist attack on South Korean tourists in March. The MOI did not comment on this allegation. Throughout the year human rights activists and journalists reported receiving repeated threatening phone calls day and night. Activists and journalists considered these calls to be attempts by authorities to intimidate them about the Saada conflict and southern political discontent. On March 31, a PSO officer threatened human rights activist Ali al- Dailami at a rally in Sana'a. Al-Dailami subsequently received thousands of threatening telephone calls and text messages from unidentified persons warning him to cease his human rights activities. The law prohibits arrests or the serving of a subpoena between sundown and dawn, but persons suspected of crimes were reportedly taken from their homes without warrants in the middle of the night. No citizen may marry a foreigner without permission from the MOI, but this regulation does not carry the force of law and appeared inconsistently enforced. Security forces routinely detained relatives of fugitives as hostages until the suspect was located (see section 1.d.). In other cases, detention of family members continued while the families negotiated compensation for the alleged wrongdoing. Families, tribesmen, and other nongovernmental interlocutors commonly used arbitration and mediation to settle such cases. g. Use of Excessive Force and Other Abuses in Internal Conflicts.-- During the year the government responded to domestic political problems with excessive force. The sixth round of intense fighting since 2004 in northern Saada governorate started in August. Responding to a series of attacks on police officers by Houthi fighters, the government began aerial bombardment in Saada and Amran governorates. Both government and Houthi forces recruited tribal members. Ongoing tribal conflicts were subsumed into the larger conflict between the government and the Houthis. Fighting continued unabated at year's end. The Houthis, a group of Zaydi Shia rebels, have called for greater resources and religious autonomy in Saada, along with a reduced security presence. According to the government, the Houthis received support from Iran and sought to reestablish the imamate. Although there were no reliable estimates, hundreds of civilians were killed, thousands injured, and tens of thousands displaced as a result of the fighting. The bombing also destroyed villages, homes, farms, schools, and mosques. On September 16, government aircraft bombed a school in Amran governorate's Harf Sufyan, where IDPs had gathered, killing 87 civilians, mostly women and children, according to local media reports and eyewitness accounts. The Ministry of Defense said Houthi rebels were hiding in the school. There were reports during the year of the use of antipersonnel mines, including antitank and improvised mines, during the conflict in northern Saada governorate between government troops and rebel forces led by Abdul-Malik al-Houthi. In 2008 at least 60 persons, including military personnel, were reportedly admitted to hospitals with injuries from mine explosions in Saada. There was no information available regarding the number of such deaths or injuries in Saada during the year. The government and local and international human rights organizations claimed that Houthis also committed human rights violations during the year. According to an August government report, Houthi abuses included unlawful killing, rape and sexual assault, looting and destruction of civilian property, and plunder and destruction of public buildings. Some human rights activists said Houthis used human shields and killed and threatened civilians who did not support them. Independent verification of these allegations was difficult because the government blocked nearly all access to Saada during the year. In response to a growing southern protest movement that began with a group of forcibly retired army officers from the former People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), the government launched mass preemptive arrest campaigns across the southern governorates and used excessive force to disperse demonstrations that sometimes involved tens of thousands of protestors. The government arrested thousands of southerners during the year, including members of opposition political parties, academics, members of parliament, journalists, and human rights activists. Some were released after a few hours of detention, and others remained in jail at year's end. Security services killed dozens of demonstrators and injured scores in a series of increasingly violent demonstrations in Dhale', Lahj, Aden, Abyan, and Hadramout governorates. YOHR estimated the security services injured 110 civilians during demonstrations. For example, on January 17, one person was killed and 12 injured when police in the southern city of Dhale' fired on a crowd of civilians after a grenade was thrown at a security vehicle. On April 19, security forces fired live ammunition and used tear gas on protestors in southern Shebwa governorate, injuring five demonstrators who required hospitalization. On May 4, security forces shelled the southern towns of Radfan and Habilayn in Lahj governorate, killing one person and injuring five. On May 14, a battle between guards at independent Al-Ayyam newspaper in Aden and security forces resulted in the deaths of three of the newspaper's guards. On June 8, police opened fire at a checkpoint in southern Lahj governorate, killing two protestors and wounding four. According to an October 2008 Human Rights Watch (HRW) report, the extent of arbitrary arrests and ``disappearances'' expanded since 2007, mainly in the context of the Houthi rebellion but also relating to the government's domestic counterterrorism efforts and its repression of social unrest in the southern part of the country. In nearly all of the 62 cases HRW investigated, arresting officials did not identify themselves or inform the detainee or his family of the reason for the arrest or the place of detention. The families of persons who disappeared typically did not receive any information for weeks or months after the arrest. YODPRL recorded 56 forcible disappearances during the year in connection with the fighting in Saada. During the year, in fighting between government forces and the Houthi rebels beginning in August, international NGOs providing humanitarian assistance in Saada estimated that more than 175,400 persons were displaced from their homes, spreading across four northern governorates in search of aid. According to YOHR, arbitrary arrests of individuals with alleged links to the Saada conflict increased following the resumption of hostilities in August. Authorities arrested, released, and rearrested persons associated with the Saada conflict and the southern protest movement in what local human rights NGOs referred to as a ``revolving door'' policy. This practice made it difficult to determine how many prisoners were released during the year or the reasons for their release. Hundreds of individuals were arbitrarily arrested in 2008. In 2007 there were approximately 100 individuals from Saada reportedly arbitrarily arrested and detained. Authorities forcibly removed an estimated 45 individuals, including some minors, from Saada and imprisoned them in the neighboring governorate of Hajja. Many of these detainees were later released, but others were rearrested. Local NGOs accused the government of illegal and inhumane treatment of these detainees. Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press.--The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press ``within the limits of the law''; however, the government did not respect these rights in practice. The 1990 Press and Publication Law criminalizes ``criticism of the person of the head of state,'' although not necessarily ``constructive criticism''; the publication of ``false information'' that may spread ``chaos and confusion in the country''; and ``false stories intended to damage Arab and friendly countries or their relations'' with the country. The country's security apparatus, including the NSB and elements of the military, threatened and harassed journalists to influence coverage. Journalists regularly practiced self-censorship during the year. The international NGO Reporters Without Borders characterized the state of press freedom in the country as very poor. The Ministry of Information influenced the media through control of printing presses, subsidies to newspapers, and ownership of the country's sole television and radio outlets. Three independent newspapers owned their own presses; no opposition papers did. According to the domestic NGO WJWC, there were approximately 30 government- controlled, 162 independent, 59 party-affiliated, and 50 civil society association-affiliated newspapers in the country. There were approximately 123 magazines, including 22 government-controlled, 64 independent, four party-affiliated and 33 civil society association- affiliated magazines. The government selected items for news broadcasts and rarely permitted broadcasts critical of the government. The government televised parliamentary debates and occasionally permitted broadcasts including aggressive criticism of ministries. Press law specifies that newspapers and magazines must apply annually to the government for licensing renewal and must show continuing evidence of 700,000 riyals ($3,398) in operating capital. There were reports that authorities made the registration process bureaucratically impossible for opposition figures or organizations, whereas progovernment or tribal newspapers reportedly received licenses immediately. In 2008 sources indicated that very few licenses were granted and others were denied outright. Local NGOs reported no denials of licenses during the year. During the year the government closed or pressured more than 20 newspapers, including government-affiliated papers as well as opposition and independent publications, according to YOHR. The most significant curtailment of press freedom was the repeated confiscation of issues of the independent weekly Al-Ayyam newspaper, harassment of the newspaper's editors and correspondents, politically motivated judicial cases brought against the paper's owners, and heavy military presence surrounding the newspaper's Aden offices. On May 1, four armed men stopped an Al-Ayyam distribution vehicle traveling from Aden to Sana'a and destroyed all issues of the paper. Security forces stopped the printing of Al-Ayyam starting on May 3 and surrounded the newspaper offices. On May 23, vehicles carrying 50,000 issues of Al-Ayyam were stopped and all copies of the paper destroyed. Government pressure was so significant on the editors of Al-Ayyam that the paper stopped publication in May; publication had not resumed by year's end. The Ministry of Information stated that it had not recommended the closure of Al-Ayyam but had simply confiscated particular issues that were in violation of the law, and that the paper chose not to continue publishing. On January 13, two plainclothes security officials kidnapped Al- Ayyam correspondent Khaled Omar al-Aabd in Aden, handcuffed and blindfolded him, and brought him to the Aden CID for questioning. Aabd was later released. On the same day, the CID arrested Al-Watani editor Wajdi al-Shaabi in Aden while he was covering protests affiliated with the southern movement. Also arrested on January 13 in Aden were Al- Ayyam reporter Anis Mansoor, who was held for two days at the al- Mansoora Prison in Aden, and Saba News journalist Isam Zaid, who was held for six days as punishment for covering the protests. On April 12, the Ministry of Information banned independent weekly Al-Dayari newspaper from publication because it had published a political cartoon that ``offended the sensibilities of the persons.'' The ministry said the press law gave it the right to remove from circulation newspapers that violated the law. On May 4, authorities arrested Fuad Rashid, editor in chief of the Mukullahpress Web site, and detained him in Mukulla Central Prison, allegedly for his sensitive reporting on the southern secessionist movement. Authorities announced Rashid's detention one week after his arrest and subsequently transferred him to the PSO prison in Sana'a, where he remained at year's end. On May 4, the Ministry of Information ordered the suspension of six independent weekly newspapers--Al-Nida, Al-Shari', Al-Masdar, Al- Watani, Al-Diyar, and Al-Mustaqilla--that the ministry declared were using ``the rhetoric of secessionism and targeting national unity.'' On May 5, authorities confiscated 15,000 copies of independent weekly Al-Masdar from the al-Thawra printing press and stored them at the Ministry of Information. In May and June, the Ministry of Information confiscated four consecutive issues of Al-Ahali newspaper. The ministry stated it had confiscated the two newspapers because they illegally published secret military information. On October 16, the al-Thawra printing press refused to print an edition of Aden-based Al-Watani newspaper. The Ministry of Information said the paper would not be printed until a number of articles on the southern protest movement were changed. Physical attacks against journalists continued during the year, along with government harassment, including threats against journalists and their families, brief imprisonment, and personal surveillance. On June 18, PSO officers beat Gulf of Aden news network editor Saleh al- Saqladi in his home, confiscated his phone and computer, and detained him. Harassment of journalists who reported on the southern protest movement and the Saada conflict continued during the year. The government continued attempts to prevent news about the details of the Saada conflict from becoming public. Measures included preventing journalists and humanitarian workers from going to the conflict zone, disconnecting all but a select number of cell phone numbers in the governorate, warning journalists not to report on the conflict, and arresting persons who transmitted information about what they had seen or who could have such information because they had recently left the area. On June 4, the Sana'a appeals court upheld a judgment suspending Al Shari'e editor Nayef Hassan from journalism for one year and subjected him to fines of 1,010,000 riyals ($4,903). In 2007 the MOD filed a complaint against Al Shari'e for publishing military secrets in reference to the Saada investigation. According to the law, the press and publication prosecution office arbitrates cases related to the media; however, the case of Al Shari'e was tried by the specialized courts for terrorist-related activity. Al Shari'e was the first newspaper tried in a specialized criminal court. On October 31, the special court for press and publications sentenced independent weekly Al-Masdar editor Samir Jubran to one year in prison and a one-year suspension from journalism and a journalist to two years in prison and a lifetime ban from journalism on charges of slandering the president. The ruling party filed a case against Al- Masdar for publishing the journalist's editorial, ``Yemen's Weapon of Mass Destruction,'' a reference to President Saleh. Many similar incidents of harassment and intimidation against journalists occurred in 2007 and 2008. There were no new government-cloned newspapers during the year. In a 2005 attempt to counter dissent, elements close to the government or security apparatus cloned two newspapers, Al-Shura and Al-Thawri. The government published newspapers with similar names, fonts, and colors that carried more progovernment editorials and stories. The Al-Thawri clone ceased publication in 2005 after several weeks, but the Al-Shura clone continued publishing at year's end. At times customs officials confiscated foreign publications they regarded as pornographic or objectionable due to religious or political content. During the year there were some reports that authorities monitored foreign publications and banned those deemed harmful to national interests. Book authors were required to obtain certification from the Ministry of Culture (MOC) for publication and to submit copies to the ministry. Publishers sometimes refused to deal with an author who had not yet obtained certification. The MOC approved most books, but long delays were frequent. There were reports that both the MOC and the PSO monitored and sometimes removed books from stores after publication. A ban continued on publishers distributing books that espoused Zaydi-Shia Islamic doctrine or were deemed pornographic. The government denied that the media were subject to censorship by any security apparatus. Internet Freedom.--The government restricted Internet use by intermittently blocking access to some political and religious Web sites and sites it deemed immoral. During the year the government reportedly blocked a number of independent and opposition news Web sites, such as al-Shura.net and Ishtiraki.net and the Web sites of independent newspapers Al-Ayyam, Al-Masdar, Al-Tagheer, and Al-Wasat. It also blocked Adenpress.com, a Web site that covered the southern demonstrations, and it allegedly blocked and changed content on Yemenhurra.net, a Web site that covered the Saada conflict. On February 8, the al-Baidhapress Web site was pirated and its database destroyed because of its critical coverage of political events in the country, according to WJWC. On May 30, the al-Haq party's Newomma.net was hacked, links deleted, and an article against the party posted. The International Telecommunication Union estimated in September that the country in 2008 had 370,000 Internet users (1.6 percent penetration). Many could not afford the Internet or were unfamiliar with the equipment and services needed to access it. Internet access was available from homes or Internet cafes in major urban areas. The government limited the Internet content its citizens could access through commercially available filtering technology and control of its two Internet service providers, TeleYemen (operators of the service YNET) and YemenNet via the Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology. Human rights organizations and other NGOs complained that the government restricted what journalists wrote and how citizens used the Internet through a variety of intimidation tactics. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events.--The government restricted academic freedom, purportedly to prevent the politicization of university campuses. Political parties frequently attempted to influence academic appointments, as well as university faculty and student elections. During the year security officials were present on university campuses and at intellectual forums. PSO representatives had permanent offices on the campuses. Government informers monitored the activities of professors and students, especially those who were alleged affiliates of opposition parties. Authorities reviewed prospective university professors and administrators for political acceptability before hiring them and commonly showed favoritism toward affiliates or supporters of the ruling GPC party. In December authorities suspended political science professor Abdullah Faqih, one of the country's leading academics, from teaching at Sana'a University because his lectures were deemed offensive to the president. Earlier in the year, the PSO temporarily banned a book written by Faqih on political citizenship in the country because it was deemed too controversial. Authorities intermittently enforced a ban on new student associations at Sana'a University. Opposition sources contended that authorities did not enforce this regulation against GPC-affiliated organizations. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.--Freedom of Assembly.--The law provides for freedom of assembly, but the government limited this right in practice. The government requires a permit for demonstrations and issued permits routinely. Government informers monitored many meetings and assemblies. The government banned and disrupted some demonstrations, allegedly to prevent them from degenerating into riots and violence. On May 26, security forces in Mukullah prevented a demonstration called to support detained journalist Foud Rashed; they detained and questioned dozens of protestors. On October 6, military personnel attempting to break up a sit-in for press freedom in Sana'a physically abused journalist and human rights advocate Tawakul Karman and other activists. The military took demonstrators' banners and broke cameras. On October 22, police arrested 20 persons in Taiz when they attempted to hold a demonstration calling for increased development for the region. The government said the protestors did not have the appropriate permit. On November 30, police banned demonstrations by the southern protest movement marking the United Kingdom's 1967 withdrawal from the southern part of the country. The government said it imposed the ban after two northerners were killed while traveling through the south in the days before the scheduled protests. Police arrested hundreds of persons planning to participate in the demonstrations. The southern protest movement that began in 2007 with a group of forcibly retired military and civilian officials from the PDRY grew during the year into a widespread political coalition across the southern governorates. The expanded movement has grown increasingly vocal in its calls for secession from the central government in Sana'a and has organized dozens of peaceful demonstrations in support of its cause. In response, the government conducted mass arrest campaigns before and during demonstrations organized by the southern protest movement and fired on demonstrators frequently throughout the year. In 2008 security forces attempted to break up peaceful political demonstrations across the southern governorates using tear gas and live ammunition. Such actions occurred at a protest in Aden in January, leading to three deaths and 10 injuries; a March sit-in in Dhale'; and at massive rallies in Aden and Dhale' in July. Freedom of Association.--The law provides for freedom of association, and the government nominally respected this right in practice, but the ruling party retained control of professional associations by influencing internal elections and subsidies. According to local observers, there were approximately 20 legally recognized NGOs independent of the ruling party operating in the country. All associations, including NGOs, are required to register annually with one of four ministries: social affairs and labor (MSAL), culture, education, or vocational training and technical education. The government cooperated to varying degrees depending on the issues with the country's more than 6,000 civil society organizations, including human rights NGOs, according to the MOHR. All registered associations were by law provided with an annual stipend, although in past years some organizations such as the Yemeni Journalists Syndicate said they did not receive their government stipends. Some ministries reportedly harassed NGOs critical of the government by denying their annual registration and subsidy. Unlike in previous years, the MSAL registered HOOD for a five-month trial period in July. After many months of denials, authorities finally renewed WJWC's license in March. Both HOOD and WJWC are frequently critical of the government. In 2007 the government dissolved the opposition al-Haq party for reportedly violating the political parties law. Civil society observers claimed the government abolished the party because of its affiliation with the Houthi rebels and for its Zaydi appeal (see section 3). There were no political parties dissolved during the year. c. Freedom of Religion.--The constitution does not protect or inhibit freedom of religion. The government generally respected religious freedom in practice, but there were numerous violations and restrictions. The constitution declares that Islam is the state religion and that Shari'a is the source of all legislation. The government's respect for religious freedom decreased during the year. For the second year in a row, the government allowed the population of Saada to commemorate Ghadeer Day, a holiday celebrated by some Shia. However, government actions to counter the increase in political violence restricted some religious practice, especially concerning uprisings by Zaydi Shia Houthi rebels in northern Saada governorate. During the year community activists said the government engaged in a number of discriminatory practices against Zaydis, including forced closure of mosques and schools; replacement of Zaydi imams with Sunni clerics; and widespread arrests of scholars, imams, and persons with Zaydi-affiliated surnames. They also reported that NSB and PSO officials commonly monitored sermons in Zaydi mosques in Sana'a. An October 2008 HRW report detailed similar practices, including government repression of Hashemite preachers and scholars in Zaydi religious institutions and mosques. In 2008 HRW documented 14 cases of arrests in which Hashemite identity or profession as a Hashemite scholar or preacher appeared to be the paramount reason for the arrest. The government also reportedly limited the hours mosques were open to the public and reassigned some imams who were thought to espouse Shia ideology or Zaydi doctrine, replacing them with Shafi'i or Salafi preachers. Non-Muslims were free to worship according to their beliefs and to wear religiously distinctive ornaments or dress; however, Shari'a, as interpreted by the government, forbids conversion from Islam and prohibits non-Muslims from proselytizing. The government enforced this prohibition. The government required permission for the construction of all places of worship. The constitution prohibited non-Muslims from holding elected office, although they may vote. Under the government's interpretation of Islam, the conversion of a Muslim to another religion is considered apostasy, which the government considers a crime punishable by death. There were a few reports of arrests in cases related to proselytizing or apostasy during the year. No new information was available at year's end in the June 2008 case of a convert to Christianity and two associates who were reportedly arrested in Hudeidah for ``promoting Christianity and distributing the Bible'' and transferred to a Sana'a jail. There were no updates in the June 2008 case of seven Baha'is (two Yemenis, four Iranians, and one Iraqi) who were arrested and ordered to leave the country or face deportation. Official policy does not prohibit or prescribe punishment for the possession of non-Islamic religious literature. In previous years, there were reports of persons being harassed and temporarily detained for possession of religious materials with the intent to proselytize. Catholics, Protestants, Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, Jews, and Baha'is held services without government interference. Public schools provided instruction in Islam but not in other religions. Most non-Muslims were foreigners who attended private schools. Jewish private schools taught Hebrew and Judaism. In 2007 the government shuttered 1,500 schools, bringing to 4,500 the total number of schools closed for allegedly deviating from educational requirements or promoted militant ideology, and it reportedly continued to close an unknown number of schools during the year. The Ministry of Endowments and Religious Guidance reportedly opened government-approved schools in the areas where schools had been closed. The government prohibits private and national schools from teaching courses outside the officially approved curriculum. The government deported foreign students found studying in unlicensed religious schools. There were credible reports that authorities banned publishing of some materials that promoted Zaydi- Shia Islam. The ministry reported that it conducted several training sessions and workshops targeted at imams and other religious clerics with the goal of promoting moderation and tolerance. Societal Abuses and Discrimination.--Social pressure excluded Jewish citizens, who numbered fewer than 250 in the country, from certain occupations, and they are not eligible to serve in the military or federal government. Isolated incidents of anti-Semitism continued during the year. Due to a marked increase in violence and harassment from their Muslim neighbors, approximately 100 of the 250 Jews living in Amran governorate left the country during the year. Jewish residents of Rayda and Bait Harrash in Amran governorate experienced continued acts of violence, threats, and harassment by their Muslim neighbors. In 2008 a bullet was fired into a water tank on the roof of one of the community's homes while a member of the family was on the roof. Government authorities investigated the case and arrested the perpetrator, who was incarcerated for several months. In December 2008 a religious extremist allegedly killed Moshe Yaish Nahari, a prominent community member and teacher in Reyda. Authorities immediately arrested the man accused of the killing and tried him in a local court. In April the court found him guilty, ordered him to pay a fine, and sent him to a mental health facility for treatment. An appeals court sentenced him to death in June, but the case was ongoing at year's end. In the weeks following the murder, the Reyda Jews reportedly could not leave their homes, Jewish children stopped going to school for fear of further violence, and many community members began making plans to leave the country. In December 2008 an explosive device was thrown at a Jewish home. The government appeared unwilling or unable to increase security for the remaining Jewish population; perpetrators of violence against the community generally went unpunished. In 2007 the historic Saada community of 45 Jews was relocated to Sana'a after a follower of the Houthis threatened it. Since fleeing their homes, the community has been under government protection in Sana'a. In April 2008 a group of men entered, ransacked, and destroyed two homes in Saada governorate that belonged to a member of the Jewish community living in Sana'a. The attack was believed to have been the work of Houthi rebels. During the year Zaydis--especially in the northern governorates of Sana'a, Amran, and Saada--continued to report harassment and discrimination by the government. There were reports that the government removed Zaydi imams from their positions in mosques, monitored their speech, and ignored defamatory literature published by Salafi institutions against Zaydis. Authorities reportedly targeted and harassed Sayyid Zaydi families, who are believed to be descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons.--The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government respected these rights with some restrictions. The government limited the movement of women, foreigners, and tourists. The two latter groups were required to obtain government permission before leaving the country. The government also obstructed domestic travel by refusing to issue travel permits to areas deemed ``dangerous,'' and the army and security forces maintained checkpoints on major roads. IDPs were a significant problem across the northern governorates. In certain areas, armed tribesmen frequently operated their own checkpoints or operated them alongside military or security officials; they subjected travelers to physical harassment, extortion, or theft. According to the law, government officials required women to have the permission of a male relative before applying for a passport or leaving the country. One women's rights NGO asserted that a husband or male relative could bar a woman from leaving the country and that authorities strictly enforced this requirement when women traveled with children. During the year authorities reportedly turned back several women at the airport because they did not have the permission of, or were not accompanied by, a male relative. Security officials at government checkpoints often required immigrants and refugees traveling within the country to show that they possessed resident status or refugee identification cards. There were reports that at times local officials did not honor official documents. The law prohibits forced exile, and there were no reports of forced exile during the year. During the year the government continued to deport an unknown number of foreigners who were studying at Muslim religious schools and believed to be illegally in the country. The government claimed these persons were suspected of inciting violence or engaging in criminal acts by promoting religious extremism. The government used existing laws to require foreigners to register with police or immigration authorities within one month of arrival. Internally Displaced Persons.--The sixth round of fighting in the five-year conflict in Saada between the government and the group of rebels led by Abdul-Malik al-Houthi broke out in August, and fighting continued at year's end. Although there were no reliable approximations, it is estimated that tens of thousands were displaced as a result of the fighting (see section 1.g.). The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated there were more than 175,400 IDPs in the four northern governorates of Saada, Hajja, Amran, and Jawf. Most IDPs lived outside official refugee camps wherever they could find shelter, including under trees and bridges and in school buildings. For the first time, fighting took place in the capital of Saada, traditionally a gathering point for IDPs from the governorate's rural areas. At times both the government and the Houthi rebels, who according to journalists controlled the majority of territory in Saada, limited access to the region, preventing food and medical supplies from reaching IDPs. The IDPs were unable to return home by year's end. Journalists reported that many of the IDPs were starving and lacked basic requirements such as clean water, food, and medicine. The UNHCR reported that IDP children showed signs of chronic malnutrition and did not attend school. Protection of Refugees.--The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The government does not have a national law addressing the granting of refugee status or asylum in accordance with the convention and protocol, and the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government sometimes provided protection against the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they fear persecution. The government continued to grant refugee status to Somalis who arrived in the country after 1991. Non-Somali asylum seekers must undergo an individual refugee status determination conducted by the UNHCR, as the government has no ability to conduct refugee status determinations on its own. Since 2007 the government has challenged the ability of the UNHCR to perform refugee status determinations for non-Somalis. Immigration authorities have deported some non-Somalis without giving the UNHCR access to conduct screenings. The government does not issue documentation to any non- Somali asylum seekers, according to an HRW report issued during the year. The government continued to provide temporary protection for thousands of individuals from Iraq and the Darfur region of Sudan who may not qualify as refugees, although there were some reports of deportations. There were reports that authorities denied some Iraqis readmission into the country, blocking them from reuniting with their families. Generally, authorities allowed refugees to work and travel freely within the country, although refugees faced some difficulties. There were reports of refugees refused employment or passage at checkpoints because they lacked legal documentation. Refugee children attended local schools, although facilities were limited and could not meet the demand in full. In 2005 the government and UNHCR signed a memorandum of understanding to establish six registration centers to register and provide greater legal protection to refugees. To date, only one of these centers, located in Sana'a, has been opened. The UNHCR operated three reception centers in the south of the country, the newest of which opened in March 2008. The replacement of the head of the security force has reduced harassment and abuse by security forces at a Somali refugee camp. Some potential asylum seekers have been imprisoned while their status determinations were pending with the UNHCR, which had uneven access to these refugees; authorities generally released refugees from prison upon the completion of UNHCR processing. Section 3. Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully through periodic elections based on universal suffrage, but there were limitations in practice. The president, who has been in office since 1978, held almost total decision-making authority. The president appoints the prime minister, who presides over a 35-member cabinet chosen by the president. The latest cabinet reshuffle occurred in May 2008. In practice the president, in association with the ruling GPC party, dominated the government. The president can dissolve parliament, in which three parties were represented, and the parliament was not an effective counterweight to the executive branch. Elections and Political Participation.--Parliamentary elections scheduled for April were postponed for two years in an agreement the ruling GPC party and the six opposition Joint Meeting Parties (JMP) signed in February after the two sides failed to agree on electoral reform. As a result of this agreement, the parliament officially voted in April to extend its current six-year term by two years in order to avoid violating the constitution. In December the government held hastily prepared by-elections for 12 vacant parliamentary seats, boycotted by the opposition JMP. The ruling GPC party won 10 seats, with two going to independent candidates. In May 2008 the local councils of each of the 21 governorates elected governors. The election of governors, whom the president previously appointed, was proposed as an important step toward the decentralization of power. The influence of the ruling party in the majority of the local councils and a boycott by the opposition, however, resulted in continuing ruling party dominance. According to a report by an international NGO, the 2007 by- elections in Aden and Ibb took place in a generally peaceful and orderly manner with only a few violations involving voting places for women. According to local and international observers, the 2006 presidential and local council elections were considered open and competitive and a marked improvement over previous elections. For the first time, opposition candidates contested the presidential elections and had equal coverage in government-owned broadcast and print media. There were problems with voter registration, redistricting, and ballot counting, isolated incidents of election-related violence, and use of state resources on behalf of the ruling party. Ali Abdullah Saleh won a seven-year term in the 2006 election, the country's second nationwide direct presidential race, securing 77 percent of the votes. JMP candidate Faisal bin Shamlan scored 22 percent. The remaining three opposition and independent candidates had less than 1 percent each. According to the Supreme Council for Elections and Referenda (SCER), approximately 65 percent of eligible voters participated in the elections, and approximately 42 percent of the voters were female. International NGOs and the EU observer mission characterized the polling as an important and unprecedented step in the country's democratic development. In its final postelection report, the EU mission noted that the GPC had an unfair electoral advantage because the state put significant resources at the disposal of GPC candidates for use during their campaigns. Opposition parties, while noting irregularities, also hailed the elections as the first genuinely competitive contest in the country's history. Unlike previous years, international and local observers did not report significant difficulties in accessing voting centers or filing their reports. As reported by NGOs, poorly trained administrative staff, registration of a large number of underage and dead voters, and interference by security officials marred the 2006 voter registration process. The JMP refused to participate in the voter registration process due to allegations of SCER bias. The SCER therefore recruited voter registration staff on short notice and without meaningful training. Opposition parties or local constituencies never received a searchable electronic copy of the registration list to enable them to verify voter lists before the election. There were reports that the SCER mistakenly removed eligible voters from lists in several constituencies. Many constituencies were redistricted a month before the election with new boundaries widely viewed as favoring the ruling party. Ballots for the local council elections went uncounted in some constituencies or were not secured after the count. The law mandates that political parties be viable national organizations that cannot restrict their membership to a particular region. The constitution prohibits the establishment of parties that are contrary to Islam, ``oppose the goals of the country's revolution,'' or violate the country's international commitments. The law further stipulates that each party have at least 75 founders and 2,500 members. Parties based on regional, tribal, sectarian, class, professional, gender, or racial identities are not permitted. Candidates from any party may declare their candidacy for elections. The government provided financial support to most of the 23 political parties, including a small stipend to publish party newspapers. The ruling GPC has been the dominant party since unification of the country. It controls 238 of the 301 seats in parliament. Islah, the largest opposition party, controls 46 seats. At times tribalism distorted political participation and influenced the central government's composition. Observers noted that individuals often were selected to run for office or given jobs in particular ministries based on their tribal affiliations. Because patriarchal systems dominated tribal areas, some tribal leaders reportedly influenced tribal members' votes. Although there were no formal restrictions limiting opposition participation, the government made it difficult for some parties to organize. At year's end the government continued to hold substantial assets of the opposition YSP, including land and buildings seized after the 1994 civil war. In 2005 the president publicly accused two minor parties of attempting to overthrow the government by fomenting the Houthi uprising. Armed men seized the headquarters of the Union for Popular Forces, and the party was reconstituted under duress. In 2007 the government dissolved the al-Haq Party for reportedly violating the political parties law. Civil society observers claim the government abolished the party because of its affiliation with the Houthi rebels and for its Zaydi appeal. Women voted and held office, but increasingly conservative cultural norms rooted in tribal traditions and patriarchal religious interpretation often limited their exercise of these rights. There was one woman in the 301-seat parliament. There were three women in the cabinet, including the minister of human rights, the minister of social affairs and labor, and a supreme court justice. The SCER women's department, responsible for addressing gender equality in the electoral process, conducted informational campaigns prior to the 2006 elections on the importance and mechanism of voting. In the elections, 164 women competed in local and provincial councils, and 38 won seats. Women's rights activists and female parliamentary candidates accused the ruling party and authorities of rigging the elections against women. Many members of the Akhdam community, a small ethnic minority descended from East Africans, did not participate in the political process due to socioeconomic factors and discrimination. There were no members of minority groups in parliament or the cabinet. Section 4. Official Corruption and Government Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not implement the law effectively, and officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that there is a serious corruption problem, and a perception of corruption in every branch and level of government was widespread. Government officials and parliamentarians were presumed to benefit from insider arrangements and embezzlement. Procurement was a regular source of corruption in the executive branch. The high tender board was established in 2007 to review government tenders up to 213 million riyals ($1,000,000) and assess them for legality. The board conducted training sessions for government officials during the year. The Central Organization for Control and Audit (COCA) is the country's national auditing agency for public expenditures and investigative body for corruption. COCA presented its reports to parliament but did not make them publicly available. The president appointed its top officials. In cases involving high-level officials, COCA submitted reports directly to the president, who had the power to veto them. Only low-ranking officials have been prosecuted for corruption since COCA's inception in 1999. The actual number of corruption cases was generally considered significantly higher than reported. Petty corruption was widely reported in nearly every government office. Job candidates often were expected to purchase their positions. Tax inspectors were believed to undervalue assessments and pocket the difference. Many government officials received salaries for jobs they did not perform or multiple salaries for the same job. The independent Supreme National Authority for Combating Corruption (SNACC) includes a council of government, civil society, and private sector representatives. In 2007 parliament elected 11 members to the SNACC, whose chair and deputy chair serve a two-and-a-half-year term and can serve another two-and-a-half-year term, subject to SNACC consent, whereas regular SNACC members can serve only one five-year term. The SNACC did not investigate any high-profile corruption cases during the year. Of the 100 cases pending in the SNACC, only one person had been officially charged with corruption. The public prosecutor's office, which conducts investigations into cases referred to it by the SNACC, reported that it investigated 2,400 cases in 2008. Yemen Parliamentarians Against Corruption (Yemen PAC), the local branch of Arab PAC, was founded in 2006 to fight corruption by legislative branch action. Yemen PAC monitors the activities of anticorruption institutions like the SNACC and provides limited oversight for their activities. It also attempted to push anticorruption laws through parliament. During the year the group formed and worked with anticorruption networks across the country, including in Marib, Taiz, and Aden governorates, and established local monitoring and awareness committees. The law requires a degree of transparency and public access to information, and the press and publications law provides for journalists to have some access to government reports and information; in practice the government offered few procedures to ensure transparency. The law requires public disclosure of government officials' assets, and the SNACC worked to implement this requirement during the year. The government provided limited information via the Internet; however, few citizens had access to the Internet. Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights Domestic and international human rights groups operated with varying degrees of government restriction, generally investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases with little constraint. NGOs reported that government officials were not always cooperative and responsive to their views. The law for associations and foundations regulates the formation and activities of NGOs. The law exempts NGOs from taxes and tariffs and requires the government to provide a reason for denying an NGO registration, such as if it perceives an NGO's activities as detrimental to the state. It also requires that any organization have at least 41 members to continue operations and forbids them from involvement in political activities. The law permits some foreign funding of NGOs and requires government observation of NGOs' internal elections. In 2008 the MOHR sponsored several initiatives to advance cooperation with local NGOs such as the Yemeni Women's Union and Violence Against Women. Domestic human rights NGOs operated throughout the year. Although progovernment NGOs received support from the government or ruling party, others received support from opposition parties or were fully independent. Some of the most active included the Human Rights Information and Training Center, HOOD, YOHR, the Democracy School, Media Women Forum, the Arab Sisters Forum for Human Rights, YODPRL, Seyaj, Shawthab Foundation, National Organization for Developing Society, Society for the Development of Women and Children, and the WJWC. Some NGOs limited their activities to avoid negative government attention. Some ministries reportedly harassed NGOs critical of the government by delaying the procedures required for annual registration and licensing and through bureaucratic funding criteria. In 2007 the MSAL refused to reissue the license for the Arab Sisters Forum for Human Rights due to its criticism of the government for limiting media freedom. The group received a temporary two-year license from the government during the year. The government requires NGOs to register annually or be declared illegal, but NGOs that were not granted licenses continued to operate during the year. In some instances, the government reportedly registered a progovernment clone version of an NGO, recognizing the clone as the legitimate NGO, thereby preventing the original NGO from renewing its registration under its original name. In such cases, registration applications must be resubmitted under a new name. The government reportedly did not process some registration applications and placed unofficial freezes on new licenses ahead of the 2007 by-elections. The government monitored NGO finances. The government reportedly used financial reviews as a pretext to harass or close NGOs, and some NGOs allegedly kept less than transparent records. The government provided AI, HRW, the EU parliament, and the Committee to Protect Journalists limited access to records, detention centers, and prisons. The ICRC maintained a resident office to inspect prisons during the year, although access to PSO prisons was suspended. The ICRC also carried out humanitarian missions in Saada to support displaced populations during the war. The ICRC, Islamic Relief Yemen, the UNHCR, the UN Children's Fund, the UN World Food Program, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization provided humanitarian assistance to Saada's displaced population. The ICRC did not face governmental restrictions in providing humanitarian assistance, but because of the dangerous security situation in Saada, it was unable to respond to emergencies in an adequate manner. Other organizations reported significantly restricted access to conflict areas of Saada that hindered their ability to support the displaced population. The MOHR attempted to raise awareness of human rights via public information campaigns, training of civil society organizations, and participation in numerous conferences in cooperation with NGOs. During the year the MOHR launched what it described as a major campaign to educate citizens about their rights under the law. The MOHR donated computers to orphanages and juvenile centers in 2008. The MOHR also presented regular reports regarding its international commitments, such as a report on economic, social, and cultural rights and an antiviolence report. During the year the parliamentary committee on human rights was largely inactive, as was the consultative council's committee on human rights. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The law provides for equal rights and equal opportunity for all citizens. The government did not effectively enforce the law. Discrimination based on race, gender, and disability remained a serious problem. There was no specific discrimination based on social status with the exception of the Akhdam. Entrenched patriarchal cultural attitudes limited women's access to equal rights. Women.--The law criminalizes rape, although spousal rape is not criminalized because a woman may not refuse sexual relations with her husband. The government did not effectively enforce the law. The punishment for rape is imprisonment up to 15 years; however, the maximum sentence had never been imposed. There were no reliable statistics on the number of rapes. Most rape victims did not report the crime for fear of shaming the family and incurring violent retaliation. Rape victims were often prosecuted on charges of fornication after the perpetrator was freed. According to the law, if the accused does not confess, the defense must provide four female or two male witnesses to the crime. The government had yet to introduce DNA technology in criminal rape cases, and without witnesses cases were difficult to prosecute. Flagrant corruption often hindered investigation of rape cases. A leading local women's rights organization asserted that the judicial system failed to bring justice to victims of rape. The appeals process for the 2003 rape case of Anisa al-Shuaibi was ongoing at year's end. In April 2008 a judge convicted one of her three assailants, whose prison sentence was postponed, and awarded Al-Shuaibi one million riyals ($4,854) as compensation. In 2003 Al-Shuaibi was detained and charged with the murder of her husband, who was later found alive. During her illegal detention, two high-level CID officers allegedly raped and tortured her. The law provides women with protection against violence, but the law was rarely enforced. Although spousal abuse occurred, it generally was undocumented. In June 2008 a government report disclosed 2,964 cases in 2007 of violence against women. Of those cases, 130 resulted in death, and 970 in injuries. Violence against women and children was considered a family affair and usually went unreported to police. Due to social norms and customs, an abused woman was expected to take her complaint to a male relative (rather than to authorities) to intercede on her behalf or provide sanctuary to avoid publicizing the abuse and shaming the family. A small shelter for battered women in Aden assisted victims, and telephone hotlines operated with moderate success in Aden and Sana'a. The MOHR announced in 2007 it was launching a nationwide hotline to receive complaints about abuses of human rights, but it did not receive any calls during the year due to cultural sensitivities, according to the MOHR. The media and women's rights activists continued to investigate and report on violations of women's rights. During the year NGOs sponsored several women's rights conferences dealing with issues such as violence against women, increasing the political representation of women, and economic empowerment. The Ministry of Information broadcast programs on official television and radio stations promoting women's rights during the year. The penal code allows leniency for persons guilty of committing an honor crime, a violent assault or killing committed against women for perceived immodest or defiant behavior. The law does not address other types of honor crimes, including beatings, forced isolation, imprisonment, and forced early marriage. The law regarding violence against women states that a convicted man should be executed for killing a woman. A husband who kills his wife and her lover may receive a maximum sentence of a fine or imprisonment for up to one year. Prostitution is illegal, but it was a problem, particularly in Aden and Sana'a. Many prostitutes were third-country nationals who had traveled to the country looking for employment as domestic workers. There were reports that underage citizen girls worked as prostitutes in major cities. The punishment for prostitution is imprisonment for as long as three years or a fine. The MOI and PSO tolerated and unofficially facilitated prostitution and sex tourism through corruption for financial and operational gain. Although no laws addressed sex tourism, it was a problem, particularly in Aden and Sana'a. There are no laws prohibiting sexual harassment, which occurred both in the workplace and in the streets. There were no reports of government interference in the right of couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children. However, societal pressure, a lack of women's education, and the young age of marriage for many women and girls meant that many women in reality had little control over reproduction. Contraception was available in cities, although it was cost prohibitive for much of the population. Most women gave birth at home without skilled attendance and did not see a doctor during their pregnancies or after delivery. Information was not available regarding diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. Social custom and local interpretation of Shari'a discriminated against women. Men were permitted to take as many as four wives. There was no minimum age of marriage, and some girls married as young as age eight. A husband may divorce a wife without justifying the action in court. A woman has the legal right to divorce, but she must provide a justification, and there are practical, social, and financial considerations that impede women from obtaining a divorce. Women who seek to travel abroad must obtain permission from their husbands or fathers to receive a passport and to travel, according to the law. Male relatives were expected to accompany women when traveling internationally, but enforcement of this requirement was inconsistent. Some women reported they traveled freely without male escorts. Some interpretations of Shari'a prohibit a Muslim woman from marrying a non-Muslim man. A Muslim man is allowed to marry a non- Muslim woman. Women do not have the right to confer citizenship on their foreign-born spouses, but they may confer citizenship on children born of a foreign-born father if the father dies or abandons the child. The foreign wife of a male citizen must remain in the country for two years to obtain a residency permit. According to a MOI regulation, any citizen who wishes to marry a foreigner must obtain the permission of the ministry. A woman wishing to marry a foreigner must present to the MOI proof of her parents' approval. A foreign woman who wishes to marry a male citizen must prove to the ministry that she is ``of good conduct and behavior'' and ``free from contagious disease.'' According to the Ministry of Public Health and Population, approximately 67 percent of married women and 33 percent of men were illiterate. The high illiteracy rate had a significant effect on women's participation in the 2006 elections, limiting access to information on campaigns and political rights. Election observers also noted that illiteracy helped to perpetuate the belief that women were incapable of holding public office. The fertility rate was 6.2 children per woman, according to the Ministry of Public Health and Population. Most women had little access to basic health care. Women in the south, particularly in Aden, were generally better educated and had somewhat greater employment opportunities than their northern counterparts. However, since the 1994 war of secession, the number of women in government in the south has declined, due to conservative cultural pressure from the north and economic stagnation. The law stipulates that women are equal to men in employment rights, but women's rights activists and NGOs reported that discrimination was a common practice in the public and private sectors. Mechanisms to enforce equal protection were weak or nonexistent. According to the MSAL there were more than 170 NGOs working for women's advancement. The Arab Sisters Forum for Human Rights worked with other NGOs, the government, and donor countries to strengthen women's political participation. The Yemeni Women's Union and Women's National Committee (WNC) conducted workshops on women's rights. The Arab Sisters Forum, with funding from the Netherlands, established a four-year project aimed at providing protection against violence for women and children. Children.--Children born to at least one citizen parent are eligible to receive citizenship. Children born in the country who do not have at least one citizen parent are eligible to file for citizenship, but the government rarely granted it. Children of foreign parents who did not receive citizenship were sometimes excluded from receiving government services, including education. There was no universal birth registration, and many children, especially in rural areas, were never registered or were registered several years after birth. Hospitals maintained official birth registries, but not all hospitals insisted on registration, and most children were not born in hospitals. Theoretically, children must have birth certificates to register for school, but this requirement was not universally enforced. There were no reports of services being denied to children based on lack of registration. The law provides for universal, compulsory, and free education from age six to 15; however, compulsory attendance was not enforced, and books and school uniforms raised the cost of attendance to approximately 2,000 riyals ($9.70) per student per year, which some parents could not afford. Public schooling was available to children through the secondary school level. Attendance was mandatory through the ninth grade, but many children, especially girls, did not attend primary school. The law provides for free medical care for children who hold citizenship; however, this was not always enforced. Male children received preferential treatment and had better health and survival rates. The law does not define or prohibit child abuse, and there was no reliable data on its extent. The law prohibits female genital mutilation (FGM), but it was a pervasive practice in the coastal areas on infants less than 40 days old. Although government health workers and officials discouraged the practice, women's groups reported FGM rates as high as 90 percent in some coastal areas, such as Mahara and Hudeidah. The WNC and the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Guidance provided a manual for religious leaders on women's health issues, including the negative health consequences of FGM. Child marriage was a significant problem in the country. There was no minimum age of marriage, and many girls were married as young as age eight. A law setting the minimum age for marriage at age 15 was revoked in 1998. The law has a provision that forbids sex with underage brides until they are ``suitable for sexual intercourse,'' an age that is undefined. An Oxfam International study calculated that among 1,495 couples, 52 percent of women and 7 percent of men were married at an early age. The report also highlighted that 15-16 years was generally considered the appropriate age of marriage for girls, depending on region and socioeconomic status. According to the MSAL, the government did not promote public awareness campaigns on the negative effects of child marriage due to the cultural sensitivity of the issue. Media reports during the year highlighted the problem of child marriage in the country. In December the media reported the case of 12- year-old bride Sally Sabahi, who sought a divorce after two years of being raped by her 21-year-old husband. On September 14, Fawzia Abdullah Youssef, a 12-year-old bride, died after three days in labor; her baby was stillborn. In 2008 Nujoud Ali and Arwa, nine and eight years old, respectively, were forced to marry men in their 30s and subsequently obtained divorces after months of severe sexual and physical abuse. Reem, a 12-year-old girl who was forced into marriage by her father, obtained a divorce during the year after months of legal battles. There was no law against statutory rape and no legal limits placed on the age for consensual sex. Reports of child soldiers increased in a number of armed conflicts across the country. According to the NGO Small Arms Survey, direct involvement in combat killed or injured hundreds of children annually. The intermittent conflict in Saada, which began again in August, reportedly drew underage soldiers fighting for the government and the rebel Houthis (see section 1.g.). The Houthis reportedly used children as runners in between groups of fighters as well as to carry supplies and explosives, according to local children's rights NGO Seyaj. Tribes the government armed and financed to fight alongside the regular army used children younger than 18 in combat, according to reports by international NGOs such as Save the Children. Married boys, ages 12 to 15 years, were reportedly involved in armed conflict beginning in November 2008 in Amran governorate between the Harf Sufian and al-Osaimat tribes. According to tribal custom, boys who married were considered adults who owed allegiance to the tribe. As a result, half of the tribal fighters in such conflicts were children who had volunteered to demonstrate their tribal allegiance. Trafficking in Persons.--The law does not explicitly address or prohibit trafficking in persons, but other sections of the country's criminal code can be applied to prosecute trafficking offenses. The country is a point of origin for children, mostly boys, who are trafficked for forced begging, unskilled labor, and street vending. There were reports of underage internal sex trafficking during the year. According to a local human rights NGO, an unknown number of women were trafficked from their homes to other regions within the country for the purposes of prostitution. There were no official statistics available on the number of children trafficked out of the country. Press and NGO reports claimed that approximately 200 children--mostly from northern governorates-- were trafficked out of the country to Saudi Arabia each week. The MSAL's child labor unit (CLU) acknowledged that high numbers of children were trafficked into Saudi Arabia for work. The CLU estimated that at least 10 children per day were trafficked into Saudi Arabia. Experts at international and intergovernmental organizations reported that girls younger than 15 years old were trafficked into the commercial sex trade in the three governorates of Mahweet, Aden, and Taiz. Children were trafficked by adults, older children, and loosely organized syndicates that helped them cross the border by donkey, automobile, or foot. They worked predominantly in hotels, casinos, and nightclubs. Government investigations revealed that extreme poverty was the primary motivation behind child trafficking, and that victims' families were usually complicit. The traffickers were often well known by, if not related to, the family; parents were either paid or promised money in exchange for allowing their children to be trafficked. The law, which does not differentiate between children and adult victims, allows for a prison sentence as long as 10 years for anyone convicted of crimes that constitute trafficking in persons. Other laws forbid and punish kidnapping and sexual assault. The child rights law mandates the protection of children from economic and sexual exploitation. The country reported 14 arrests and six convictions for child labor trafficking, but the government did not provide information regarding the sentences. The government reportedly detained and prosecuted victims of trafficking under antiprostitution laws. The government continued discussions with Saudi Arabian officials to combat child trafficking. The MOHR hotline for child trafficking received four calls during the year. In an attempt to prevent child trafficking, the MSAL conducted a campaign in regions known as points of origin of trafficked children and educated taxi drivers across the country of the signs and dangers of child trafficking. The MSAL warned potential victims' parents against the dangers of allowing their children to work in Saudi Arabia. The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at www.state.gov/j/tip. Persons With Disabilities.--Several laws mandate the rights and care of persons with disabilities, but there was discrimination against such persons. By law 5 percent of government jobs should be reserved for persons with disabilities, and the law mandates the acceptance of persons with disabilities in universities, exempts them from paying tuition, and requires that schools be made more accessible to persons with disabilities. It was unclear to what extent these laws have been implemented. No national law mandates accessibility of buildings for persons with disabilities. Authorities imprisoned persons with mental disabilities who committed crimes without adequate medical care. According to the MOHR, nurses and doctors watched the inmates. In some instances, authorities detained without charge persons with mental disabilities and placed them in prisons with criminals. The MOI reported that at times, family members brought relatives with mental disabilities to MOI-run prisons, asking officers to imprison the individuals. At year's end MOI-run prisons in Sana'a, Aden, and Taiz operated in conjunction with the Red Crescent semiautonomous units for prisoners with mental disabilities; conditions in these units were reportedly deficient. At year's end neither the MOI nor Ministry of Health had acted on a 2005 MOI initiative to establish centers for persons with mental illness. The government's Social Fund for Development and the Fund for the Care and Rehabilitation of the Disabled, administered by the MSAL, provided limited basic services and supported more than 60 NGOs to assist persons with disabilities. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities.--The Akhdam (an estimated 2-5 percent of the population) were considered the lowest social class. They lived in poverty and endured persistent social discrimination. According to a March study by the NGO Save the Children, the Akhdam were the social group most vulnerable to discrimination. The government's social fund for development provided basic services to assist the group. During the year human rights groups reported that some immigrants of African origin had difficulty in securing MOI permission to marry citizens. Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.--Homosexual activity is a crime punishable by death under the country's interpretation of Islamic law. There were no lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) persons' organizations. There were no reports of official or societal discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, or access to education or health care, largely because of social pressure not to discuss LGBT issues. Few, if any, LGBT residents were open about their orientation or identity because of heavy societal pressure. Other Societal Violence or Discrimination.--There was no societal violence or public reports of discrimination against persons with HIV/ AIDS; however, the topic was socially sensitive and not discussed publicly. Incitement to Acts of Discrimination.--Two inflammatory government newspapers, Al Dostor and Akhbar Al Youm, continuously published propaganda for the purpose of slander and incitement to discrimination or violence. In 2007 Al Dostor published an article with the names of the country's top 40 female activists, branding them as apostates. The newspaper also printed photos of four of the activists. Section 7. Worker Rights a. The Right of Association.--The law provides that citizens have the right to form and join unions; however, this right was restricted in practice with unions facing many impediments in implementation, administration, and networking. It was also difficult for unions to call strikes during the year because of bureaucratic hurdles. Although not required by law, all current unions are federated within the General Federation of Trade Unions of Yemen (GFTUY), a national umbrella organization. The GFTUY claimed approximately 42,000 members in 21 unions during its 2007 elections. Each union had its own bylaws that organize its internal affairs, including elections. However, bylaws issued by the MSAL require that union elections take place at least every three years with MSAL officials present as witnesses. The GFTUY denied any association with the government; however, it worked closely with the government to resolve labor disputes through negotiation. The politicization of unions and professional associations continued to hamper the right of association. In some instances, the ruling GPC party attempted to control professional associations by influencing internal elections or placing its own personnel, usually tied to the government, in positions of influence in unions and professional associations. For example, there were two distinct teachers' unions during the year; one was tied to the ruling GPC party and the other was linked to the opposition JMP coalition. The parties worked separately and sometimes at odds in issues affecting teachers. The law dictates that only a court order or a union's own members can dissolve a labor union; however, the government did not respect this right in practice. For example, in 2007 the MSAL threatened to dissolve the teachers' union, the technical education syndicate, and the physicians and pharmacists' syndicate, claiming they had not obtained an MSAL-issued license and thus were operating illegally. This announcement from MSAL came after months of sit-ins and demonstrations staged around the country by the teachers' union to demand a pay increase. Union supporters said that the government was worried that the union was collaborating too closely with opposition parties. The labor law provides unions the right to strike only if prior attempts at negotiation and arbitration fail, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. The proposal to strike must be submitted to at least 60 percent of all concerned workers, of whom 25 percent must vote in favor. Strikes for explicit ``political purposes'' were prohibited. In reality, a union's ability to strike depends on its political strength and closeness to the ruling party. For example, the physicians and pharmacists' syndicate has never conducted a general strike, while the teachers' union successfully struck for a salary increase. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively.--The labor law provides workers, except public servants, foreign workers, day laborers, and domestic servants, the right to organize and bargain collectively without government interference. For example, the drivers' union conducts annual negotiations with the government regarding rights and benefits. The government permitted these activities; however, at times it sought to influence them by placing its own personnel inside groups and organizations. Unions may negotiate wage settlements for their members and may resort to strikes or other actions to achieve their demands. Public sector employees must take their grievances to court. The MSAL has veto power over collective bargaining agreements, although it has not exercised this power in recent years. Several such agreements existed. Agreements may be invalidated if they are ``likely to cause a breach of security or to damage the economic interests of the country.'' The law generally protects employees from antiunion discrimination. An employer does not have the right to dismiss an employee for union activities; however, there were reports that private sector employers discriminated against union members through transfers, demotions, and dismissals. The majority of employers in the private sector only register five to 10 employees, which allows them to avoid many social security and labor union regulations. Fewer than 100,000 employees work for companies with more than 100 employees, making it difficult for the vast majority of workers to enjoy union protection and benefits. Discrimination in the private sector against union members was generally handled privately outside of court. Employees may appeal any dispute, including cases of antiunion discrimination, to the MSAL. Employees also may take a case to the labor arbitration committee, which the MSAL chairs, composed of an employer representative and a GFTUY representative. Generally, all parties want to resolve cases via the committee system since court proceedings are costly and the system is often corrupt. Although national statistics on how many unionized employees used this system during the year were unavailable, the Hudeidah governorate committee solved 400 disputes in 2008. There are no export processing zones. c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor.--The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports of such practices during the year. Citizen girls were trafficked within the country for commercial sexual exploitation in hotels, casinos, and bars. Their impoverished families forced most of these girls into sex work. A 2005 central statistics organization report indicated that there were more than 400,000 working children under the age of 18 in the country. A local NGO reported that more than 30,000 children worked on the streets of Sana'a. Children were also reportedly trafficked from the country to work as child laborers in other countries, especially from the governorates of Hajja, Hudeidah, and Saada. The NGO blog Human Trafficking Project reported in April 2008 that 3,000 Bangladeshis were trafficked to work in the country in conditions close to indentured servitude. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment.--The child rights law prohibits child labor; however, the government has not effectively implemented the law. The established minimum age for employment is 15 years in the private sector and 18 years in the public sector. By special permit, children between the ages of 12 and 15 could work. The government rarely enforced these provisions, especially in rural and remote areas. The government also did not enforce laws requiring nine years of compulsory education for children. Child labor was common, especially in rural areas. A 2007 report from the NGO Cooperative Housing Foundation (CHF) International stated that children in the country were predominantly employed in agriculture and fishing. Many children were required to work in subsistence farming due to family poverty. Even in urban areas, children worked in stores and workshops, sold goods, and begged on the streets. Many children of school age worked instead of attending school, particularly in areas where schools were not easily accessible. Local observers reported that half or more of the fighters involved in armed conflict between the al- Osaimat and Harf Sufian tribes in Amran governorate, which broke out in November, were boys ranging from 12 to 15 years of age. The child labor unit at the MSAL was responsible for implementing and enforcing child labor laws and regulations; however, the unit's lack of resources hampered enforcement. Due to extensive budget cuts, MSAL employees were unable to travel to conduct their work during the year. In 2006 the MSAL estimated that there were more than 500,000 working children, ages six to 14 years, and that working children equaled 10 to 15 percent of the total work force. In 2007 CHF International estimated that approximately 52 percent of male children between the ages of 10 and 14 were in the workforce, compared to 48 percent of female children in the same age group. CHF International estimated that 83 percent of working children worked for their families (including street beggars), and 17 percent worked outside the family. According to the MSAL, small factories and shops employed children working outside the family. The government partnered with the International Labor Organization to offer remedial education, vocational training, counseling, and reintegration of child laborers into schools. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.--There was no established minimum wage. The labor law provides equal wages for public-sector workers and civil servants. Private sector workers, especially skilled technicians, earned a far higher wage. The average daily wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. During the year the minimum civil service wage did not meet the country's poverty level. The law specifies a maximum 48-hour workweek with a maximum eight- hour workday; however, many workshops and stores operated 10- to 12- hour shifts without penalty. The 35-hour workweek for government employees was seven hours per day from Saturday through Wednesday. The MSAL is responsible for regulating workplace health and safety conditions. The requisite legislation for regulating occupational health is contained in the labor law. However, enforcement was weak to nonexistent due to lack of MSAL capacity. The MSAL has a vocational safety department that relies on committees to conduct primary and periodic investigations of safety and health conditions in workplaces. Many workers were exposed to toxic industrial products regularly and developed respiratory illnesses. Some foreign owned companies and major manufacturers implemented higher health, safety, and environmental standards than the government required. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations and may challenge dismissals in court. __________