[JPRT 106-61]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office]
106th Congress
2d Session JOINT COMMITTEE PRINT S. Prt.
106-61
_______________________________________________________________________
ANNUAL REPORT ON
INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
2000
__________
R E P O R T
SUBMITTED TO THE
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S. SENATE
AND THE
COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
BY THE
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
IN ACCORDANCE WITH SECTION 102 OF THE
INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM ACT OF 1998
NOVEMBER 2000
Printed for the use of the Committees on Foreign Relations of the U.S.
Senate and International Relations of the U.S. House of Representatives
respectively
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS
JESSE HELMS, North Carolina, Chairman
RICHARD G. LUGAR, Indiana JOSEPH R. BIDEN, Jr., Delaware
CHUCK HAGEL, Nebraska PAUL S. SARBANES, Maryland
GORDON H. SMITH, Oregon CHRISTOPHER J. DODD, Connecticut
ROD GRAMS, Minnesota JOHN F. KERRY, Massachusetts
SAM BROWNBACK, Kansas RUSSELL D. FEINGOLD, Wisconsin
CRAIG THOMAS, Wyoming PAUL D. WELLSTONE, Minnesota
JOHN ASHCROFT, Missouri BARBARA BOXER, California
BILL FRIST, Tennessee ROBERT G. TORRICELLI, New Jersey
LINCOLN D. CHAFEE, Rhode Island
Stephen E. Biegun, Staff Director
Edwin K. Hall, Minority Staff Director
______
COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
BENJAMIN A. GILMAN, New York, Chairman
WILLIAM GOODLING, Pennsylvania SAM GEJDENSON, Connecticut
JAMES A. LEACH, Iowa TOM LANTOS, California
HENRY J. HYDE, Illinois HOWARD L. BERMAN, California
DOUG BEREUTER, Nebraska GARY L. ACKERMAN, New York
CHRISTOPHER H. SMITH, New Jersey ENI F.H. FALEOMAVAEGA, American
DAN BURTON, Indiana Samoa
ELTON GALLEGLY, California DONALD M. PAYNE, New Jersey
ILEANA ROS-LEHTINEN, Florida ROBERT MENENDEZ, New Jersey
CASS BALLENGER, North Carolina SHERROD BROWN, Ohio
DANA ROHRABACHER, California CYNTHIA A. McKINNEY, Georgia
DONALD A. MANZULLO, Illinois ALCEE L. HASTINGS, Florida
EDWARD R. ROYCE, California PAT DANNER, Missouri
PETER T. KING, New York EARL F. HILLIARD, Alabama
STEVE CHABOT, Ohio BRAD SHERMAN, California
MARSHALL ``MARK'' SANFORD, South ROBERT WEXLER, Florida
Carolina STEVEN R. ROTHMAN, New Jersey
MATT SALMON, Arizona JIM DAVIS, Florida
AMO HOUGHTON, New York EARL POMEROY, North Dakota
TOM CAMPBELL, California WILLIAM D. DELAHUNT, Massachusetts
JOHN M. McHUGH, New York GREGORY W. MEEKS, New York
KEVIN BRADY, Texas BARBARA LEE, California
RICHARD BURR, North Carolina JOSEPH CROWLEY, New York
PAUL E. GILLMOR, Ohio JOSEPH M. HOEFFEL, Pennsylvania
GEORGE P. RADANOVICH, California [VACANCY]
JOHN COOKSEY, Louisiana
THOMAS G. TANCREDO, Colorado
Richard J. Garon, Chief of Staff
Kathleen Bertelsen Moazed, Democratic Chief of Staff
(ii)
C O N T E N T S
----------
Page
Foreword......................................................... vii
Letter of Transmittal............................................ ix
Preface.......................................................... xi
Introduction..................................................... xiii
Executive Summary................................................ xix
REPORT ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
COUNTRY INDEX
Africa:
Angola....................................................... 1
Benin........................................................ 2
Botswana..................................................... 3
Burkina Faso................................................. 4
Burundi...................................................... 6
Cameroon..................................................... 7
Cape Verde................................................... 9
Central African Republic..................................... 10
Chad......................................................... 12
Comoros...................................................... 14
Congo, Democratic Republic of................................ 15
Congo, Republic of........................................... 17
Cote d'Ivoire................................................ 18
Djibouti..................................................... 23
Equatorial Guinea............................................ 24
Eritrea...................................................... 26
Ethiopia..................................................... 29
Gabon........................................................ 32
Gambia, The.................................................. 33
Ghana........................................................ 34
Guinea....................................................... 37
Guinea-Bissau................................................ 39
Kenya........................................................ 40
Lesotho...................................................... 44
Liberia...................................................... 46
Madagascar................................................... 48
Malawi....................................................... 48
Mali......................................................... 50
Mauritania................................................... 51
Mauritius.................................................... 52
Mozambique................................................... 54
Namibia...................................................... 56
Niger........................................................ 57
Nigeria...................................................... 59
Rwanda....................................................... 63
Sao Tome and Principe........................................ 65
Senegal...................................................... 65
Seychelles................................................... 67
Sierra Leone................................................. 68
Somalia...................................................... 69
South Africa................................................. 71
Sudan........................................................ 73
Swaziland.................................................... 79
Tanzania..................................................... 81
Togo......................................................... 83
Uganda....................................................... 85
Zambia....................................................... 87
Zimbabwe..................................................... 88
Latin America and the Caribbean:
Antigua and Barbuda.......................................... 95
Argentina.................................................... 96
Bahamas...................................................... 99
Barbados..................................................... 100
Belize....................................................... 101
Bolivia...................................................... 103
Brazil....................................................... 104
Chile........................................................ 106
Colombia..................................................... 109
Costa Rica................................................... 112
Cuba......................................................... 113
Dominica..................................................... 117
Dominican Republic........................................... 118
Ecuador...................................................... 120
El Salvador.................................................. 121
Grenada...................................................... 123
Guatemala.................................................... 124
Guyana....................................................... 126
Haiti........................................................ 127
Honduras..................................................... 129
Jamaica...................................................... 130
Mexico....................................................... 131
Nicaragua.................................................... 135
Panama....................................................... 137
Paraguay..................................................... 139
Peru......................................................... 140
St. Kitts and Nevis.......................................... 142
Saint Lucia.................................................. 142
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines............................. 143
Suriname..................................................... 144
Trinidad and Tobago.......................................... 145
Uruguay...................................................... 147
Venezuela.................................................... 148
East Asia and the Pacific:
Australia.................................................... 151
Brunei....................................................... 152
Burma........................................................ 154
Cambodia..................................................... 161
China (includes Hong Kong and Macau)......................... 163
China (Taiwan only).......................................... 181
Fiji......................................................... 183
Indonesia.................................................... 184
Japan........................................................ 192
Kiribati..................................................... 194
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of....................... 195
Korea, Republic of........................................... 197
Laos......................................................... 199
Malaysia..................................................... 203
Marshall Islands............................................. 205
Micronesia, Federated States of.............................. 206
Mongolia..................................................... 207
Nauru........................................................ 209
New Zealand.................................................. 209
Palau........................................................ 211
Papua New Guinea............................................. 212
Philippines.................................................. 214
Samoa........................................................ 218
Singapore.................................................... 219
Solomon Islands.............................................. 221
Thailand..................................................... 222
Tonga........................................................ 226
Tuvalu....................................................... 227
Vanuatu...................................................... 228
Vietnam...................................................... 229
Europe and Canada:
Albania...................................................... 241
Andorra...................................................... 243
Armenia...................................................... 244
Austria...................................................... 248
Azerbaijan................................................... 253
Belarus...................................................... 257
Belgium...................................................... 263
Bosnia and Herzegovina....................................... 266
Bulgaria..................................................... 270
Canada....................................................... 274
Croatia...................................................... 275
Cyprus....................................................... 278
Czech Republic............................................... 281
Denmark...................................................... 285
Estonia...................................................... 286
Finland...................................................... 288
France....................................................... 290
Georgia...................................................... 296
Germany...................................................... 300
Greece....................................................... 306
Hungary...................................................... 311
Iceland...................................................... 315
Ireland...................................................... 317
Italy........................................................ 318
Kazakhstan................................................... 320
Kyrgyz Republic.............................................. 323
Latvia....................................................... 325
Liechtenstein................................................ 328
Lithuania.................................................... 329
Luxembourg................................................... 331
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia........................ 333
Malta........................................................ 335
Moldova...................................................... 336
Monaco....................................................... 338
Netherlands, The............................................. 339
Norway....................................................... 342
Poland....................................................... 344
Portugal..................................................... 349
Romania...................................................... 351
Russia....................................................... 357
San Marino................................................... 374
Serbia-Montenegro............................................ 375
Slovak Republic.............................................. 378
Slovenia..................................................... 382
Spain........................................................ 383
Sweden....................................................... 386
Switzerland.................................................. 388
Tajikistan................................................... 391
Turkey....................................................... 394
Turkmenistan................................................. 399
Ukraine...................................................... 403
United Kingdom............................................... 411
Uzbekistan................................................... 415
Near East and North Africa:
Algeria...................................................... 425
Bahrain...................................................... 427
Egypt........................................................ 429
Iran......................................................... 436
Iraq......................................................... 442
Israel and the occupied territories.......................... 448
Jordan....................................................... 456
Kuwait....................................................... 460
Lebanon...................................................... 463
Libya........................................................ 466
Morocco...................................................... 467
The Western Sahara........................................... 470
Oman......................................................... 471
Qatar........................................................ 472
Saudi Arabia................................................. 474
Syria........................................................ 479
Tunisia...................................................... 481
United Arab Emirates......................................... 484
Yemen........................................................ 486
South Asia:
Afghanistan.................................................. 491
Bangladesh................................................... 497
Bhutan....................................................... 499
India........................................................ 501
Maldives..................................................... 511
Nepal........................................................ 512
Pakistan..................................................... 514
Sri Lanka.................................................... 527
Appendixes:
A. United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights..... 533
B. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights..... 537
C. Training at the Foreign Service Institute................ 551
D. INS and the International Religious Freedom Act.......... 555
E. Overview of U.S. Refugee Policy.......................... 563
FOREWORD
----------
The report on international religious freedom contained
herein was prepared by the Department of State in accordance
with Section 102 of the International Religious Freedom Act of
1998.
The report is printed to assist Members of Congress in the
consideration of legislation, particularly foreign assistance
legislation.
Jesse Helms,
Chairman, Committee on Foreign Relations.
Benjamin A. Gilman,
Chairman, Committee on International Relations.
(vii)
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
----------
Department of State,
Washington, DC, September 5, 2000.
Hon. Jesse Helms,
Chairman, Committee on Foreign Relations,
U.S. Senate.
Dear Mr. Chairman:
On behalf of the Secretary of State, I am transmitting to
you the Report on Religious Freedom, prepared in compliance
with Section 102 of the International Religious Freedom Act of
1998.
We hope this report is helpful. Please let us know if we
can provide any further information.
Sincerely,
Barbara Larkin,
Assistant Secretary, Legislative Affairs.
Enclosure.
(ix)
PREFACE
----------
2000 REPORT ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
Why The Reports Are Prepared
This report is submitted to the Congress by the Department of State
in compliance with Section 102(b) of the International Religious
Freedom Act (IRFA) of 1998. The law provides that the Secretary of
State shall transmit to Congress by September 1 of each year, or the
first day thereafter on which the appropriate House of Congress is in
session, ``an Annual Report on International Religious Freedom
supplementing the most recent Human Rights Reports by providing
additional detailed information with respect to matters involving
international religious freedom.'' This Annual Report includes 194
reports on countries worldwide.
How The Reports Are Prepared
In August 1993, the Secretary of State moved to further strengthen
the human rights efforts of our embassies. All sections in each embassy
were asked to contribute information and to corroborate reports of
human rights violations, and new efforts were made to link mission
programming to the advancement of human rights and democracy. In 1994
the Bureau of Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs was reorganized and
renamed as the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, reflecting
both a broader sweep and a more focused approach to the interlocking
issues of human rights, worker rights, and democracy. In 1998 the
Secretary of State established the Office of International Religious
Freedom; in May 1999, Robert A. Seiple was sworn in as the first
Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom.
The 2000 Report covers the period from July 1, 1999 to June 30,
2000, and reflects a year of dedicated effort by hundreds of State
Department, Foreign Service, and other U.S. Government employees. Our
embassies, which prepared the initial drafts of the reports, gathered
information throughout this period from a variety of sources, including
government and religious officials, nongovernmental organizations,
journalists, human rights monitors, religious groups, and academics.
This information-gathering can be hazardous, and U.S. Foreign Service
Officers regularly go to great lengths, under trying and sometimes
dangerous conditions, to investigate reports of human rights abuse,
monitor elections, and come to the aid of individuals at risk because
of their religious beliefs.
After the embassies completed their drafts, the texts were sent to
Washington for careful review by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor and its Offices of International Religious Freedom, Country
Reports and Asylum Affairs, and Bilateral Affairs, in cooperation with
other State Department offices. As they worked to corroborate, analyze,
and edit the reports, the Department officers drew on their own sources
of information. These included reports provided by U.S. and other human
rights groups, foreign government officials, representatives from the
United Nations and other international and regional organizations and
institutions, and experts from academia and the media. Officers also
consulted with experts on issues of religious discrimination and
persecution, religious leaders from all faiths, and experts on legal
matters. The guiding principle was to ensure that all relevant
information was assessed as objectively, thoroughly, and fairly as
possible.
The Report will be used as a resource for shaping policy,
conducting diplomacy, and making assistance, training, and other
resource allocations. As mandated by IRFA, it also will be used as a
basis for decisions on determining countries that have engaged in or
tolerated ``particularly severe violations'' of religious freedom.
Countries involved in these and other violations according to IRFA are
not identified as such in this report, but have been and will be
engaged independently by the U.S. Government. The Report also will
serve as a basis for the U.S. Government's cooperation with private
groups to promote the observance of the internationally recognized
right to religious freedom.
INTRODUCTION
----------
Part I: The American Experiment in International Religious Freedom
Religious freedom has always been at the core of American life and
public policy. It is the first of the freedoms enumerated in the Bill
of Rights--a reflection of the founders' belief that freedom of
religion and conscience is the cornerstone of liberty. They understood
that no government was likely to protect the other core rights (e.g.,
freedom of speech or freedom from arbitrary arrest) if it did not honor
the ``sanctum sanctorum'' of human conscience--the inherent and
inviolable right of every human being to pursue ultimate truth and to
believe and worship, or not, as part of that pursuit.
This core precept of American democracy survived 2 centuries of
vigorous challenge. Like other aspects of the American ideal, religious
liberty has been imperfectly applied; some religious traditions
(Mormonism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Islam, and
indigenous American religions, to name a few) have been resisted, and
their adherents subject to discrimination and even persecution. But
today, at the dawn of the third millenium, religions are flourishing in
the United States, their respective traditions enriching not only their
own adherents, but American public policy as well.
Grassroots Democracy
During the 1980's and 1990's, more and more American religious
organizations became involved in the development and articulation of
U.S. human rights policies abroad. Much of this activism stemmed from a
shared belief in the universal dignity of the human person--the
conviction that every human being is endowed with an intrinsic and
inviolable worth, from which flows inalienable rights (a conviction
reflected both in the American Declaration of Independence and the 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights). As American religious
communities became more aware of human rights abuses abroad, they began
to focus on the plight of coreligionists who were struggling to
establish their own right to believe and to worship and who were
encountering fierce resistance from those wielding political power.
During the 1990's some individuals and religious organizations--in
particular those from Christian, Buddhist, and Jewish traditions--began
to lobby the Administration and Congress. Their goal was to sharpen the
focus of American foreign policy on religious persecution abroad. The
result was a textbook case of democratic activism. Partly in response
to this impulse, the Department of State by the mid 1990's began to
intensify its attention to religious freedom. In 1996 Secretary of
State Warren Christopher announced the establishment of an Advisory
Committee on Religious Freedom Abroad, composed of 20 American
religious leaders and scholars. In an interim report issued in 1998 and
a final report issued in 1999 the Committee recommended structural
changes and foreign policy initiatives that would institutionalize the
promotion of religious freedom as part of U.S. foreign policy.
Throughout its tenure, the Committee was chaired and supported by the
Department's Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
During the same period, the Department of State responded to
increased public and Congressional interest by preparing a report
entitled ``U.S. Policies in Support of Religious Freedom: Focus on
Christians'' (July 1997). The new Secretary of State, Madeline
Albright, made it clear that promoting religious freedom was to be a
priority during her tenure at the Department. In 1997 she issued
instructions to all American Embassies and Consulates to increase U.S.
advocacy, monitoring, and reporting on the issue. In multilateral
venues such as the United Nations Human Rights Commission in Geneva,
U.S. delegations made religious freedom a high priority. In 1998,
responding to a recommendation by the Advisory Committee, Secretary
Albright announced that she would appoint a senior level coordinator
for religious freedom.
Meanwhile, Congress was engaging in an extended debate over a
legislative approach to promoting religious liberty abroad. In May
1997, Congressman Frank Wolf of Virginia and Senator Arlen Specter of
Pennsylvania introduced the first version of what was to become--some
18 months later--the International Religious Freedom Act. Their bill
triggered a vigorous debate within the faith-based, nongovernmental
organization (NGO), and human rights communities over the most
appropriate and effective ways for the United States to confront
religious persecution and discrimination abroad.
During the next year and a half a national dialogue evolved--joined
not only by those who had lobbied from the beginning, but by faith-
based, human rights, and foreign policy organizations from across the
political and religious spectrums. Foreign governments, watching the
debate with rising interest, expressed their concerns in capitals
abroad and in Washington. The Department of State, led by Assistant
Secretary for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor John Shattuck, made
its views known through testimony before the House International
Relations Committee and in other venues.
The issues were important--and controversial: How can the United
States influence governments (including U.S. allies) that persecute or
discriminate against their citizens on the basis of religion? What
religions should be covered? What regions? Should economic sanctions be
included, and, if so, should they be automatic? Should there be a
special category of religious refugees? Should the senior U.S.
religious freedom official be located in the White House or the State
Department? Should a new governmental body, such as an independent
commission, be created to provide the President, the Secretary of
State, and Congress a separate source of policy recommendations? Is it
legitimate for the United States to identify one form of persecution
for special treatment, or would doing so create a troubling ``hierarchy
of rights'' that could marginalize other victims of persecution? Could
victims of religious persecution actually be harmed by a new U.S. focus
on their plight?
These and other issues were debated intensely throughout 1997 and
1998. In March 1998, Senator Don Nickles of Oklahoma introduced in the
Senate an alternative bill which attempted to build on the commentary
that Wolf-Specter had generated. In May 1998, the House passed a
revised version of the latter bill. During the next 6 months, a few
dedicated and passionate Congressional staff members, joined at times
by State Department representatives and other key actors, met to hammer
out a bill that would have broad bipartisan support. In October 1998,
the International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA) was passed unanimously
by both Houses of Congress and was signed immediately by the President.
A Legislative Mandate Comes to Life
The various streams that led to the Act had their source in the
American passion for religious liberty and the conviction that it was
the birthright of every human being. Herein lay the greatest potential
for an effective U.S. religious freedom policy abroad: While the Act
paid homage to American history and the first Amendment, it drew
heavily on international standards grounded in universal truths. It
cited the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which notes that
``all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They
are endowed with reason and conscience.''
In short, the IRFA made no attempt to impose ``the American way''
on foreign governments. Rather, it put the weight of American foreign
policy behind the proposition that all nations must adhere to the
standards of international behavior that they themselves have accepted,
including the mandate to protect the universal right of religious
freedom and freedom of conscience. The Act was universal in scope: it
targeted no region and covered all religions. It provided sanctions for
the worst violators of religious freedom, but sanctions were not
automatic. Instead, the President was given wide latitude to choose the
most effective response to severe violations.
In order to carry out this policy, the Act created three core
mechanisms: an Office of International Religious Freedom under an
Ambassador at Large, located in the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor; an Annual Report that covers every foreign country, coupled
with an annual identification of severe violators; and a separate,
bipartisan U.S. Commission to make independent recommendations.
The Office of International Religious Freedom. In August 1998,
Robert A. Seiple assumed the office of Special IRF Adviser to the
President and Secretary of State. In May 1999, he was sworn in as the
first Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom. During
his 2-year tenure, Seiple built his office into a staff of 10,
including foreign service, military, and civil service officers. Its
mandate is to promote religious freedom as a core tenet of U.S. human
rights policy by monitoring religious persecution and discrimination
worldwide; meeting with foreign governments, faith-based groups, and
NGO's; integrating the issue into the mainstream of U.S. foreign
policy; and overseeing the production of the Annual Report on
International Religious Freedom. The Office is also charged with
advising the Secretary of State on the designation of ``countries of
particular concern'' under the IRF Act.
Seiple's methodology has been to ``promote, not punish.'' He and
his staff have visited 26 countries-many of them among the world's
worst abusers of religious freedom--in order to explain his emphasis,
and that of the IRF Act, on international standards as the basis for
U.S. actions. They have met with hundreds of foreign officials,
religious leaders, NGO's, and human rights groups at home and abroad.
They have heard the stories of people who fear for their well-being and
safety because of their religious beliefs. They have told allies and
adversaries alike that freedom of religion and conscience is not a
western invention but flows from the traditions of universal and
inviolable human dignity present in every world religion.
The Office of International Religious Freedom also has articulated
and advocated U.S. policy in academic and policy conferences and media
events throughout the country and abroad. It has initiated a series of
conferences, co-sponsored by the Department's Bureau of Intelligence
and Research, on religious freedom and foreign policy. It has
implemented a highly successful program of outreach to U.S. Muslim
leaders and plans to expand this program to include other American
religious traditions. It has provided funding--through the Department's
Human Rights and Democracy Fund--for several NGO-led reconciliation
programs in religion-based conflicts. Ambassador Seiple has testified
before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the House International
Relations Committee and its Subcommittee on International Operations
and Human Rights, the Helsinki Commission, and the Congressional Human
Rights Caucus.
In all its endeavors, the Office of International Religious Freedom
has sought (in the words of the Act) to ``stand with the persecuted,''
to provide hope to the millions throughout the world who suffer because
they dare to believe in, and to worship, an authority beyond the state.
The Annual Report. The first Annual Report on International
Religious Freedom was issued by the Department of State in September
1999. It contained chapters on the status of religious freedom in 194
countries worldwide. Each chapter was initially drafted in an American
Embassy or Consulate abroad and then compiled and edited by the Office
of Country Reports and Asylum Affairs in the Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor. Its introduction focused on the connection between
concepts of universal human dignity and freedom of religion and
explained some of the report's analytical methods. Its Executive
Summary highlighted various categories of restrictions on religious
liberty worldwide, while detailing U.S. efforts to address those
restrictions.
Religious organizations, NGO's, and human rights groups generally
hailed the first report as an important first step in the battle
against religious persecution. Foreign governments' responses varied
widely, from outright hostility to private gratitude. Some insisted
that the United States had no right to invoke international standards
unilaterally and that such issues could only be addressed in
international forums. Others (including some democratic allies)
asserted a right of state-supported scrutiny of, and hostility toward,
certain minority religions.
Indeed, as elaborated elsewhere in this Report, the United States
agrees that issues of religious freedom ought to be addressed in
international forums. It does so regularly and vigorously. But the
United States also believes that all nations have the right, and the
obligation, to address on a bilateral basis with other nations those
international standards that they themselves have accepted. Further,
the international provison for freedom of religion and conscience is
grounded in state acceptance of minority religions rather than in
state-supported skepticism or hostility. Religious freedom is a good,
not a danger from which citizens must be protected--a fact that even
some mature democracies have not yet accepted.
The U.S. Commission on IRF. The IRF Act also mandated the creation
of an independent, bipartisan U.S. Commission on International
Religious Freedom, consisting of nine eminent American leaders from a
variety of faiths. Five were appointed by the President and Democratic
Congressional leaders; four by Republican Congressional leaders. The
Ambassador at Large also sits on the Commission as an ex officio,
nonvoting member.
The Commission was established for 4 years beginning in May 1999,
and each Commissioner was given a 2-year term. The first Chairman was
Rabbi David Saperstein, Director of the Religious Action Center of
Reform Judaism and a Democratic appointee. The deputy chairman was
Michael K. Young, Dean of the George Washington University Law Center
and a Republican appointee. To emphasize its bipartisan nature, the
Commission agreed that its chair and deputy would rotate annually
between appointees of the two parties. Accordingly, in May 2000, the
chair passed to Elliot Abrams, President of the Ethics and Public
Policy Center (Republican appointee), and the deputy chair to Firuz
Kazemzadeh, Secretary of External Affairs of the National Assembly of
the Baha'is of the United States (Democratic appointee).
Other Democratic appointees are Archbishop Theodore McCarrick of
the Archdiocese of Newark; Dr. Laila al-Mariati, Past President of the
Muslim Women's League; and Justice Charles Z. Smith of the Washington
State Supreme Court. Other Republican appointees are Nina Shea,
Director of the Center for Religious Freedom, Freedom House, and John
Bolton of the American Enterprise Institute. The Commission's staff is
headed by its Executive Director, Steven McFarland.
As part of its mandate to recommend policies on religious freedom,
the Commission prepares its own annual report, the first of which was
issued in May 2000. This report focused on three countries of concern--
China, Sudan and Russia--and provided extensive recommendations for
U.S. policymakers. It also contained a thorough review of the State
Department's first Annual Report on International Religious Freedom,
including a series of recommendations on how it might be improved.
The Commission has begun to play an important role in the
articulation and implementation of U.S. policy. Its members and staff
have met with key Department of State officials, including the
Secretary of State and the Under Secretary for Political Affairs.
Commission members have traveled abroad to gather information and to
advocate religious freedom. They have held public hearings and
testified before the U.S. Congress on many occasions. Commission
recommendations--communicated publicly or privately to the
Administration--have already had an impact on key policy decisions,
including the Secretary of State's designation of ``countries of
particular concern'' under the IRF Act.
The Scorecard. On balance the new U.S. strategy for promoting
religious freedom has had a promising beginning. From its origins in
the minds of a few committed individuals, to its implementation in the
actions of Secretary Albright, President Clinton and the U.S. Congress,
U.S. religious freedom policy has provided a case study--both of the
American democratic process and of the universal applicability of
America's founding precepts.
Energized and formed by an American approach to freedom of
religion, the policy has nevertheless been articulated as part of an
international covenant, in which nations commit themselves to mutual
accountability. There are risks in this approach--not least the
exposure of the United States to criticism from others. But if it is
sound, U.S. policy will withstand--and profit from--the scrutiny of
other nations, human rights organizations, and religious groups.
In his testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on
May 16, 2000, Ambassador Robert Seiple articulated his sense of how far
U.S. policy has come, and the enormous task that remains. ``Those of us
who are charged with implementing the International Religious Freedom
Act,'' he said, ``have had some modest but invigorating victories--some
religious prisoners freed, some religious refugees assisted, a few bad
laws repealed or altered. But we must take the long view: None of us
can claim, nor should we expect, that the millions who suffer for their
religious beliefs will have been loosed from their torments 18 months
after the passage of the International Religious Freedom Act or because
of the actions of my office or those of the independent U.S.
Commission. But, I believe that we have made a start. Together, we have
planted seeds--seeds of hope and of future action. With God's help,
those seeds are taking root and will one day bear fruit.''
Part II: Freedom of Religion and Conscience as a Cornerstone of
Democracy
One of the most encouraging developments of the past decade has
been the dramatic increase in the number of nations aspiring to
democratic governance. In Europe, central Asia, Africa, and Latin
America, countries are struggling to develop and implement the norms of
representative government. As noted in the 1999 Annual Report on
International Religious Freedom, the number of democracies in the world
almost doubled during the decade of the 1990's.
That report also noted that freedom alone is no guarantee of human
dignity. Adopting the forms of democracy does not always signify an
acceptance of universal human rights, including the right of religious
freedom. This is sometimes true because democratic majorities are tied
to a particular religious tradition, or to a tradition of religious
skepticism, and are resistant to new and unfamiliar religions. In some
aspiring democracies, minority religions are associated with unpopular
ethnic groups or with unwanted foreign influence. For these and other
reasons, democracy alone is no guarantee of religious freedom.
And yet it is empirically indisputable that representative
governments protect fundamental human rights, including freedom of
religion and conscience, far more effectively than other political
systems. Several characteristics of democracy tend to bolster religious
freedom, including the principles of equality before the law,
protections for minorities, and a commitment to notions of universal
human dignity and the protection of fundamental human rights.
Democratic governments were the driving force in the promulgation of
the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In addition, most democratic traditions recognize that fundamental
rights are not ``grants'' from the state or society but exist prior to
both. If they do not--if human rights are in fact created by
governments--then they cannot be said to be ``universal'' as the world
acknowledged them to be in the 1948 Universal Declaration. ``All human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,'' notes the
Declaration, and are ``endowed with reason and conscience.'' If
governments were the source of rights, governments could abolish them.
Moreover, the incompatibility of authoritarianism and religious
liberty is grounded in an empirical political reality: the state that
honors and nourishes freedom of religion and conscience is one that
acknowledges its own limits. It is a state that posits the priority of
the individual and of society. It is, in short, a state that embraces
the axiom of democracy--government exists to serve society and the
individual, not the other way around.
Thus, while democratic states are the most likely guarantors of
religious freedom, so too is religious freedom an essential component
of democracy. The right of religious liberty is an obstacle to
``majoritarian tyranny''--the practices of democratic majorities who
would coerce minorities in matters of fundamental conscientious
conviction. Nations that are struggling to implement democracy, and in
which one religion is historically dominant, will profit from this
understanding of human freedom. Healthy and vigorous democracies do not
attempt to control or manage the human quest for ultimate meaning and
truth. They understand that this endeavor is essential to human freedom
and dignity--and must be protected.
Freedom of religion and conscience also contributes to democracy in
that the free expression of religious conviction--guaranteed in
international covenants--plays a key role in debates over public
policy. Each religious tradition has a moral code, a way of
understanding who we are and how we ought to order our lives together.
The articulation of these understandings in the public square is not
something to be feared by democracies. Rather it makes a vital
contribution to the development of public policy.
This is true because democracy is more than mere democratic
procedure. Its vitality, and even its survival, can never be assumed.
Democracy is an ever-continuing experiment, testing the capacity of
human beings--often from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds--to
govern themselves. The success of the experiment relies in part on the
successful adoption of democratic procedures such as the universal
franchise, separation of powers, or the secret ballot. But history
teaches that the habit of democracy is grounded in and transmitted by
the prior institutions of society, especially the family and religious
institutions.
Mature and aspiring democracies alike must revere the right to
freedom of religion and conscience, even as they develop the forms of
democratic governance. Governments that purport to represent all their
citizens must guarantee and nurture this right, which lies at the core
of every human life, as well as encourage mutual respect among their
citizens. These governments must acknowledge a core reality,
demonstrated by history: New and unfamiliar religions do not threaten
democracy; they enrich it. It is a lesson that must be learned and
relearned for the on-going, global democratic experiment to succeed.
Part III. What Has Changed in the Annual Report
As noted above, the response to the first Annual Report on
International Religious Freedom from NGO's, human rights groups, and
religious groups was overwhelmingly positive. Many provided
constructive suggestions of fact, tone, and organization. We have made
every effort to ensure that each report is factually accurate,
balanced, and fair. Our intent is to articulate the status of religious
freedom in each country chapter, permitting the reader to draw
conclusions concerning the implications of the restrictions or abuses
cited. In the Executive Summary, we categorize some of the restrictions
and abuses, and discuss U.S. actions to alter them. In order to show
that all the news is not bad, we also discuss some of the improvements
in religious freedom worldwide.
The country chapters have been reorganized to make them more
``reader friendly.'' Each chapter will contain an Introduction,
designed to provide the reader with a broad overview of the status of
religious freedom during the 12 months covered by the report (July 1,
1999 to June 30, 2000). Three major sections will follow: The first
will cover ``Government Policies on Freedom of Religion'' and will
contain a variety of subheadings to guide the reader, including
subsections on the ``Legal/Policy Framework'' and ``Religious
Demography.'' Subsections entitled ``Governmental Restrictions on
Religious Freedom,'' and ``Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom''
will not only discuss restrictions and abuses but give the context in
which those problems occurred.
The second major section will discuss ``Societal Attitudes''; the
third, ``U.S. Government Policy.''
A Final Word on Respect. If there is a core assumption underlying
this report, it is that religions, like human beings, are worthy of
respect. Were that not the case, there would be no need for a U.S.
policy on international religious freedom and no need for this report.
It exists not as an indictment of religions but as a testimony to the
value of religion and to respect for freedom of conscience. We have
tried to demonstrate our respect for all religious traditions in this
report, a respect that is genuine.
Once again, we invite our readers to provide comments on the
report. They can do so by writing the Office of International Religious
Freedom (DRL/IRF), Room 4829, Department of State, Washington, D.C.
20520.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
----------
There are no good reasons for any government to violate religious
freedom or to tolerate those within its warrant who do. However, there
are many good reasons to promote religious freedom. To that end, this
Executive Summary identifies some of the barriers to religious freedom
that exist and provides examples of countries where those barriers are
in place. It also catalogs some of the improvements in religious
freedom that occurred during the period of this report. Finally, it
describes actions that the United States has taken, is taking, and will
continue to take as a means of fulfilling its responsibilities under
its own law and to the human family of which it is a part.
This Executive Summary is divided into three sections:
I. Barriers to International Religious Freedom
II. Improvements in International Religious Freedom
III. U.S. Actions to Promote International Religious
Freedom
Part I: Barriers to International Religious Freedom
The vast majority of the world's governments have committed
themselves to respect religious freedom. Indeed, most have accepted one
or more of the international instruments that explicitly protect that
right. For example, 144 countries are parties to the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which acknowledges the right of
every human being ``to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his
choice'' and ``either individually or in community with others and in
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship,
observance, practice and teaching.'' All have pledged ``not to
discriminate on the basis of religion.''
Notwithstanding the existence of this and other broadly accepted
international instruments protecting religious freedom, there remains
in some countries a substantial difference between promise and
practice. Much of the world's population lives in countries in which
the right to religious freedom is restricted or prohibited. This gap
between word and deed has several causes and can be analyzed in various
ways. While no analysis is perfect, a system of categorization follows
that we believe is useful for understanding religious persecution and
discrimination.
Totalitarian and authoritarian regimes are characterized by a
determination to control religious belief and practice. The result--
inevitably--is persecution. Other regimes are hostile to minority or
unapproved religions. Some tolerate, and thereby encourage, persecution
or discrimination. Although acts of violence against religious
minorities may have several causes--for example, ethnicity, or a
perceived security threat--multicausality does not diminish necessarily
the significance of religion.
Still other governments--often either democratic or aspirants to
democracy--have adopted discriminatory legislation or policies that
give preferences to favored religions while disadvantaging others, in
contravention of international instruments. Some democratic states have
undertaken policies resulting in the stigmatization of minority
religions--the result of identifying them indiscriminately and
inaccurately with dangerous ``sects'' or ``cults.''
Occasionally a nation's policy on religious freedom can be
understood better in the context of its history, culture, and
tradition--a particular religion may have dominated the life of a
nation for centuries, making more difficult the acceptance of new
faiths that offer challenges in both cultural and theological terms.
However, tradition and culture should not be used as a pretext for
legislation or policies that restrict genuine religious belief or its
legitimate manifestations. Legal restrictions on religious practice--
permitted under international covenants for the protection of public
safety, order, health, morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms
of others--should be applied scrupulously and fairly, in as limited a
way as possible, without discriminating among religions. The practice
of requiring religious groups to register before they can engage in
activities such as worship is, by its nature, subject to abuse by local
jurisdictions, even in cases where it is designed by central
authorities to be applied in a nondiscriminatory fashion. Nor should a
legitimate concern over the destructive and unlawful behavior of a
small number of groups be employed so indiscriminately that new or
minority religions--perhaps poorly understood or controversial but
nevertheless posing no danger to public safety, health, or morals, or
the fundamental rights and freedoms of others--are wrongfully
stigmatized.
In the end, every nation should meet the standards on religious
freedom established by the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and
other international instruments and covenants that they have accepted.
Each nation is accountable to the international community for its
failure to meet these standards. The United States acknowledges and
accepts its responsibility to meet these standards in the safeguarding
and protection of religious liberty.
Totalitarian or Authoritarian Attempts to Control
Religious Belief or Practice
Totalitarian and authoritarian regimes are defined by the degree to
which they seek to control thought and expression, especially dissent.
It is not uncommon for such regimes to regard minority religious groups
as enemies of the state because of the content of the religion, the
fact that the very practice of religion threatens the dominant ideology
(often by diverting loyalties of adherents toward something beyond the
state), the ethnic character of the religious group, or a mixture of
all three. When this association occurs, the result is often religious
persecution directed by the regime.
Afghanistan. Afghanistan still does not have a recognized
government, and most of the country remains under the control of the
Taliban, which has engaged in persecution and killing. The Afghan Shi'a
minority has been the victim of Taliban abuses, in significant part
because of their religious beliefs. As in previous years, the Taliban
enforced its strict interpretation of Islamic Shari'a law and,
according to reports, public executions, floggings, and amputations
took place weekly against those who violated the law. In September
1999, the Taliban issued decrees aimed at the small non-Muslim minority
population, forbidding them from building places of worship, banning
them from criticizing Muslims, ordering them to identify their houses,
precluding them from living in the same residence as Muslims, and
requiring non-Muslim women to wear special identifying clothing.
Burma. The Government of Burma continued to repress systematically
members of both minority faiths and the majority Buddhist population.
Buddhist monks who promoted human and political rights were arrested,
and some Buddhist monasteries were destroyed. Government security
forces frequently employed coercion to induce Christian members of the
Chin ethnic minority to convert to Buddhism. Chin Christians were
conscripted for forced labor, required to desecrate their own churches
and graveyards, and were subjected to government discrimination.
Members of various faiths reported harassment of religious leaders by
government authorities.
China. Government respect for religious freedom in China
deteriorated over the reporting period as the persecution of several
religious minorities increased. While membership in many faiths grew
rapidly and government supervision of religious activity was minimal in
some regions, government officials in other regions imposed tight
regulations, closed houses of worship, and actively persecuted members
of some unregistered religious groups. Members of such groups were
subject to harassment, extortion, prolonged detention, physical abuse,
and incarceration in prison or in ``reeducation through labor'' camps.
There were credible reports of religious detainees being beaten and
tortured. The Government increased restrictions on members of many
minority groups, including Tibetan Buddhists, Muslim Uyghurs, members
of Falun Gong and other ``heretical cults,'' and Protestants and Roman
Catholics not belonging to the official churches.
Cuba. While some observers have noted a greater acceptance of
religion in Cuba in recent years, the Government continued to engage in
active efforts to monitor and control religious institutions, including
the surveillance, infiltration, and harassment of clergy and church
members. The Government has refused to register new denominations,
thereby making them vulnerable to charges of illegal association.
Laos. The Government attempted to supervise and limit religious
freedom among the majority Buddhist population, imposing mandatory
Marxist-Leninist training for monks. In some instances, local and
provincial authorities used harsh, extraconstitutional measures against
minority religious groups, including detentions without charge and, in
the case of hundreds of Christians, forced renunciations of faith.
North Korea. Religious adherents in North Korea deemed unacceptable
to the regime are treated harshly; many were imprisoned and some
reportedly executed. (However, these reports cannot be confirmed or
disproved, given the tight control the regime exercises over
information. Also, these reported executions appear to have involved
Christians with links to missionary groups active along the Chinese
border. The Government suspects such groups of attempting to overthrow
the regime.) Unauthorized religious activity, especially when occurring
near sensitive border areas, sometimes was subject to severe repression
by North Korean officials. Credible reports indicate that some
prisoners were beaten and treated as if they were insane because of
their beliefs.
Vietnam. The Government uses a registration process to control and
monitor religious activity, severely restricting any practice by groups
other than officially sanctioned organizations. The Government allows
only one organization per religious denomination, and members of
nonregistered organizations may face arbitrary harassment and arrest.
Clergy from many religious groups, including Cao Dai, Buddhist, Hoa
Hao, Protestant, and Roman Catholic organizations were detained
arbitrarily without charge. According to credible reports, at least 20
persons remain detained or imprisoned because of their religious
beliefs.
State Hostility Toward Minority or Nonapproved Religions
Some governments, while not necessarily determined to implement a
program of control over minority religions, nevertheless are hostile to
certain religions or to elements of religious groups identified as
``security threats.'' These governments implement policies designed to
intimidate certain religious groups, cause their adherents to convert
to another religion, or cause their members to flee.
Iran. The Government continued to abuse the religious freedom of
minority groups. The country's religious minorities, including Baha'is,
Jews, Christians, and Sunni Muslims, reported intimidation, harassment,
and imprisonment on account of their beliefs. Persecution remains a
problem. Baha'is are singled out by the Government, and at least 11
Baha'is were imprisoned. On July 1, 2000, 10 Jewish and 2 Muslim
defendants were convicted and sentenced to prison terms ranging from 4
to 13 years on charges of spying. The Revolutionary Court deprived the
accused of almost all legitimate means of defense, and its conduct
worsened societal attitudes toward the Jewish community.
Iraq. The Government for decades has conducted a brutal campaign of
murder, summary execution, and protracted arbitrary detention against
the religious leaders and adherents of the majority Shi'a Muslim
population. Security forces murdered senior Shi'a clerics, desecrated
mosques and holy sites, arrested tens of thousands of Shi'a, and
forcibly prevented Shi'a from practicing their religion. The Government
also targeted the country's Christian Assyrians and Chaldeans by
denying members their political rights and forcibly removing them from
certain areas of the country.
Pakistan. In spite of promised improvements following the October
12, 1999, military coup, the Government continued to enforce
discriminatory legislation. Some of the legislation directly targeted
Ahmadis, who also face severe societal discrimination. Christians,
Hindus, Zikris, and other religious minorities also are subject to
widespread discrimination and harassment. The so-called blasphemy laws
have been used by authorities and private citizens to threaten and
intimidate both members of religious minorities and members of the
Muslim majority. Sectarian violence, mostly between rival Sunni and
Shi'a Muslim groups, frequently occurred. The Government did not
encourage violence; however, there were instances in which the
Government failed to intervene in cases of sectarian violence.
Saudi Arabia. The Government supports the Sunni majority, and
members of the Shi'a minority are subject to officially sanctioned
political and economic discrimination. In some cases, they have
experienced arbitrary detention and other more severe forms of
discrimination. Religious freedom does not exist in the country, and
non-Muslims may not worship publicly. However, they may engage in
nonpublic worship if they do so discretely. Any attempt to convert
Muslims to a non-Muslim religion is a criminal offense. In particular,
Catholics and Protestants from Asia have been subject to discrimination
and deportation for violating the Government's strict religious
regulations.
Serbia. Slobodan Milosevic continued to exploit ethnic, religious,
and political divisions to maintain his rule. While religion and
ethnicity in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia are intertwined closely,
the Government continued to suppress religious minorities and provide
preferential treatment to the Serbian Orthodox Church. In Serbia's
sister republic, Montenegro, tensions between the ecclesiastically
unofficial Montenegrin Orthodox Church and the officially recognized
Serbian Orthodox Church worsened and were politicized by the opposing
political factions.
Sudan. Against the backdrop of an ongoing civil war, the Muslim-
dominated regime continued to persecute members of religious
minorities. Christians, practitioners of traditional indigenous
religious, and Muslims who deviate from the Government's interpretation
of Islam were subject to arbitrary arrest and detention, threats,
violence, and forced conversion to Islam. The Government's support of
slavery and its continued military action in villages in the Nuba
mountains, which resulted in numerous deaths, are due in part to the
victims' religious beliefs.
Turkmenistan. The Government places significant limits on freedom
of religion and religious organizations by requiring that religious
groups have 500 members before they may be registered with the
Government. Only Sunni Muslims and Russian Orthodox Christians have
enough members to be registered officially, and all other religious
groups, including Baha'is, Baptists, Hare Krishnas, Seventh Day
Adventists, some Muslims, and Pentecostals, face official harassment.
Government interference in unregistered religious activity increased,
as officials harassed group members, deported foreigners, denied visa
renewals, confiscated religious materials, demolished a Hare Krisha
temple and a Seventh Day Adventist church, and allegedly tortured some
religious detainees.
Uzbekistan. The Government continued a harsh campaign against
unauthorized Islamic groups, often failing to distinguish between
Islamacist terrorist groups that seek to overthrow the Government by
force and other devout Islamic groups, often part of the political
opposition. Labeling them a threat to national security, the Government
indiscriminately arrested hundreds of members of such groups and
sentenced them to lengthy jail terms. Officials frequently used
registration requirements to restrict the activity of various religious
groups, including some Christians and some Muslim groups. Law
enforcement officials harassed and tortured prisoners, including
members of unapproved religious organizations, and manufactured false
evidence against them.
State Neglect of the Problem of Discrimination Against, or Persecution
of, Minority or Nonapproved Religions
In some countries, governments have laws or policies to discourage
religious discrimination and persecution but fail to act with
sufficient consistency and vigor against violations of religious
freedom by nongovernmental entities or local law enforcement officials.
Egypt. In Egypt members of the non-Muslim minority generally
worship without interference, but there is some societal and
governmental discrimination. Almost 100 persons, including members of
the Faramawy religious group, were arrested and charged with heresy
against Islam. Some were convicted and sentenced. Violent exchanges
between Christians and Muslims in Al-Kush, culminating in early January
2000, resulted in the death of 21 Christians and 1 Muslim; many more
were wounded. The Government indicted 135 people for the violence and
took steps to compensate the victims. Some members of the Christian
community acknowledge that the Government has become somewhat more
responsive but still argue that, despite improvements, the approval
process for church construction remains slow and cumbersome.
India. Attacks on religious minorities were less intense during the
reporting period but more widespread. They included assaults on
Christian clerics and pilgrims and bomb and arson attacks on churches.
Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh villagers and Hindu pilgrims and laborers were
killed in conjunction with the ongoing conflict in Kashmir. The central
Government condemned the attacks and called for tolerance, but the
response of local law enforcement officials often was inadequate.
Indonesia. Religious intolerance contributed to intercommunal
violence in several regions, particularly in the Maluku provinces (also
known as the Moluccas) and Central Sulawesi. Official statistics record
that over 2,470 persons were killed in the Moluccus strife since
violence erupted in January 1999. The victims were divided about
equally between Christians and Muslims. The Government responded slowly
and ineffectively, and many accuse the military and police forces of
bias (against both Christians and Muslims, respectively) and complicit
in the violence in Maluku.
Churches and other Christian facilities continued to be attacked in
Java, where Muslims are a majority, although not to the extent
experienced in 1996-97.
Nigeria. The new civilian government's ability to enforce respect
for religious freedom and to prevent violence between Muslims and non-
Muslims was tested in January 2000 when some northern states began
formally adopting Islamic law, or Shari'a, as their legal system. The
adoption of Shari'a triggered interreligious violence in February and
March, during which hundreds of Christians and Muslims were killed. The
central Government continued to work with the northern states and with
the various factions to foster religious freedom, but the potential for
further violence remains great.
Discriminatory Legislation or Policies Disadvantaging Certain Religions
Some governments have implemented laws or regulations that favor
certain religions and place others at a disadvantage. Often this
circumstance is the result of the historical predominance of one
religion in a country and may reflect broad social skepticism about new
or minority religions. Sometimes it stems from the emergence of a
country from a long period of Communist rule, in which all religion was
prohibited or at best out of favor. In such countries, skepticism or
even the fear of certain religions or all religions lingers within
segments of society. This circumstance led in some cases to a
curtailment of religious freedom.
Armenia. The national church in Armenia--the Armenia Apostolic
Church--is not subject to some of the restrictions on religious freedom
that are imposed on other religious organizations that must register
with the Government. Jehovah's Witnesses continue to have their
application for legal recognition rejected because of their ``illegal
proselytism.'' Members report individual acts of discrimination,
although there is no discernable pattern of persecution.
Belarus. The Government openly favors the Belarusian Orthodox
Church (which was designated as an Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox
Church in 1989) and has stepped up its harassment of all other
religious groups. Some of these ``nontraditional'' religions, including
many Protestant denominations, some Eastern religions, and the
Belarusian Orthodox Autocephalous Church, repeatedly have been denied
registration by the Government, effectively denying them the ability to
obtain property on which to conduct religious services. The Government
promulgates false accusations against some minority faiths through
state-owned newspapers and places restrictions on and regularly
intimidates domestic and foreign religious leaders.
Bulgaria. The attitude of the Government generally has been
positive in encouraging greater religious tolerance since early 1998.
Although religious freedom improved for some nontraditional groups,
others faced official disfavor and persistent government refusal to
grant registration. Some groups also continue to face discrimination
and antipathy from some local governments. The national government has
not taken any action to dissuade local governments from such
infringements of religious freedom. There also was concern about a new
law on religion introduced into the National Assembly, which was in
committee in the summer of 2000. Some religious groups and the U.S.
Government have urged the Bulgarian government to revise those
provisions that have the potential to give the Government excessive
control over religious affairs.
Eritrea. The Government singled out members of Jehovah's Witnesses
for harsh treatment because of their refusal to participate in national
service and other civic duties. Jehovah's Witnesses and others,
including some Muslims, were subject to imprisonment for refusing to
perform national service; however, only members of Jehovah's Witnesses
are subject to dismissal from the civil service and often are denied
identification cards, exit visas, trading licenses, and government
housing.
Israel. Most non-Jewish citizens are Arab Muslims, and they are
subject to various forms of discrimination. The Government does not
provide Israeli Arabs with the same quality of education, housing,
employment opportunities, and social services as Jews. Government
spending and financial support are proportionally far lower in
predominatly non-Jewish areas than in Jewish areas. Evangelical
Christians and other religious groups have complained in the past that
the police have been slow to investigate incidents of harassment,
threats, and vandalism directed against their meetings, churches, and
other facilities by two ultra-Orthodox Jewish groups.
Jordan. Government officials in Jordan still have not registered
the Jordan Evangelical (Christian) Theological Seminary. Pending such
registration, authorities suspended the renewal of the residence
permits of all of the seminary's 36 foreign students (who come from 10
foreign countries), and 2 members of the faculty.
Malaysia. The Government significantly restricts the Shi'a minority
from practicing its faith and places some restrictions on the
activities of political opponents in mosques. It is very difficult for
Muslims legally to change their religion. In April the state of Perlis
passed a Shari'a law subjecting Islamic ``deviants'' and apostates to 1
year of ``rehabilitation.''
Romania. The Government generally does not impede the observance of
religious beliefs. However, several religious groups allege that the
Government delayed or impeded their attempts to acquire property,
building permits, and other documents and to register as a religious
group. According to Jehovah's Witnesses' organization, some local
officials in Romania provided tacit support to Orthodox Christian
clergy intent on barring Jehovah's Witnesses from practicing their
faith.
Russia. National and local officials are working to enforce a
restrictive 1997 law on religion that replaced a more liberal 1990 law;
however, there is some confusion regarding the new law, and its
provisions have been applied inconsistently. The 1997 legislation
distinguishes between religious organizations and groups, affording
each a separate legal status that in effect created a hierarchy of
religions and restricted the rights and privileges of newer and small
religious communities. The required registration of religious groups
and organizations at the local level is progressing slowly in some
regions. Moreover, those that have not registered by December 31, 2000,
are subject to organizational liquidation by the Government. Uneven
implementation of the law and contradictory interpretations of the law
and of other federal and local regulations permitted discriminatory
practices by some regional and local governments. Many religious groups
and organizations, both registered and unregistered, face
discrimination and harassment by some government authorities. Federal
officials, for the most part, have not taken sufficient action to
address these concerns. For example, measures were taken to restrict
the activities of a number of foreign missionaries and congregations
associated with them. Four U.S. missionaries were refused visas to
return to the country. Dan Pollard (formerly of the Vanino Baptist
Church in the Khabarovsk region) was banned from receiving a visa on
allegations that he violated customs regulations and evaded property
taxes, a questionable charge given the role of local authorities in
preventing him from complying with the law.
Turkey. The Government continued to impose some restrictions on
religious minorities and on religious expression in government offices
and state-run institutions, including universities. A 50-year-old ban
on the wearing of religious head garments in government offices and
other state-run facilities continued to be enforced. Police detained or
stopped Christians holding services in private apartments and those
considered to be proselytizing. The Greek Orthodox Halki Seminary has
remained closed since 1971, when the state nationalized all private
institutions of higher learning.
Stigmatization of Certain Religions by Wrongfully Associating Them with
Dangerous ``Cults'' or ``Sects''
Austria. The Government of Austria intensified its ongoing
information campaign against religious groups that it considers to be
harmful to the interests of individuals and society. A brochure issued
by the Government in September 1999 described several nonrecognized
groups, as well as Jehovah's Witnesses, in decidedly negative terms
that many found offensive.
Belgium. In 1998 the Parliament adopted several recommendations
from a Commission report on government policy toward ``sects,''
including the creation of a center that would report on ``Harmful
Sectarian Organizations.'' Even though the word ``sect'' has assumed
pejorative connotations in modern usage, the report noted that it
employed the term in the traditional sense--a group of organized
persons espousing the same doctrine within a religion.
Czech Republic. In August 2000, the Government approved a proposal
for a new bill on the registration and status of religious
organizations that copies the restrictive Austrian model.
France. A 1996 National Assembly report, as well as a followup 1999
parliamentary report, labeled 173 groups as ``sects'' (a more precise
English translation of the French in this instance would be ``cults''),
actions which contributed to an atmosphere of intolerance toward
minority religions. A few of the groups on the list are clearly
dangerous, but most are merely unfamiliar or unpopular. Members of some
groups that appear on the list continue to allege government and
societal discrimination. Private legislation to update and toughen
existing laws invoked to deal with cults, including a controversial
provision defining the crime of ``mental manipulation,'' was introduced
in the Senate in December 1999 and passed in amended form on a first
reading by the National Assembly in June 2000. The competing versions
of the bill have to be reconciled before final passage, although this
action may not occur before mid-2001, given the current legislative
calendar. The Minister of Justice further requested that the Senate,
when it takes up the bill in the fall of 2000, consider a parallel
reflection on how this legislation affects the constitutionally
protected freedom of belief and the country's obligations under
European and other international human rights conventions.
Germany. Many officials in the Government believe that the Church
of Scientology is a money-making scheme rather than a religion, and
they have continued to investigate the Church and to warn of its
``totalitarian tendencies.'' The continued official ``observation'' of
the Church by the Government, without any resulting legal action,
created an environment that encourages discrimination. Some employers
refuse to hire Scientologists, and government procurement procedures
sometimes include so-called sect filters designed to screen out members
of the Church.
Part II: Improvements in International Religious Freedom
The International Religious Freedom Act prescribes a section of the
Executive Summary that identifies foreign countries in which there has
been a ``significant improvement in the protection and promotion of''
religious freedom and includes a description of the nature of the
improvement as well as an analysis of the factors contributing to it.
This report identifies two countries in which improvements during the
reporting period have been significant and several others in which
improvements have been noteworthy.
It also should be noted that, as elaborated elsewhere in the
Executive Summary and in the country report chapters, there remain
significant problems of religious discrimination or abuse in some of
the countries in which improvements have occurred. It is our hope that
such countries will intensify the kinds of improvements cited in this
section.
Further information on actions by the U.S. Government in these
countries also may be found in the respective country chapters.
Significant Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
Two countries have shown ``significant'' improvements in religious
freedom. In neither of these countries do the improvements represent a
fundamental alteration in what otherwise remains a poor human rights
record. However, in both the improvement has been striking enough to
raise the hope that it represents the first step in a more systematic
change. The improvements for these two countries are highlighted in
order to encourage additional positive steps.
One country where religious freedom made significant improvement is
Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan. Since the end of the Cold War, many countries of the
former Soviet Union sought international integration, while
simultaneously addressing problems of internal and external security.
These countries understand that their goals of democratic and economic
development necessitate not only ``membership-in-good-standing'' in
such institutions as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe (OSCE), the European Union, and the Council of Europe, but also
adherence to international norms of human rights. These goals are
threatened by government-sanctioned or tolerated abuses of human
rights, including religious freedom. Moreover, in an age of global
communications, where news of arrests, imprisonment, beatings, and
torture are instantaneously communicated around the world, governments
no longer control information. The misdeeds of officials are phoned,
faxed, e-mailed, and sometimes broadcast to an interested foreign and
domestic public.
Unfortunately, such communications continue to be necessary. Some
countries of the former Soviet Union have failed to cut their ties to
antidemocratic institutions and practices inherited from the Soviet
system. In these nations, many local and regional officials tend to be
unimpressed with the value of membership in the international
community. Sometimes real security problems have led to excesses
against religious minorities. However, in some countries the national
leadership increasingly sees the advantages of improvements in
religious freedom. At least some of the elite realizes not only that
religious persecution is incompatible with international norms, but
that foreign companies will not invest where employees and families are
at risk of abuse because of their religious practices. This realization
has apparently led to improvements in some countries, although it has
not necessarily been reflected in improvements in other areas of
respect for human rights.
Until the late fall of 1999, the Government of Azerbaijan and local
law enforcement officials frequently used the Law on Religious Freedom
and other laws to restrict religious activity by foreigners and
nontraditional religious groups. For example, in the early fall of
1999, police and security officials detained, imprisoned, and beat
clergy, threatened to deport foreign religious workers, and used the
forum of an assembly at a state factory publicly to humiliate and fire
workers of a nontraditional religion.
The Ambassador and other officials of the U.S. Government and the
international community called this situation to the attention of
President Aliyev and other high-level officials. Aliyev consulted his
ministers and then publicly pledged to improve the status of religious
minorities and to adhere to the country's own constitutional standards
and international commitments. Since the President's announcement in
November 1999, deportation orders and other charges against clergy and
groups of religious minorities have been overturned, many religious
groups have been allowed to register for the first time, the factory
workers were reinstated in their jobs, and respect for religious
freedom has improved. Further, a local law enforcement official was
punished for his role in abuses against a religious minority. Although
problems remain, Azerbaijan's willingness to adhere to its
constitutional and international commitments to respect religious
freedom represents a significant improvement in the status quo.
Laos. After the end of the Vietnam War, the Communist authorities
imposed a repressive regime that severely limited basic human rights.
Because believers of a number of minority faiths historically had
opposed the Communist takeover and sometimes continued to oppose the
Government, such faiths were viewed with suspicion as security threats.
This attitude was true particularly in the case of a number of minority
ethnic groups living in strategically sensitive border areas. Members
of these ethnic groups often belonged predominantly or significantly to
minority religions. Furthermore, Christianity was viewed as a remnant
of the former colonial power and Christians were considered to be
agents of suspect ``Western'' influences. These attitudes, coupled with
standard Communist ideological opposition to religion, contributed to
widespread oppression of the religious faithful. Independent religious
structures were suppressed as possible sources of organized opposition
to the Government.
More recently, economic stagnation and the fall of Communism in the
Soviet Union encouraged economic liberalization. Longstanding hostility
to the United States began to ebb, and there was increased interest in
attracting economic assistance and private investment from the West in
general and from the United States in particular. Economic
liberalization led to better communications with the outside world,
including via the Internet. Human rights abuses were more apt to be
publicized abroad. Many abuses were committed by local and regional
authorities with varying degrees of independence from the central
Government. Increasingly, the central government was willing to engage
in human rights dialogue with other countries on the basis of
international standards and agreements. All of these forces--economic
liberalization, better communications, human rights dialogue--fostered
improvements in human rights and religious freedom.
The Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom met
during 1999 with high-ranking officials of the Government in Vientianne
and with the Laotian Ambassador in Washington to express concern at the
plight of Christians who were imprisoned because of their faith.
Embassy officers in Laos also held discussions on the matter with their
counterparts. In mid-2000 many of the prisoners were released. While
serious impediments to religious freedom remain in Laos, their release
constitutes a significant improvement and demonstrates a willingness on
the part of the central Government to intervene with local and
provincial authorities when the latter abridge the religious liberties
of minorities.
Noteworthy Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
There have been other improvements in religious freedom worldwide
which merit attention. They are as follows:
Bulgaria. The Government officially approved registration of the
Nazarene Church, which had been attempting to register for over 5
years.
Chile. On July 6, 1999, the Senate approved a new religious law
(``ley de culto''). Among other provisions, it bestows the same legal
status (``derecho publico'') on all other faiths that the Catholic
Church previously enjoyed. The legislation entered into effect in March
2000. The revision removed the legal possibility of other faiths having
their status challenged administratively.
Croatia. The Government enacted constitutional amendments in May
that added Bosnian Muslims and Albanians to the list of officially
recognized minorities. Muslims were removed from the list by the
previous government in 1998. The newly elected Government has shown an
interest in improving religious freedom, and, to date, religious
leaders are cautiously optimistic.
Czech Republic. A new draft bill on religion was pending in the
legislature of the Czech Republic in mid-2000. The bill, which was
drafted with the input of various church representatives, would
facilitate the ability of religious groups to be recognized legally. It
would lower the number of signatures required to grant a religious
organization legal status from 10,000 to 300.
Dominican Republic. Church leaders report that they have noticed
increased political freedom for religious minorities. In particular the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses
report improved relations with the Government.
Egypt. Egyptian Copts were appointed to senior political party
positions during the reporting period, and some observers noted an
increased representation of Christians in public and political life. A
December 1999 decree by President Hosni Mubarak provided that all
places of worship be subject to the same civil construction code. The
decree has had the effect of facilitating church repairs. The
Government's response to sectarian violence against Christians also
improved. After an outbreak of sectarian violence in the village of Al-
Kush over the New Year, the Government responded quickly to restore
order. A criminal court in Sohag city indicted 135 people for the
violence, and the trials are ongoing.
France. The highest administrative court in France, the Council of
State, ruled in June 2000 that Jehovah's Witnesses qualify as a
religion. The ruling exempted Jehovah's Witnesses from property taxes
levied against their houses of worship. The Government also
acknowledged Islam as a state-recognized religion, a status which is
expected, among other things, to lead to the release of state funds for
building mosques.
The Gambia. In contrast to previous years, there were no reports of
persecution against members of the Ahmadis or against any other
religious group.
Germany. The Government enacted a series of positive legal reforms.
The Federal Administrative Court ruled that the public law corporation
status of a religious community may not be used to deny it the right to
provide religious instruction in public schools, nor religious
chaplaincies in the military, in hospitals, or in prisons.
Ghana. The Government was more active in addressing religious
conflicts than in past years. In addition to outlawing religious
slavery, the Government sponsored an interfaith forum to address
religious conflicts and has taken a more active role in mediating
interreligious disputes.
Greece. In June 2000, the Parliament approved a bill allowing the
construction of the first Islamic cultural center and mosque in modern
times in the Athens area. In July 2000 the Government completed plans
to eliminate references to religious affiliation on official
identification cards, which may help to protect individuals from
discrimination.
Indonesia. In January 2000, President Wahid issued a decree lifting
restrictions in effect since 1967 on the practice of Confucianism. For
the first time in over 30 years, Confucianists--mainly Indonesians
associated with the Chinese minority--were permitted to celebrate the
Chinese New Year publicly and to practice openly their religious
customs.
Iran. The Government announced that couples may register their
marriage without declaring their religious affiliation. This is the
first major step made by the Government toward religious freedom since
the 1979 revolution. Members of the Baha'i community are likely to
benefit most from the change.
Israel. The successful March 2000 visit of the Pope contributed to
increased religious tolerance in Israel. In March the High Court of
Justice ruled that the Government's use of the Jewish National Fund to
develop public land was discriminatory; that organization's bylaws
prohibit the sale or lease of land to non-Jews. In June 2000, the
Government proposed a plan to redress spending for non-Jewish areas,
which was substantially below that in predominantly Jewish areas.
Finally, harassment of Jehovah's Witnesses declined in 2000.
Kuwait. The Government agreed to allow the Vatican to establish a
permanent mission in the country. The Catholic Church views the
approval as a significant development and indicative of increased
tolerance of Christianity by the government of Kuwait.
Latvia. The government effectively has eased visa restrictions on
foreign missionaries. New visa regulations came into effect in July
1999, and the Government has cooperated to resolve several difficult
visa cases in favor of missionary workers.
Malaysia. Charges were dropped against Muslim women who were
arrested for being on premises where liquor is served. While it is an
offense for a Muslim to drink liquor, it is not an offense to be in a
place that serves liquor. The central Government strongly criticized
the arrests.
Netherlands. The Equal Opportunities Committee took several steps
to reduce employment discrimination on the basis of religion. The
Committee ruled in July 1999 that wearing headscarves for religious
reasons may be banned only on serious grounds, such as security
considerations. The Committee also ruled that employers must take
account of reasonable religious demands from their employees, such as
requests by Muslims for leave on Fridays or by Christians for leave on
Sundays.
Philippines. There was enhanced cooperation between Christian and
Muslim leaders in Mindanao. This cooperation gained more publicity
because of the upswing in violent clashes between militant Muslim
insurgent groups and government security forces. Religious leaders hope
to contribute to a climate of peaceful resolution of the underlying
economic and ethnic problems in Mindanao.
Qatar. The construction of the first Christian church in Qatar was
approved. Previously, the Qatar authorities prohibited the public
practice of any religion except the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam.
Romania. Foreign religious representatives experienced less
discrimination in the processing of visa extensions. The State
Secretary for Religious Denominations made it much easier for religious
associations and foundations to receive building permits. A government
decree effective May 2000 promises to reduce substantially bureaucratic
hindrances to the registration of religious organizations by removing
minimum requirements for numbers of members necessary to establish
religious associations and foundations. A law was adopted entitling
religious denominations to reclaim by legal means property seized
during the Communist era. Three court rulings upheld the rights of
Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh Day Adventists to build places of
worship and practice their faith. The Government sent a new,
restrictive Draft Law on Religions to Parliament in September 1999.
Responding to concerns by the Department of State and the international
community, the Government formally withdrew the legislation in January
2000. The Government currently is engaged in discussions with a wide
range of religious representatives to formulate a new law based on
democratic principles.
Russia. Responding to concerns by the Department of State, one of
Russia's regional governments decided in November 1999 to allow the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints to take part in the
official registration process. This action followed repeated denials of
the church's petition for registration by the regional government.
Several weeks later the Government announced that it would register all
religious groups under their present charters, including the local
Roman Catholic parish.
Saudi Arabia. Government officials reaffirmed publicly, in domestic
and international forums, e.g., at the 56th session of the U.N.
Committee on Human Rights in April 2000, the right of non-Muslims to
worship privately. These statements, published in the local press,
created a greater societal awareness of the Government's decision to
allow non-Islamic private worship. Observers note that, in spite of
several recent actions by the Government against Christians engaged in
private worship, non-Islamic freedom to worship privately received more
attention and greater respect than in the past.
Slovakia. The Government took modest steps to improve religious
freedom through changes in primary and secondary educational
curriculums designed to combat anti-Semitism and through a national
conference on racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and intolerance.
Sudan. Some religious prisoners and detainees were released,
including Faki Koko, who allegedly was held for apostasy, Father
Hillary Boma, and Father Lino Sebit. The Public Order Courts were
abolished, the enforcement of public order law was relaxed, and women
imprisoned under that law were released. Restrictions on religious
visitors and gatherings were eased. The Government's Committee for the
Eradication of the Abduction of Women and Children identified hundreds
of abductees (mostly Christians or practitioners of traditional
indigenous religions) and returned many of them to their families.
Taiwan. The Government no longer places restrictions on registering
new religions if they meet the legal requirements for civic
organizations. Under the new rules, three religions were registered in
1999. A new law allows a civilian alternative to military service for
those who are conscientious objectors. In the past, Jehovah's Witnesses
and other minority religious adherents were imprisoned for failing to
follow orders while in military service.
Tajikistan. A national referendum amended the Constitution to allow
for religiously oriented political parties. Two representatives of one
such party were elected to the new parliament.
Turkey. In June 2000, Ankara's Supreme Court approved the
establishment of a Christian foundation for a Turkish Protestant
church.
Ukraine. The Government revised its visa policy in May 2000,
announcing that invitations are no longer required for visa issuance to
citizens of the United States, Canada, the European Union (EU), and
Japan. While the change greatly simplifies religious tourist travel to
Ukraine, religious workers still must obtain special visas that are
issued only by invitation. The Government continued its plan to return
properties that had been seized during the Communist era to religious
groups. In addition some nontraditional religious organizations
reported an increase in government cooperation, especially in regards
to registration. President Kuchma made a number of symbolic gestures
promoting religious freedom. He spoke frequently and publicly about the
need for ethnic and religious tolerance, spoke out against anti-
Semitism, and attended several high-profile religious services.
Uzbekistan. Until August of 1999, six Christians--in cases
receiving a high profile in the international religious press--were
imprisoned on fabricated narcotics charges because of their religious
activities. Also, some 20 congregations of religious believers were
unable to register because of obstruction by local officials. Moreover,
throughout the reporting period, the Government arrested hundreds of
alleged members of unauthorized Islamic groups. Beginning in August
1999, the Government responded to international diplomatic engagement
and began to make a concerted effort to improve respect for the
religious freedom of Christians and members of other minority religious
groups. However, respect for unauthorized Muslim groups worsened, as
the Government intensified its harsh campaign against such groups,
which it perceived as a continuing security threat. There is little
question that some devout Muslims, identified as dangerous solely
because of their religion, were adversely affected.
In contrast to the government's treatment of unauthorized Muslim
groups, members of most Christian communities reported a significant
increase in government cooperation and tolerance, although there were
still reports of harassment by local officials against some Christian
communities. The President pardoned the six imprisoned Christians. The
Government also registered over 25 non-Muslim religious groups whose
applications were blocked by local officials, including several that
were technically below the required membership level to qualify under
the restrictive religious freedom law. In the latter case, the groups
were sought out and ``invited'' to register, an unprecedented show of
goodwill.
Finally, the Government held an international conference of experts
to examine the shortcomings of the law on religion, indicating its
intention to use this as a basis for corrective legislation based on
the recommendations of the conference. On May 25, the day after the
Ambassador at Large met with Uzbek officials, President Karimov
suggested that the Parliament consider improvement of the religion law.
Vietnam. Most of the serious restrictions of religious freedom in
Vietnam remained in place. However, there was a decrease in official
interference with religious practice, especially for officially
recognized groups, such as Catholics and Buddhists. Most of the
imprisoned 25 Christian Hmong church leaders were released, as were 3
Catholic priests. Officials of the central Government demonstrated some
willingness to investigate reports of abuses by local and provincial
authorities and to take action against those authorities.
Part III: U.S. Actions to Promote International Religious Freedom
As noted in the 1998-99 report, the promotion of religious freedom
involves far more than public airing of violations. The most productive
work often is done behind the scenes, for a very simple reason: no
government or nation is likely to respond positively when publicly
rebuked.
However, it is sometimes necessary for the United States, and the
international community, to denounce particularly abhorrent behavior by
another nation openly. The 1998 International Religious Freedom Act
mandates certain actions in cases of particularly severe violations of
religious freedom. In October 1999, the Secretary of State (acting
under the authority of the President) designated five countries as
``countries of particular concern'' under the Act for having engaged in
or tolerated particularly severe violations. They are Burma, China,
Iran, Iraq, and Sudan. In addition the Secretary identified Serbia and
the Taliban regime of Afghanistan (not ``countries under the Act) as
having committed particularly severe violations.
Religious freedom is one of the fundamental human rights provided
for in international covenants. In general the best public method of
promoting religious freedom is to advocate the universal principles--in
particular the inviolable dignity of the human person--that are
nourished when religious freedom is valued and protected. This approach
continues to be integrated into public U.S. foreign policy channels,
through international exchanges, Worldnet and Voice of America
broadcasts, a religious freedom web site in the home page of the
Department of State, conferences, public opinion polling, Congressional
hearings, and speeches and press conferences by senior U.S. foreign
policy officials. While U.S. public diplomacy efforts will continue to
develop, the following pages indicate some of the progress that has
been made.
Central to the integration of religious freedom into the fabric of
U.S. policy is the training of U.S. officials most likely to encounter
those persecuted because of their religious beliefs: The consular
officer in a U.S. Embassy who interviews a refugee applicant; the U.S.
political officer seeking information on a prisoner; the asylum
official at a U.S. airport hearing the plea of a woman fleeing
religious persecution, and the interpreter who must render her foreign
tongue into English with precision and sympathy; and the U.S.
immigration judge who must hear the case of the alien in danger of
being returned to his country, and into harm's way, because of his
religious beliefs.
It is, in part, with these U.S. officials that the success or
failure of our religious freedom policy lies. Some of their efforts are
highlighted in the following pages; others can be found in the
Appendices to this report, which detail efforts of the Departments of
State and Justice to institutionalize training for their personnel in
areas critical to promoting religious freedom abroad.
Finally, it bears repeating that the United States seeks to promote
religious freedom abroad, not simply to criticize, or to make
headlines. There are many paths to this end, some of them involving the
difficult work of scrutinizing legal documents and draft legislation,
mastering the history and culture of diverse societies, and
understanding religious beliefs and practices alien to our own. Some
paths involve risk, particularly when the objective is to liberate the
prisoner, to stop the torture, or to stay the execution. Such vital
work usually is done out of the limelight, often without
acknowledgement, and occasionally without knowing its result.
But the work must, and does, take place. It happens when a Foreign
Service Officer, sometimes at the risk of safety, presses authorities
to know where the priest has been taken and why. It happens when an
ambassador, while discussing with a senior official his country's
important strategic relationship with the United States, seeks access
to the imprisoned mufti or information on the missionary who has
disappeared. It happens when senior U.S. officials, responsible for
balancing and pursuing all of America's vital national interests, make
it clear that a single persecuted human being, perhaps obscure and
insignificant in the grand affairs of state, matters to the world's
most powerful nation.
The Year in Review
During the period covered by this report--July 1999 through June
2000--the United States has engaged in a variety of efforts to promote
the right of religious freedom and to oppose violations of that right.
Its front line in pursuing these goals has been our overseas Missions--
the embassies, consulates general, and consulates of the United States.
Frequently the Chief of Mission has led the way, as have other members
of the country team.
U.S. Mission efforts inevitably are centered on human rights
officers, as well as consular officers, who serve as the eyes and ears
of the mission in its search for information and its voice in the
advocacy of religious freedom. Their work is facilitated by the wisdom
and practical knowledge of local national embassy staff colleagues,
whose contributions to international religious freedom frequently
advance the interests of the United States. Public affairs officers
coordinate the vital work of public diplomacy in order to present U.S.
policy with accuracy and thoroughness. This work requires clear
explanations both of the ``American approach'' (when asked or when
useful) to religious freedom in the United States and of the U.S.
practice of applying only international standards in its assessment of
foreign governments.
No less important is the tone and context set by senior U.S.
officials when they speak publicly on the subject of religious freedom,
or privately with foreign heads of government and other policy makers.
The President, the Secretary of State, and many of her senior staff
have addressed the issue in venues throughout the world. Within the
United States, the Department of Justice and the Immigration and
Naturalization Service play a critical role as the agencies responsible
for dealing with refugees and asylum seekers who are fleeing religious
persecution. The Department of State is responsible for training some
officials who interview refugee applicants; the Department of Justice
is responsible for training officials who interview both refugee and
asylum applicants and those who adjudicate their cases (see
Appendices).
The fulcrum of the effort to promote religious freedom lies in a
State Department office established in the summer of 1998 and further
mandated by the International Religious Freedom Act--the Office of
International Religious Freedom in the Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor. The office is headed by an Ambassador at Large,
Robert Seiple, who serves as the principal advisor to the President and
the Secretary of State on religious freedom. As such the Ambassador at
Large recommends U.S. policies on religious freedom abroad and oversees
the implementation of those policies. The Ambassador has begun the task
of integrating U.S. policy on religious freedom into the mainstream of
U.S. foreign policy, and--at the same time--into the structure of the
Foreign Service and the Department of State.
The Secretary of State, through the Offices of International
Religious Freedom and Country Reports and Asylum Affairs (both in the
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor), is responsible for
preparing the annual report to Congress on the status of religious
freedom worldwide. In carrying out this task, the Bureau draws on U.S.
mission reporting, visits by the Ambassador at Large and his staff to
individual countries, participation in multilateral meetings and
conferences, and on evidence provided by religious and human rights
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), religious organizations and
individuals. Monitoring and reporting are also guided by the
recommendations and annual report of the U.S. Commission on
International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) established in the 1998 Act.
The following section summarizes some of the many efforts
undertaken by various elements of the U.S. Government's foreign policy
community to promote religious freedom. It is by no means exhaustive,
but it endeavors to provide by way of example a realistic portrait of
U.S. actions. Further details may be found in the individual country
reports.
The following acronyms are used in the text: IRF, International
Religious Freedom, and USCIRF, U.S. Commission on International
Religious Freedom.
Armenia. In September 1999, embassy officials met with the Military
Prosecutor to discuss, among other topics, hazing of minority
conscripts and the status of Jehovah's Witnesses. The Embassy also
maintains regular contact with traveling regional representatives of
foreign-based religious groups like the Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses
and raises their concerns with Armenian officials.
Austria. The Ambassador and other members of the Embassy met
regularly with religious and political leaders to reinforce the U.S.
Government's commitment to religious freedom and tolerance. They have
met repeatedly with the leader of the Jewish community in Austria and
the head of the Lutheran church in Burgenland regarding the threats
against them and their concerns about the new Government. Following
these threats, the Ambassador met with Chancellor Wolfgang Schuessel to
convey the concerns of the U.S. Government. The Ambassador also raised
concerns about a government Minister's intentions to enhance the role
of the office on sects. In May 2000, the Ambassador participated in the
annual commemoration of the victims of the Holocaust at Matthausen
concentration camp. She followed this with a speech on diversity and
tolerance at a program for second-generation immigrants. In April the
Ambassador hosted an event at the residence featuring Congressman Tom
Lantos, a Holocaust survivor. This included members of the government,
religious leaders, and other opinion makers. It focused on religious
and racial tolerance, including a screening of a documentary on
holocaust survivors. In February the Ambassador hosted a benefit
conference to raise money for the renovation of St. Stephen's
cathedral, at which she focused on ecumenical partnerships to combat
intolerance. Following a December 1999 unveiling of a statue
symbolizing tolerance, the Ambassador hosted a reception for government
officials and representatives from NGO's concerned with minorities,
tolerance, and issues of genocide prevention.
In addition, in June 2000, Ambassador Seiple testified before House
International Relations Committee about religious freedom issues in
Austria, including concerns about the Government's information campaign
against religious groups that it considers harmful to the interests of
individuals and society.
Afghanistan. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated the
Taliban regime, which controls most of Afghanistan as a ``country of
particular concern'' under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Azerbaijan. U.S. engagement was significant in the fall of 1999 in
response to a crackdown on religious activity by government officials.
After police broke up a Baptist service in Baku and detained 60
congregants, on September 5, embassy officials were called by local
worshipers to meet with detainees, police, and security officials at
the police station. Throughout the ensuing week, embassy officers
attended court hearings for two Azerbaijani pastors and eight
foreigners arrested as a result of the police action. Other religious
groups quickly reported similar incidents of harassment, and the
Embassy carefully pursued each report with those groups and with the
central Government. Throughout the fall, the Embassy maintained regular
contact with government officials and local religious groups to monitor
the situation and promote a resolution consistent with the country's
constitutional standards of religious freedom. In addition, in October
1999, an IRF office staff member visited the country to express U.S.
concern to the Government and to the local groups affected by the
arrests and harassment.
The U.S. Ambassador met with the Ministers of Interior, Justice,
and National Security, as well as the Prosecutor General, to express
U.S. Government concerns over this pattern of incidents, characterizing
them as violations of standards of religious freedom of the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) as well as
of the Azerbaijani constitution. On November 3, Ambassador Escudero
personally delivered a letter from several Congressmen to President
Aliyev expressing concern over the incidents. On November 8, President
Aliyev publicly reiterated his country's full commitment to
constitutional and OSCE standards of religious freedom and ordered his
government to resolve immediately all reported problems.
Belarus. On April 13, the Ambassador sent a letter to the governor
of the Brest Oblast and the Ministry of Foreign affairs urging a
resolution of the conflict concerning Catholic priest Zbeigniew
Karoljak, following a meeting in Brest with Karoljak's parishioners.
Belgium. Embassy officers met with high-level government officials
and conducted active measures to assist in resolving outstanding
complaints of religious discrimination. In June 2000, Ambassador Seiple
testified before the House International Relations Committee about
religious freedom issues, including the Belgian Government's policy
towards ``sects'' and the creation of a ``Center for Information and
Advice on Harmful Sectarian Organizations.''
Bosnia and Herzegovina. In March 2000, Ambassador Seiple visited
Bosnia and Herzegovina and met with Government officials, NGO's, and
religious leaders to discuss religious freedom issues.
Bulgaria. The Ambassador, embassy officers, and visiting State
Department officials met with a diverse cross-section of relevant
government officials and Members of Parliament to advocate a liberal
approach to religious freedom under a new law on religion. In March an
IRF officer visited Sofia to meet with NGO's and with embassy officers
regarding the draft law. Embassy officers have kept in close touch with
human rights and religious groups to remain attuned to their concerns
about the proposed law. The U.S. Ambassador to the OSCE raised this
point with Bulgaria's OSCE ambassador, and the State Department also
raised this issue in the context of the Stability Pact. Embassy
officers have met with Orthodox clergy from both sides of the schism,
with the chief mufti of the Muslim community, with religious and lay
leaders of the Jewish community, as well as with the leaders of
numerous Protestant denominations.
Burma. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated Burma a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Since 1988 a primary objective of U.S. Government policy has been
to promote increased respect for human rights, including the right to
freedom of religion. The United States discontinued bilateral aid to
the Government, suspended the issuance of licenses to export arms to
Burma, suspended the Generalized System of Preferences for Burma,
suspended tariff preference for imports of Burmese origin, and
suspended Export-Import Bank financial services in support of U.S.
exports to Burma. The U.S. Government also has not provided any
Overseas Private Investment Corporation financial services in support
of U.S. investment in Burma, suspended active promotion of trade with
Burma, suspended issuance of visas to high government officials and
their immediate family members, banned new investment by U.S. firms,
opposed all assistance to the Government by international financial
institutions, and urged the governments of other countries to take
similar actions.
The U.S. Government actively supported the decision of the
International Labor Organization (ILO), in June 1999, to suspend the
Government of Burma from participation in ILO programs, based in part
on an August 1998 ILO Commission of Inquiry report that the Government
systematically used forced labor for a wide range of civilian and
military purposes.
The U.S. Embassy has promoted religious freedom in the overall
context of its promotion of human rights generally in numerous contacts
with government officials (both informally and through repeated formal
demarches), as well as to the public, to representatives of the
governments of other countries and of international organizations, to
international media representatives, to scholars, and to
representatives of U.S. and international businesses. Embassy staff
members met repeatedly with leaders of Buddhist, Christian, and Islamic
religious groups, members of the faculties of schools of theology, and
other religious-affiliated organizations and NGO's as part of their
reporting and public diplomacy activities.
China. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated China as
a country of particular concern under the International Religious
Freedom Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
The U.S. Embassy and consulates collected information about abuses
and maintained contacts in China's religious communities with a wide
spectrum of religious leaders including bishops, priests, ministers of
the official Christian churches, and Taoist and Buddhist leaders.
Embassy officials continued, for example, to seek clarification about
the status of Roman Catholic Bishop Su Zhimin. On numerous occasions,
senior U.S. Government officials in Washington and in China protested
government actions taken against Falun Gong followers, including the
temporary detention of thousands of adherents in July 1999 and the
sentencing of four group leaders later in that year. In May 2000,
senior embassy officers urged the Chinese to release Pastor Xu Yongze,
whose ``reeducation through labor'' sentence expired in March 2000.
Consulate Guangzhou officers also protested to local officials the
detention and harassment of Pastor Li Dexian. State Department
officials met with senior Chinese Embassy officers in Washington to
protest the January detention of Roman Catholic Bishop Yang Shudao.
Diplomatic personnel also traveled to Tibet to monitor conditions,
including the status of religious freedom. Cases raised by the Embassy
include those of Gendun Choekyi Nyima, the boy recognized by the Dalai
Lama as the 11th Panchen Lama; Abbot Chadrel Rinpoche; Ngawang
Sangdrol; and other Tibetan monks and nuns. Other embassy officers
raised specific cases in meetings with officials from the Religious
Affairs Bureau and the United Front Work Department.
The Department of State sent Chinese religious leaders and scholars
to the United States on international visitor programs to see first
hand the role that religion plays in the United States.
The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom took a
number of actions during the reporting period to express its concerns
about religious freedom in China. These included: A press release
noting increasing religious persecution in China--including cases of
persecution of Muslim Uighurs; public calls on the Chinese Government
to end persecution of Falun Gong adherents; urging Chinese cooperation
with the Vatican in naming Catholic bishops; and testimony before the
Congressional Human Rights Caucus, the House Ways and Means Committee,
the House International Relations Committee, and the Senate Foreign
Relations Committee.
In October 1999, Ambassador Seiple testified before the House
International Relations Committee and in May 2000 before the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee concerning the religious freedom of Tibetan
Buddhists and the Christian and Muslim communities in China. In March
2000, Ambassador Seiple, accompanied by Rabbi David Saperstein,
Chairman of the Commission on International Religious Freedom, held
bilateral meetings at the U.N. Commission on Human Rights in Geneva,
seeking support for the U.S.-proposed resolution criticizing China's
human rights record, including its religious freedom practices.
Cuba. The U.S. Interests Section supported various religious
leaders and communities in the country and supported NGO initiatives
that aid religious groups. The U.S. Government regularly sought to
facilitate the issuance of licenses for travel by religious persons and
for donated goods and materials. The U.S. Interests Section raised
issues of human rights, including religious discrimination and
harassment, with government officials. However, the government
dismissed these concerns. The Interests Section reported on cases of
religious discrimination and harassment, and the U.S. government
continuously urged international pressure on the Cuban government to
cease its repressive practices.
Czech Republic. The Embassy, the Department of State, and the U.S.
Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad devoted
considerable efforts beginning in December 1999 to facilitate a
mutually acceptable settlement of the longstanding dispute over a
medieval Jewish cemetery (believed to be the oldest in the Czech
Republic) in downtown Prague.
Egypt. The U.S. Embassy maintained an active dialog with the
leaders of the Christian and Muslim religious communities, human rights
groups, and other activists and has investigated every complaint of
religious discrimination brought to its attention. The Embassy
discussed religious freedom issues with other groups, including
academics, businessmen, and lower-income citizens. The Embassy worked
to strengthen civil society, including training for nongovernmental
groups that promote religious tolerance and provided training to
Egyptian police in human rights practices and community policing
techniques.
In March 2000, an NGO service center funded by the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) began operating to provide training
and technical assistance to local NGO's. The Embassy nominated
participants interested in advocacy for the International Visitor
Program and invited U.S. specialists in this subject as part of the
State Department's speakers program. Other embassy initiatives included
activities designed to strengthen the rule of law and promote civic
education. The public affairs section of the Embassy supported the
development of materials that encourage tolerance, diversity, and
understanding of others, in both Arabic-language and English-language
curriculums.
USAID, in collaboration with the Children's Television Workshop,
developed an Egyptian version of the television program Sesame Street,
which is designed to reach isolated households and to promote
tolerance. The show was scheduled for airing beginning in the summer of
2000. USAID also supported private voluntary organizations that are
implementing innovative curriculums in private schools. The public
affairs section of the Embassy spearheaded an effort to increase the
professionalism of the press, with an emphasis on balanced and
responsible coverage. Finally, USAID worked with the Supreme Council of
Antiquities to promote the conservation of cultural antiquities,
including Islamic, Christian, and Jewish historical sites.
Eritrea. The Ambassador and other embassy officers raised the
special case of Jehovah's Witnesses with government officials in the
President's office, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the High Court,
the Ministry of Justice, in media interviews, and in the State
Department's human rights report. The Assistant Secretary of State for
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor also raised the issue with the
Eritrean Ambassador.
France. In October 1999, Ambassador Seiple and an IRF officer
visited France and met with government officials, NGO's, and religious
leaders to discuss religious freedom issues. In addition, in June 2000,
Ambassador Seiple testified before the House International Relations
Committee regarding religious freedom issues in France, including
concerns about the creation of the ``sect lists.''
Germany. The U.S. Government has expressed its concerns over
allegations of infringement of individual rights because of religious
affiliation and over the potential for discrimination in international
trade posed by the screening of foreign firms for possible Scientology
affiliation. U.S. government officials discussed with state and federal
German authorities U.S. concerns about the violation of individual
rights posed by the use of declarations of Scientology affiliation.
U.S. officials frequently made the point that the use of such
``filters'' to prevent persons from practicing their professions,
solely based on their beliefs, is an abuse of their rights, as well as
a discriminatory business practice. In June 2000, Ambassador Seiple
testified before the House International Relations Committee about the
treatment of German Scientologists and the use of ``filters.''
India. The U.S. Embassy continued to promote religious freedom
through contact with the country's senior leadership, as well as with
state and local officials. The Embassy and consulates regularly report
on events and trends that affect religious freedom.
During his state visit, President Clinton spoke about the massacre
of Sikhs in Kashmir on March 20, 2000, and called for an end to the
violence. In August and September 1999, the U.S. Consul in Chennai
expressed concern to Kerala state government officials about the status
of Father Anthony Raymond Ceresko's visa application to the chief
secretary of Karnataka and about the the cancellation of the conference
of the Anglican Church (see Section I). In January 2000, Senator Tom
Daschle and his delegation raised the issue of religious minorities
with Home Minister L.K. Advani during a visit to New Delhi. In February
a representative of the State Department discussed minority issues with
the National Human Rights Commission in New Delhi. On June 23, 2000,
the U.S. Ambassador noted to the press that attacks against Christians
are a serious concern.
Embassy officers meet with religious officials to monitor religious
freedom on a regular basis. U.S. embassy officers traveled to Gujarat
and Uttar Pradesh to assess the situation of religious minorities in
those states. Embassy and consulate officials maintained contact with
senior leaders of all minority communities. The Embassy also maintains
contacts with U.S. residents, including those in the NGO and missionary
communities. The NGO community is extremely active with regard to
religious freedom, and embassy officers meet with local NGO's to obtain
information on religious freedom developments.
Indonesia. The U.S. Government publicly expressed concern regarding
the intercommunal violence that occurred in various parts of the
country. U.S. statements urged the Government to take all necessary
measures to prevent bloodshed; to take action against those who
initiate violence, while adhering to international standards for the
protection of human rights; and to resolve their differences through
dialog and negotiation.
With respect to the violence between Christian and Muslim
communities in the Moluccas and elsewhere, President Clinton and other
senior government officials raised their concerns with their Indonesian
counterparts on numerous occasions.
The Ambassador and embassy officers routinely conveyed to
government officials at all levels the U.S. view that religious freedom
must be respected and fostered. In addition the Ambassador and embassy
officers regularly met with leaders of religious communities and
traveled widely throughout the country to keep abreast of developments
affecting religious freedom.
The public affairs section of the Embassy funded the travel of
several persons under the International Visitor Program, as well as
exchange visitors, who studied human rights and religion in the United
States, among other topics. They included religious and student leaders
and legal activists from Aceh, Papua, East Timor, and other locations.
The Fulbright Commission in Indonesia funded one senior U.S. scholar to
teach comparative religion at the State Islamic Institute (IAIN) in
Jakarta and a senior U.S. scholar-researcher who studied and taught the
role of women in Koranic verse at the same institution.
The U.S. Government also provided significant funding for NGO's
that implement projects to promote religious tolerance in various parts
of the country.
The Commission on International Religious Freedom took a number of
actions during the reporting period to express its concern about
religious freedom in the country. These included publicly calling on
the Government in January 2000 to restore order in the Malukus after
outbreaks of Muslim-Christian strife; Commissioner Archbishop Theodre
McCarrick's visit to East Timor and Jakarta in February; and the
Commission's July public expression of ``deep concerns'' about
religious violence.
Iran. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated Iran as a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
President Clinton made a number of statements regarding the
treatment of Iranian religious minorities. The statements included one
criticizing the execution of Ruhollah Rowhani, a member of the Baha'i
Faith, in June 1998 and a statement calling on the Government to
exonerate 13 members of the Jewish community arrested in June 1999. The
Secretary of State also called on the Government to release and drop
charges against the 13 Jews, 10 of whom were still in prison as of June
2000. In February the USCIRF publicly called for the nullification of
death sentences for three Baha'is in Mashdad.
Iraq. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated Iraq as a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Israel. In December 1999, Ambassador Seiple visited Israel and met
with Government officials, NGO's, religious leaders, and others to
discuss a number of religious freedom issues including allegations of
persecution of Christians, intrareligious conflicts in the Jewish
community, and the concerns of the Islamic community.
Jordan. In February 2000, Congressman Charles Canady forwarded a
letter signed by 63 Members of Congress to King Abdullah, encouraging
the Government to grant Jordan Evangelical Theological Seminary's
(JETS) request for registration with the Ministry of Education. In
April 2000, Ambassador Seiple and members of the IRF office traveled to
Jordan and met with religious leaders and officials regarding
government delays in the registration of JETS. Ambassador Seiple also
met with Queen Rania, who heads a new royal Human Rights Commission,
and with Prince Hassan to promote interfaith dialog.
Kazakhstan. In May 2000, Ambassador Seiple visited Kazakhstan and
met with government officials, NGO's and religious leaders. Government
officials were receptive to Ambassador Seiple's offers of assistance in
drafting the drafting of new religious legislation.
Laos. During his second visit in February 2000, Ambassador Seiple
presided at a group meeting of religious leaders and officials where he
emphasized the importance of religious freedom. Although the presence
of government officials did not encourage frank dialog, the meeting was
unprecedented and produced demarches to the Government. Ambassador
Seiple met on several occasions with the Laotian Ambassador.
Lebanon. In April 2000, Ambassador Seiple visited Lebanon and
discussed Islamic-Christian dialog with local lawyers and activists.
Nigeria. In July 2000, the USCIRF expressed publicly its ``deep
concerns'' about religious violence in the country.
Pakistan. On an informal basis, the Embassy has assisted some
Christian-affiliated relief organizations in guiding paperwork through
government channels. The Embassy also assisted local and international
human rights organizations in following up on specific cases involving
religious minorities. In meetings with cabinet officials and National
Security Council members, the Ambassador raised the issues of the
blasphemy laws, separate electorates for minorities, and the seeming
impunity with which sectarian groups operated. The Embassy assisted
with other high-level visits--including that of four senators led by
Senator Thomas Daschle, a delegation led by Senator Sam Brownback, and
a congressional staff delegation--which raised religious freedom issues
with senior officials.
The Embassy also conducted a number of public diplomacy programs on
religious issues (e.g. ``Islam in America'' on Worldnet) designed to
promote interfaith harmony and understanding. Expressions of concern
over the blasphemy laws by the Embassy, together with the human rights
community and other U.S. agencies, contributed to government efforts to
implement administrative changes in application of the laws.
Ambassador Seiple and an IRF office staff member visited Pakistan
during the reporting period. They met with government officials, NGO's,
and religious leaders to discuss religious freedom issues.
Poland. One embassy officer devotes the vast majority of his time
to questions of Polish/Jewish relations. The Embassy and Consulate
General worked to facilitate the protection and return of former Jewish
cemeteries throughout the country and to play a continuing role in
ongoing efforts to establish an international foundation to oversee
restitution of Jewish communal property.
The public affairs sections of the Embassy and the Consulate in
Krakow provided continuing support for activities designed to promote
cultural and religious tolerance. Such activities included a digital
videoconference linking young Poles with U.S. participants in the March
of the Living; a 2-week voluntary visitor program for senior
administrators at the Auschwitz-Birkenau state museum; and ongoing
press and public affairs support for the Auschwitz Jewish Center
Foundation and its project to renovate the last remaining synagogue in
Oswiecim.
Romania. U.S. embassy officials have lobbied consistently with
government officials for fair treatment on property restitution issues,
including religious and communal properties. The Embassy has a core
group of officers who focus on fostering good ethnic relations,
including relations between religious groups. The Embassy lobbied
against a draft religion bill and encouraged other Western embassies
and religious groups in Romania to do likewise. Secretary Albright also
raised the issue with the Foreign Minister. The bill eventually was
withdrawn in February 2000, following which Ambassador Seiple and
USCIRF Chairman Saperstein visited Bucharest in March 2000 to confirm
the Government's position and discourage attempts to resurrect the law.
Russia. The Ambassador publicly and strongly criticized the attack
on Jewish leader Leopold Kaymovskiy and the attempted bombing of the
Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, calling on the Government to investigate
these crimes vigorously.
The Embassy in Moscow and the Consulates General in Yekaterinburg,
St. Petersburg, and Vladivostok actively investigated reports of
violations of religious freedom, including anti-Semitic incidents.
Embassy officials at the Chief of Mission level discussed religious
freedom with high-ranking officials in the presidential administration,
Government, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs approximately every 6
weeks, raising specific cases of concern. Federal officials have
responded by investigating those cases and keeping embassy staff
informed on issues they have raised.
Embassy representatives maintained close contact with Jewish
leaders throughout the aftermath of two crises. After the attempted
bombing of a synagogue, the Embassy's regional security officer also
visited two other Lubavitcher synagogues to advise them on physical
security. The Embassy closely followed and reported on the progress of
the amendment to the 1997 religion law and related Constitutional Court
rulings. The Embassy played a role in resolving registration problems
of two religious groups in Samara and in Tatarstan and maintains
contact with Tatarstan authorities in an effort to resolve a third
case. As implementation of the 1997 religion law continues, the Embassy
maintains semiweekly contact with working-level officials at the
Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In May 2000, an
embassy official attended a 4-day religion law seminar hosted by the
Russian State Academy for Public Service, consulted with Russian and
foreign religion law experts on the seminar results, and also met with
representatives of religious groups at a subsequent briefing organized
by the Esther Legal Information Center.
The 1997 law on religious freedom was the subject of numerous high-
level communications between members of the U.S. executive branch and
the Russian Government, involving the President, the Vice President,
the Secretary of State, and other senior U.S. officials. For example,
at the U.S.-Russia Summit held in Moscow on June 10-11, 2000, President
Clinton discussed religious freedom in his meetings with President
Putin and other government officials. On September 14, 1999, the
Special Advisor to the Secretary of State for the New Independent
States, Ambassador at Large Stephen Sestanovich, cochaired a roundtable
meeting with representatives of religious communities at the State
Department together with Senator Gordon Smith, Ambassador Seiple, and
an National Security Council (NSC) Senior Director. On April 13, 2000,
Ambassador Sestanovich cochaired another roundtable discussion on
religious freedom in Russia with Senator Smith, Ambassador Seiple, and
an NSC Senior Director.
In February 2000, Ambassador Seiple testified before the Helsinki
Commission about the 1997 law. In addition he addressed the harassment
of Muslims stemming from the Caucasus conflict and the case of Reverend
Dan Pollard in Khabarovsk Krai. In May 2000, Ambassador Seiple
testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee expressing
concerns about the 1997 law and other religious freedom issues in
Russia.
The USCIRF took a number of actions during the reporting period to
express publicly its concern about religious freedom in Russia. These
included: In December 1999, the Commission noted that the war in
Chechnya was fed by religious bigotry; in May 2000, the Commission
testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the House
International Relations Committee.
Saudi Arabia. An embassy officer held meetings during October,
November, December, February, and March with Philippine embassy
staffers during the period of detention and deportation of persons
suspected of involvement with Christian proselytizing groups. On March
5 embassy officers conducted a meeting with and delivered a demarche on
religious freedom to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs official in charge
of human rights, including freedom of religion. In May 2000, senior
embassy officers and the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for
International Organizations, David Welch, held a meeting with the
Assistant Deputy Foreign Minister regarding religious freedom and human
rights issues. Also in May, a meeting was held with Foreign Minister
Saud al-Faisal that included Assistant Secretary Welch and an embassy
officer regarding religious freedom and human rights issues. The
Embassy held another meeting in May with the Saudi Ministry of Foreign
Affairs official in charge of human rights, which included discussions
of freedom of religion. Ambassador Seiple also visited Saudi Arabia
during the reporting period to discuss a range of religious freedom
issues with government officials.
Serbia-Montenegro. In October 1999, the Secretary of State
designated the Milosevic Government of Serbia as a ``country of
particular concern'' under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
In the summer of 1999 and again in February 2000, Secretary of
State Albright met with Bishop Artemije, head of the Serbian Orthodox
Church in Kosovo, who expressed concern about the safety of the Serbs
still living in Kosovo. During visits to Kosovo in July and November
1999, the Secretary delivered strong messages of ethnic tolerance in
Kosovo. President Clinton also appealed for tolerance in the region on
his visit in November 1999. U.S. Kosovo Force peacekeeping troops have
worked to prevent ethnic and religious violence and have guarded some
religious sites. The U.S. is involved actively in the U.N. Mission in
Kosovo, the interim administration, which is aimed at securing peace,
facilitating refugee return and reconstruction, laying the foundations
for democratic selfgovernment in the province, and fostering respect
for human rights regardless of ethnicity or religion. In Montenegro the
U.S. Government has provided significant support and assistance to the
reform-oriented republic government, which also seeks to ensure respect
for human rights, including religious freedom.
In May 2000, an IRF office staff member visited Kosovo to address
religious freedom issues, including protection of minority populations
and places of worship.
Sudan. In October 1999, the Secretary of State designated Sudan as
a country of particular concern under the International Religious
Freedom Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
In May 2000, Ambassador Seiple testified before the Senate Foreign
Relations Committee and expressed concern about the significant
religious dimension of government forces targeting the mostly
indigenous and Christian southern population. The USCIRF took a number
of actions during the reporting period to express publicly its concern
about religious freedom in Sudan. These included: In January 2000,
Commission member Elliot Abrams visited Sudan; in February the
Commission held hearings in Washington; in May the Commission testified
before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the House
International Relations Committee; and in July the Commission noted
ongoing severe religious freedom violations in Sudan.
Turkey. In December 1999, Ambassador Seiple visited Turkey and met
with Government officials, NGO's, and religious leaders to discuss
religious freedom issues.
Turkmenistan. In May 2000 the Ambassador raised the issue of the
onerous registration requirements with the Deputy Chairman of the
Council on Religious Affairs. In November 1999, the Ambassador and
other embassy officials went to the site of the destruction of the
SeventhDay Adventist Church to condemn the decision of the Government
to tear down the church. Embassy officials assisted the congregation in
removing some of its religious materials from the church for storage
elsewhere. In July 1999, an embassy officer attempted to attend the
trial of Shageldy Atakov but was not allowed into the courtroom. In
September and December 1999, embassy officers met with the head of
President Niyazov's Institute for Democracy and Human Rights and
members of the Council on Religious Affairs to press for reducing the
onerous registration requirements for minority religions. In the course
of a discussion with the Foreign Minister on U.S.-Turkmen relations in
December 1999, the Charge raised the issue of religious freedom and
prisoners of conscience and urged that the latter be included in an
upcoming presidential amnesty. In October 1999, a USCIRF Commissioner
visited Turkmenistan and in March 2000 testified before the U.S.
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In May 2000,
Ambassador Seiple and an IRF office staff member met with government
officials and religious leaders to discuss how to make progress in the
registration of religious groups.
Ukraine. Since most religious freedom problems in the country stem
from the relationship between foreign missionaries of nonnative
religions and local authorities, and most of the foreign missionaries--
approximately 55 percent--working in the country today are U.S.
citizens, the Embassy has intervened as necessary to defend their
interests. Responding to complaints by the missionaries that Ukrainian
embassies and consulates were not issuing religious worker visas, the
consular section raised the importance of honoring visa reciprocity in
several 1999-2000 meetings with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These
meetings did not result in tangible improvements in the Government's
visa practices toward prospective religious workers; however, the
Embassy plans to continue to stress the issue with the Ministry of
Foreign affairs. During meetings with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
the Embassy repeatedly recommended eliminating the Soviet-era
requirement for an invitation to receive a Ukrainian visa. As of May
2000, invitations were no longer required for citizens of the U.S.,
Canada, the EU, and Japan, a change that will benefit religious
workers.
The U.S. Government also has been active in advocating just
restitution of religious property confiscated by the Nazi and Communist
regimes. Embassy officers raised the issue in a February 2000 meeting
at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ambassador stressed the
importance of a transparent and nondiscriminatory process for property
restitution at the May 2000 meeting of the joint U.S.-Ukraine Cultural
Heritage Commission in Kiev. A U.S. Commissioner and the Deputy
Minister of Culture agreed to cooperate on drafting legislation that
would prohibit construction and privatization on previous and current
cemeteries of all religious denominations. The Embassy assisted in the
April 2000 renewal of the Ukraine-Israel student exchange agreement
which governs the actions of the Jewish Agency for Israel (JAI) in the
country. An embassy officer met with the Director General of the JAI,
Aaron Abramovich, in August 1999. The Ambassador raised the issue in a
September 1999 meeting with presidential foreign policy advisor
Anatoliy Orel and Deputy Foreign Minister Oleksandr Chaliy. The
Ambassador also discussed the issue with Abramovich in a January 2000
meeting. The Ambassador and his deputy raised the issue during meetings
with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Embassy officers discussed the
issue several times with the Israeli Embassy: a meeting was held with
the Israeli Embassy in February 2000 to discuss renewal of the
Agreement. The Embassy places a high priority on monitoring anti-
Semitism and maintaining close relations with local Jewish
organizations. In August 1999, the Embassy hosted a meeting of Jewish
community leaders with Senator Arlen Specter. Two embassy officers and
a representative of the State Department's Office of Religious Freedom
attended the October 1999 induction ceremony of Rabbi Alexander
Dukhovny as the progressive rabbi of all Ukraine. Embassy officers also
attended the March 2000 rededication of the Kiev grand synagogue. An
embassy officer held regular meetings with a variety of Jewish
community representatives.
In October 1999, the NSC Director for Russian, Ukrainian, and
Eurasian Affairs met with representatives of religious organizations in
Kiev to discuss religious freedom and property restitution. An IRF
office staff member also visited Ukraine to address religious freedom
issues.
Uzbekistan. The Ambassador delivered a speech calling for improved
respect for religious freedom at the Ombudsman's February 29 roundtable
on amending the religion law. The Ambassador and other embassy officers
raised issues of religious freedom on at least 10 occasions in meetings
with the Foreign Minister and other government officials, as well as in
the context of the U.S.-Uzbek human rights working group. An embassy
officer regularly discussed religious freedom with the deputy director
of the Committee on Religious Affairs in the Cabinet of Ministers.
There are no registered nongovernmental organizations in the country
that deal specifically with issues of religious freedom. An embassy
officer maintains regular contact with religious leaders and
unregistered human rights activists on these and other issues.
The U.S. congressional chief of staff of the Commission for
Security and cooperation in Europe, along with several staff members,
held a series of meetings in Tashkent with Uzbek officials in December
1999. Issues of religious freedom were a prominent part of the agenda.
In February 2000, the Assistant to the Special Adviser to the Secretary
of State for the Newly Independent States gave a major address on
religious freedom at the Tashkent University for World Economy and
Diplomacy. Together with the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, he discussed the religion law and
issues of religious freedom with Uzbek officials, religious leaders,
and human rights activists. The Deputy Assistant Secretary held
additional separate meetings on these topics with both officials and
activists. The Secretary of State met with President Karimov in
Tashkent in April 2000, and raised U.S. concerns on these issues,
particularly calling for amendments to the religion law. During her
visit, the Secretary also visited Muslim and Jewish places of worship.
The Deputy Assistant Secretary returned with the Secretary's party in
April 2000 to follow up on his previous meetings with a separate series
of discussions with Uzbek officials. He also met with the families of
victims of the repression of independent Muslims as well as with human
rights activists.
Ambassador Seiple and IRF office staff met with the Uzbek
ambassador in July and August 1999 to encourage improvement in the
Government's respect for religious freedom. Ambassador Seiple and staff
members visited the country and met with foreign ministry and other
officials in May 2000 to press for progress in amending the religion
law, improved treatment of imprisoned Muslims, and tolerance with
regard to proselytism. He also met with religious leaders of minority
faiths, including the Russian Orthodox Church, with the families of
victims of the repression of independent Muslims, and with human rights
activists.
Vietnam. The Ambassador raised religious freedom issues with senior
cabinet ministers including the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister,
senior government and communist party advisors, the head of the
Government's office on religion, deputy ministers of foreign affairs
and public security, and the chairperson of provincial people's
committees around the country.
Embassy officers informed government officials that progress on
religious issues and human rights has an effect on the degree of full
normalization of bilateral relations. The Embassy's public affairs
officer distributed information about U.S. concerns about religious
freedom to Communist Party and government officials. In their
representations to the Government, the Ambassador and other embassy
officers urged that recognition of religious groups be spread more
broadly to other groups of peaceful religious believers, such as
members of the United Buddhist Church of Vietnam and the Protestant
house churches.
In general, representations by the Embassy and Consulate have
focused on specific restrictions of religious freedom. These issues
include detention and arrest of religious figures and restrictions on
church organizational activities, such as training religious leaders,
ordination, church building, and the foreign travel of religious
figures. In several cases, the Embassy's and the Consulate's
interventions on issues of religious freedom have resulted in
improvements. The release of several religious prisoners during
amnesties in 1999 and 2000 followed long-term and direct advocacy on
their behalf by the Embassy. Releases of some 20 Hmong Protestants
detained in 1999 by authorities in Lai Chau province followed advocacy
by the Embassy. One foreign NGO told the U.S. Embassy that officials in
Lai Chau had complained that, following the visit of the Ambassador to
the province in the spring of 1999, during which he had presented a
list of Hmong religious prisoners, the provincial officials had been
told by Hanoi authorities to ease up on their treatment of the Hmong.
An embassy officer visited Unified Bhuddist Church of Vietnam (UBCV)
Supreme Patriarch Thich Huyen Guang in Guang Ngai province in December
1999, his first visit from a Westerner in 18 years. Following the
visit, Thich Huyen Guang was featured on national television for the
first time in years, was moved from his pagoda during flooding (unlike
the previous year), and received improved medical care. On several
occasions, embassy and consulate officers met with prominent religious
prisoners after their release from prison. Consulate General Ho Chi
Minh City officers maintained an ongoing dialog with Thich Guang Do and
other UBCV monks, with officially recognized Buddhists, and also
maintained wide contacts within the Catholic, Protestant, Hoa Hao, Cao
Dai, and Muslim communities. In March the USCIRF publicly condemned the
Government of Vietnam for its interference in a Hoa Hao commemoration.
A Consulate General officer attended the first officially recognized
Hoa Hao festival in Giang in July. Consulate General and embassy
officials worked closely with Assemblies of God Pastor Tran Dinh
``Paul'' Ai to obtain a passport and then a religious worker's visa to
go to the United States, following months of ongoing harassment by the
police.
In July 1999, Ambassador Seiple visited Vietnam for discussions
with officials and leaders of several religious bodies. He raised U.S.
concerns about expanding conditions of religious freedom with officials
of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Government Committee on
Religion, and other government offices.
Other Actions: U.S. Government efforts included actions that were
not specific to individual countries. Selected examples include: The
Secretary of State's speech on May 4, 2000, in Washington to the
American Jewish Committee; the Secretary's hosting of a December 21,
1999 ``Iftaar'' Dinner with American Muslim groups at the State
Department; and President Clinton's frequent remarks on the status of
religious freedom, especially in such countries as Vietnam, Russia,
China, India, Pakistan, and other countries.
The Office of International Religious Freedom hosted in May 1999 a
conference in Washington on ``Religion and Foreign Policy;'' attended a
U.S. Catholic Conference Bishops' International Policy Meeting to
explain the administration's concerns about religious freedom issues;
participated in a review of the USCIRF's first report by the Institute
on Religion and Public Policy; and met with dozens of religious groups
from many different countries who were concerned about persecution or
discrimination. In October 1999 and March 2000, Ambassador Seiple and
members of his staff visited the Vatican to discuss religious freedom
issues. The Office continued its program of outreach to the U.S. Muslim
community and has plans to expand the program to other religious
communities. It also continued its support of NGO-managed
reconciliation programs in Lebanon and Indonesia.
AFRICA
----------
ANGOLA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Government does not require religious groups to register.
Colonial era statutes banned all non-Christian religious groups from
Angola; while those statutes still exist, they are no longer in effect.
Religious Demography
Christianity is the religion of the vast majority of the country's
population of 10 to 12 million, with Roman Catholicism the country's
largest single denomination. The Roman Catholic Church claims 5 million
adherents, but such figures could not be verified. A Luanda Catholic FM
radio station, Radio Ecclesia, airs weekly several hours of church
services and overtly religious programming. The major Protestant
denominations also are present, along with a number of indigenous
African and Brazilian Christian denominations. The largest Protestant
denominations include the Methodists, Baptists, United Church of
Christ, and Congregationalists. The largest syncretic religious group
is the Kimbanguist Church, whose followers believe that a mid-20th
century Congolese pastor named Joseph Kimbangu was a prophet. A small
portion of the country's rural population practices animism or
traditional indigenous religions. There is a small Islamic community
based around migrants from West Africa.
In colonial times, the country's coastal populations were primarily
Catholic while the Protestant mission groups were active in the
interior. With the massive social displacement caused by 25 years of
civil war, this rough division is no longer valid.
Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in
1975, although the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled many
Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief
that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. The
post-independence Government was a one-party state until 1991 and
nationalized all church schools and clinics. Missionaries have been
able to return to the country since the early 1990's although security
conditions due to the civil war have made it impossible for them to
return to most parts of the interior.
Members of the clergy in government-held areas regularly use their
pulpits to criticize government policies. In 1996 a German clergyman
was charged with subversive activities for speaking out on social
issues, but there were no reported cases of such charges during the
period covered by this report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
While in general the rebel group UNITA permitted freedom of
religion, interviews with persons who left UNITA-controlled areas
revealed that the clergy did not enjoy the right to criticize UNITA
policies.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the country's religious
denominations, and there is a functioning ecumenical movement,
particularly in support of peace.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officials and official visitors from Washington routinely
meet with the country's religious leaders in the context of
peacekeeping, democratization, development, and humanitarian relief
efforts. Church groups are key members of the country's civil society
movement and are consulted regularly. Embassy officials, including the
Ambassador, the Director of the Agency for International Development,
and others, maintain an ongoing dialog with the leaderships of all of
the country's religious denominations.
__________
BENIN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. There is no state
religion.
Persons who wish to form a religious group must register with the
Ministry of the Interior. Registration requirements are identical for
all religious groups. There were no reports that any group had been
refused permission to register or had been subjected to untoward delays
or obstacles in the registration process. Religious groups are free
from taxation. The Government accords respect to prominent religious
leaders and different faiths. For example, Christian, Muslim, and
traditional indigenous religious holidays are recognized officially and
state-run television features coverage of the celebration of religious
holidays and funerals of prominent religious leaders.
Religious Demography
Reliable statistics on religious affiliation are not available.
However, according to most estimates, some 25 percent of the population
are nominally Christian, and about 15 percent are nominally Muslim. At
least 60 percent of the population adheres to one form or another of
traditional indigenous beliefs. Many persons who nominally identify
themselves as Christian or Muslim also practice traditional indigenous
beliefs. Among the most commonly practiced traditional indigenous faith
is the animist ``vodoun'' system of belief, which originated in this
part of Africa. Almost all citizens appear to be believers in a
supernatural order. There are practically no atheists.
There are Christians, Muslims, and adherents to traditional
indigenous religions throughout the country. However, most adherents of
the traditional Yoruba religion are in the south, while other
traditional indigenous faiths are followed in the north. Muslims are
represented most heavily in the north and in the southeast. Christians
are prevalent in the south, particularly in Cotonou, the economic
capital. It is not unusual for members of the same family to practice
Christianity, Islam, traditional indigenous religions, or several
combinations of all of these.
Over half of all Christians are Roman Catholics. Other groups
include Baptists, Methodists, Assembly of God, Pentecostals, Latter-Day
Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Celestial Christians, Rosicrucians, the
Unification Church, Eckankar, Seventh-Day Adventists, and the Baha'i
Faith. Nearly all Muslims adhere to the Sunni branch of Islam. The few
Shi'a Muslims are primarily Middle Eastern expatriates.
The Reconciliation and Development Conference, held in Cotonou and
sponsored by the Government in December 1999, focused on the legacy of
the triangular Atlantic slave trade and sought to reconcile Africans
and the African Diaspora using evangelical Protestant principles. The
conference was open to persons of all faiths (or no faith) and all
nationalities. Participants offered numerous religious and secular
perspectives.
Missionary groups operate freely throughout the country.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Due possibly to the diversity of religious affiliations within
families and communities, religious tolerance is widespread at all
levels of society and in all geographic regions. Relations are
generally amicable between the many religious groups. Inter-faith
dialog occurs regularly, and citizens respect different religious
traditions and practices, including syncretistic beliefs.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. A
U.S. senator, two congressmen, and embassy representatives attended the
December 1999 Reconciliation and Development Conference in Cotonou (see
Section I).
__________
BOTSWANA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The Constitution provides for the suspension of religious freedom
in the interests of national defense, public safety, public order,
public morality, or public health. However, any suspension of religious
freedom by the Government must be deemed ``reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society.''
The Constitution also provides for the protection of the rights and
freedoms of other persons, including the right to observe and practice
any religion without the unsolicited intervention of members of any
other religion.
All religious organizations must register with the Government. To
register, a group submits its constitution to the Ministry of Home
Affairs. After a generally simple bureaucratic process, the
organization is registered. There are no legal benefits for registered
organizations. Unregistered groups are potentially liable to penalties
including fines up to $192 (1,000 Pula), up to 7 years in jail, or
both. Except for the case of the Unification Church, there is no
indication that any religious organization has ever been denied
registration.
The Unification Church was denied registration (but not suspended)
in 1984 by the Ministry of Home Affairs on the public order grounds
stipulated in the Constitution. The Government also perceived the
Unification Church as anti-Semitic and denied registration because of
another constitutional provision, which protects the rights and
freedoms of individuals to practice their religion without
intervention. In the intervening 16 years, although it has petitioned
unsuccessfully the offices of the President and Vice President, the
Unification Church has made no move to challenge the Ministry's
decision in the courts.
Religious Demography
About half of the country's citizens identify themselves as
Christians. Anglicans, Methodists, and the United Congregational Church
of Southern Africa--formerly the London Missionary Society--claim the
majority of Christian adherents. There are also congregations of
Lutherans, Roman Catholics, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints, Seventh-Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptists, the
Dutch Reformed Church, and other Christian denominations.
In recent years, a number of churches of West African origin have
begun holding services, drawing good-sized crowds with a charismatic
blend of Christianity and traditional indigenous religions.
Most other citizens adhere to traditional indigenous religions, or
to a mixture of religions. There is a small Muslim community--about 2
to 3 percent of the population--primarily of South Asian origin, and a
very small Baha'i community as well.
The Constitution provides that every religious community may
establish places for religious instruction at the community's expense.
The Constitution prohibits forced religious instruction, forced
participation in religious ceremonies, or taking oaths that run counter
to an individual's religious beliefs.
There are no laws against proselytizing.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of forced religious conversion of minor U.S.
citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the country's religious communities are amicable.
An independent effort to establish an inter-faith committee between the
Christian and Muslim communities in the early 1990's failed due to lack
of identifiable mutual interests.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
BURKINA FASO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the amicable relationship among
religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There is no official state
religion. Islam, Christianity, and traditional indigenous religions are
practiced freely without government interference. The Government
neither subsidizes nor favors any particular religion.
The Government requires that religious groups register with the
Ministry of Territorial Administration. Registration establishes a
group's legal presence in the country but entails no specific controls
or benefits. Religious groups only are taxed if they carry on lucrative
activities, i.e., farming. Registration only confers legal status.
There are no penalties for failure to register. All groups are given
equal access to licenses, and the Government does not approve
registrations in an arbitrary manner.
Religious Demography
There is no single dominant religion. Approximately 52 percent of
the population practice Islam, about 17 percent practice Roman
Catholicism, about 4 percent are members of various Protestant
denominations, 26 percent practice traditional indigenous religions,
and approximately 1 percent practices either Buddhism or no religion.
There are no reliable data on the number of atheists or persons not
practicing any religion. The majority of the country's Muslims belong
to the Sunni branch of Islam, while small minorities adhere to the
Shi'a or Tidjania branches.
Muslims are largely concentrated around the northern, eastern, and
western borders, while Christians are concentrated in the center of the
country. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced widely
throughout the country, especially in rural communities. Ouagadougou,
the capital, is mostly Christian, and Bobo-Diaoulasso, the country's
second largest city, is largely Muslim. The country has a small Muslim
Lebanese immigrant community.
Members of the dominant ethnic group, the Mossi, belong to all
three major religions. Fulani and Jula groups are overwhelmingly
Muslim. There is little correlation between religious differences and
political differences. Religious affiliation appears unrelated to
membership in the ruling party, the Congress for Democracy and Progress
(CDP). Government officials belong to all of the major religions, and
the practice of a particular faith is not known to entail any advantage
or disadvantage in the political arena, the civil service, the
military, or the private sector.
Foreign missionary groups, including Protestants, operate freely
and face no special restrictions. The denominations and organizations
represented include the Assemblies of God, Campus Crusade for Christ,
the Christian Missionary Alliance, Baptists, Wycliffe Bible
Translators, the Mennonite Central Committee, Jehovah's Witnesses, the
Mormon Church, the Pentecostal Church of Canada, the World Evangelical
Crusade, and the Society for International Missions (SIM). The
Government neither forbids missionaries from entering the country nor
restricts their activities.
Religious instruction is not offered in public schools; it is
limited to private schools and to the home. The Muslim and Catholic
faiths operate general schools at the primary and secondary levels. The
State monitors both the nonreligious curriculum and the qualifications
of teachers employed at these schools. Although school officials must
submit the names of their directors to the Government, the State has
never been involved in appointing or approving these officials. The
Government does not fund any religious school. Unlike other private
schools, religious schools pay no taxes if they do not conduct any
lucrative activities.
The Attorney General and the Superior Council of Information (CSI)
have the authority to grant publishing and broadcasting licenses to
religious groups. No religious group has ever been denied a license.
Before granting a license, the Attorney General and the CSI must
examine samples of proposed publications to assure that they are in
accordance with the stated nature of the religious group and be
informed of the name of the proposed publication or broadcasting
director. Religious groups are free to say what they want in their
publications and broadcasts unless the judicial system determines that
they are harming public order or committing slander, which to date has
never occurred.
There are nine radio stations operated by religious groups, of
which five are run by the Catholic Church and four by Protestant
denominations. Five of the stations were created before the CSI was
established in 1995. All nine have signed agreements with the CSI,
which means that they have complied successfully with the regulations
governing the operation of all radio stations in the country, including
those that are commercial and state-run.
There is one religious television station operated by a Protestant
denomination in Ouagadougou. It broadcasts 2 hours in the evening in
both French and the local language, More. The Catholic Church and
several Protestant denominations publish periodicals.
The Government has never denied a publishing or broadcasting
license to any religious group that has requested one. There are no
special tax preferences granted to religious organizations operating
print or broadcast media.
The procedures for applying for publishing and broadcasting
licenses are the same for both religious groups and commercial
entities. Applications are first sent for review to the Ministry of
Communication and Culture and then forwarded to the Ministry of
Territorial Administration and Security (MATS). If the Government does
not respond to the application for a publishing license within the
required timeframe, the applicant can automatically begin publishing.
For radio licenses, before beginning broadcasts the applicant must wait
until the National Office of Telecommunications (ONATEL) assigns a
frequency and determines that the group's broadcasting equipment is of
a professional quality. Once the broadcast license is granted, the
Government regulates the operation of religious radio stations in
accordance with the same rules that apply to commercial and state-run
stations. Stations must show that their workers are employed full-time,
that ONATEL has been paid for the use of assigned frequencies, and that
employee social security taxes and intellectual property fees have been
paid.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities have been
amicable. Religious tolerance is widespread, and members of the same
family often practice different religions. There have been no
significant ecumenical movements.
There have been no official reports of religious conflict or ritual
murders involving practitioners of traditional religions during the
period covered by this report. However, there have been allegations of
witchcraft. The Ministry of Social Action and the Family maintains a
shelter in Ouagadougou for women forced to flee their villages because
they were suspected of being sorceresses.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses issues of religious freedom with the
Government in context of its overall promotion of human rights.
The Embassy also maintains contacts with leaders of all major
organized religious denominations and groups in the country.
__________
BURUNDI
The Transitional Constitutional Act provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of religious freedom during the
period covered by the report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Transitional Constitutional Act provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice. The
Government at all levels generally protects this right in full, and
does not tolerate its abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
There is no state religion.
The Government requires religious groups to register with the
Ministry of Internal Affairs, which keeps track of their leadership and
activities. The Government requires that religious groups have a
headquarters in the country. Once registered, religious organizations
enjoy tax-free status, and clergy theoretically do not have to pay duty
on purchased goods. However, one religious group reported that it was
required to pay duty on all imported goods, except books and other
publications.
Religious Demography
Many citizens regularly attend religious services. Although
reliable statistics on the number of followers of various religions are
not available, a Roman Catholic official estimated that 60 percent of
the population are Catholic, with the largest concentration of
adherents located in the center and south of the country. A Muslim
leader estimated that up to 10 percent of the population are Muslim,
mostly in urban areas. The remainder of the population belongs to other
Christian churches, practices traditional indigenous religions, or has
no religious affiliation.
The heads of major religious organizations are accorded diplomatic
status. Foreign missionary groups of many faiths are active in the
country and openly promote their religious beliefs. The Government has
welcomed their development assistance.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In their practice of religion, citizens generally tolerate other
religions. Disputes between religious groups are rare, apart from minor
disagreements over competition for followers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officials also maintain regular contact with leaders and
members of the various religious communities.
__________
CAMEROON
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations among different religious groups are generally amicable;
however, some religious groups face societal pressure and
discrimination within their regions, although this may reflect ethnic
as much as religious differences.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
In general, the Law on Religious Congregations governs relations
between the State and religious groups. Religious groups must be
approved and registered with the Ministry of Territorial Administration
in order to function legally; there were no reports that the Government
refused to register any group. It is illegal for a religious group to
operate without official recognition, but the law prescribes no
specific penalties for doing so. Although official recognition confers
no general tax benefits, it does allow religious groups to receive real
estate as gifts and legacies for the conduct of their activities. In
order to register, a religious denomination must fulfill the legal
requirement to qualify as a religious congregation. This definition
includes ``any group of natural persons or corporate bodies whose
vocation is divine worship'' or ``any group of persons living in
community in accordance with a religious doctrine.'' The denomination
then submits a file to the Minister of Territorial Administration. The
file must include a request for authorization, a copy of the charter of
the group which describes planned activities, and the names and
respective functions of the officials of the group. The Minister
studies the file and sends it to the presidency with a recommendation
for a positive or negative decision. The President generally follows
the recommendation of the Minister, and authorization is granted by a
presidential decree. The approval process usually takes several years,
due primarily to administrative delays. The only religious groups known
to be registered are Christian and Muslim groups and the Baha'i Faith,
but other groups may be registered. The Ministry has not disclosed the
number of registered denominations, but the number of registered
religious groups is estimated to be in the dozens. The Government does
not register traditional religious groups on the grounds that the
practice of traditional religions is not public but rather private to
members of a particular ethnic or kinship group, or to the residents of
a particular locality.
Religious Demography
Muslim centers and Christian churches of various denominations
operate freely throughout the country. Approximately 40 percent of the
population are at least nominally Christian, about 20 percent are at
least nominally Islamic, and about 40 percent practice traditional
indigenous religions or no religion. Of the Christians, approximately
half are Catholics and about half are affiliated with Protestant
denominations. Christians are concentrated mainly in the southern and
western provinces. The two Anglophone provinces of the western region
are largely Protestant; the Francophone provinces of the southern and
western regions are largely Catholic. Muslims are concentrated mainly
in the northern provinces, where the locally dominant Fulani (or Peuhl)
ethnic group is overwhelmingly Muslim, and other ethnic groups, known
collectively as the Kirdi, are generally partly Islamicized. The Bamoun
ethnic group of the western provinces is also largely Muslim.
Traditional indigenous religions are practiced in rural areas
throughout the country but rarely are practiced publicly in cities, in
part because many such religions are intrinsically local in character.
Religious missionaries are present throughout the country and
operate without impediment, including 100 American missionaries and
their dependents. Several religious denominations also operate diverse
private schools. A Catholic-affiliated private radio station also
continues to broadcast in Yaounde while its official authorization
remains pending. The Catholic Church, the largest religious
denomination in the country, also operates a private institution of
general postsecondary education, one of the country's very few modern
private printing presses, and a weekly newspaper, which until the
1990's was one of the only private newspapers in the country.
The Government does not have a program to promote inter-faith
understanding.
Although post-secondary education continues to be dominated by
state institutions, private schools affiliated with religious
denominations, including Catholic, Protestant, and Koranic schools,
long have been among the country's best schools at the primary and
secondary levels. The Ministry of Education is charged by law with
ensuring that private schools run by religious groups meet the same
standards as state-operated schools in terms of curriculum, building
quality, and teacher training. For schools affiliated with religious
groups, this oversight function is performed by the Sub-Department of
Confessional Education of the Ministry's Department of Private
Education.
Disputes within registered religious groups about control of places
of worship, schools, real estate, or financial assets are resolved in
the first instance by the executive branch rather than by the
judiciary.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
On April 24, the Ministry of National Education announced the
suspension of two teachers of the Bertoua technical high school. The
two teachers were accused of having ``enticed'' some of their students
into their religious group. On April 20, 2000, government security
forces reportedly stormed Notre Dame de Sept Douleurs parish in Douala
during the ceremony of Mass. Security forces reportedly arrested some
parishioners and beat others.
The sites and personnel of religious institutions were not exempt
from the widespread human rights abuses committed by government
security forces. In January 1998, an undisclosed number of personnel of
the 21st Navy Battalion, allegedly broke into a church in Douala, beat
and stabbed the priest and several youths, raped young women, and stole
funds. On February 22, 2000, the Douala Military Tribunal convicted the
personnel of breach of orders causing bodily harm and destruction. The
tribunal sentenced them to 1-year imprisonment with no possibility of
remission.
In the past, government officials have criticized and questioned
any criticisms of the Government by religious institutions and leaders;
however, there were no reports that government officials during the
period covered by this report used force or other means to suppress
such criticism.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among different religious groups are generally amicable;
however, some religious groups face societal pressures within their
regions. In the northern provinces, especially in rural areas, societal
discrimination by Muslims against persons who practice traditional
indigenous religions is strong and widespread, and some Christians in
rural areas of the north complain of discrimination by Muslims.
However, no specific incidents or violence stemming from religious
discrimination were reported, and the reported discrimination may
reflect ethnic as much as religious differences. The northern region
suffers from ethnic tensions between the Fulani, a Muslim group that
conquered most of the region 200 years ago, and the Kirdi, the
descendents of groups that practiced traditional indigenous religions
and whom the Fulani conquered or displaced, justifying their conquest
on religious grounds. Although some Kirdi subsequently have adopted
Islam, the Kirdi remain socially, educationally, and economically
disadvantaged relative to the Fulani in the three northern provinces.
(The slavery still practiced in parts of the north is reported to be
largely enslavement of Kirdi by Fulani.)
There were no reports of religiously motivated violence by
practitioners of a traditional indigenous religion against persons who
did not practice that religion.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy maintained regular contact with religious groups in the country
and monitored religious freedom.
__________
CAPE VERDE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Constitution also
provides for the separation of church and state and prohibits the State
from imposing any religious beliefs and practices.
To be recognized officially by the Government, religious groups (as
well as other organized groups of citizens) must register with the
Ministry of Justice to be recognized as legal entities. However,
failure to do so does not result in any restriction on religious belief
or practice.
Religious Demography
The overwhelming majority (over 90 percent) of citizens is at least
nominally Roman Catholic. The largest Protestant denomination is the
Church of the Nazarene. Other Christian churches include the Seventh-
Day Adventist Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,
the Assembly of God, and various other Pentecostal and evangelical
groups. There are also small Muslim and Baha'i communities.
It generally is recognized that the Catholic majority enjoys a
privileged status in national life--for example, the Government
provides it with free television broadcast time for religious services
and observes its holy days as official holidays.
There is no association between religious differences and ethnic or
political differences, although it generally is recognized that the
Roman Catholic hierarchy in the country is sympathetic to the governing
Movement for Democracy (MPD) party and generally hostile to the
opposition Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV).
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion but establishes
fixed legal conditions and prohibits what the Government considers
religious fundamentalism or intolerance. Although the constitutional
provision prohibiting religious fundamentalism is widely understood to
be aimed at Muslims, in practice, the Government permits adherents of
all religions to worship without interference.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Generally there are amicable relations between the various
religious communities; however, there have been occasional reports that
persons believed to be witches were harassed, beaten, or sometimes
killed.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion but establishes
fixed legal conditions and prohibits what the Government considers
religious fundamentalism or intolerance. The constitutional provision
prohibiting religious fundamentalism is widely understood to be aimed
at Muslims. In practice, the Government permits adherents of all
religions to worship without interference.
Religious groups (except for traditional indigenous religious
groups) are required by law to register with the Ministry of Interior.
This registration is free and confers official recognition and certain
limited benefits, such as customs duty exemption for the importation of
vehicles or equipment, but does not confer a general tax exemption. The
administrative police of the Ministry of Interior keep track of groups
that have failed to register but the police have not attempted to
impose any penalty on such groups. During the period covered by this
report, the Government continued to refuse to reregister the previously
registered and subsequently banned Unification Church. The Government
does not register traditional indigenous religious groups.
Religious Demography
A variety of religious communities are active. The population is
believed to be about 50 percent Christian, 15 percent Muslim, and 35
percent practitioners of traditional indigenous religions, or non-
religious. Most Christians also practice some aspects of their
traditional indigenous religions.
Religious organizations and missionary groups are free to
proselytize, worship, and construct places of worship.
The Government has taken positive steps to promote inter-faith
dialog.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Any religious or nonreligious group that the Government considers
subversive is subject to sanctions. The Ministry of Interior may
decline to register, suspend the operations of, or ban any organization
that it deems offensive to public morals or likely to disturb the
peace. The Government has banned the Unification Church since the mid-
1980's as a subversive organization likely to disturb the peace,
specifically in connection with alleged paramilitary training of young
church members. However, the Government imposed no new sanctions on any
religious group during the period covered by this report. The Ministry
of Interior also may intervene to resolve internal conflicts about
property, finances, or leadership within religious groups.
Muslims, particularly Mbororo (also known as Peulh or Fulani)
herders, claim to be singled out for harassment by authorities,
including extortion by police, due to popular resentment of their
presumed affluence. Muslims play a preponderant role in the economy.
The practice of witchcraft is a criminal offense under the Penal
Code; however, persons are generally prosecuted for this offense only
in conjunction with some other offense, such as murder. Witchcraft
traditionally has been a common explanation for diseases of which the
causes were unknown. Although many traditional indigenous religions
include or accommodate belief in the efficacy of witchcraft, they
generally approve of harmful witchcraft only for defensive or
retaliatory purposes and purport to offer protection against it. The
practice of witchcraft is widely understood to encompass attempts to
harm others not only by magic, but also by covert means of established
efficacy such as poisons.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Although religious tolerance among members of different religious
groups is the norm, there have been occasional reports that some
villagers who were believed to be witches were harassed, beaten or
sometimes killed by neighbors. Courts have tried, convicted, and
sentenced some persons for crimes of violence against suspected
witches.
During the period covered by this report, traveling in the northern
central region of the country became unsafe. Religious groups,
particularly Catholic priests and nuns, were victims of organized armed
highway bandits on the road to Bambari, near Grimari village, 180 miles
northeast of Bangui. On February 5, 2000, armed bandits attacked a
vehicle transporting priests, and an hour later attacked another one in
which they killed one nun and wounded another. A week later the funeral
procession of the nun was attacked near the same place.
Archbishop Joachim Ndayen protested this assault against Catholic
clergy by accusing the Government of silence, and of not stopping
highway banditry or prosecuting the perpetrators.
When serious social or political conflicts have arisen,
simultaneous prayer ceremonies have been held in churches, temples, and
mosques to ask for divine assistance. The Catholic Commission for
Justice and Peace often conducts developmental and educational programs
and seminars throughout the country. The members work closely with
other church groups and social organizations on social issues. On April
15, 2000, this commission organized a large rally at the national
stadium to promote dialog on peace and tolerance. President Ange Felix
Patasse and many government officials attended. National radio and
television covered the event.
There was some popular resentment of the presumed affluence of
Muslims (see Section I).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy maintains contact with religious groups, especially American
missionaries in the country, and monitors human rights developments.
__________
CHAD
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, at times it has
limited this right.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Generally there are amicable relations between the various
religious communities; however, there are indications of increasing
tension between Christians and Muslims due to the proselytizing by
evangelical Christians.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice. The Constitution also
provides that the country shall be a secular state. However, despite
the secular nature of the State, a large proportion of senior
government officials are Muslims, and some policies favor Islam in
practice. For example, the Government sponsors annual Hajj trips to
Mecca for certain government officials.
The Government requires religious groups, including both foreign
missionary groups and domestic religious groups, to register with the
Ministry of the Interior's Department for Religious Affairs.
Registration confers official recognition but does not confer any tax
preferences or other benefits. There are no specific legal penalties
for failure to register, and there were no reports that any group had
failed to apply for registration or that the registration process is
unduly burdensome. The Government reportedly has denied official
recognition to some groups of Arab Muslims in Ati, near the eastern
border with Sudan, on the grounds that they have incorporated elements
of traditional African religion, such as dancing and singing, into
their worship. For example, the Minister of Interior banned the Islamic
group Faydal Djaria in January 1998.
Non-Islamic religious leaders claim that Islamic officials and
organizations receive greater tax exemptions and unofficial financial
support from the Government. State lands reportedly are accorded to
Islamic leaders for the purpose of building mosques, while other
religious denominations must purchase land at market rates to build
churches.
On May 31, 2000, the Supreme Court handed down a decision rejecting
a request from one branch of a Christian evangelical church to deny
government recognition to its independent sister branch. In 1998 the
Eglise Evangelique des Freres (EEF) split into moderate and
fundamentalist groups. The moderate branch of the EEF retained the
legal registration for the Church, but on April 7, 1999, the Ministry
of Interior awarded recognition to the fundamentalist branch under a
new name (Eglise des Freres Independentes au Tchad (EFIT). Since 1999
the EEF branch has sought to bar the EFIT church legally from practice,
and ultimately the case went before the Supreme Court, which upheld the
rights of the EFIT to continue its religious work and its right to
function.
Religious Demography
Of the total population, 54 percent are Islamic. About one-third
are Christian, and the remainder practice traditional indigenous
religions or no religion at all. Most northerners practice Islam; most
southerners practice Christianity or a traditional indigenous religion.
Many citizens, despite stated religious affiliation, do not regularly
practice their religion.
The vast majority of Muslims practice a moderate form of Islam
known locally as Tidjani, which originated in 1727 under Sheik Ahmat
Tidjani in what is now Morocco and Algeria. Tidjani Islam, as practiced
in the country, incorporates some local African religious elements. A
small minority of the country's Muslims (5 to 10 percent) is considered
fundamentalist.
Roman Catholics make up the largest Christian denomination in the
country; most Protestants are affiliated with various evangelical
Christian groups.
Adherents of two other religions, the Baha'i Faith and Jehovah's
Witnesses, also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced
after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be ``new''
religions. Because of their relatively recent origin and their
affiliation with foreign practitioners, both are perceived as foreign.
There are foreign missionaries representing both Christian and
Islamic groups. Catholic and Protestant (primarily evangelical
Christian) missionaries proselytize in the country. Itinerant Muslim
imams also visit, primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan.
Foreign missionaries do not face restrictions but must register and
receive authorization from the Ministry of Interior.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Within the Islamic community, the Government has intervened to
imprison and sanction fundamentalist Islamic imams believed to be
promoting conflict among Muslims. A fundamentalist imam in N'Djdamena,
Sheikh Faki Suzuki (named after the Suzuki car equipped with
loudspeakers that he uses for broadcasting his sermons around town) was
restricted from preaching Islam for 6 months, from October 1998 to
March 1999, and the authorities also placed him under house arrest. He
is no longer under house arrest. However, since the beginning of 2000,
he has experienced problems with the Islamic Committee in Ndjamena for
painting their name and logo on his car. He was warned twice not to try
to represent the committee, and he responded by removing the committee
name from his car.
In January 1999, the Government arbitrarily arrested and detained
imam Sheikh Mahamat Marouf, the fundamentalist Islamic leader of the
northeastern town of Abeche, and refused to allow his followers to meet
and pray openly in their mosque. Sheik Marouf was released from prison
in November 1999 after nearly 1 year in jail. Sheikh Marouf may pray
but is not permitted to lead prayers. His followers are allowed to pray
in their mosques, but are forbidden from debating religious beliefs in
any way that might be considered proselytizing--although the Tidjani
followers are allowed to proselytize.
In both instances, the Government claims that the men were
responsible for inciting religious violence; their followers reject the
Government's claim and cite religious differences with the Government.
On May 25, 2000, the Sultan of Kanem arrested a large number of
adherents of an Islamic group, Faydal Djaria. The group arrived in the
country from Nigeria and Senegal, and incorporates singing and dancing
into its religious ceremonies and activities. Male and female members
of the group freely interact with one another during religious
gatherings. The group is found from the Kanem region around Lake Chad
into neighboring Chari Baguirmi. The Chadian Superior Council of
Islamic Affairs considers that the Faydal Djaria group does not conform
to Islamic tenets, and requested the Ministry of Interior to arrest the
group's spiritual leader, Ahmat Abdallah. In January 1998, the Minister
of Interior banned the group. However, since the beginning of 2000, the
group has been increasingly active, resulting in the recent arrests in
the Kanem. The new Director of Religious Affairs at the Ministry of
Interior has requested that the Superior Council of Islamic Affairs to
provide the specific sections of the Koran that support the ban of the
group.
There is an undetermined number of Faydal Djaria followers who are
prisoners in Kanem.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Most inter-faith dialog happens on an individual level and not
through the intervention of the Government. Although the different
religious communities generally coexist without problems, some citizens
have noted increasing tension between Christians and Muslims due to the
proselytizing by evangelical Christians. In addition, tensions and
conflicts between government supporters from the politically dominant
northern region and rebels from the politically subordinate southern
region occasionally have religious overtones.
However, representatives of civil society and religious leaders met
under the Ministry of Social Affairs' auspices to develop a new Family
Code during the period covered by this report. Although the working
group was not able to resolve certain differences between religious
groups, the Government still seeks to formulate a Family Code that
takes all religious and ethnic groups' social practices into
consideration. At issue were traditional Islamic attitudes regarding
inheritance, marriage, and other social customs that Islamic leaders
consider as fundamental to their religion and not open to compromise.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
COMOROS
The new Constitution decreed in May 1999 does not prohibit
specifically discrimination based on religion or religious belief, and
the Government restricted this right.
There was no change in the status of what is at times limited
respect for religious freedom during the period of the report.
An overwhelming majority of the population is Sunni Muslim.
Government authorities and the local population restricted the right of
Christians to practice their faith. Police regularly threatened and
sometimes detained practicing Christians. Usually the authorities hold
those detained for a few days and often attempt to convert them to
Islam forcibly. In October 1999, two citizens were arrested, tried, and
convicted of ``anti-Islamic activity'' in part because they possessed
Christian books and audiovisual material. One of the citizens was
sentenced to 18 months in prison, while the other was sentenced to 4
months. The first was released after 4 months, while the second was
released after 2 months. There is widespread societal discrimination
against Christians.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution promulgated in May by the head of the military
after the April 20, 1999, coup provides that the National Army of
Development upholds individual and collective liberties; however, it
does not provide specifically for freedom of religion, and the
Government restricted this right. The Government discouraged the
practice of religions other than Islam. Christians, in particular,
faced restrictions on their ability to practice their faith. The Ulamas
council, which had advised the President, Prime Minister, President of
the Federal Assembly, the Council of Isles, and the island governors on
whether bills, ordinances, decrees, and laws are in conformity with the
principles of Islam, no longer exists. The Constitution written by the
separatist leadership of the island of Anjouan provides for freedom of
religion; however, the separatist leadership has discouraged the
practice of religions other than Islam. However, there were no reports
of official persecution initiated by civil authorities during the
period covered by this report. In one instance on Anjouan, a judge
intervened to protect Christians from harassment.
Religious Demography
An overwhelming majority--almost 99 percent--of the population is
Sunni Muslim. Fewer than 300 persons--less than 1 percent of the
population--are Christian; all of who reportedly converted to
Christianity within the last 5 years. There is a very small population
(less than five families) of Indian descent, of which two or three
families are Hindu.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government continues to restrict the use of the country's three
churches to noncitizens. There are two Roman Catholic churches, one in
Moroni on the island of Grande Comore and one in Mutsamudu on the
island of Anjouan. There is one Protestant church in Moroni. Many
Christians practice their faith in private residences. Christian
missionaries work in local hospitals and schools, but they are not
allowed to proselytize.
Some community authorities on Anjouan have banned Christians from
attending any community events and banned Christian burials in a local
cemetery, but there were no reports of such incidents during the period
covered by this report.
Bans on alcohol and immodest dress are enforced sporadically,
usually during religious months, like Ramadan. Alcohol can be imported
and sold with a permit from the Government.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Police regularly threatened and sometimes detained practicing
Christians. In December 1999, Bibles were found in the possession of
three young men from the village of Chomoni on Grande Comore. A mob
burned two of their huts, and they were turned over to local police.
The police reportedly beat them, doused them with water, and then
imprisoned them for 3 days before they were released. In the past,
there have been accounts of police and quasi-police authorities, known
as embargoes, arresting, beating, and detaining Christians on the
island of Anjouan; however, there were no such incidents reported
during the period covered by this report.
The Government has arrested and convicted individuals with
Christian affiliations on charges of ``anti-Islamic activity.'' In
October 1999, two citizens were arrested, tried, and convicted on
charges of disturbing the peace and anti-Islamic activity. They were
apprehended following a protest by Islamic religious leaders against
the airing of a Christian video on a local, private television station.
One was sentenced to 18 months for allegedly selling or giving away the
videotapes; he was released after serving 4 months in jail. The other
was sentenced to 4 months for having a meeting in his home where the
same videos were shown; he was released after serving 2 months in jail
and since has left the country. Police confiscated videos, Bibles, and
books from the homes of the individuals and arrested one of them while
he was trying to flee the country. The police declared the videos
illegal and ordered that all copies be turned in to authorities; in
making this declaration, the police announced in that ``freedom of
worship is not recognized in Comoros;'' however, it is not clear
whether this announcement was a statement made by an individual
policeman or a statement of official policy.
There is Islamic instruction in public schools for students at the
middle school level that coincides with Arabic instruction. Almost all
children between 4 and 7 years of age go to koranic schools outside of
normal school hours in order to learn to read the Koran.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There is widespread societal discrimination against Christians in
all sectors of life. Attempts have been made to isolate Christians from
village life. In September and October 1999, on Anjouan, a religious
leader started an unofficial campaign against Christians. Committees
were formed in many villages to harass Christians, and lists of names
of suspected Christians were circulated. Anti-Christian rhetoric was
broadcast on the radio. This campaign resulted in threats, but there
were no reports of violence. Christians face insults and threats of
violence from members of their communities. Christians have been
harassed by mobs in front of mosques and called in for questioning by
religious authorities. In some instances, families have forced
Christian family members out of their homes or threatened them with a
loss of financial support. Some Christians have had their Bibles taken
by family members. In the past, local government officials, religious
authorities, and family members have attempted to force Christians to
attend services at mosques against their will, but there were no
reports of such incidents during the period covered by this report.
Islamic fundamentalism is growing in popularity as more students
return to the country after studying Islamic subjects in foreign
countries.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Although there is no constitution currently in effect, the
Government generally respected freedom of religion in practice,
provided that worshipers neither disturb public order nor contradict
commonly held morals; however, government forces committed some abuses.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
in government-controlled areas. However, in areas of the country under
the military occupation of Rwanda, Uganda, and their respective rebel
clients, respect for religious freedom deteriorated. Credible reports
indicate that occupying troops and their rebel allies deliberately
targeted Catholic churches as a means of both intimidating the local
population and in revenge for the Church's perceived role in the 1994
Tutsi genocide in Rwanda. Credible sources report that these attacks
resulted in priests being killed, nuns raped, and churches burned.
Rebel and Rwandan authorities also exiled the Bishop of Bukavu, whom
they suspected of inciting resistance. However, these actions
apparently resulted largely from political, rather than religious,
motives.
Relations between the major religions were amicable, with the
National Consultations serving as a catalyst in promoting greater
cooperation.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. The U.S. Government protested the forced internal exile
of the Bishop of Bukavu, and repeatedly called for an end to the war
and the withdrawal of foreign troops from the country.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Policy/Legal Framework
Although there is no constitution currently in effect, the
Government generally respects freedom of religion in practice, provided
that worshipers neither disturb public order nor contradict commonly
held morals; however, government forces committed some abuses. There is
no state religion.
The establishment and operation of religious institutions is
provided for and regulated through a statutory order on Regulation of
Non-profit Associations and Public Utility Institutions. Requirements
for the establishment of a religious organization are simple and
generally not subject to abuse. Exemption from taxation is among the
benefits granted to religious organizations. A 1971 law regulating
religious organizations grants civil servants the power to recognize,
suspend recognition of, or dissolve religious groups. There have been
no reports of the Government suspending or dissolving a religious group
since 1990, when the Government suspended its recognition of the
Jehovah's Witnesses; that suspension subsequently was reversed by a
court. Although this law restricts the process of recognition,
officially recognized religions are free to establish places of worship
and to train clergy. In practice, religious groups that are not
recognized also worship freely.
The Government promoted inter-faith understanding by supporting the
country's five major churches (Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Orthodox,
and Kimbanguist) in establishing the National Consultations, an open
forum to explore ways to end the war.
Religious Demography
Approximately 50 percent of the population are Roman Catholic, 20
percent are Protestant, and 10 percent are Muslim. The remainder
largely practice traditional indigenous religions. There are no
statistics available on the percentage of atheists. Minority religious
groups include, among others, Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon).
There are no reliable data on active participation in religious
services. Ethnic and political differences generally are not linked to
religious differences.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
On January 29, 1999, President Kabila promulgated a decree that
restricts the activities of nongovernmental organizations (NGO's),
including religious organizations, by establishing requirements for
them; however, existing religious organizations were exempt, and the
decree subsequently was not enforced.
Although the Government required foreign religious groups to obtain
the approval of the President, through the Minister of Justice, foreign
religious groups generally operate without restriction once they
receive approval from the Government. Many recognized churches have
external ties, and foreign missionaries are allowed to proselytize. The
Government generally did not interfere with foreign missionaries.
However, foreign missionaries have not been exempt from general human
rights abuses by security forces, such as restrictions on freedom of
movement imposed on all persons by security force members who erect and
man roadblocks where they solicit bribes.
In areas under government control, there has been no known
persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses or any other groups for practicing
their faith in recent years. The Government does not prohibit or punish
assembly for peaceful religious services, regardless of faith. The
Government does not influence religious teachings to children and
places no restriction on the distribution of religious literature.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
in government-controlled areas during the period covered by this
report.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
While the Government is tolerant in matters of religion, some
abuses occurred in government-controlled areas as a result of the war.
These abuses, usually the ransacking of churches and the pilfering of
church property, generally were the result of a lack of discipline
among government troops.
A government order in July 1999 prohibiting private radio stations
from transmitting foreign radio broadcasts effectively targeted a
Catholic radio station that was compelled to cease broadcasting
programs of foreign origin. The target was not religious broadcasts;
rather it was foreign programs critical of the Government.
On September 14, 1999, security forces arrested Catherine Nzuzi,
president of the major faction of the Mouvement Populaire de la
Revolution (MPR) party, after she organized a Mass in memory of former
President Mobutu on the second anniversary of his death. She was
detained for 5 hours on charges of violating a decree on political
activity.
In September 1999, government security forces arrested Reverend
Fernando Kuthino after his actions sparked street demonstrations by
Muslims. The Reverend had converted a Muslim on television, then
publicly burned notes that the convert had taken while studying the
Koran. Muslims claimed that the burned verses were from the Koran. The
Reverend never was tried, and he was released in March 2000.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who were abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Due to advances made in the east by military units of Rwanda and
Uganda in support of various rebel factions, the Government lost
control of more than half the country. It exercises little authority in
areas east of the current battlefront. Numerous human rights groups
reported significant abuses in these areas by the occupying troops of
Rwanda and Uganda, as well as various rebel factions, which targeted
Catholic clergy. These reports were confirmed by a number of
independent sources, including the Catholic Church. Abuses reportedly
took the form of attacks on missions, killings of priests, the rape of
nuns, and the burning of churches. Human rights groups claimed that
occupying troops and rebels targeted the Catholic Church as a result of
its perceived collusion in the 1994 Tutsi genocide in Rwanda. According
to one human rights publication, Tutsis ``show great hostility''
towards the Catholic Church. In the province of South Kivu, rebels of
the RCD-Goma faction acting with Rwandan support refused to allow the
Bishop of Bukavu to return to his diocese following a trip outside the
province. Rebels and their Rwandan supporters forced the Bishop into
internal exile as a result of his alleged hostility towards the
military occupation of the province.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the major religions were amicable, with the
National Consultations serving as a catalyst in promoting greater
cooperation.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
The U.S. Government criticized the forced internal exile of the
Bishop of Bukavu, in both private discussions and public statements. On
numerous occasions, the U.S. Government also has voiced its opposition
to the presence of hostile foreign troops in the country. The U.S.
Government also publicly criticized the war, and launched a number of
diplomatic initiatives, in concert with the United Nations, to bring
the conflict to an end.
__________
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
The Constitution (Fundamental Act) provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
While government policy and the generally amicable relations among
religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion, the
close link between certain messianic groups and opposition political
movements at times has been a source of tension.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution (Fundamental Act) provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice. There is
no official state religion.
Religious Demography
Approximately half of the country's 2.6 million citizens are
Christian; of these about 90 percent are Roman Catholic.
There is a small Muslim community estimated at 25,000 to 50,000
persons, most of who are immigrants from North and West Africa who work
in commerce in urban centers.
The remainder of the population is made up of practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions, those who belong to various messianic
groups, and those who practice no religion at all. A small minority of
the Christian community practices Kimbanguism, a syncretist movement
that originated in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo.
While retaining many elements of Christianity, Kimbanguism also
recognizes its founder (Simon Kimbangu) as a prophet and incorporates
African traditional beliefs, such as ancestor worship.
Mystical or messianic practices (especially among the ethnic Lari
population in the Pool region) have been associated with opposition
political movements, including some elements of the armed insurrection
in the south during 1998-1999.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
communities. All organized religious groups are represented in a joint
ecumenical council, which meets regularly.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses issues of religious freedom with a broad
cross-section of society (including church leaders, government
officials, and members of civil society) in the context of its overall
promotion of human rights.
__________
COTE D'IVOIRE
The Constitution was suspended following the December 24, 1999 coup
d'etat. The Constitution provided for freedom of religion, as does the
proposed new constitution, which is to be voted on in a July
referendum; the Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally tolerant relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion;
however, followers of traditional indigenous religions are subject to
societal discrimination. The Government monitors minority religions for
signs of political activity it considers subversive or dangerous.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution that was suspended following the December 24, 1999
coup d'etat provided for freedom of religion, and the Government
generally protected this right. The post-coup military government
continued to respect this right and is proposing a constitution that
provides for protection of religious freedom, which is to be voted on
in a referendum scheduled for July 23. There is no state religion, but
for historical and ethnic reasons the Government informally favored
Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. Catholic Church
leaders had a much stronger voice in government affairs than their
Islamic counterparts, which led to feelings of disenfranchisement among
the Muslim population. After assuming power following the coup, General
Robert Guei indicated that one of the goals of the transition
government was to end this favoritism and put all of the major
religious faiths on an equal footing. In practice, the Government has
not taken any steps to bring this about.
In 1987-90, then-President Felix Hophuet-Boigny sponsored the
construction in his hometown, Yamoussoukro, of the world's largest
Catholic church, the ``Our Lady of Peace'' Basilica, which was modeled
on St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and consecrated by the Pope. Although
the basilica's construction was financed ostensibly by private funds,
allegations persist that funds of the National Cocoa and Coffee Board,
a state-owned export monopoly, were diverted for this purpose. The
Government also paid for the construction of the Catholic cathedral in
Abidjan, which was completed in 1985; part of the cost of building it
also was paid by contributions that the Government required of all
salaried workers in the country, regardless of their religious
affiliation. The Government sponsors or finances the construction of
shrines for groups other than the Catholic Church. It currently is
directing the construction of the Plateau Mosque in central Abidjan and
financing it with the help of governments or government-affiliated
religious organizations of some largely Islamic Arab countries. A high
government official has indicated that the Government plans soon to
sponsor the construction of a temple for all of the country's
Protestant denominations when resources permit.
The Government establishes requirements for religious groups under
a 1939 French law. All religious groups wishing to operate in the
country must submit to the Ministry of the Interior a file including
the group's by-laws, the names of the founding members, the date of
founding (or date on which the founder received the revelation of his
or her calling), the minutes of the general assembly, the names of
members of the administrative board, and other information. The
Interior Ministry investigates the backgrounds of the founding members
to ascertain that the group has no politically subversive purpose.
However, in practice, the Government's regulation of religious groups
generally has not been unduly restrictive since 1990, when the
Government legalized opposition political parties.
Although nontraditional religious groups, like all public secular
associations, are required to register with the Government, no
penalties are imposed on a group that fails to register. In practice,
registration can bring advantages of public recognition, invitation to
official ceremonies and events, publicity, gifts, and school subsidies.
No religious group has ever complained of arbitrary registration
procedures or recognition. The Government does not register traditional
indigenous religious groups.
The Government grants no tax or other benefits to religious groups.
However, some religious groups have gained some favors after individual
negotiations. Examples include reductions in the cost of resident alien
registration, customs exemptions on certain religious items, and, in
some cases, privileges similar to those of diplomats. No particular
religion is favored consistently in this manner. Occasionally, a state-
owned company grants favors to religious leaders, such as a reduction
in airplane fare.
Religious Demography
The published results of the most recent national census, conducted
in 1998, indicate that Muslims make up about 38.6 percent of the
country's population; Catholics make up 19.4 percent; Protestants, 6.6
percent; Harrists, 1.3 percent; other Christians, 3.1 percent;
practitioners of traditional indigenous religions, 11.9 percent;
practitioners of other religions, 1.7 percent; and persons without
religious preference or affiliation, 16.7 percent. Among citizens, 27.4
percent are Muslim, 20.8 percent are Catholic, 8.2 percent are
Protestant, 1.6 percent are Harrist, 3.4 percent are of other Christian
affiliations, 15.4 percent practice traditional indigenous religions,
1.9 percent practice other religions, and 20.7 percent are without
religious affiliation. Foreigners living in the country are 70.5
percent Muslim and 15.4 percent Catholic with small percentages
practicing other religions.
Muslims are found in greatest numbers in the northern half of the
country, although due to immigration they also are becoming
increasingly numerous in the cities of the south. In 1998 Muslims
composed 45.5 percent of the total urban population and 33.5 percent of
the total rural population. Catholics are found mostly in the southern,
central, and eastern portions of the country. Practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions are concentrated in rural areas of the
north, west, center, and east. Protestants are concentrated in the
central, eastern, and southwest regions. Members of the Harrist Church,
an African Protestant denomination founded in the country in 1913 by a
Liberian preacher named William Wade Harris, are concentrated in the
south.
Both political and religious affiliation tends to follow ethnic
lines. As population growth and movement have accentuated ethnic
distinctions between the groups of the Sahel and those of the forest
zone, those distinctions have been sometimes expressed in terms of
religion (e.g., northern Muslims vs. southern Christians and
traditionalists).
Religious groups in the country include the Adventist Church, the
Assemblies of God, the Southern Baptist Church, Bossonism (the
traditional religious practices of the Akan ethnic group), the
Autonomous Church of Celestial Christianity of Oschoffa, Islam, Roman
Catholicism, the Union of the Evangelical Church of Services and Works
of Cote d'Ivoire, the Harrist Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, the Protestant Methodist Church of Cote d'Ivoire,
the Yoruba First Church, the Church of God International Missions, the
Baptist Church Missions, the Church of the Prophet Papa Nouveau (a
syncretistic religion founded in the country in 1937, which combines
Christian doctrine, traditional African rituals, and practical concern
for social, political, and economic progress for Africans), the
Pentecostal Church of Cote d'Ivoire, the Messianic Church, the Limoudim
of Rabbi Jesus (a small Christian group, the origins of which are not
known), the Unification Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the
Interdenominational Church. Many religious groups in the country are
associated with American religious groups.
Most of the country's many syncretistic religions are forms of
Christianity that contain some traditional African practices and
rituals. Many of these have been founded by Ivoirian or other African
prophets and are organized around and dependent upon the founder's
personality. Some emphasize faith healing or sale of sacred objects
imbued with supernatural powers to bring health and good luck. Many
nominal Christians and Muslims practice some aspects of traditional
indigenous religions, especially in difficult times.
Traditional indigenous religions, which are not registered
officially as religions, rarely are included in official or unofficial
lists of the country's religions. There is no generally accepted system
of classifying the country's diverse traditional religious practices,
which vary not only by ethnic group, but also by region, village, and
family, as well as by gender and age group. In addition, members of the
country's largely Christianized or Islamicized urban elites, which
effectively control the State, generally seem disinclined to accord to
traditional indigenous religions the social status accorded to
Christianity and Islam. No traditional indigenous religious leader
(except for traditional rulers, who also may perform some traditional
religious functions) is known ever to have been invited to present New
Year's greetings to the President or to take part in a government
advisory council.
Generally there has been a trend towards conversion by
practitioners of traditional religions to Christianity and Islam.
Missionary work, urbanization, immigration, and greater education
levels have led to a decline in the percentage of practitioners of
traditional religion from 37 percent in 1975 to 11.9 percent in 1998.
Immigrants from other parts of Africa are generally at least
nominally Muslim or Christian. The majority of foreign missionaries are
European or American representatives of established religions, but some
Nigerians and Congolese have set up churches. Foreign missionaries must
meet the same requirements as any foreigner, including resident alien
registration and identification card requirements.
Until recently, Catholic priests tended to be better educated than
leaders of other religions. Numerous Catholic schools were founded in
the country in the early 1900's, during French colonial rule, and
citizens who attended these schools generally received good educations
and came to make up a disproportionately large part of the country's
elites. Many senior government officials, including all three heads of
state since independence, have been Catholics.
The Baoule ethnic minority, which has dominated the State and the
ruling Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire (PDCI) from independence in
1960 until 1999, is largely Catholic, although some Baoules continue to
practice traditional indigenous religion and a few practice Islam.
The Government has taken steps to improve the situation of Muslims.
However, Muslims often have had to struggle for state benefits that
came more easily to practitioners of other religions. For example,
Catholic and Protestant schools are regarded as official schools
supervised by the Ministry of Education and subsidized by the
Government. However, until 1994 Islamic schools were regarded as
religious schools, were supervised by the Ministry of the Interior, and
were unsubsidized even if they followed official school curriculums.
Since 1994 Islamic schools that follow official curriculums have been
subsidized by the Government. The Government recognized no Muslim
religious holidays until 1974 and did not recognize all major Muslim
religious holidays until 1994. Churches always have organized Christian
pilgrimages without formal government supervision, but until 1993 the
Ministry of the Interior supervised Islamic pilgrimages to Mecca (the
Hajj).
During 1991 the Catholic Church began to operate community radio
stations, first in Man and later in Abidjan and Yamoussoukro, but
Muslim efforts to gain authorization to operate similar stations were
unsuccessful until 1999, and Muslim organizations, unlike the Catholic
Church, did not venture to operate unlicensed radio stations. Catholic
and Protestant radio stations were given formal approval on March 30,
1999, after operating for months without official permission, and the
Government granted authorization for an Islamic radio station on April
21, 1999.
The Government has taken positive steps to promote inter-faith
understanding. Catholics, Muslims, and Protestants have had their own
religious programs on national television and radio for over 20 years.
On significant Christian and Islamic holy days, national television
often broadcasts films on the life of the founders of those religions.
Government officials, including the President and his religious
advisers, make a point of appearing at major religious celebrations and
events organized by a wide variety of faiths and groups. There is no
government-sponsored forum for inter-faith dialog, but the Government
often invites leaders of various religious communities (but not of
traditional indigenous religious groups) to attend official ceremonies
and to sit on deliberative and advisory committees.
Religious instruction is permitted in public schools and usually
offered after normal class hours. Most such instruction is offered by
established Islamic, Catholic, and Protestant groups.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government monitors minority religions, to the extent of
registering them, but does not control them closely. However, some
citizens are alarmed by the explosive proliferation of new groups. In
his 1999 New Year's greetings, then-President Henri Konan Bedie advised
the public to be wary of new groups that are not clearly identified and
warned such groups against taking advantage of the country's tradition
of tolerance to commit acts of fraud or manipulation. In general, the
Government closely watches some religious groups, including Islamic
associations and minority groups, for signs of political activity that
it considers subversive but otherwise does not monitor them.
The Government does not prohibit links to foreign coreligionists
but informally discourages connections with politically radical
fundamentalist movements, such as Islamic groups based in Iran and
Libya.
While not a direct restriction on religious freedom, some Muslims
believe that they are discriminated against when applying for national
identity cards. Due to the tense political situation in the country and
the ethnic divisions along which political party lines are drawn,
northern Muslims sometimes are scrutinized more closely in the identity
card application process. As these northern Muslims share names, style
of dress, and customs with several of the country's predominantly
Muslim neighboring countries, they sometimes are accused wrongly of
attempting to obtain illegally nationality cards in order to vote.
Although this is not directly a result of their religious belief, this
treatment creates a hardship for a disproportionate number of Muslims.
In December 1999, the new military regime requested that the
Islamic Superior Council, an organization of imams that was seen as
politically active and supportive of the previous regime, disband. The
president of the council, Moustapha Diaby, did not oppose this demand,
and the council ceased its operations. In March 2000, the Government
allowed the council to resume its activities.
In May 2000, the military government warned the imam leaders of the
Muslim community to refrain from political discourse in their sermons.
The Government claimed the imams had been jeopardizing security with
sermons that were too politically charged. In May and June 2000, during
travels to various regions in the country, General Guei continually
asked imams and other Muslim leaders to stay out of politics.
In March 2000, local governments closed Harrist churches to prevent
an escalation of intrareligious violence (see Section II).
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. Once a year, on New Year's Eve, members of all Christian
religious groups gather in the National Stadium in Abidjan to keep a
nightlong vigil and pray. When serious social problems have arisen,
simultaneous prayer ceremonies have been held in churches, temples, and
mosques to ask for divine assistance. Kouassi-Datekro, a town in the
Akan region in the eastern part of the country, is famous for
ecumenical events involving simultaneous prayer services of all faiths.
Since 1990 religious leaders from diverse groups have assembled on
their own initiative to mediate in times of political conflict;
however, no leaders of traditional indigenous religious groups have
been included.
The religious group that feels most discriminated against is the
largest group, the country's Islamic community. Societal attitudes are
responsible for at least some of that feeling. Since the Islamic duty
to give alms daily may attract beggars to neighborhoods containing
mosques, some non-Muslims have opposed construction of mosques, such as
the new mosque in Abidjan's plateau district. Some non-Muslims also
find the muezzins' calls to prayer annoying. A few group all Muslims in
a common category as foreigners, fundamentalists, or terrorists. Muslim
citizens often are treated as foreigners by their fellow citizens,
sometimes including government officials, because most Muslims are
members of northern ethnic groups also found in other African countries
from which there has been substantial immigration into the country.
Followers of traditional indigenous religions also are subject to
societal discrimination. Many leaders of nontraditional religions, such
as Christianity or Islam, look down on practitioners of traditional
indigenous religions as pagans, practitioners of black magic, and
practitioners of human sacrifice. Some Christians or Muslims refuse to
associate with practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. The
contents of traditional indigenous religions often are shrouded by
secrecy mechanisms, such as exclusive initiation rites, oaths of
silence, and taboos against writing down orally transmitted lore.
However, there have been no reports of human sacrifice in the country
since well before independence. Although the purported practice of
black magic or witchcraft continues to be widely feared, it generally
is discouraged by traditional indigenous religions, aspects of which
commonly purport to offer protection from witchcraft. Traditional
indigenous religions commonly involve belief in one supreme deity as
well as lesser deities or spirits that are to be praised or appeased,
some of whom may in some religions be believed to inhabit or otherwise
be associated with particular places, natural objects, or man-made
images.
However, many practitioners of traditional indigenous religions are
unaware of societal discrimination and have not complained. The
foremost proponent of ``Bossonism,'' Jean Marie Adiaffi, died in 1999.
He was organizing practitioners of traditional indigenous religions and
demanding equal treatment for its religious leaders. No leader stepped
forward to continue his work.
Conflicts between and within religious groups have surfaced
occasionally. Members of the Limoudim of Rabbi Jesus, a small Christian
group of unknown origin, have criticized and sometimes attacked other
Christian groups for allegedly failing to follow the teachings of
Jesus. In 1992 a few members of the Limoudim group destroyed several
Christian churches and tortured ministers in the Abobo district of
Abidjan. They were tried and sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment but
released in 1995 after receiving a presidential pardon. In January
1998, a conflict over land erupted between Catholics and Assembly of
God members in the Yopougon district of Abidjan. The same area was the
scene of a land conflict between Baptists and their neighbors in August
1998.
The Celestial Christians are divided because of a leadership
struggle, as are the Harrists, who have come to blows on occasion.
In March 2000, due to the internal struggle in the Harrist Church,
clergy leader Barthelemy Akre Yasse struck Harrist National Committee
president Tchotche Mel Felix from the church rolls for insubordination.
This battle for church leadership at the national level led to violent
confrontations between church members at the local level. Local
governments, in order to prevent an escalation in the violence, closed
Harrist churches in which the confrontations took place.
Prior to the coup, the Islamic leadership was fractured by
disagreement between factions, two of which (the Superior Islamic
Council and the Ouamma Islamic Front) were allied with the former
ruling party, and two of which (the National Islamic Council and the
Islamic Confederation for the Development of Cote d'Ivoire) were
unaligned politically and had sought to create Islamic organizations
that enjoy the same freedom from unofficial state oversight and
guidance that Catholic organizations have long enjoyed. Following the
overthrow of the Bedie government in December 1999, the organizations
began to work together.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy has monitored and reported on the status of
religious freedom, developed and maintained contacts with leaders of
diverse religious groups, and discussed religious freedom issues with
government officials in the overall context of the promotion of human
rights.
In 1997 with financial assistance from the Embassy, the Research
Group in Democracy and Social and Economic Development of Cote d'Ivoire
(GERDDES-CI) helped religious groups in the country to establish a
Forum of Religious Confessions. All the main religious groups
participated in the forum: Catholics, Muslims, various Protestant
groups, several syncretist religious groups, and the Association of
Traditional Priests. The Forum continued to meet throughout the period
covered by this report.
__________
DJIBOUTI
The Constitution, while declaring Islam to be the state religion,
provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice; however, proselytizing is discouraged.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Citizens generally are very tolerant of one another in the practice
of their religion. However, recent converts to other religions have
faced some discrimination in the past; there were no reports of such
discrimination during the period covered by this report.
U.S. embassy officials engage in a regular human rights dialog with
government officials, which includes religious freedom issues. Embassy
officers also meet with leaders of the religious communities.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution, while declaring Islam to be the state religion,
provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice; however, proselytizing is discouraged.
Although Islam is the state religion, the Government imposes no
sanctions on those who choose to ignore Islamic teachings or practice
other faiths. The Qadi is the country's senior judge of Islamic law and
is appointed by the Minister of Justice. The current Qadi was appointed
in June 1999. His predecessor was named Minister of State for
Charitable and Religious Affairs under the Ministry of Justice. This
position was created in May 1999, when newly elected President Ismail
Omar Guelleh formed his Cabinet and declared that Islam would be a
central tenet of his government.
The Government requires that religious groups be registered. There
were no reports that the Government refused to register any religious
groups.
Religious Demography
Over 99 percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. There are a
small number of Catholics, Protestants, and followers of the Baha'i
Faith, together accounting for less than 1 percent of the population.
The sizable foreign community supports the Roman Catholic, Protestant,
Greek Orthodox, and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches. There are no known
practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. Because all citizens
officially are considered Muslims if they do not adhere to another
faith, there are no figures available on the number of atheists in the
country.
Religion is not taught in public schools.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
There is no legal prohibition against proselytizing; however,
proselytizing is discouraged. There were a few occasions when members
of the Baha'i Faith were questioned by the police regarding possible
proselytizing activities; however, there were no arrests.
Foreign clergy and missionaries are permitted to perform charitable
works and to sell religious books. A small number of foreign Christian
missionary groups operate in the country. These groups, which focus on
humanitarian services in the education and health sectors, reportedly
faced no harassment during the period covered by this report. Foreign
missionary groups are licensed by the Government to run schools.
Islamic law based on the Koran is used only with regard to family
matters, and is administered by the Qadi. Civil marriage is permitted
only for non-Muslim foreigners. Muslims are required to marry in a
religious ceremony, and non-Muslim men may only marry a Muslim woman
after converting to Islam.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners. Although
groups of Ethiopian Pentecostal Christians were arrested and detained
for short periods of time in the past, there were no reports of such
detentions during the period covered by this report. The past arrests
reportedly were due to loud singing that disturbed neighbors, or to a
general crackdown on illegal residents, rather than to the Ethiopians'
religious faith.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The large presence of French Catholics and Ethiopian Orthodox
Christians for almost a century has led to considerable familiarity and
tolerance of other faiths by the Muslim majority. The Government
established diplomatic relations with the Vatican in May 2000. A group
of the late Mother Teresa of Calcutta's Missionaries of Charity was
expected to arrive soon thereafter to work among the poor, but had not
arrived as of June 30, 2000.
Persons born as Catholics face no discrimination from Muslim
relatives. In many cases, these Catholics are children or grandchildren
of persons raised in French Catholic orphanages during the colonial
period. In the past, recent converts to other religions have faced some
discrimination; however, there were no reports of such discrimination
during the period covered by this report.
In Djiboutian Somali society, clan membership has more influence
over a person's life than religion. Djiboutian Somalis who are
Christians often are buried according to Islamic traditions by
relatives who do not recognize their non-Muslim faith.
There is no formal inter-faith dialog. The Catholic Church
organizes an annual celebration with all the other Christian churches.
The Qadi receives Ramadan greetings from Pope John Paul II. He only
meets with the heads of other faiths at government-organized
ceremonies.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officials engage in a regular humans rights dialog
with government officials, which includes religious freedom issues.
Embassy representatives meet with leaders and members of religious
communities and with U.S. nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) with a
missionary component. In addition, during the period covered by this
report an embassy representative participated in a conference for
Muslim religious leaders organized by the Qadi.
__________
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
The Fundamental Law of 1995 provides for freedom of religion;
however the Government limited this right in practice in some respects.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report despite some restrictions on
the right of assembly; however, the Government discourages criticism by
religious groups, restricts activities outside church premises, and one
priest remains in detention.
There generally are amicable relations between the various
religious groups in the country.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government during periodic visits to Equatorial Guinea in the context
of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The 1995 Fundamental Law provides for freedom of religion; however,
the Government limited this right in practice by its restrictions, for
example, on the right of assembly.
A religious organization must be formally registered with the
Ministry of Justice and Religion before its religious activities are
allowed. While religious groups must be approved and registered in
order to function legally, there were no reports during the period
covered by this report that the Government had refused to register any
group. However, information regarding the exact procedure for
registering a religious denomination was not available. The Assemblies
of God, for example, received official recognition in 1993. From 1987
until 1993, the group was able to operate but was not recognized
officially. The approval process usually takes several years, but such
delay apparently is due primarily to general bureaucratic slowness and
not the result of a clear policy designed to impede the operation of
any religious group. The exact number of registered denominations is
not available.
Religious Demography
The population is approximately 93 percent Christian, 5 percent
animist, and less than 1 percent each for Muslim, Baha'i, other
religions, and those who are nonreligious. The principal religion is
Roman Catholicism, dating from the Spanish colonial period, when almost
the entire population was baptized into this faith. Of the Christian
population, approximately 87 percent are at least nominally Catholic,
and approximately 4.5 percent belong to Protestant denominations. In
practice the actual figure for tribal religions is likely much higher;
moreover, many baptized Catholics reportedly still follow traditional
beliefs. There is no known organized worship in large parts of the
country, in particular in the center and north of the mainland and on
the smaller islands. The ethnic minorities, such as the Ngumba, Yaka,
Puku, and Benga have no known organized religious congregations.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government and President Teodoro Obiang Nguema's ruling
Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE) have reacted defensively
to any criticism. They prefer that religious groups stay out of
politics and refrain from criticism of the Government and its
leadership. The Government requires permission for any activities
outside church walls, but in practice this nominal requirement does not
appear to be a hindrance to organized religious groups. After the
January 1998 coup attempt, all religious groups were summoned by the
authorities to assemble in an ecumenical meeting in February 1998 at
the stadium in the capital to endorse a public profession against
violence. Reportedly, no signed agreement resulted, and there was no
communique issued from the meeting.
Religious study is required in schools and is usually, but not
exclusively, Catholic. The Government generally allows preaching,
religious teaching, education, and practice by believers. Missionaries
work throughout the country, generally without impediment, including
several dozen American missionaries and their dependents. However, the
Government restricted the activities of the Catholic Church.
In July 1998, the Archbishop of Malabo, Laureano Ekua Obama, stated
publicly that the Government now requires Catholic priests to obtain
government permission before celebrating Mass, and commented that the
Government does this because the Church repeatedly has denounced human
rights violations, social injustice, and corruption in the country. The
Archbishop also stated that government harassment made it very
difficult to be a Catholic priest in the country. Nonetheless, a 1992
law includes a stated official preference towards the Catholic Church
and the Reform Church of Equatorial Guinea due to their traditional
roots and well-known influence in the social and cultural life of the
populace. For example, a Roman Catholic mass is normally part of any
major ceremonial function such as the October 12 national day.
The Government relaxed some restrictions on religious activities by
foreign missionaries in 1996. Missionaries in Bata and Malabo reported
little government interference in their work. However, in January 1998
in Bata, the largest town on the mainland, security forces broke up a
religious revival conducted by a popular European evangelist and
expelled him from the country. According to several sources, the
governor of Bata and the police chief expelled the evangelist and his
group the following day in order to take possession of the evangelist's
vehicles, sound system, and other equipment. Diplomatic intervention by
a number of foreign governments allowed the evangelist to depart with
his vehicles.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In February 1998, security forces arrested a priest, Father Eduardo
Losoha Belope--a member of the Bubi ethnic group and president of the
Malabo chapter of the Catholic nongovernmental organization, Caritas--
in connection with the January 21, 1998 revolt. Father Belope still is
being held and was one of the Bubi prisoners transferred in March 2000
from Bioko Island to Evinayong on the mainland.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There generally are amicable relations between the various
religious groups in the country. Some religious groups believe that
they face societal pressures within their regions. However, no specific
incidents or violence stemming from religious discrimination have been
reported, and such concerns may reflect ethnic or individual as much as
religious differences.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy in Yaounde, Cameroon maintains contact with
religious groups, especially American missionaries in the country, and
monitors any religious initiatives during periodic visits. During the
period covered by this report, embassy staff met with various religious
leaders, including members of the Catholic hierarchy, Protestant
missionaries, and religiously affiliated nongovernmental organizations.
__________
ERITREA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The Government bans religious organizations from involvement in
politics and restricts the right of religious media to comment on
political matters. The Government discourages proselytizing by members
of one faith among adherents of another and also discourages foreign
religious groups and nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) from
proselytizing, as it believes that this could create unnecessary
friction in the delicate balance between the Muslim and Christian
populations. The Government continued to harass, arrest, detain, and
discriminate against members of the small community of Jehovah's
Witnesses. Citizens generally are very tolerant of one another in the
practice of their religion; however, societal attitudes toward
Jehovah's Witnesses are the exception to this widespread tolerance.
The U.S. Embassy meets regularly with leaders of the religious
community and the Government's director of religious affairs. Embassy
officers have raised the case of Jehovah's Witnesses with government
officials.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice. The Constitution provides
for the freedom to practice any religion and to ``manifest such
practice,'' and Islam and Christianity are practiced widely and
tolerated throughout the country with persons free to worship at the
mosque or church of their choice; however, the Government continued to
harass, arrest, detain, and discriminate against members of the small
community of Jehovah's Witnesses.
The Government does not require religious groups to register.
However, because the Government owns all land, any religious
organization that seeks facilities for worship other than private homes
must seek government approval to build such facilities. There were no
reports that the Government refused to approve the use or construction
of facilities by any religious organization. Religious organizations,
including religious NGO's, do not receive duty free privileges,
although they sometimes are allowed to import items under the reduced
duty structure used for corporations. The Government prohibits
political activity by religious groups, and the Government's
Directorate of Religious Affairs in the Ministry of Local Government
monitors religious compliance with this proscription against political
activity.
Religious Demography
Although reliable statistics are not available, approximately 50
percent of the population are Sunni Muslim and approximately 40 percent
are Orthodox Christian. The population also includes a small number of
Eastern Rite and Roman Catholics (5 percent), Protestants (2 percent),
smaller numbers of Seventh-Day Adventists, and less than 1,500 members
of Jehovah's Witnesses. A small minority, perhaps 2 percent, practices
traditional indigenous religions. Also present in very small numbers
are practicing Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, and Baha'is. Generally, the
eastern and western lowlands are predominantly Muslims, and the
highlands are predominantly Christian. There are very few atheists.
Some foreign missionaries operate in the country, including
representatives of Catholic, Protestant, and Muslim faiths. There also
are several international religious NGO's that provide humanitarian
aid, including Caritas, Dutch Interchurch Aid, Lutheran Church Aid, and
the Mufti's Relief Organization, the relief arm of the Muslim religion.
The Government's Directorate of Religious Affairs in the Ministry
of Local Government encourages cooperation and inter-faith dialog. The
Directorate helps coordinate interdenominational relations among the
four major religious groups (Muslim, Orthodox Christian, Catholic, and
Protestant).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government discourages proselytizing by members of one faith
among adherents of another and also discourages foreign religious
groups and NGO's from proselytizing, as it believes that this could
create unnecessary friction in the delicate balance between the Muslim
and Christian populations.
In a 1995 proclamation, the Government described specific
guidelines on the role of religion and religion-affiliated NGO's in
development and government, stating that development, politics, and
public administration are the sole responsibility of the Government and
citizens.
The 1995 Proclamation bans religious organizations from involvement
in politics and restricts the right of religious media to comment on
political matters. Pursuant to the 1995 proclamation, religious
organizations are permitted to fund, but not initiate or implement,
development projects; however, this proclamation was not enforced in
practice--several religious organizations executed small-scale
development projects without government interference. The proclamation
also set out rules governing relations between religious organizations
and foreign sponsors.
Authorities informed all religious organizations in April 1998 that
all schools run by religious denominations would be incorporated into
the public school system. At the time it was not made clear whether the
clerical authorities would continue to administer the curriculum with
government oversight or whether the school faculty would be absorbed
into the Ministry of Education. However, no action was taken to
implement this initiative because of the outbreak of the border
conflict with Ethiopia. In January 1998, the Government decreed that
religiously affiliated organizations were prohibited from running
kindergartens; however, this decree was never carried out. According to
officials in the Religious Affairs Office, the Government is expected
to allow religious schools to operate independently as long as they
adhere to a standard curriculum.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Jehovah's Witnesses have several churches and members are not
barred from meeting in private homes; however, the Government continued
to harass, arrest, detain, and discriminate against members of the
small community of Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1994 the Government revoked
the trading licenses of some members of Jehovah's Witnesses and
dismissed most of those who worked in the civil service. This
governmental action resulted in economic, employment, and travel
difficulties for many members of Jehovah's Witnesses, especially former
civil servants and businessmen. In April 1997, the Government labor
office issued a form to all employers in Asmara and the surrounding
area requesting information on any government personnel who were
members of Jehovah's Witnesses. In addition to these measures, members
of Jehovah's Witnesses also often are denied identification cards, exit
visas, trading licenses, and government housing unless they hide their
religion.
Members of Jehovah's Witnesses have refused universally on
religious grounds to participate in national service or to vote. This
has spurred widespread criticism that members of Jehovah's Witnesses
collectively were shirking their civic duty. Some Muslims also have
objected to universal national service because of the requirement that
women perform military duty. Although persons from other religious
groups, including Muslims, reportedly have been imprisoned for failure
to participate in national service, only members of Jehovah's Witnesses
have been subject to dismissal from the civil service, had their
trading licenses revoked, and been denied passports for this reason.
In 1998 several members of Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested for
failure to comply with national service laws and some were tried,
although there is no information available regarding the verdicts or
sentences in these cases. In March 1999, representatives of Jehovah's
Witnesses reported that three members of Jehovah's Witnesses had been
detained without trial or charge for more than 4 years, allegedly for
failing to participate in national service. The maximum penalty for
refusing to do national service is only 3 years.
Ministry of Justice officials deny that any members of Jehovah's
Witnesses were held without charges, although they acknowledge that
some members of Jehovah's Witnesses and a number of Muslims are in jail
serving sentences for convictions on charges of evading national
service. The Government does not excuse individuals who object to
national service for reasons of conscience, nor does the Government
allow alternative service. There is no indication that any persons are
detained or imprisoned solely because of their religious beliefs or
practices; however, the Government has singled out members of Jehovah's
Witnesses for harsher treatment than that received by members of other
faiths for similar actions.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Citizens generally are very tolerant of one another in the practice
of their religion. Mosques and Christian churches of all orders coexist
throughout the country, although Islam tends to predominate in the
lowlands and Christianity in the highlands.
In Asmara Christians and Muslim holidays are respected by all
religions. Some holidays are celebrated jointly.
In 1999 leaders of the Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, and Muslim
faiths created Good Deeds in Unity, an organization to help ethnic
Eritrean expellees in Eritrea, Eritreans displaced by the war, and
other needy persons in Eritrea. This organization works with the
government relief agency, the Eritrean Relief and Refugee Affairs
Commission.
Societal attitudes toward Jehovah's Witnesses are the exception to
widespread religious tolerance. Members of Jehovah's Witnesses
generally are disliked because of their refusal to participate in the
independence referendum in 1993 and to perform national service, a
refusal that is widely seen as unpatriotic.
Church leaders of most denominations, in particular, leaders of the
Orthodox Christian, Catholic, Islamic, and Protestant denominations,
meet routinely and engage in ongoing efforts to foster cooperation and
understanding between religions, with the major exception of Jehovah's
Witnesses. Leaders of the four major religious organizations meet
routinely and enjoy excellent inter-faith relations. In July 2000, in
Oslo, Norway, leaders, these leaders met with their Ethiopian
counterparts for the fourth time in an ecumenical peace effort to
resolve the Eritrea-Ethiopia conflict.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy meets regularly with leaders of the religious
community and the Government's Director of Religious Affairs.
The U.S. Ambassador and other embassy officers have raised the
special case of Jehovah's Witnesses with government officials in the
President's Office, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the High Court,
the Ministry of Justice, and in media interviews.
__________
ETHIOPIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, on
occasion local authorities infringed on this right.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
In general government policy contributes to the free practice of
religion. However, Muslim leaders complained that public school
authorities sometimes interfered with their free practice of Islam.
Protestant groups occasionally complain that local officials
discriminate against them when seeking land for churches and
cemeteries. While the relationship among religions in society is
generally amicable, there continued to be pockets of interreligious
tension and criticism between followers of evangelical and Pentecostal
churches, on the one hand, and Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, on the
other.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The U.S. Embassy meets regularly with the leaders of all of the
religious communities.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, on
occasion local authorities infringed on this right. The Constitution
requires the separation of church and state.
The Government requires that religious groups be registered.
Religious institutions, like nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), are
registered with the Ministry of Justice, and must renew their
registration every year. Unlike NGO's, religious groups are not subject
to a rigorous registration process. Under current law, a religious
organization that undertakes development activities must register its
development wing separately as an NGO.
Religious groups are not accorded duty-free status. Most religious
groups, with the exception of Jehovah's Witnesses, are given free
government land for churches, schools, hospitals, and cemeteries;
however, the title to the land remains with the Government, and the
land, other than that used for prayer houses or cemeteries, can be
taken back at any time. Religious groups, like private individuals or
businesses, must apply to regional and local governments for land
allocation. An inter-faith effort is underway to promote revision of
the law since it affects the duty-free status of religious groups.
Religious Demography
Over 40 percent of the population adhere to the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC), the single largest religious group. The EOC claims 50
percent of the country's total population of 61.7 million, or more than
31 million adherents, and 110,405 churches. The EOC is predominant in
the northern regions of Tigray and Amhara. Approximately 40 percent of
the population are Muslim, although many Muslims claim that the actual
percentage is higher. Islam is most prevalent in the Somali and Afar
regions, as well as in parts of Oromia. Evangelical and Pentecostal
Protestantism are the fastest growing faiths and now constitute more
than 10 percent of the population. According to the Evangelical Church
Fellowship, there are 7.4 million Protestants, although this figure may
be on the high side. Established Protestant churches such as Mekane
Yesus and Kale Hiwot are strongest in the Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR), western and central Oromia,
and in urban areas around the country. Roman Catholics, animists, and
other traditional indigenous religions make up most of the remaining
population. There are very few atheists.
In Addis Ababa and western Gondar in the Amhara region there are
very small concentrations of Ethiopian Jews (Falashas) and those who
claim that their ancestors were forced to convert from Judaism to
Ethiopian Orthodoxy (Feles Mora). Approximately 3,000 Feles Mora
migrated voluntarily from the western Amhara region to Addis Ababa in
1991 at the time of ``Operation Solomon,'' when a large number of
Falashas were airlifted to Israel. The Feles Mora also seek immigration
to Israel. The number of Feles Mora in the country has grown to
approximately 9,000. Israeli officials evaluate the Feles Mora
immigration claims on a case-by-case basis and estimate that
approximately 20 percent of the Feles Mora eventually may be able to
immigrate under Israel's law of return. In June 1999, the Israeli
Government announced that 3,500 Falashas requesting citizenship would
be airlifted from Quara, Ethiopia to Israel. All of the eligible
Falashas in Quara left for Israel by December 31, 1999.
There are more than 6,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country. When
the Government began deporting Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean
origin in 1998, it decided that Jehovah's Witnesses of Eritrean origin,
who might face religious persecution in Eritrea, were not to be subject
to deportation.
Although precise data are not available, active participation in
religious services is high throughout the country.
A large number of foreign missionary groups operate in the country,
including Catholic and American Protestant missionaries. Protestant
organizations, operating under the umbrella of the 12-member
Evangelical Church Fellowship of Ethiopia, sponsor or support
missionary work: the Baptist Bible Fellowship, the New Covenant Baptist
Church, the Baptist Evangelical Association, Mekane Yesus Church
(associated with the Lutheran Church), Kale Hiwot Church (associated
with Sim-Service in Mission), Hiwot Berhan Church (associated with the
Swedish Philadelphia Church), Genet Church (associated with the Finnish
Mission), Lutheran-Presbyterian Church of Ethiopia, Emnet Christos,
Muluwongel (Full Gospel) Church, and Messerete Kristos (associated with
the Mennonite Mission). There is also missionary activity among
Pentecostals and Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints.
The Government officially recognizes both Christian and Muslim
holidays, and has mandated a 2-hour lunch break on Fridays to allow
Muslims to go to a mosque to pray. The Government also agreed to a
request from Muslim students at Addis Ababa Commercial College to delay
the start of afternoon classes until 1:30 p.m. to permit them to
perform afternoon prayers at a nearby mosque.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government does not issue work visas to foreign religious
workers unless they are attached to the development wing of a religious
organization.
Evangelical leaders have complained of strict regulations on the
importation of Bibles, as well as heavy customs duty on Bibles and
other religious articles; however, Bibles and religious articles are
subject to the same customs duty as all imported books and most
imported items.
Muslim leaders complained that public school authorities sometimes
interfered with their free practice of Islam. Certain public school
teachers in the SNNPR, Addis Ababa, and in the Amhara region objected
to Muslim schoolgirls covering their heads with scarves while at
school. In September 1999, Muslim girls who had boycotted classes in
Woldea in the Amhara region over the issue of wearing headscarves to
class, returned to classes with their scarves.
The Government has interpreted the constitutional provision for
separation of church and state to mean that religious instruction is
not permitted in schools, whether they are public or private schools.
Catholic, Orthodox, evangelical, and Muslim-owned and operated schools
are not permitted to teach religion as a course of study. Most private
schools teach a morals course as part of the school's curriculum, and
the Government Education Bureau in Addis Ababa has complained that such
courses are not free of religious influence. Churches are permitted to
have Sunday schools, the Koran is taught at mosques, and public schools
permit the formation of clubs, including those of a religious nature.
Protestant groups occasionally complain that local officials
discriminate against them when seeking land for churches and
cemeteries. Evangelical leaders complain that because they are
perceived as ``newcomers'' they remain at a disadvantage compared with
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Supreme Islamic Council when it
comes to the allocation of land. In January 1998, the Government
returned evangelical church property that was seized under the Mengistu
regime (including the Mekane Yesus Church headquarters, which served as
Federal Police headquarters until 1997); however, the Government still
has not returned other properties to the Mekane Yesus Church, including
three student hostels and two schools. The Government also has not
returned to the Seventh-Day Adventists properties taken by the prior
regime, including two hospitals.
In past years there were instances of conflict among religious
groups, most noticeably between Orthodox Christians, on the one hand,
and evangelicals and Pentecostals, on the other. While in past years
some Pentecostals and evangelicals complained that the police failed to
protect them adequately during instances of interreligious conflict,
there were no complaints of inadequate police protection during the
period covered by this report. In most interreligious disputes, the
Government maintains neutrality and tries to be an impartial
arbitrator.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Despite the country's broad level of religious freedom and
tolerance for established faiths, there were instances of open conflict
among religious groups before 1998, most noticeably between Ethiopian
Orthodox Christians on the one hand, and Pentecostals and evangelicals
on the other, and there continued to be pockets of interreligious
tension and criticism during the period covered by this report. Newer
faiths such as Jehovah's Witnesses and Pentecostals have encountered
overt opposition from the public. Muslims and Orthodox Christians
complain about proselytization by Pentecostals and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Ethiopian Orthodox leaders complain that sometimes Protestants fail to
respect Orthodox holy days and Orthodox customs. Muslims complain that
some Pentecostal preachers disparage Islam in their services. There
were complaints by Muslim leaders that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church's
desire to ``show supremacy'' sometimes caused irritation in the
regions. There are credible reports that the bodies of non-Orthodox
Christians have been disinterred from Orthodox cemeteries and left
exposed outside the cemetery grounds. In past years, Protestant and
Pentecostal leaders have complained that, on occasion, Orthodox or
evangelical adherents interrupted Protestant and Pentecostal religious
meetings; however, there were no such reports during the period covered
by this report. Orthodox and evangelical adherents attempted on a few
occasions to prevent the construction of Protestant and Pentecostal
churches in predominately Orthodox or evangelical areas.
Nevertheless in most sections of the country Orthodox Christians
and Muslims participate in each other's religious observances, and
there is tolerance for intermarriage and conversion in certain areas,
most notably in Welo, as well as in urban areas throughout the country.
In the capital, Addis Ababa, persons of different faiths often live
side-by-side. Most urban areas reflect a mixture of all religious
denominations. Longstanding evangelical Protestant denominations,
particularly the Mekane Yesus Church and Kale Hiwot Churches, provide
social services such as health care and education to nonmembers as well
as to members.
In April 2000, the Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the
chairman of the Ethiopian Islamic Affairs Supreme Council, the
Archbishop of the Ethiopian Church and the president of the Ethiopian
Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus issued a joint statement appealing to
the international community for immediate humanitarian assistance to
victims of drought in the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The U.S. Embassy meets regularly with the leaders of all of the
religious communities. Embassy officers made an active effort to visit
all of the religious groups and religious NGO's during the period
covered by this report. Embassy officers met with the Supreme Islamic
Council, Sim-Serving in Mission, Mekane Yesus, Jehovah's Witnesses, the
Catholic Church, the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, and the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church during the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Ambassador held a series of meetings with religious
leaders, including the Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch and the president
of the Supreme Islamic Council to discuss their responses to the HIV/
AIDS epidemic. The Ambassador also met with the Vatican Papel Nuncio,
the executive director of the Mekane Yesus Church, the director of Sim-
Serving in Mission, and the president of the Seventh-Day Adventist
Church to discuss the status of religious freedom and development
issues. The U.S. Ambassador remains in regular contact with the
American Joint Distribution Committee to discuss the situation of the
country's Jewish population.
In 1998 the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
entered into a 5-year agreement with the Ethiopian Orthodox Development
Assistance Authority to provide food commodities and grants to support
food security programs in four areas. The value of the program during
the period covered by this report was approximately $4,700,000.
In August 1999, USAID awarded the Ethiopian Orthodox Church a
$350,000 grant to support programs to contain the spread of HIV/AIDS.
The development arm of Mekane Yesus Church has been a USAID contractor
since 1996. In December 1999, USAID renewed the contract with Mekane
Yesus and increased the amount to $258,000 annually. In May 2000, USAID
awarded the Supreme Islamic Council a $145,000 grant to support
programs to contain the spread of HIV/AIDS.
__________
GABON
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. A 1983 decree
banning Jehovah's Witnesses, which the Government promulgated on the
grounds that Jehovah's Witnesses allegedly do not adequately protect
individuals who might dissent from the group's views, remained in
effect; however, the Government did not enforce the ban.
The Ministry of the Interior maintains an official registry of some
religious groups; however, it does not register traditional religious
groups. The Government does not require religious groups to register
but recommends that they do so in order to assemble with full
constitutional protection. No financial or tax benefit is conferred by
registration. The Government has refused to register approximately 10
religious groups, including Jehovah's Witnesses. In practice, the
Government allows Jehovah's Witnesses to assemble and practice their
religion. In addition, the Government has made uncorroborated claims
that it permits Jehovah's Witnesses to proselytize.
Religious Demography
Major religions practiced in the country include Christianity
(Catholicism and Protestantism), Islam, and traditional indigenous
religions. Government statistics indicate that about 60 percent of the
country's citizens practice Christianity, almost 40 percent practice
traditional indigenous religions, and only 1 percent practice Islam.
However, Muslims make up a much larger proportion of the total
population, especially among noncitizens. Moreover, many persons
practice both elements of Christianity and elements of traditional
indigenous religions. It is estimated that approximately 73 percent of
the population practice at least some elements of Christianity, about
12 percent practice Islam, about 10 percent practice traditional
indigenous religions exclusively, and about 5 percent practice no
religion.
Noncitizens constitute approximately 20 percent of the population.
A significant portion of these noncitizens come from countries in West
Africa with large Muslim populations. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of
the 12 percent of the total population who practice Islam are
foreigners. However, the country's President is a member of the Muslim
minority.
Islamic, Catholic, and Protestant denominations operate primary and
secondary schools in the country. These schools are required to
register with the Ministry of Education, which is charged with ensuring
that these religious schools meet the same standards required for
public schools. The Government does not contribute funds to private
schools, whether religious or secular.
There are no media operated by religious denominations, although
several radio and television stations apportion some airtime for
religious programming.
The Government promotes inter-faith relations by facilitating
meetings of leaders of the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy and the
Islamic Council. Such meetings are held periodically, usually once
every year or two.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned
to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the different religions are very amicable. There
were no reports of interreligious violence or intrareligious incidents
during the period covered by this report.
There were occasional incidents of violence in which practitioners
of some traditional indigenous religions inflicted bodily harm on other
persons. However, the details of these incidents are uncertain. The
Ministry of the Interior maintained that violence and bodily harm to
others in the practice of a traditional religion is a criminal offense
and is prosecuted vigorously. Media reports suggested that this was
true; however, little information about such prosecutions or their
results is available.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of its overall dialog and policy of
promoting human rights. Embassy officials have met with leaders of the
Catholic Church, as well as the Islamic Superior Council. Contacts are
maintained with the Ministry of Interior to discuss the general state
of religion in the country. The Embassy also maintains close contacts
with various Christian missionary groups in the country.
__________
THE GAMBIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
The Government does not require religious groups to register.
Religiously based nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) are subject to
the same registration and licensing requirements as other NGO's.
Religious Demography
Muslims constitute over 90 percent of the population. The main
Muslim branches are Tijaniyah, Qadiriyah, Muridiyah, and Ahmadiyah.
Except for the Ahmadiyah, all branches pray together at common mosques.
An estimated 9 percent of the population practice Christianity and 1
percent practice animism. The Christian community is predominantly
Roman Catholic; there also are several Protestant denominations,
including Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists,
Jehovah's Witnesses, and various small Protestant evangelical
denominations.
The Government permits and does not limit religious instruction in
schools. Bible and Koranic studies are provided in both public and
private schools throughout the country without government restriction
or interference. Religious instruction in public schools is provided at
government expense, but is not mandatory.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government still refuses to allow the imam of the largest
mosque in Brikama to lead prayers at the mosque, both as a result of a
1998 dispute over construction work at a mosque and due to pressure
from his opponents in the community. The High Court ruled in favor of
the imam in February 1999 and acquitted him of charges of destruction
of property. However, the Government has appealed to the Supreme Court;
the appeal remained pending at mid-2000.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities. Intermarriage between members of different religious
groups is legal and socially acceptable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
GHANA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, on at
least one occasion local government officials restricted this right.
The Government does not always prosecute those responsible for
religious violence.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. In an effort to improve
societal respect for religious freedom during the period covered by
this report, the Government was more proactive in addressing the
management of religious conflicts than in previous years.
The Government assisted in mediating interreligious disputes. While
tension persists between the Christian community and traditional
authorities over the annual ban on drumming in the ethnic Ga
traditional area, both groups agreed to exercise restraint; there were
no reports of violence during the spring 2000 annual ban. Despite laws
banning the practice, a form of religious slavery at trokosi shrines
exists on a limited scale. Government officials supported the forced
polio vaccination of children in a local church. Police prevented
worshipers from attending a church service conducted by a Catholic
priest who was performing unorthodox ``healing.'' Isolated incidents of
violent conflict between different religious groups led to injuries and
property damage. There were no reports of intra-Muslim clashes during
the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. The U.S. Embassy has supported civil society efforts to
address religious freedom issues.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. However, the
Government does not always prosecute those responsible for religiously
motivated attacks. For example, none of those who attacked churches
during the 1999 annual ban on drumming (see Section II) were arrested
or charged with an offense. Police authorities said that pursuing the
cases only would exacerbate tensions. No suspects were charged in the
firebombing of a Christian charismatic church in December 1996 and
March 1998. The cases of those arrested following intra-Muslim clashes
in Wenchi and Kumasi in 1998 are pending with the attorney general.
Religious institutions that wish formal recognition are required to
register with the Registrar General's Department. This is a formality
only. Most traditional religions, with the exception of the Afrikania
Mission, do not register. Formally recognized religions receive some
tax relief. However, beyond a certain point the institutions are
required to pay tax. In 1989 during the Provisional National Defense
Council (PNDC) regime, which ruled the country from 1981 to 1992, a law
requiring the registration of religious bodies was passed in an effort
to regulate churches. The Ghana Council of Churches interpreted this
law as contradicting the concept of religious freedom in the country.
The PNDC repealed the law in 1992.
Religious Demography
About 40 percent of the country's estimated population of 18
million are at least nominally Christian. Christian denominations
include Roman Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, Mennonite, Evangelical
Presbyterian, Presbyterian, African Methodist Episcopal Zionist,
Christian Methodist, Evangelical Lutheran, F'eden, numerous charismatic
faiths, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons),
Seventh-Day Adventist, Pentecostal, Baptist, and the Society of
Friends. Christianity often includes an overlay of traditional beliefs.
About 30 percent of the population adhere to traditional indigenous
religions or other religions. These religions include a belief in a
supreme being, referred to by the Akan ethnic group as Nyame or by the
Ewe ethnic group as Mawu, and lesser gods who act as intermediaries
between the supreme being and man on earth. Veneration of ancestors
also is a characteristic, as they too provide a link between the
supreme being and the living and even may be reincarnated at times. The
religious leaders of those sharing these diverse beliefs commonly are
referred to as priests and are trained in the arts of healing and
divination. These priests typically operate shrines to the supreme
deity or to one of the lesser gods, relying upon the donations of the
public to maintain the shrine and for their own maintenance.
About 25 percent of the population are Muslim. Three principal
branches of Islam are represented in the country: the orthodox Sunnis
and Tijanis, and the less orthodox Ahmadis. The Shi'a branch virtually
is absent from the country's Islamic community.
Other religions include the Baha'i Faith, Buddhism, Judaism,
Hinduism, Shintoism, Ninchiren Shoshu Soka Gakkai, Sri Sathya Sai Baba
Sera, Sat Sang, Eckanker, the Divine Light Mission, Hare Krishna,
Rastafarianism, and other international faiths, as well as some
separatist or spiritual churches or cults, which include elements of
Christianity and traditional beliefs such as magic and divination. A
new practice has emerged called ``Zetahil,'' which combines elements of
Christianity and Islam. Some consider the ethnic Ga tradition to be a
religion (see Section II).
There are no statistics for the percentage of atheists. Atheism, as
such, does not have a strong presence, as most persons have some
spiritual and traditional beliefs.
The majority of the Muslim population is concentrated in the urban
centers of Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Tamale, and Wa. The
followers of the more traditional religions mainly dwell in the rural
areas of the country. Christians live throughout the country.
Reportedly, only 1.9 million of those persons who profess the
Christian faith actually attend church. However, this figure appears to
be lower than the actual number of persons who attend services.
Religions considered to be ``foreign'' include the Baha'i Faith,
Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Ninchiren Shoshu Soka Gakkai, Sri Sathya
Sai Baba Sera, Sat Sang, Eckanker, the Divine Light Mission, Hare
Krishna, and Rastafarianism. The Government neither monitors nor
advises these organizations.
Foreign missionary groups, including Catholic, Methodist,
Presbyterian, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, and Mormon groups,
operated throughout the country with a minimum of formal requirements
or restrictions.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
On February 20, 2000, the Ho district (Volta region) chief
executive led a joint operation with police and health personnel to
immunize the children at an Apostolic Faith of Kpalexose (``Well-Rooted
Faith'' in the Ewe language) church, a local church founded in 1931,
against poliomyelitis. Church members consistently have refused
immunizations on the grounds that their faith forbids the use of
orthodox medicine. Police surrounded the church during worship services
and health personnel administered the vaccine. It was reported that 155
children up to age 5 received the vaccine. The community reportedly
supported the overriding of individual religious convictions as being
in the greater national interest of eradicating polio.
The Catholic Church in the archdiocese of Accra officially
suspended a priest for conducting unorthodox ``healing'' services. His
superiors called his actions a failure to comply with his vows of
obedience and a lack of responsibility and respect toward his
superiors--especially the Bishop. When the accused priest was
conducting one of these healing services, the gates to the cathedral
were locked, and police personnel prevented worshipers from entering
the church premises.
The Government requires that all students in public schools up to
the equivalent of senior secondary school level attend a daily
``assembly'' or devotional service; however, in practice this
regulation is not always enforced. This is a Christian service and
includes the recital of The Lord's Prayer, a Bible reading, and a
blessing. Students at the senior secondary school level are required to
attend a similar assembly three times a week. Students attending
boarding school are required to attend a nondenominational service on
Sundays.
Government employees, including the President, are required to take
an oath on taking office. However, this oath can be either religious or
secular, depending on the wishes of the person taking the oath.
The Government took some steps to promote inter-faith
understanding. At government meetings and receptions there usually is a
multidenominational invocation. Often religious leaders from various
faiths are present.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Although the Constitution prohibits slavery, religious slavery--
trokosi--exists on a limited scale. In June 1998, Parliament passed and
the President signed legislation to ban the practice of trokosi in
comprehensive legislation to protect women and children's rights. Human
rights activists believe that the goal of eradicating the trokosi
practice is attainable with the new law; however, the practice persists
(see Section II).
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
The Government was more proactive in addressing the management of
religious conflicts. The Greater Accra Regional Coordinating Council
conducted a workshop on managing religious conflicts in April 2000,
several weeks before the annual ban on drumming (May 8 to June 8),
which resulted in a workable compromise between religious and
traditional leaders. The participants agreed that in 2000, drumming
should be subdued and confined inside churches, in order for the
traditionalists and Christians each to practice their beliefs
unhindered and preclude a repeat of the spring 1999 violence. Also in
April 2000, the National Commission for Civic Education held an inter-
faith forum to address religious conflict. Discussion centered on the
idea that freedom of worship must be preserved, and religious groups
therefore should respect each other's religious beliefs and practices.
There were no reports of violence during spring 2000. In May 2000, the
Upper West Regional Coordinating Council resolved a dispute between
five Pentecostal churches and landowners in Jirapa (see Section II).
During a Muslim celebration, a deputy minister of education appealed to
citizens not to use religion and mode of dress to define citizenship.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There generally are amicable relations between the various
religious communities, and spokesmen for these communities often
advocate tolerance toward different religions. Debate continued over
religious worship versus traditional practices and respect for the
rights and customs of others in a diverse society.
During the period covered by this report, there was tension between
practitioners of the ethnic Ga (the Ga are the original inhabitants of
Accra) tradition (which some consider to be a religion) and members of
some charismatic churches over the annual ban by Ga traditional leaders
on drumming and noise-making prior to the Ga ``Homowo'' (harvest)
festival. Traditionalists believed that their time-honored beliefs
should be accorded due respect, while some Christians resented the
imposition of bans, which they believed infringed on their right to
worship as they pleased.
Three incidents of violence were reported during the 1999 ban on
drumming (see Section I). On May 15, May 29, and May 30, 1999, groups
of men attacked churches that were not observing the drumming ban. Some
church equipment and money was stolen, and a church facility was
vandalized. There were some minor injuries but no fatalities. There
were no reports of violence during the May 8 to June 8, 2000 ban. One
chieftancy dispute in the La district of the Ga traditional area was
resolved through the intervention of President Rawlings, before
violence erupted.
Although the Constitution prohibits slavery, religious slavery
exists on a limited scale. Trokosi, a traditional practice found among
the Ewe ethnic group and primarily in the Volta region, is an
especially severe human rights abuse and a flagrant violation of
women's and children's rights. It is a system in which a young girl,
usually under the age of 10 years, is given by her family as a slave to
a fetish shrine for offenses allegedly committed by a member of the
girl's family. The belief is that, if someone in the family has
committed a crime, such as stealing, members of the family may begin to
die in large numbers unless a young girl is given to the local fetish
shrine to atone for the offense. The girl becomes the property of the
fetish priest, must work on the priest's farm, and perform other labors
for him. Because they are the sexual property of the priests, most
trokosi slaves have children by them. Although the girls' families must
provide for their needs, such as food, most are unable to do so. There
are an estimated 2,000 women and girls bound to various shrines in the
trokosi system, a figure that does not include the slaves' children.
Even when freed by her fetish priest from the more onerous aspects of
her bondage, whether voluntarily or as a result of intervention by
activists, a trokosi woman generally has few marketable skills and
little hope of marriage and typically remains bound to the shrine for
life by psychological and social pressure arising from a traditional
belief that misfortune may befall a trokosi woman's family or village
if she abandons her obligations to the shrine. When a fetish slave
dies, her family is expected to replace her with another young girl,
thus perpetuating the bondage to the fetish shrine from generation to
generation.
In June 1998, Parliament passed and the President signed
legislation to ban the practice of trokosi in comprehensive legislation
to protect women and children's rights. Human rights activists believe
that the goal of eradicating the trokosi practice is attainable with
the new law. Nongovernmental organizations, such as International
Needs, and government agencies, like the Commission for Human Rights
and Administrative Justice(CHRAJ), have been campaigning against
trokosi for several years and are familiar with the locations of the
fetish shrines and the numbers of women and children enslaved.
Activists know the community leaders and fetish priests and thus know
with whom to negotiate. CHRAJ and International Needs have had some
success in approaching village authorities and fetish priests at over
316 shrines, winning the release of nearly 1,000 trokosi slaves as of
mid-2000 and retraining them for new professions. The followers of
Trokosi claim this to be a religion, but the Government does not
recognize it as such.
There have been occasional reports of interreligious and
intrareligious incidents, but no violent incidents based on religious
affiliation. There were no reports of intra-Muslim violence during the
period covered by this report.
In November 1999, in Agona Nyakrom, central region, a dispute
during a soccer game between an Islamic middle school and a Methodist
middle school led to arson and other destruction of property (corn
mills, livestock, approximately 100 houses, and 3 mosques). A group of
youths also attacked Muslims in the area, including the headmaster of
the Islamic school, who was beaten severely. Five persons suffered
gunshot wounds. Police detained 30 men, including a chief. Newspapers
reported that as a result of the conflict, large numbers of Muslims
moved out of the area.
Members of the Christo Asafo Christian church clashed with members
of the Boade Baaka traditional shrine on January 25, 2000, at Taifa,
greater Accra region. The dispute arose days earlier after shrine
members accused a Christian woman of witchcraft. In the process, the
woman was injured slightly and a crowd formed. Christo Asafo members
attacked the shrine in retaliation. There were some minor injuries.
Police did not arrest or prosecute any of the participants, but
continue to investigate the incident.
In March 2000, a dispute between five Pentecostal churches and
landowners (tendaabas) created tension in Jirapa, Upper West region.
After a member of the Kingdom of God ministries allegedly burned down a
local shrine, the tendaabas banned religious activities of all churches
except the Roman Catholic Church, until May 2000, when the regional
coordinating council brokered a resolution (see Section I).
The clergy and other religious leaders actively discourage
religiously motivated violence, discrimination, or harassment.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy monitors religious freedom in the country and
discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in the overall
context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officers meet with various leaders of religious communities
in the country from time to time. The Embassy supported dialog between
religious leaders and civil society. Embassy officers attended the
opening ceremony of the greater Accra workshop on managing religious
conflict (see Section I).
__________
GUINEA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between the various religions are generally amicable;
however, in some areas, strong social pressure discourages non-Muslims
from practicing their religion openly, and the Government tends to
defer to local Muslim sensibilities. While the Government has been
accused of favoring Muslims in positions of power, some non-Muslims
hold relatively important positions. There have been no recent reports
of government interference with missionary activity.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and permits
religious communities to govern themselves without state interference;
the Government generally respects this right in practice.
A government-sponsored organization, the National Islamic League
(NIL), represents the country's Sunni Muslim majority, which comprises
some 85 percent of the population. The Government requires that all
recognized Christian churches join the Association of Churches and
Missions in order to benefit from certain government privileges such as
tax benefits and energy subsidies. Missionary groups are required to
make a declaration of their aims and activities to the Ministry of
Interior or to the National Islamic League.
Religious Demography
Islam is demographically, socially, and culturally the dominant
religion. According to credible estimates, some 85 percent of the
population profess Islam, while 10 percent follow various Christian
faiths, and 5 percent hold traditional indigenous beliefs. Muslims in
the country generally adhere to the Sunni branch of Islam; adherents of
the Shi'a branch remain relatively few, although they are increasing in
number. Among the Christian groups, there are Roman Catholic, Anglican,
Baptist, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventist, and other
Christian evangelical churches active in the country and recognized by
the Government. The small Baha'i community practices its faith openly
and freely, although it is not officially recognized. There are small
numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, and practitioners of traditional Chinese
religions among the expatriate community. Few, if any, citizens profess
atheism.
Geographically, Muslims are a majority in all four major regions.
Christians are most numerous in the capital, in lower Guinea, and in
the forest region. Christians are found in all large towns throughout
the country, with the exception of the Fouta Jallon region of middle
Guinea, where the Puhlar (or Fulani or Peuhl) ethnic group fiercely
opposes the establishment of religious communities other than Islamic
ones. Traditional indigenous religions are most prevalent in the forest
region.
No data is available on active participation in formal religious
services or rituals, but the National Islamic League estimates that 70
percent of Muslims practice their faith regularly.
Although there are no known organized heterogeneous or syncretistic
religious communities, both Islam and Christianity have developed
syncretistic tendencies, which reflect the continuing influence and
acceptability of traditional indigenous beliefs and rituals.
The country's large immigrant and refugee populations generally
practice the same faiths as citizens, although those from neighboring
Liberia and Sierra Leone have higher percentages of Christians and
adherents of traditional indigenous religions.
The National Islamic League's stated policy is to promote better
relations with other religious denominations and dialog aimed at
ameliorating interethnic and interreligious tensions. Although the
Government and the NIL have spoken out against the proliferation of
Shi'a fundamentalist groups on the grounds that they ``generate
confusion and deviation'' within the country's Islamic family, they
have not restricted the religious activities of these groups.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
With rare exceptions, foreign missionary groups and church-
affiliated relief agencies operate freely in the country. These include
Roman Catholic, Philafricaine, Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, and
many American missionary societies. There have been no recent reports
that government officials obstructed or limited missionary activities
by Jehovah's Witnesses.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Government support of the powerful, semi-official National Islamic
League has led some non-Muslims to complain that the Government uses
its influence to favor Muslims over non-Muslims, although non-Muslims
are represented in the Cabinet, administrative bureaucracy, and the
armed forces. Conversions of senior officials to Islam, such as the
Defense Minister, are ascribed to the NIL's efforts to influence the
religious beliefs of senior government leaders. The Government refrains
from appointing non-Muslims to important administrative positions in
certain parts of the country, in deference to the particularly strong
social dominance of Islam in these regions.
There were no reports that the Government required government
ministers to take an oath on either the Koran or the Bible, a
requirement that provoked criticism when it was imposed--apparently for
the only time--in April 1999.
The Government utilizes all religious groups in its civic education
efforts and national prayers for peace. The Government does not have a
specific program to promote inter-faith understanding.
Both Muslim and Christian holidays are recognized by the Government
and celebrated by the population.
The government-controlled official press reports on religious
events involving both Islamic and Christian groups.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religions are generally amicable;
however, in some parts of the country, Islam's dominance is such that
there is strong social pressure that discourages non-Muslims from
practicing their religion openly.
In January 2000, violent clashes between Christian and Muslim
villages in the forest region left 30 people dead. According to both
the Secretary General of the Islamic League and the Archbishop of
Conakry, the violence was due primarily to a long-running conflict over
rights to land, and were not based on religion. The Minister of
Territorial Administration and Decentralization visited the area to
investigate the dispute. Although the dispute calmed down after the
Minister's visit, the region remains tense.
There are no significant ecumenical movements or activities to
promote greater mutual understanding and tolerance among adherents of
different faiths.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains contact with clergy and religious
leaders from all major religious communities, monitors developments
affecting religious freedom, and discusses religious freedom issues
with government officials in the overall context of the promotion of
human rights.
__________
GUINEA-BISSAU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. There is no state
religion.
The Government requires that religious groups be licensed; however,
no applications have been refused. There were no reports that new
applications were made during the period covered by this report.
Religious Demography
About half the population follows traditional indigenous religious
practices. Approximately 45 percent of the population are Muslim and
about 5 percent are Christian. There are few atheists. The Muslim
population is concentrated in the Fula and Mandinka ethnic groups, and
Muslims generally live in the north and northeast. Christians are
concentrated in Bissau and other large towns. Practitioners of
traditional religions inhabit the rest of the country.
Christians belong to a number of groups, including the Roman
Catholic Church and various Protestant denominations. Missionaries from
numerous Christian denominations have long been active. Muslims
generally adhere to a tolerant ``African-style'' Islam.
All religions were tolerated prior to the outbreak of civil
conflict in June 1998, and there have been no reports of discrimination
based on religious belief since that time. Historically, political
affiliation has not been related directly to ethnic or religious
affiliation. Members of all major faiths are represented in the Interim
Government that was inaugurated in February 1999, in the National
Assembly, and in the military junta that led the rebellion against
President Joao Vieira in 1998.
Numerous foreign missionary groups have long operated in the
country without restriction. While many missionaries left following the
June 1998 conflict, others stayed and continue to operate unmolested.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. Society is tolerant on religious matters.
There have been no reports of significant ecumenical movements or
activities to promote greater mutual understanding and tolerance.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
There has been no official U.S. presence in country since June
1998.( Note: The U.S. Embassy remains closed following suspension of
operations on June 14, 1998 at the outset of civil conflict that ended
in May 1999. The U.S. Embassy in Dakar is responsible for U.S.
interests in Guinea-Bissau. Sources of information about the situation
of religious believers and other circumstances inside Guinea-Bissau are
very limited./( The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues
with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of
promoting human rights during periodic visits to the country by U.S.
officials.
__________
KENYA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, while
groups generally were allowed to worship freely, the Government at
times interfered with other activities by religious groups.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The Government at times restricted or disrupted public meetings
that religious groups organized or participated in, sometimes for
political reasons. Muslim leaders charge that the Government is hostile
towards Muslims. On August 13, 1999, police shot and killed five
unarmed worshipers at a mosque near Mombasa. Police periodically
arrested and detained members of the unregistered Mungiki religious
group, and on a few occasions used force, including live ammunition in
at least one instance, to disrupt Mungiki prayer meetings and
politically motivated gatherings. Some members of the Mungiki accuse
the Government of harassment, while the Government claims members of
the group are involved in illegal practices. There is generally a great
level of tolerance among religious groups; however, there were a few
instances of violence between Muslim and Christian groups. There are
some inter-faith movements and political alliances.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal Policy and Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, while
groups generally were allowed to worship freely, the Government at
times interfered with other activities by religious groups.
The Government requires new religious organizations to register
with the Registrar of Societies, which reports to the Office of the
Attorney General. The Government allows traditional indigenous
religious organizations to register, although many choose not to do so.
Once registered, religious organizations enjoy tax-free status and
clergy are not subject to duty on purchased goods. Religious
organizations generally receive equal treatment from the Government;
however, some small splinter groups have found it difficult to register
due to their inability to define their status as more than an offshoot
of a larger religious organization. The Government has not granted
registration to the Tent of the Living God, a small Kikuyu religious
order banned during the single-party era (pre-1992). However, with the
arrival of a multiparty system in 1992, the Tent of the Living God has
virtually disappeared.
Religious Demography
According to rough estimates, Protestants are the largest religious
group representing approximately 38 percent of the population.
Approximately 28 percent of the population are Roman Catholic, while an
estimated 10 to 20 percent are Muslim. Hinduism is practiced by 1
percent of the population and the remainder follows various traditional
indigenous religions or offshoots of Christian religions. There are
very few atheists.
Members of most religious groups are active throughout the country.
Muslims are concentrated chiefly in the coastal areas and the north and
northeastern parts of the country. Muslims are also present in
significant numbers in urban centers throughout the country.
Foreign missionary groups of nearly every faith operate in the
country. The Government generally has permitted their assistance to the
poor and their founding of schools and hospitals. The missionaries
openly promote their religious beliefs and have encountered little
resistance; however, some missionary groups expressed concern following
the release of the report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry
into Devil Worship, in which they were identified as ``doorways'' into
satanism (see following subsection).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
On July 25, 1999, according to a press report, authorities in Ruaka
town ordered members of the small church group, the Word of Mercy
Church, to disband, citing ``odd practices.''
On June 25, 2000, local authorities in Nairobi blocked entry to the
Buru Buru Church of God in Nairobi, in an apparent effort to prevent
renewed fighting between rival factions in the Church. Fighting between
rival factions in the Church 2 weeks earlier led to numerous injuries
among worshipers. It is unclear for how long the Church will remain
closed.
On April 3, 2000, William Ruto, Assistant Minister in the Office of
the President, speaking after the discovery of ``cult'' killings in
Uganda, was quoted as saying that the Government would crack down on
religious groups that endanger the safety of their adherents.
Political parties must register with the Government. Despite 1997
reforms and the subsequent registration of a large number of political
parties, the Government refused to reverse its 1994 denial of
registration of the Islamic Party of Kenya (IPK) on the grounds that
the IPK had been involved in a number of violent confrontations with
police in 1992.
Muslim leaders have charged that the Government is hostile towards
Muslims. Muslims complain that non-Muslims receive better treatment
when applying for proof of citizenship. According to Muslim leaders,
government authorities more rigorously scrutinize the identification
cards of persons with Muslim surnames and require them to present
additional documentation of their citizenship (i.e., birth certificates
of parents and, sometimes, grandparents). The Government has singled
out the overwhelmingly Muslim ethnic-Somalis as the only group whose
members are required to carry an additional form of identification to
prove that they are citizens. They must produce upon demand their
Kenyan identification card and a second identification card verifying
screening. Both cards also are required in order to apply for a
passport. This heightened scrutiny appears to be due to an attempt to
deter illegal immigration, rather than to the religious affiliation of
the ethnic Somalis. Muslim leaders state that since the August 1998
bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, government discrimination
against them has worsened.
Purporting to practice witchcraft reportedly is a criminal offense
under colonial-era laws; however, persons generally are prosecuted for
this offense only in conjunction with some other offense, such as
murder. Although many traditional indigenous religions include or
accommodate belief in the efficacy of witchcraft, they generally
approve of harmful witchcraft only for defensive or retaliatory
purposes and purport to offer protection against it.
In August 1999, the Government presented to Parliament and thereby
effectively published the 1994 report of the Presidential Commission of
Inquiry into Devil Worship. President Moi appointed the Commission in
1994 in response to public concern, articulated chiefly by Christian
clergy, about a perceived resurgence of witchcraft, ritual murders, and
other ostensibly ``Satanic'' practices associated with aspects of
traditional indigenous religions. The Commission's widely-publicized
report included numerous reports of ritual murder, human sacrifice, and
cannibalism, and feats of magic allegedly done by using powers acquired
through such acts. It also reported that ``Satanists'' had infiltrated
nonindigenous religious groups including Jehovah's Witnesses, the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), and the Church
of Christ Scientist (Christian Scientists), as well as other
organizations, including the Masonic Order (Freemasons) and the
Theosophical Society, making them ``doorways'' to Satanism. Most
members of the Commission were senior members of mainline Christian
churches; a deputy director of the Criminal Investigations Department
(CID) also served on the Commission.
In 1998 the Ministry approved radio and television broadcast
licenses for a Muslim group and for a Christian group. In March 1999,
the Ministry of Information, Transport, and Communication licensed four
religious stations: one Islamic station and three Christian stations in
the coastal, central, and western regions. These stations have been
assigned broadcasting frequencies, and the station of The Supreme
Council of Kenya Muslims (SUPKEM) began undergoing transmission tests
in 2000; however, none of the stations had begun to broadcast by mid-
2000.
In December 1999, a group of Christian, Muslim, and Hindu leaders
formed an alternative process to reform the Constitution, the
Ufungamano Initiative, which opposes the Parliament-led process. The
Government, although critical of the Ufungamano group, has permitted it
to proceed with its constitutional review process. However, a Minister
in the Office of the President, Shariff Nassir, and other ruling party
politicians, warned of possible confrontation if the Ufungamano
Commission attempted to collect citizen views in their constituencies.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
On August 13, 1999, police killed five Muslim worshipers in the
Anas Bin Malik mosque in Chai village, near Mombasa. A dozen policemen
went to the mosque during a religious ceremony to arrest a man accused
of assault. One policeman, Peter Ndirangu, entered the mosque to make
the arrest. An altercation ensued and other police officers shot
indiscriminately through the windows, killing five persons: imam
Mohamed Ali Mwatakucha, Said Ali Mwajefwa, Ali Mohamed Mwadida, Neru
Bakari Marika, and Alfan Matano Mwagoga. As the worshipers fled, an
unknown person slashed Ndirangu with a farm tool, killing him. The
sequence of events remains unclear. Muslim leaders accused police
officials of taking two of the victims, whom they believe survived the
mosque shooting, to a remote location and killing them. Postmortem
studies indicate that at least two of the worshipers died from gunshot
wounds to the head, fired from a distance of less than 6 feet. The
Government charged two police officers, Julius Mugambi M'Nabere and
Stephan Musau Kilonzo, with murder. The case was pending before the
court in mid-2000.
Although the Constitution provides for freedom of assembly, the
Government at times used sections of the Public Order Act and the Penal
Code to restrict or disrupt public meetings that religious groups
organized or participated in, sometimes for political reasons. On April
3, 2000, police in Laikipia broke up a gathering in a Catholic church
hall, on the grounds that the participants were former freedom fighters
holding a secret meeting. The police arrested four men and charged them
with holding an illegal meeting.
On September 25, 1999, President Moi was quoted as saying that, for
political reasons, he would not allow the exiled Tibetan leader, the
Dalai Lama, to enter the country.
The Government historically has been unsympathetic to tribal
religious groups that have engendered protest movements. The Government
frequently harassed, and periodically arrested and detained members of
the Mungiki, a small, controversial, predominately Kikuyu traditional
religious group with strong political motivations. On at least one
occasion, police fired upon members of the Mungiki while attempting to
disrupt their prayer meeting. Members of the Mungiki most commonly are
charged with holding illegal assemblies and possessing offensive
weapons. On October 10, 1999, a Murang'a court in central Kenya charged
eight Mungiki members with taking part in an illegal assembly. The
Mungiki had gathered ostensibly to pray at an outdoor shrine. On
December 12, 1999, police in Ng'arua, Laikipia district, broke up a
meeting of Mungiki members, arrested dozens of persons, and reportedly
confiscated two videotapes from a Reuters film crew covering the event.
On April 23, 2000, a few hundred members of the Mungiki approached the
Nyahururu police station in central Kenya, demanding the release of
three members of the group. Police responded with force, including the
use of rubber bullets and live ammunition, injuring dozens of persons
and sending eight persons to the hospital with gunshot wounds. Police
later removed two of the wounded from their hospital beds and detained
them, an act that hospital authorities strongly criticized. On May 14,
2000, police in a slum near Nairobi forcibly dispersed a prayer
gathering of hundreds of Mungiki members. This police action came 1
week after President Moi criticized the Mungiki and ordered a crackdown
on the group during a public speech. On June 25, police shot and
injured 5 members of the Mungiki and arrested 23 others while
attempting to disrupt a prayer meeting. The members of the Mungiki had
responded to the police attempts to disrupt their meeting by throwing
stones at the police. The Mungiki group allegedly promotes female
genital mutilation (FGM) and the taking of illegal oaths against the
Government. The debate over the rights of the Mungiki to practice their
traditional religion and advance their political agenda is ongoing. It
remains unclear to what extent the Mungiki may have broken the law in
practicing their religion.
The Government dropped cattle-rustling charges that it had brought
against Francis Tulel, the secretary of the Catholic Peace and Justice
Commission for Eldoret Diocese, shortly after arresting him in 1998.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no other reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There is generally a great level of tolerance among religious
groups; however, there were a few instances of violence between
adherents of different religions, and Muslims increasingly perceive
themselves to be treated as second-class citizens in a predominantly
Christian country. Intermarriage between members of Christian
denominations is common and inter-faith prayer services occur
frequently. Intermarriage between Muslims and Christians, although less
frequent, is also socially acceptable, and mosques and Christian
churches can be found on the same city blocks.
For years Muslims and Christians have held an open debate over
their respective places in society. Each group claims to have a larger
number of adherents than is plausible, and some Muslim groups believe
that the Government and business communities deliberately have impeded
development in predominantly Muslim areas. The debate at times has
undermined mutual trust. The misuse of authority by mainly Christian
security forces in the northeast, which is largely Muslim and in which
banditry is widespread, has long contributed to Muslim mistrust. In
recent years, the absence of an effective government in southern
Somalia, and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) insurgency in southern
Ethiopia, have strained Christian-Muslim relations further by causing
the Government to increase security force operations in the north and
northeast. In these areas, many security force members reportedly find
it difficult to distinguish Kenyan Muslims from members of Somali
militias or the OLF, who are ethnically and culturally similar.
There were a few instances of violence between adherents of
different religions. On April 21, 2000, a group of Muslims allegedly
threw stones and attacked a group of Catholic worshipers who had
stopped in front of the Majengo mosque in Nyeri to pray during a Good
Friday ceremony. The Muslim worshipers were in the middle of their
Friday prayers and believed that the Catholics were provoking them. A
few of the Catholics received minor cuts and bruises. Top leaders of
the two faiths met in Nyeri a few days later to reconcile their
differences and apologize before the fight escalated. On April 23,
2000, Muslim youths in Kitui reportedly charged and dispersed a group
of Christians who were making noise outside a mosque during evening
prayers.
During the period covered by this report, there were reports of
ritual murders associated with aspects of traditional indigenous
religious rites. The victims, generally teenage children, reportedly
were killed and parts of their bodies removed for use in traditional
rituals by persons seeking renewed youth or health. The Report of the
1994 Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Devil Worship, presented
to the Parliament in August 1999, contained similar reports from recent
years.
Occasionally mobs killed members of their communities on suspicion
that they practiced witchcraft.
There have been societal efforts to bridge religious divides. The
Inter-Faith Peace Movement represents a broad religious spectrum, and
its members include the Anglican Church of Kenya, the Supreme Council
of Kenyan Muslims, the Muslim Consultative Council, the Methodist
Church, the Catholic Church, the National Council of Churches of Kenya,
the Inland African Church, the Presbyterian Church of East Africa, and
the Hindu Council.
In December 1999, a group of Christian, Muslim, and Hindu leaders
formed an alternative process to reform the Constitution, the
Ufungamano Initiative, which opposes the Parliament-led process. The
Ufungamano Initiative actively seeks input from civil society and
others into the reform process.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy made a concerted effort to bridge the gaps that
exist between Muslims and Christians. Embassy officials maintain
regular contact with leaders and members of all religious communities.
The Ambassador and other embassy officers met with Catholic,
Protestant, and Muslim leaders while traveling. The Ambassador
regularly hosts meetings with religious leaders to discuss issues
affecting their communities. In February 2000, the Ambassador and
embassy officers traveled to Mombasa to host a public forum at which
members of the predominantly Muslim coastal community could meet
embassy officials and gain a better understanding of U.S. policy and
activities.
__________
LESOTHO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
There is no state religion, and no evidence that the government
favors any particular religion. However, the majority, if not all,
members of the Government are Christians.
The Government does not establish requirements for religious
recognition. Generally, there are no benefits from the Government to
any religious groups; however, Christians enjoy a waiver of taxes on
donations from outside the country. These donations (in the form of
clothes, medicines, food, etc) are not subjected to import tax.
Religious Demography
Christianity, specifically Roman Catholicism, is the dominant
religion. Approximately 90 percent of the population are Christian, and
70 percent of the Christians are Catholic. Muslims, members of other
non-Christian religions, and atheists constitute the remaining 10
percent. Christians are scattered throughout the country, while Muslims
are found mainly in the northeastern part of the country.
Many devout Christians still practice their traditional cultural
beliefs and rituals along with Christianity. The Catholic Church has
fused some aspects of local culture into its services. For example, the
singing of hymns during services has taken on a local and traditional
way of singing (a repetitive call and response style) in Sesotho--the
indigenous language--as well as English. In addition, priests are seen
dressed in local dress during services.
There are three main missionary groups, all Christian, active in
the country: Catholics, Protestants, and Anglicans. They do not face
any special requirements or restrictions.
Catholic predominance in Lesotho derives from the successful
establishment of schools in the last century and their influence over
education policy. The Catholic Church owns about 75 percent of all
primary and secondary schools in the country as well as having been
instrumental in establishing the National University.
The Catholic Church helped found the Basotholand National Party
(BNP) in 1959 and sponsored it in the independence elections in 1966.
Most members of the BNP are practicing Catholics. The BNP ruled the
country from independence in 1966 until 1985 when it was overthrown in
a military coup. The then-opposition Basotholand Congress Party (BCP)
always has been aligned with the Protestants, e.g., evangelicals.
Politically persecuted and segregated through the years, the members of
the BCP remained Protestant. They were forced into exile in 1973 after
being denied their victory in the 1970 elections.
There is no government program aimed at promoting inter-faith
understanding.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There is generally mutual understanding and cooperation between
Christians and Muslims. There are efforts within the ecumenical
community to promote tolerance and cooperation on social issues.
However, the dominance of Christians in the population at times
adversely affected other religions. For example, a Catholic-based local
newspaper ran an editorial campaign against Islam in mid-1998. The
steady increase of Muslim schools, which threatened Catholic dominance
in the education sector, prompted this anti-Islamic feeling.
In addition, most practitioners of Islam are of Asian origin, while
the majority of Christians are the indigenous Basotho. Conservative and
xenophobic tendencies often surface when there is a conflict between
the two groups. For example, civil unrest and riots normally target
persons of Asian descent but generally not for religious motives.
During the August to September 1998 civil unrest, opposing political
parties, which are divided along religious lines as well, clashed, and
there were accusations of involvement by religious groups in the
crisis.
There are serious theological and doctrinal differences among the
Christians. The main feud is between the Catholics and the Protestants,
especially evangelical, charismatic, and Mormon groups. However, there
have been no specific incidents or confrontations during the period of
this report.
Catholics form the largest group in the major political party and
tend to be more affluent. Their influence is strong because of their
easy access to resources. On the other hand, Protestants are in the
minority and generally poor despite the fact that they were the
pioneers of Christianity in Lesotho.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
LIBERIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
were some exceptions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Societal discrimination against Muslims is a problem. In addition,
there continues to be ethnic tension along religious lines between
Muslim and non-Muslim groups, particularly between the Lormas and the
Mandingos. This tension was exacerbated by government inaction. This
inaction is motivated primarily by the fact that most Muslims were
allied with factions that opposed President Charles Taylor during the
recent civil war and still belong to opposition parties, rather than by
religious discrimination. In March 2000, the Government temporarily
suspended broadcasting by a Catholic radio station to ensure that it
confined itself to ``purely religious matters.''
The U.S Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
were some exceptions.
There is no established state religion. However, government
ceremonies invariably open and close with prayer and may include hymn
singing. The prayers and hymns are usually Christian but occasionally
are Muslim.
All organizations, including religious groups, must register their
articles of incorporation with the Government, along with a statement
of the purpose of the organization. However, traditional indigenous
religious groups generally need not and do not register. The
registration is routine, and there have been no reports that the
registration process is either burdensome or discriminatory in its
administration.
Religious Demography
Although Islam is gaining adherents, as much as 40 percent of the
population practice either Christianity or elements of both
Christianity and traditional indigenous religions. About 20 percent of
the population practice Islam. The remaining 40 percent practice
traditional indigenous religions exclusively. The Lutheran, Baptist,
Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, United Methodist, African
Methodist Episcopal (AME), and AME Zion denominations, as well as
several Pentecostal churches are represented in the Christian
community. Some of the Pentecostal movements are independent, while
others are affiliated with churches in the United States and elsewhere.
There is also a small Baha'i community.
Christianity, traditional indigenous religions, and syncretistic
religions combining elements of both Christianity and traditional
indigenous religions are found throughout the country. Islam is
prevalent only among members of the Mandingo ethnic group, who are
concentrated in the northern and eastern counties, and among the Vai
ethnic group in the northwest.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Although the law prohibits religious discrimination, Islamic
leaders complained of discrimination against Muslims. Although there
are some Muslims in senior government positions, many Muslims believe
that they are bypassed for desirable jobs. Many Muslim business
proprietors believe that the Taylor Government's decision to enforce an
old statute prohibiting business on Sunday discriminates against them.
Most Mandingos and hence most Muslims were allied with factions that
opposed Taylor during the recent civil war and still belong to
opposition parties.
Two FM radio stations, one operated by the Roman Catholic
archdiocese, the other an evangelical station, broadcast Christian-
oriented religious programming from Monrovia to the capital and the
surrounding area. There are no Islamic-oriented radio stations in the
country, and little radio broadcasting of any kind in the northern and
eastern counties where the Islamic population is concentrated. In March
2000, the Government suspended the Catholic radio station's broadcasts
pending assurances that the station would confine itself to ``purely
religious matters.'' The station was reopened a short time later,
resuming its previous broadcast programming. The closure was believed
to be politically motivated and not a case of religious discrimination.
In February 2000, a Muslim activist was ordered arrested on charges
of treason after he called on Muslims to quit their government jobs in
protest of the Government's inaction since the burning of five mosques
in Lofa County in January 2000 (see Section II). The activist went into
hiding and his whereabouts are unknown. While the Government has not
taken actions openly against Muslims, its inaction over reports of
abuses in Lofa County contributed to ethnic tension between Muslim and
non-Muslim ethnic groups in that area of the country.
There was no report released by the Government following its
November 1999 investigation of the reported killing of as many as 30
Muslim Mandingos in Lofa County in August 1999. Although the
authorities subsequently arrested 19 persons, they did not charge
anyone with a crime. Mandingo residents of Lofa County continued to be
afraid to return to their homes.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Some tensions exist between the major religious communities. The
law prohibits religious discrimination; however, Islamic leaders
complained of societal discrimination against Muslims. The private
sector in urban areas, particularly in the capital, gives preference to
Christianity in civic ceremonies and observances, and discrimination
against followers of other organized religions spills over into areas
of individual opportunity and employment. There is an inter-faith
council that brings together leaders of the Christian and Islamic
faiths.
Ethnic tensions continued in Lofa County between the predominantly
Muslim Mandingo ethnic group and the Lorma ethnic group. In January
2000, five mosques were burned down. There was no report of a
governmental investigation or action taken against the arsonists (see
Section I).
Ritual killings, in which body parts used in traditional indigenous
rituals are removed from the victim, continue to occur. The number of
such killings is difficult to ascertain, since police often describe
deaths as accidents even when body parts have been removed. Deaths that
appear to be natural or accidental sometimes are rumored to be the work
of ritual killers. Little reliable information appears to be readily
available about traditions associated with ritual killings. It is
believed that practitioners of traditional indigenous religions among
the Grebo and Krahn ethnic groups concentrated in the southeastern
counties most commonly engage in ritual killings. The victims are
usually members of the religious group performing the ritual. Body
parts of a member whom the group believes to be powerful are believed
to be the most effective ritually. Body parts most frequently removed
include the heart, liver, and genitals. The rituals involved have been
reported in some cases to entail eating body parts, and the underlying
religious beliefs may be related to incidents during the civil war in
which faction leaders sometimes ate (and in which one faction leader
had himself filmed eating) body parts of former leaders of rival
factions. Removal of body parts for use in traditional rituals is
believed to be the motive for ritual killings, rather than an abuse
incidental to killings committed for other motives. Ritual murders for
the purpose of obtaining body parts traditionally were committed by
religious group members called ``heart men,'' but since the civil war,
common criminals inured to killing also may sell body parts.
In August 1999, the Government sent a high-level delegation of the
National Police to the southeastern counties to investigate reports of
ritual killings. There were no reports released from this
investigation.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy monitors developments affecting religious freedom,
maintains contact with clergy and other leaders of major religious
communities, and discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Embassy
officers have met on various occasions with the Roman Catholic
Archbishop, the United Methodist Bishop, the AME Bishop, the AME Zion
Bishop, the Inter-faith Council, the National Repentant Muslims, and
other religious leaders during the period covered by this report.
__________
MADAGASCAR
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. There is no state
religion.
Religious groups must register and obtain authorization from the
Ministry of Interior. In January 1998, an organization widely perceived
to be affiliated with the Reverend Sun Myung Moon was refused
registration, apparently due to concerns about its use of mind-control
practices. There is no indication that the organization has reapplied
for registration, nor that the Government has changed its decision.
Religious Demography
Most of the population of roughly 15 million persons is nominally
Christian, of which an estimated 4.5 million are Roman Catholics, 3.5
million are Protestants belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ in
Madagascar (mostly from Fianarantsoa North), 2 million are Lutherans
(mostly from Fianarantsoa South), and less than 1 million are Anglicans
(mostly in Antananarivo and Toamasina). Most other citizens are
followers of traditional indigenous beliefs centered on ancestor
worship. Muslims constitute probably slightly less than an estimated 10
percent of the population (concentrated in the north and northwest);
they include ethnic Malagasy as well as most of the ethnic Indians who
immigrated within the past hundred years. There are a few Hindus among
the Indians.
Foreign missionary groups operate freely, including Catholics,
Protestants of various denominations, and Mormons.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among religious communities are generally amicable. Some
ethnic Malagasy voice resentment against the ethnic Indian community,
but this is primarily due to perceptions that the relative prosperity
of the ethnic Indian community is due to the corruption of government
officials and the economic exploitation of ethnic Malagasy customers.
There were no reports of violence or looting directed against members
of the ethnic Indian community during the period covered by this
report.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
MALAWI
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There are no separate requirements for recognition of different
religions, but religious groups must register with the Government.
There were no reports that the Government refused to register any
religious groups.
Religious Demography
More than 70 percent of the population are Christian. Among the
Christian denominations, the largest are the Roman Catholic and
Presbyterian (Church of Central Africa Presbyterian--CCAP) Churches,
with smaller numbers of Anglicans, Baptists, evangelicals, and Seventh-
Day Adventists. There is a substantial Muslim minority totaling
approximately 20 percent of the population. Most Muslims are Sunni.
There are also Hindus, Baha'is, and followers of traditional indigenous
religions. Atheism is negligible.
Foreign missionaries experienced occasional delays in renewing
employment permits, despite the Government's revision of its policy and
procedures on temporary employment permits in 1997; however, this
appeared to be the result of bureaucratic inefficiency rather than a
deliberate government policy against foreign missionaries. Missionaries
and charitable workers pay lower fees for employment permits than do
other professionals.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities. There is no societal discrimination against
members of religious minorities.
There have been active efforts to foster cooperation between
religious groups. For example, the Public Affairs Committee, which is
involved prominently in promoting civic education and human rights,
includes representatives of various churches and mosques.
Some opposition politicians and clerics have raised Islam as a
political issue. Citing the President's adherence to Islam, his contact
with Islamic countries such as Libya and Sudan, and the building of new
mosques, some opposition politicians and clerics have accused the
ruling party of attempting to ``Islamicize'' the country. An attempt by
the Government in early 2000 to replace ``bible knowledge'' in the
school curriculum with the more universal ``moral and religious
education'' course has met with widespread criticism from Christian
leaders. When the President suspended the introduction of the new
curriculum and returned ``bible knowledge'' to the curriculum, Muslim
leaders rebuked him. In an isolated incident in April 2000, Muslims and
Christians clashed over the efforts of an evangelical preacher to
promote an audiotape comparing the Bible and the Koran. Muslims find
the tape provocative and blasphemous, and the issue remains an open
point of contention between followers of the two religions.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Representatives of the Embassy have frequent contact with leaders and
members of all religious communities in the country.
__________
MALI
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between the Muslim majority and Christian and other
religious minorities are generally amicable.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The law allows
for religious practices that do not pose a threat to social stability
and peace. The Constitution declares the country a secular state.
Family law, including laws surrounding divorce, marriage, and
inheritance, are based on a mixture of local tradition and Islamic law
and practice.
The Government requires that all public associations, including
religious associations, register with the Government. However,
registration confers no tax preference and no other legal benefits, and
failure to register is not penalized in practice. The registration
process is routine and is not burdensome. Traditional indigenous
religious are not required to register.
The Minister of Territorial Administration and Collectives can
prohibit religious publications that he concludes defame another
religion, but there were no reports of instances in which publications
were prohibited.
Religious Demography
Muslims make up about 90 percent of the population, and the vast
majority of Muslims are Sunni. About 5 percent of the population are
Christian, and the Christian community is about evenly split between
Catholic and Protestant denominations. Most of the remainder of the
population practice traditional indigenous religions or no religion.
Atheism or agnosticism is rare. Most immigrants are from neighboring
countries and either practice the majority Muslim faith or belong to a
Christian group.
There are no geographic concentrations or segregation of religious
groups. Christian communities tend to be located in and around urban
areas, because of the work of urban based missionaries. However,
Christians are found throughout the country. Animists also practice
throughout the country, but are most active in rural areas. The vast
majority of citizens practice their religion daily. Islam is tolerant
and adapted to local conditions. Women participate in economic and
political activity, engage in social interaction, and do not wear
veils.
Persons are free to change their religion. Foreign missionary
groups operate in the country, and Muslims and non-Muslims may
proselytize freely. Most known foreign missionary groups are Christian
groups, which are based in Europe and are engaged in development work.
However, they do not link the benefits of their development activities
to conversion. A number of U.S.-based Christian missionary groups also
operate in the country.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the Muslim majority and the Christian and other
religious minorities--including practitioners of traditional indigenous
religions--are generally amicable. Adherents of a variety of faiths may
be found within the same families. Many followers of one religion
attend religious ceremonies of other religions, especially weddings and
funerals. Non-Muslim missionary communities live and work in the
country without difficulty. Christian missionaries, especially the
rural-based development workers, enjoy good relations within their
communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officers meet regularly with religious authorities and
government officials in ministries dealing with these issues. During a
civil society meeting hosted by the Embassy, Catholic, Protestant,
Sunni, and Shi'a leaders were invited to join secular leaders and
traditional religious authorities in an open discussion on issues
important to society. The Embassy maintains contacts with the foreign
missionary community, and monitors the situation for indications that
religious freedom may be threatened by the Government or societal
pressures. Embassy officers have raised the issue of religious freedom
through public diplomacy programs.
__________
MAURITANIA
The Constitution establishes Mauritania as an Islamic republic and
decrees that Islam is the religion of its citizens and the State;
accordingly, the Government limits freedom of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between the Muslim community and the small Christian
community are generally amicable.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution establishes Mauritania as an Islamic republic and
decrees that Islam is the religion of its citizens and the State;
accordingly, the Government limits freedom of religion.
Both the Government and society generally consider Islam to be the
essential cohesive element unifying the country's various ethnic groups
and castes. There is a cabinet-level Ministry of Culture and Islamic
Orientation and a High Council of Islam consisting of six imams which,
at the Government's request, advises on the conformance of legislation
to Islamic precepts.
Although the Government provides a small stipend to the imam of the
Central Mosque in the capital city of Nouakchott, mosques and Koranic
schools normally are supported by their members and other donors.
There is no religious oath required of government employees or
members of the ruling political party, except for the President and the
members of the 5-person Constitutional Council and the 10-person High
Council of Magistrates presided over by the President. The
Constitutional Council and the High Council of Magistrates advise the
President in matters of law and the Constitution. The oath of office
includes a promise to God to uphold the law of the land in conformity
with Islamic precepts.
The Government does not register religious groups. However, secular
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) must register with the Ministry
of the Interior; this includes humanitarian and development NGO's
affiliated with religious groups. Nonprofit organizations, including
both religious groups and secular NGO's, generally are not subject to
taxation.
Religious Demography
Nearly 100 percent of the population are Sunni Muslims, who are
prohibited by their religion from converting to another religion.
There is a small number of Christians, and Christian churches have
been established in Nouakchott, Atar, Zouerate, Nouadhibou, and Rosso.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Shari'a (Islamic law), proclaimed the law of the land under a
previous government in 1983, includes the Koranic prohibition against
apostasy; however, it has never been codified in civil law or enforced.
The small number of known converts from Islam suffered no social
ostracism, and there were no reports of societal or governmental
attempts to punish them.
Although there is no specific legal prohibition against
proselytizing by non-Muslims, in practice the Government implements the
prohibition against proselytizing by non-Muslims through the use of
Article 11 of the Press Act, which bans the publication of any material
that is against Islam or contradicts or otherwise threatens Islam. The
Government views any attempts by Christians to convert Muslims as
undermining society. Foreign Christian NGO's limit their activities to
humanitarian and development assistance.
Christians in the foreign community and the few Christian citizens
practice their religion openly and freely. Under Article 11 of the
Press Law, the Government may restrict the importation, printing, or
public distribution of Bibles or other non-Islamic religious
literature, and in practice Bibles are neither printed nor publicly
sold in the country. However, the possession of Bibles and other
Christian religious materials in private homes is not illegal, and
there appears to be no shortage of Bibles and other religious
publications among the small Christian community.
A magistrate of Shari'a, who heads a separate government
commission, decides the dates for observing religious holidays and
addresses the nation on these holidays.
Both privately run Koranic schools which, nearly all children
attend, and the public schools include classes on religion. These
classes teach both the history and principles of Islam and the
classical Arabic of the Koran. Although attendance of these religion
classes is ostensibly required, many students, the great majority of
whom are Muslims, decline to attend these classes for diverse ethno-
linguistic and religious reasons. They are nevertheless able to advance
in school and ultimately to graduate with diplomas, provided that they
compensate for their failure to attend the required religion classes by
their performance in other classes.
There are several foreign, Christian NGO's active in humanitarian
and developmental work in the country. They practice their religion
openly, but respect the proscription against proselytizing.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the Muslim community and the small Christian
community are generally amicable. There were no incidents of attacks or
threats of attacks on the basis of religion. In previous years, the
Government responded quickly and effectively to incidents involving an
attack by an Islamic extremist on Catholic priests and a threat made
against a Christian NGO.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy monitors developments affecting religious freedom,
maintains contact with clergy and other leaders of major religious
groups, and discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
The Ambassador discussed the importance of religious tolerance with
the Minister of Interior on January 18 and 29, 2000.
The Ambassador and the Deputy Chief of Mission have discussed
issues of religious freedom with representatives of American Christian
NGO's working in country.
__________
MAURITIUS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Tensions between the Hindu majority and Christian Creole and Muslim
minorities persist; however, members of each group worshipped without
hindrance.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious organizations and faiths that were present in the country
prior to independence, such as the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of
England, the Presbyterian Church, the Seventh-Day Adventists, Hindus,
and Muslims, are recognized in a parliamentary decree. These groups
also receive a lump-sum payment every year from the Ministry of Finance
based upon the number of adherents, as determined by a 10-year census.
Newer religious organizations (which must have a minimum of 7 members)
are registered by the Registrar of Associations and are recognized as a
legal entity with tax-free privileges. No groups are known to have been
refused registration.
Religious Demography
In the 1990 census, out of a population of more than 1 million
persons, approximately 50 percent claimed to be Hindu, 32 percent
Christian, 16 percent Muslim, and less than 1 percent Baha'i, Jewish,
or Buddhist. Also less than 1 percent claimed to be atheists or
agnostics. There are no figures for those who actually practice their
faith, but there are estimates that the figure is around 60 percent for
all religious groups.
Approximately 85 percent of Christians are Roman Catholic. The
remaining 15 percent are members of the following churches: Adventist,
Assembly of God, Christian Tamil, Church of England, Pentecostal,
Presbyterian, Evangelical, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Sunni Muslims account for over 90 percent
of the Muslims; however, there are some Shi'a Muslims.
Many Buddhists are also practicing Catholics, since many citizens
of Chinese ancestry have sent, and continue to send, their children to
the Loreto Convent primary schools located in the major towns.
The north tends to be more Hindu and the south is more Catholic.
There are also large populations of Hindus and Catholics in the main
cities from the capital of Port Louis to the central cities of Quatre
Bornes and Curepipe, and most Muslims and Christian churches are
concentrated in these areas. The offshore island of Rodrigues, with a
population of 35,200, is predominantly Catholic.
While the Government is secular in both name and practice, for
political reasons it has in the past favored the Hindu majority of the
population with greater access to government patronage.
Foreign missionary groups are allowed to operate on a case-by-case
basis. There are no government regulations detailing the conditions of
their presence or limiting their proselytizing activities. Groups must
obtain both a visa and a work permit for each missionary. Foreign
missionaries sometimes are prohibited from residing in the contry
beyond 5 years (which would permit them to seek Mauritian citizenship),
but religious organizations are permitted to send new missionaries to
replace them.
While some Creole political groups alleged that Christian Creoles
received unjust treatment from the police, there was no evidence that
this was based in particular on religious differences. Such incidents
likely were largely a result of the Creoles' position as the country's
underclass, as well as ethnic differences, since the police force is
predominantly Indo-Mauritian.
In the wake of riots that broke out in February 1999 partly as a
result of ethnic tensions, religious leaders called on the President to
form an interreligious council. The President formed the Committee for
the Promotion of National Unity, which consists of 20 members from a
wide cross-section of the public and private sectors. The committee has
sponsored a variety of activities to promote goodwill between ethnic
groups.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow minor U.S.
citizens who had been forced to convert their religion to be returned
to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Tensions between the Hindu majority and Christian Creole and Muslim
minorities persist; however, no violent confrontations resulted during
the period covered by this report.
Mauritius is a small island nation, and ethnic groups, known as
``communities,'' are quite tightly knit. Intermarriage is relatively
rare. An individual's name easily identifies his or her ethnic and
religious background. There is a strong correlation between religious
affiliation and ethnicity. Citizens of Indian ethnicity are usually
Hindus or Muslims. Citizens of Chinese ancestry usually practice both
Buddhism and Catholicism. Creoles and citizens of European-descent are
usually Catholic. However, there is a growing number of Hindu converts
to evangelical Christian churches, a fact that is of growing concern to
Hindu organizations.
In the wake of violent confrontations in early 1999 that were
partially the result of ethnic tensions, the Mauritian Council of
Social Service, which serves as an umbrella group for nongovernmental
organizations (NGO's) in the country, created a conflict resolution
working group to address ethnic tensions. A citizen based abroad
established the Mauritius Peace Initiative to facilitate contact
between domestic community leaders and international conflict
resolution experts.
Some minorities, usually Creoles and Muslims, allege that a glass
ceiling exists within the upper echelons of the civil service that
prevents them from reaching the highest levels.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Support for some conflict resolution activities was provided under the
U.S. Democracy and Human Rights Fund.
__________
MOZAMBIQUE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
However, the Constitution bans religious denomination-based political
parties as threats to national unity.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides that all citizens have the freedom to
practice or not to practice a religion and gives religious
denominations the right to pursue their religious aims freely, and the
Government generally respects these rights in practice.
The 1989 Law on Religious Freedom requires religious institutions
and missionary organizations to register with the Ministry of Justice,
reveal their principal source of funds and provide the names of at
least 500 followers in good standing. No particular benefits or
privileges are associated with the registration process.
In late 1998, there was disagreement in the National Assembly over
declaring Muslim holy days as official holidays, an issue that surfaces
periodically. Muslim holidays shift with lunar cycles, complicating
their calendar placement. The issue was resolved in practice when the
Government instructed employers to grant liberal leave to both
Christian and Muslim employees to observe their respective religious
holidays, in addition to scheduled national holidays.
Religious Demography
According to the National Institute of Statistics, half of the
population of 16 to 17 million does not profess to practice a religion
or creed. However, scholars at local universities assert that virtually
all persons recognize or practice some form of animism or traditional
indigenous religions. Of the approximately 8 million persons who do
profess a recognized religion, 24 percent are Roman Catholic, 22
percent are Protestant, and 20 percent are Muslim. Many Muslim clerics
disagree with this statistic, claiming that Islam is the country's
majority religion. Religious communities are dispersed throughout the
country. The northern provinces and the coastal strip are most strongly
Muslim, Catholics predominate in the central provinces, and Protestants
are most numerous in the southern region. Government sources note that
evangelical Christians represent the fastest growing religious group,
with the number of young adherents under age 35 increasing rapidly.
There are 394 distinct denominations of religions registered with
the Department of Religious Affairs of the Ministry of Justice. Among
Muslims, only a generic ``Islamic'' community (Sunni) and the Ismaili
community are registered. Among Christians, the Roman Catholic,
Anglican, and Greek Orthodox Churches are registered along with
Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Congregational, Seventh-Day
Adventist, Mormon, Nazarene, and Jehovah's Witnesses groups, as well as
scores of evangelical, apostolic, and Pentecostal churches. Jewish,
Hindu, and Baha'i communities also are registered, and constitute small
minorities. Many citizens consider the Baha'i Faith to be a ``new
religion.'' Many of these communities draw members from across ethnic,
political, and racial lines.
Traditional indigenous practices and rituals are present in most
Christian churches, including Catholic churches, and in most Muslim
worship. For example, members of these faiths commonly travel to the
graves of ancestors to say special prayers for rain. Similarly,
Christians and Muslims continue to practice a ritual of preparation or
inauguration at the time of important events, e.g. a first job, a
school examination, a swearing-in, etc., by offering prayers and
spilling beverages on the ground to please ancestors. Some Christians
and Muslims consult ``curandeiros,'' traditional healers or
spiritualists--some of whom are themselves nominal Christians or
Muslims--in search of good luck, healing, and solutions to problems.
The Government routinely grants visas and residence permits to
foreign missionaries. Dozens of foreign missionary and evangelical
groups operate freely in the country, representing numerous Protestant
denominations along with the Summer Institute of Languages Bible
Translators and the Tabligh Islamic Call Mission. Muslim missionaries
from South Africa have established Islamic schools (madrassas) in many
cities and towns of the northern provinces.
The Constitution gives religious groups the right to own and
acquire assets, and these institutions are allowed by law to own and
operate schools. Religious instruction in public schools is strictly
prohibited.
While virtually all places of worship nationalized by the State in
1977 have been returned to the respective religious organizations, the
Catholic Church and certain Muslim communities complained that some
other properties such as schools, health centers, and residences
unjustly remained in state hands, and continued to press for the return
of such properties. Government sources stated that the majority of
property was returned, with a few cases still being examined on an
individual basis, including two properties in Maputo. In 1982 the
Ministry of Justice founded the Directorate for Religious Affairs to
address the issue of the return of church properties. Provincial
governments have the final responsibility for establishing a process
for property restoration. The return of church property is perhaps most
problematic when the facility is currently in use as a public school,
health clinic, or police station, as funds for construction of new
facilities are in short supply.
A conference of bishops, including Catholic and Anglican members,
meets regularly and consults with the President of the Republic.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The law governing political parties specifically forbids religious
parties from organizing, and any party from sponsoring religious
propaganda. In late 1998, the Independent Party of Mozambique (PIMO), a
predominantly Muslim group without representation in Parliament, began
arguing for the right of political parties to base their activities on
religious principles. The Government so far has tolerated PIMO's
activities, although it has criticized the group. PIMO and some members
of the legislature argued that the Movimento Islamico, a parliamentary
caucus of Muslims from the ruling Frelimo party, was itself tantamount
to a religious party.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
In February 1999, police detained a Pakistani imam for questioning
in connection with the criminal investigation of the murder and
decapitation of a young black man. The imam was arrested, released, and
later taken back into custody. The widely reported case went to the
Supreme Court, which released the imam in January 2000, clearing him of
the charges. He has since departed the country. Two men accused of
perpetrating the murder remain in prison.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among communities of different faiths are generally
amicable, especially at the grassroots level. The black and Indian
Islamic communities tend to remain separate; however, there were no
reports of conflict.
The 3-year-old Forum of Religions, an organization for social and
disaster relief composed of members of the Christian Council of
Mozambique, the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Muslim, Baha'i, and
Jewish communities is an example of inter-faith cooperation. The goal
of the forum is to offer collective assistance to the needy, without
regard to creed. In response to disastrous flooding in February and
March 2000, numerous religious communities jointly contributed to flood
relief efforts. Religiously based charities were active in flood relief
activities, providing monetary donations, food, and clothing.
In early 2000, civil society and the media highlighted religious
aspects of draft Family Law legislation. Debate focused on the need for
legal recognition of religious and common law marriages, as only civil
marriages are legal at present. Under the proposed law, polygamous
marriages would not be recognized, although the law would offer
protection to the widows and children of polygamous unions. Several
leaders within the Islamic community oppose the proposal for not
recognizing polygamy. On the other hand, approximately 50 Muslim women
staged a public protest against polygamy in early May 2000. Some
Islamic groups oppose a section of the law that would raise the legal
age of marriage to 16 for both men and women. However, several
Christian religious groups have proposed higher minimum ages for
marriage, such as 18 or even 20 years of age.
There have recently been allegations of misconduct within the
Anglican Church. According to press reports in April 2000, the Bishop
of the Anglican Diocese of Niassa was investigated by the Church for
diverting roughly $30,000 (500 million Meticais). Detractors also have
accused the Anglican Church of practicing tribal favoritism in
appointing church leaders.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Embassy staff seeks contact with religious groups of all faiths.
During an embassy field mission to Beira, the second largest city, the
Ambassador met with eight leaders of the Muslim community to discuss
various issues. The Ambassador acted as mediator in a case where an
American missionary distributed religious tracts inside a mosque during
Ramadan. The imam of the mosque threatened a lawsuit against the
missionary for trespassing; the Ambassador was able to intercede and
defuse the situation. No charges were filed against the missionary, who
was free to continue his distribution of religious materials outside of
the mosque.
During the period covered by this report, the Ambassador met
periodically with Catholic, Protestant, and Islamic leaders. The
Embassy also has frequent contact with National Assembly deputies of
various religious faiths.
__________
NAMIBIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There is no state religion,
nor does the State subsidize any particular denomination.
The Government does not formally recognize any religion. There are
no registration requirements for religious organizations.
Religious Demography
A vast majority of citizens--over 90 percent--identify themselves
as Christian. The two largest denominations are the Lutheran and Roman
Catholic Churches, although there are also smaller numbers of Baptists,
Methodists, and Mormons. The Himba, an ethnic group that constitutes
less than 1 percent of the population, practice a traditional religion
oriented toward their natural environment in the desert northwest.
Other non-Christian denominations include the Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist,
and Baha'i faiths. Practitioners of these religions are predominantly
immigrants, descendents of immigrants, or converted after recent
proselytizing. They reside primarily in urban areas.
Some foreign missionaries have complained about the difficulty of
obtaining work and residency permits. However, the difficulty that
religious workers experience in obtaining work and residency permits is
a bureaucratic impediment that faces all foreign nationals.
The Government does not have specific programs to promote inter-
faith understanding.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the many religious communities are amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy has sought to convince the Government on a number of occasions
to revise its policy on granting residence and work permits for foreign
nationals, including both religious and lay workers. Embassy staff
members have frequent contact with citizens and foreign visitors from a
wide variety of religious faiths.
__________
NIGER
The July 1999 Constitution provides for ``the right of the free
development of each individual in their spiritual, cultural, and
religious dimensions,'' and the Government supports the freedom to
practice one's religious beliefs, as long as persons respect public
order, social peace, and national unity.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities, but there have been instances when members of
the majority religion (Islam) have not been tolerant of the rights of
members of minority religions to practice their faith.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The July 1999 Constitution provides for ``the right of the free
development of each individual in their spiritual, cultural, and
religious dimensions,'' and the Government supports the freedom to
practice one's religious beliefs, as long as persons respect public
order, social peace, and national unity.
Religious organizations must register with the Interior Ministry.
This registration is a formality, and there is no evidence that it has
ever been denied.
Religious Demography
Islam is the dominant religion and is practiced by over 90 percent
of the population. Christians (including Jehovah's Witnesses) and
Baha'is practice freely. Islam is dominant throughout the country. The
cities of Say, Kiota, Agadez, and Madarounfa are considered holy by the
local Islamic communities, and the practice of other religions in those
cities is not as well tolerated as in other areas. Christians, both
Catholics and Protestants, account for less than 5 percent of the
population and are particularly active in Niamey and other urban
centers with expatriate populations. As Christianity was the religion
of French colonial institutions, its followers include many local
believers from the educated, the elite, and the colonial families, as
well as Africans from neighboring coastal countries, particularly
Benin, Togo, and Ghana. There is a Christian community in Galmi, in the
Tahoua Department, which houses a hospital and health center run by
Society for International Missions (SIM) missionaries and has been in
operation for over 40 years. The Baha'is are very active and represent
a small percentage of the population (in the thousands). They are
located primarily in Niamey and in communities on the west side of the
Niger River, bordering Burkina Faso. Followers of the Baha'i faith have
sponsored religious tolerance campaigns and have had press coverage of
some of their activities. A small percentage of the population practice
traditional indigenous religions.
Christmas and Easter, along with Muslim holy days, are recognized
national holidays. No religious group is subsidized officially to
conduct its activities, although the Islamic Association has a weekly
broadcast on the government-owned (and the only) television station.
Christian programming generally is broadcast only on special occasions
like Christmas.
The State must authorize construction of any place of worship.
Foreign missionaries work freely, but their organizations must be
registered officially as associations.
Active Christian missionary organizations include Southern Baptist,
Evangelical Baptist, Catholic, Assemblies of God, Seventh-Day
Adventist, SIM, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Beyond proselytizing, most
missionary groups generally offer development assistance as well.
There were instances during the period covered by this report in
which local police were not confident that they could ensure the safety
of foreign missionaries, and local authorities ordered the closure of a
church in Niamey but did not enforce it (see Section II).
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities, but there have been instances when members of
the majority religion (Islam) have not been tolerant of the rights of
members of minority religions to practice their faith.
Starting in 1998, Southern Baptist missionaries in Say faced
harassment by members of the majority Islamic community. When the
missionaries notified the authorities, they were told that, while it
was within their rights to be there, the local police could not ensure
their safety.
The harassment continued through September 1999, when the
missionaries decided to leave the area for a new location. One family
has relocated to Gotheye, and the other one continues its missionary
activities in the region but no longer lives in Say. However, local
Christians remain in Say.
On May 14, 2000, the same members of the local Islamic community in
Say threatened to burn down the meeting place of the local Christians
who remained. Leaders of the same organization also threatened to beat
or have arrested a local Christian man in the village of Ouro Sidi
because he continued to work with the Southern Baptists. There were no
reports that such threats were carried out.
Just after the April 1999 coup, the Assemblies of God church in the
capital, Niamey, was notified by the mayor's office that it had to
close until the ``new order'' was established, (presumably until a
democratically elected government is in place, in early 2000). The
church has been in its location since 1996 and has had an ongoing
problem with one of it neighbors, another Christian group who had been
trying actively to have the church closed since its establishment. The
Assemblies of God church remains open, and no further action was ever
taken on the case.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy regularly emphasizes the importance of a spirit of tolerance in
its public statements and in meetings with government officials and
members of civil society.
The Embassy maintains good relationships with minority religious
groups, most of which are long-term resident missionaries and well-
known members of the American community. Embassy personnel also have
contact with the Catholic mission, the Baha'i community, and Islamic
organizations.
Embassy officers on August 31, 1999, met with the Interior Minister
to discuss the situation of the missionaries in Say and on September
15, 1999, met with the Secretary General of the Interior Ministry.
Following the report of a new threat, an embassy officer on May 18,
2000, met with the director of political and judicial affairs at the
Interior Ministry and raised embassy concerns about the renewed threats
to Christians in the Say region. The director replied that such
incidents could not be tolerated in a secular state and promised to
look into it.
__________
NIGERIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, including
freedom to change one's religion or belief, and freedom to manifest and
propagate one's religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice, and
observance; however, the Government restricted these rights in practice
in certain respects.
The status of respect for religious freedom deteriorated during the
year due to the implementation of an expanded version of Shari'a law in
several northern states, which challenged constitutional protections
for religious freedom and sparked interreligious violence. The
Constitution prohibits state and local governments from adopting an
official religion; however, it also provides that states may elect to
use Islamic (Shari'a) customary law and courts.
Government discrimination based on religion and societal tension
between different religious groups continued. Although Christians were
exempt from the law, the societal ramifications of expanded Shari'a law
infringed upon the rights of non-Muslims in the north to live in a
society governed by secular laws. Plans to implement expanded Shari'a
laws in Kaduna state, which has a large Christian population, sparked
violence in February 2000 that lasted for several days and resulted in
an estimated 1,000 to 1,500 deaths. Reprisal attacks followed in the
predominantly Christian southeastern towns of Aba, Owerri, and Onitsha,
resulting in an additional 500 deaths. The violence, although initiated
in a religious context, had strong ethnic undertones and was the worst
the country had experienced since the civil war of 1967-1970. The
violence led several state governments to restrict public preaching,
religious processions, and meetings. The national turmoil surrounding
the Shari'a issue abated by mid-2000, but the issue was not resolved
completely by June 30, 2000.
U.S. Embassy officials frequently discuss the political and social
situation with various religious leaders, who play a prominent role in
civil society and in the human rights community. Embassy officers
raised religious freedom issues with government officials in the
context of the embassy's overall efforts to promote respect for human
rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, including
freedom to change one's religion or belief, and freedom to manifest and
propagate one's religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice, and
observance; however, the Government restricted these rights in practice
in certain respects.
The Constitution prohibits state and local Governments from
adopting an official religion; however, it also provides that states
may elect to use Islamic (Shari'a) customary law and courts. There are
36 states in the country; governors have autonomy in decision-making
but derive their resources from the federal government. Since
independence, the jurisdiction of Shari'a courts has been limited to
family or personal law cases involving Muslims, or to civil disputes
between Muslims who consent to the courts' jurisdiction. However, the
Constitution states that a Shari'a court of appeal may exercise ``such
other jurisdiction as may be conferred upon it by the law of the
State.'' Some states have interpreted this language as granting them
the right to expand the jurisdiction of existing Shari'a courts to
include criminal matters. Several Christians have alleged that, with
the adoption of an expanded Shari'a law in several states and the
continued use of state funds to fund the construction of mosques,
teaching of Alkalis (Muslim judges), and pilgrimages to Mecca (Hajj),
Islam has been adopted as the de facto state religion of several
northern states. However, state funds also are used to fund Christian
pilgrimages to Jerusalem. In general states with a clear Christian or
Muslim majority explicitly favor the majority faith. The Constitution
also provides that the federal Government is to establish a Federal
Shari'a Court of Appeal and Final Court of Appeal; however, the
Government had not yet established such courts by the end of the period
covered by this report.
On October 8, 1999, the governor of Zamfara state, Ahmed Sani,
signed a bill establishing Shari'a courts and courts of appeal in
Zamfara state, and another bill that constitutes the Shari'a penal
code; the bills took effect on January 27, 2000. Zamfara's law adopted
traditional Shari'a in its entirety, with the exception that apostasy
was not criminalized. Other Muslim communities, particularly from the
states of Kano, Niger, Sokoto, Jigawa, Borno, Yobe, Kaduna, and Katsina
states, began to echo the call for Shari'a in their states. At the end
of the period covered by this report, four northern states had adopted
variations of Shari'a law--Zamfara, Kano, Niger, and Sokoto. In May
2000, an international human rights nongovernmental organization (NGO),
Huri-Laws, took the Zamfara state government to court, challenging the
constitutionality of Zamfara's expanded Shari'a penal code. The case
was ongoing as of June 30, 2000.
Following violence in relation to the expansion of Shari'a laws in
Kaduna in February 2000, several northern state governments banned any
type of proselytizing, in spite of the fact that it is permitted by the
Constitution.
Religious Demography
About half of the country's population practice Islam, about 40
percent practice Christianity, and about 10 percent practice
exclusively traditional indigenous religions or no religion; many
persons practice both elements of Christianity or Islam and elements of
a traditional indigenous religion. The predominant form of Islam in the
country is Sunni. The Christian population includes Roman Catholics,
Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, and a growing number of followers of
evangelical Pentecostal groups. Catholics constitute the largest
Christian denomination. There is some correlation between religious
differences and ethnic and regional differences. The north, which is
dominated by the large Hausa and Fulani (Peuhl) ethnic groups, is
predominantly Muslim, with significant populations of Christians in
urban centers, particularly in Kaduna and Jos. In the southwest, where
the large Yoruba ethnic group is dominant, there is no dominant
religion; Islam is practiced in a plurality, but probably not a
majority, of the largest cities of the region, due in part to Hausa and
Fulani communities in those regions. Many Yorubas practice Islam, many
practice Christianity, and many continue to practice the traditional
Yoruba religion, which includes both a belief in a single supreme deity
and the worship of lesser deities believed to serve as the agents of
that supreme deity with respect to specific aspects of daily life. In
the east, where the large Igbo ethnic group is dominant, Catholics are
in the majority, although many Igbos continue to observe traditional
rites and ceremonies.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The law prohibits religious discrimination. Nonetheless, reports
were common that government officials discriminated against persons
practicing a religion different from their own, notably in hiring or
awarding contracts. Christians in the northern, predominantly Muslim
part of the country accused local government officials of attempting to
use zoning regulations to stop or slow the establishment of non-Muslim,
usually Christian, churches. Typically, a small section of a city was
designated for nonMuslims to build their places of worship. In several
cases, citizens in these enclaves reported that they were discriminated
against by not receiving police protection or waste removal services.
On October 8, 1999, the governor of Zamfara state signed into law
two bills aimed at instituting Islamic Shari'a law in his state.
Implementation of the law began on January 22, 2000. Following
Zamfara's lead, several northern states includint Sokoto, Niger, and
Kano states began to implement varying forms of expanded Shari'a.
Previously, Shari'a law had been practiced in the north in the areas of
personal law, only if both litigants agreed to settle their disputes in
Shari'a courts. Elements of Shari'a also had been present in the
northern penal code, which had been applicable in the north since
independence.
As the result of nationwide violence in February and March 2000
related to the expansion of Shari'a laws (see Section II), several
northern state governments banned open air preaching and public
religious processions. The Kogi state government enacted such a ban on
March 1, 2000. The Kaduna state government followed shortly thereafter,
enacting a ban on all forms of ``processions, rallies, demonstrations,
and meetings in public places.'' On March 23, 2000, Gombe state
officials arrested 19 reportedly peaceful persons for ``unlawful
assembly capable of causing a breach of peace in the state.'' Such bans
were viewed as necessary public safety measures after the death of
approximately 1,500 persons. However, large outdoor religious
gatherings continued to be quite common, especially in the southern
part of the country.
On February 29, 2000, in response to this nationwide violence,
President Olusegun Obasanjo convened a meeting of the Nigerian Council
of State, a consultative body consisting of the President and Vice
President, all past heads of state and past chief justices, all
governors, the Attorney General, and the President of the Senate and
Speaker of the House. The result of the meeting was an agreement that
northern governors would halt initiatives to expand Shari'a and return
to the northern Nigerian Penal Code.
Although the expanded Shari'a laws technically do not apply to
Christians, the Christian minority, especially in Zamfara state, was
subjected to many of the social provisions of the law, such as the
separation of the sexes in public transportation vehicles (a law that
was repealed after only 2 weeks) and bans on the selling of alcohol.
Niger state also enforced a ban on selling alcohol. However, the
federal Government has disregarded the ban on alcohol sales in military
installations. All Muslims were subjected to the new Shari'a provisions
in the states that enacted them, which, according to many legal
scholars, constitute an abridgement of their freedom of religion and
conscience.
The Constitution states that ``no person attending any place of
education shall be required to receive religious instruction or to take
part in or attend any religious ceremony or observance if such
instruction, ceremony, or observance relates to a religion other than
his own.'' The Government continued to enforce a 1987 ban on religious
organizations on campuses of primary schools, although individual
students retain the right to practice their religions in recognized
places of worship. Islam is a mandatory part of the curriculum in
public schools in Zamfara and other northern states, to the exclusion
of Christianity.
According to the governor of Zamfara, Shari'a is supposed to apply
to Muslims only; however, schoolchildren continue to be segregated by
gender in Zamfara schools and preparations were underway for separate
transportation and health facilities for men and women. The governor of
Zamfara also disbursed public funds to refurbish mosques and pronounced
that only persons with beards would win government contracts. In May
2000, Kebbi state also began to separate schoolchildren by gender.
Although distribution of religious publications remained generally
unrestricted, the Government continued to enforce lightly a ban on
published religious advertisements. There were reports by Christians in
Zamfara state that the state government restricted the distribution of
religious (Christian) literature. The Right Reverend Samson Bala, First
Bishop of Zamfara, Gusau diocese, said that the state radio station had
``closed its doors to Christians.'' Commercials and paid advertisements
containing Christian literature are not accepted, he said, and only
Islamic religious programs are aired.
Foreign missionary groups operate in the country and do not face
restrictions specifically designed to deter their activities. Many
missionary groups have noted bureaucratic delays and obstruction and
attempts to extort money for the processing of necessary residence
permits for foreigners; however, many foreign businesses and other
nonreligious organizations also have encountered similar difficulties.
Rough estimates put the number of foreign missionaries at over 1,000,
with many in the area around Jos, in Plateau state. The main Christian
missionary groups include Jesuits, Dominicans, the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), the Church of Christ, and the
Society for International Missions.
Following nationwide Shari'a-related violence in February and March
2000, public proselytizing in many northern states was banned, although
it is permitted by the Constitution. Missionaries reported that law
enforcement officials harassed them when they proselytized outside of
their designated zones. Both Christian and Muslim organizations alleged
that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Immigration Department
restricted the entry into the country of certain religious
practitioners, particularly persons suspected of intending to
proselytize. Proselytizing did not appear to be restricted in the
southern part of the country.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In March 2000, the government of Zamfara state, under its newly
expanded Shari'a statutes, amputated the right hand of a cow thief. The
victim was quoted as saying that he voluntarily submitted to the full
Shari'a proceedings, including amputation. After being convicted, he
was entitled to an appeal, a right that he willingly waived. Other
convicted Muslim criminals in Zamfara state were subjected to public
floggings for various minor offenses.
There were no reports of detainees or prisoners imprisoned solely
on religious grounds. In May 1999, the predominantly Shi'a Muslim
Brotherhood published a list of 96 of its followers who were in prison
or awaiting trial on charges that varied from preaching without a
license to homicide. By the end of 1999, Ibrahim el-Zakzaky, the leader
of the Muslim Brotherhood, was released from prison, along with most of
the 96 followers who had been jailed in 1999.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II: Societal Attitudes
The law prohibits religious discrimination. Private businesses
frequently are guilty of informal religious and ethnic discrimination
in their hiring practices and purchasing patterns.
Religious differences often correspond to regional and ethnic
differences. For example, the northern region is overwhelmingly Muslim,
as are the large Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups of that area. Many
southern ethnic groups are predominantly Christian. Consequently, it is
often difficult to distinguish religious discrimination and violence
from ethnic and regional discrimination and violence, which is
pervasive. The violence of the past year, although sparked by Muslim
attempts to expand Shari'a law, had strong ethnic undertones,
particularly the retributive violence that occurred in the southeast.
When Kaduna state announced plans to implement Shari'a law, the
large Christian minority in the state protested on February 21, 2000,
leading to several days of violent confrontations. Estimates of the
number of persons killed range from 1,000 to 1,500; many churches and
mosques were burned. Many Christians in the north, fearing continued
violence, returned to their historic homelands in the southeast.
On February 28, 2000, when the bodies of the victims from the
Kaduna violence were returned home to the southeast, reciprocal
violence erupted in Aba, Abia state, and, to a lesser extent, in the
neighboring towns of Owerri, Imo state, and Onitsha, Anambra state.
This violence was characterized by attacks on the minority Muslim
Hausas by the majority Igbos. Estimates of the number of persons killed
range from 400 to 500. Many of the Hausas were victimized due to their
ethnic identity rather than their religious beliefs.
In spite of the February 2000 agreement that northern governors
would halt initiatives to expand Shari'a (see Section I), a few states
continued to expand their Shari'a laws. Niger state declared that it
would expand Shari'a laws on the same day as the Council of State
meeting, and the amputation of the cow thief's right hand in Zamfara
state occurred on March 23, 2000 (see Section I), 3 weeks after the
Council of State agreement. Nonetheless, the broad political
accommodation reached between the Government and the state governors on
Shari'a appeared to be holding at the end of the period covered by this
report, especially after public criticism at the amputation of the cow
thief's hand. A court case challenging the constitutionality of
Zamfara's Shari'a penal code was ongoing on June 30, 2000.
Following the violence related to the expansion of Shari'a laws,
several committees were established, both by government officials and
by religious leaders, to work for peace and a better understanding
between Christians and Muslims, and to obtain a solution to the Shari'a
debate. However, the efforts of these various committees did not result
in a permanent solution as to how, or if, Shari'a will be permitted to
expand into the criminal code of states that so desire it, by mid-2000.
In July 2000, a Hausa woman who violated a religious taboo against
women viewing a Yoruba festival was killed by a mob. This incident
ignited reciprocal violence on July 21, 1999 in the northern,
predominantly-Hausa city of Kano, with the Hausa majority attacking the
Yoruba minority. Approximately 80 persons died over a 4-day period; the
majority of the victims were Yorubas.
In December 1999, in two attacks, 16 churches were burned and 1
clergyman was injured seriously by Muslim youths in the town of Ilorin,
Kwara state. The churches reportedly were located in the Muslim part of
town. The reason for the attacks was not clear. The Government's
response was limited to pleas for calm and understanding, and there was
no attempt to prosecute the perpetrators.
In addition to the violence related to the expansion of Shari'a law
in Kaduna, Aba, Owerri, and Onitsha, there was civil unrest on March 7,
2000 in Sokoto following a pro-Shari'a rally by university students.
Although there were no confirmed deaths, at least one church was burned
and two others were vandalized. Local Christians sought refuge in
military barracks, but they returned to their homes once calm was
restored.
On March 27, 2000, at least one person was killed and several were
injured in Borno state when a long-festering argument over the location
of a church escalated into violence between Muslims and Christians. The
church in question also was burned down.
On May 22 and 23, 2000, rioting erupted in Nayari, Kaduna state
after Christian residents found the body of a person whom they believed
to have been a Christian and killed by Muslims. Christians retaliated
against Muslims and almost completely destroyed Muslim residences and
businesses, causing many Muslim residents to flee. Press reports
indicated that as many as 200 persons were killed, although this total
could not be confirmed. The exact cause of the outbreak remains
unclear, although some observers believe that the violence was
organized and preplanned by Kaduna Christians in order to prevent
Muslims from returning to the neighborhood to rebuild their community
following the violence related to the expansion of Shari'a laws in
February 2000.
Section III: U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officials frequently discuss the political and social
situation with various religious leaders, who play a prominent role in
civil society and in the human rights community. Embassy officers
raised religious freedom issues with government officials in the
context of the Embassy's overall efforts to promote respect for human
rights. The U.S. Government, through the U.S. Embassy and in statements
from officials in Washington, sought to encourage a peaceful resolution
to the Shari'a issue and urged that human rights and religious freedom
be respected in any resolution.
__________
RWANDA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, it
imposes some restrictions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Local officials on several occasions briefly detained persons who,
on religious grounds, refused to participate in nighttime security
patrols or cooperate in other government programs. There were
unconfirmed reports that members of Jehovah's Witnesses were subject to
harassment, arrest, and detention by authorities during the first 6
months of 2000. There was some tension between the Government and the
Catholic Church over the trial of a bishop on genocide charges, and
over the Government's continued determination to preserve some massacre
sites in churches as genocide memorials. Relations among religions were
generally amicable. Concern over the doomsday cult-related deaths in
Uganda led the Government to caution local officials to watch for
similar cults in Rwanda.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, it
imposes some restrictions. There is no state religion. The law provides
for small fines and imprisonment for up to 6 months for anyone who
interferes with a religious ceremony or with a minister in the exercise
of his profession.
The Government requires nonprofit organizations, including
religious groups, to register with the Ministry of Justice in order to
acquire ``juridical existence.'' This registration generally is routine
and not burdensome. Relevant legislation makes no provision for tax-
exempt status for such organizations. Failure to register leaves an
organization unable to legally conclude agreements with other
organizations, including agreements to receive assistance.
Religious Demography
A 1996 sociodemographic survey by the Ministry of Finance, the
Government's population office, and the U.N. Population Fund reported
that 57.2 percent of the population identified themselves as Roman
Catholic, 24 percent as Protestant, l.4 percent as Adventist, 1.9
percent as Muslim, and that 4.5 percent professed no religion. There is
also a small community of Baha'is and several congregations of
Jehovah's Witnesses. There has been a proliferation of small, usually
Christianlinked sects since the 1994 genocide.
Foreign missionaries and church-linked nongovernmental
organizations (NGO's) of various faiths operate in the country. The
Government has welcomed their development assistance. Missionaries
openly promote their religious beliefs.
There is no indication that religious belief is linked directly to
membership in any political party. Of the eight parties, the only one
with a religious component to its name--the Democratic Islamic Party--
claims to have non-Muslim members.
The Government permits religious instruction in public schools. In
some cases, students are given a choice between instruction in
``religion'' or ``morals.'' Many years ago, missionaries established
schools that are now operated by the Government. In those schools,
religious instruction tends to reflect the denomination of the
founders, either Catholic or Protestant. Christian and Muslim private
schools operate as well.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government forbids religious meetings at night on the grounds
that insurgents formerly used the guise of nighttime ``religious
meetings'' to assemble their supporters before attacking nearby
targets.
After the doomsday cult-related deaths in Uganda in March 2000, the
Government cautioned local officials to be alert to similar cults in
Rwanda. Following this caution from the Government, in April 2000,
local officials detained nine leaders and members of a religious
organization called the Evangelic Ministry in Africa and the World in
Byumba prefecture, near the border with Uganda. This organization had
convinced a number of persons to leave work or school and surrender
their material possessions in expectation of an imminent second-coming
of Christ.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Local officials on several occasions briefly detained persons who,
on religious grounds, refused to participate in nighttime security
patrols or cooperate in other government programs. Among the detainees
were adherents of ``Temperance'' and ``Abagorozi,'' both said to be
offshoots of the Adventist Church and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Several members of the clergy of various faiths, notably
Catholicism, have faced charges of genocide in both Rwandan courts and
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). In June 2000, a
Rwandan Court found Roman Catholic Bishop Augustin Misago not guilty of
all charges related to his actions during the 1994 genocide. He was
released soon after the decision was announced.
Catholic officials have charged that the Government is prejudiced
against the Church. Catholic officials also have criticized the
determination of the Government to maintain some massacre sites in
churches as memorials to the genocide, rather than returning the
buildings to the Church.
There were unconfirmed reports that members of Jehovah's Witnesses
were subject to harassment, arrest, and detention by authorities during
the first 6 months of 2000. Despite these accusations, there does not
appear to be a pattern of systemic government discrimination against
any particular religious group.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the different religious groups generally are
amicable. Disputes between religious groups are rare.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. Embassy officials maintain regular contact with leaders
and members of the religious communities in the country.
__________
SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
respects this right in practice. The Government at all levels generally
protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its abuse, either by
governmental or private actors. There is no state religion.
Religious Demography
The country is predominantly Roman Catholic. Approximately 90
percent of the population are Catholic, 5 percent practice traditional
indigenous religions, 5 percent are atheist, and less than 1 percent
are Protestant.
There are no restrictions on the activities of foreign clergy.
There are Catholic and Protestant missionaries in the country.
Missionaries of other religions also operated unhindered.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy, based in Libreville, Gabon, discusses religious
freedom issues with the Government in the overall context of the
promotion of human rights.
In addition, embassy officials regularly meet with the country's
Catholic bishop during visits.
__________
SENEGAL
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government maintains relations with all major religious
groups in the country and discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The Constitution
specifically defines the country as a secular state and provides for
the free practice of religious beliefs, provided public order is
maintained.
Religious organizations are completely independent of the
Government and in practice administer their affairs without government
interference. While individuals and groups may practice their beliefs
without government sanction, any group--religious or other--that wants
to form an association with legal status must register with the
Minister of the Interior in accordance with the civil and commercial
code. Registration, which generally is granted, enables an association
to conduct business, including owning property, establishing a bank
account, and receiving financial contributions from any private source.
Registered religious groups, like all registered nonprofit
organizations, also are exempt from many forms of taxation. The
Minister of Interior must have a legal basis for refusing registration.
There were no reports of any applications for such registration being
delayed or denied during the period covered by this report.
Religious organizations can receive direct financial and material
assistance from the Government. While there is no official system of
government grants, the importance of religion in society often results
in the Government providing grants to religious groups to maintain
their places of worship or undertake special events. The Government
also provides funds through the Ministry of Education to schools
operated by religious institutions that meet national education
standards. In practice, Christian schools, which have a long and
successful experience in education, receive the largest share of this
government funding.
Religious Demography
According to current government demographic data, Islam is by far
the predominant religion and is practiced by approximately 94 percent
of the country's population. There is also an active Christian
community (4 percent), including Roman Catholics and diverse Protestant
denominations. Two percent (the rest of the population) practice
exclusively traditional indigenous religions or no religion.
The country is ethnically and religiously diverse. Although there
is significant integration of all groups, there are still identifiable
geographic concentrations of some religious groups. The Christian
minority is concentrated in the western and southern regions of the
country, while groups that practice traditional religions are
concentrated in the eastern and southern regions.
As the Constitution provides for separation of religion and state,
religious education or worship is not permitted in public schools.
Privately-owned schools, whether or not they receive government grants,
may provide religious education. The majority of students attending
Christian schools are Muslims.
A large variety of foreign missionary groups operate in the
country, including Catholics, Protestant denominations, independent
missionaries, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Missionaries, like other long-
term visitors, must obtain a residence visa issued by the Interior
Ministry. Religious groups, including Islamic groups, often establish a
presence in the country as nongovernmental organizations (NGO's). NGO's
already registered in a foreign country obtain permission to operate in
the country from the Minister of the Family, Social Action, and
National Solidarity. Both religious and nonreligious NGO's are very
active in providing social services and administering economic
development assistance programs.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government monitors foreign missionary groups, and religious
and nonreligious NGO's, to ensure that their activities coincide with
their stated objectives. In the past, the Government has expelled such
groups from the country when their activities were judged to be
political in nature and a threat to public order. There were no reports
of any foreign religious groups being asked to leave the country during
the period covered by this report.
The Government encourages and helps to organize Muslim
participation in the Hajj every year. It also provides similar
assistance for an annual Catholic pilgrimage to the Vatican.
While there is no specific government-sponsored institution to
promote inter-faith dialog, the Government generally seeks to promote
religious harmony by maintaining relations with all important religious
groups. Senior government officials regularly consult with religious
leaders and the Government generally is represented at all major
religious festivals or events.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Religion plays an important role in the life of most citizens, and
society is generally very open and tolerant of different religious
faiths. The country has a long tradition of amicable and tolerant
coexistence between the Muslim majority and the Christian, traditional
indigenous, and other religious minorities. Inter-faith marriage is
relatively common and within certain families other religious faiths,
such as Christianity or a traditional indigenous religion, are
practiced alongside Islam.
Islamic communities generally are organized around one of several
brotherhoods, headed by a Khalif who is a direct descendant of the
group's founder. The two largest and most prominent of these
brotherhoods are the Tidjanes, based in the city of Tivouane, and the
Mourides, based in the city of Touba. At times there have been disputes
within the different brotherhoods over questions of succession or
general authority. However, relations between these Islamic subgroups
generally have been peaceful and cooperative. In recent years a
National Committee to Coordinate Sightings of the Moon and hence the
designation of Muslim holy days has been formed at the suggestion of
the Government, effectively increasing cooperation among the Islamic
subgroups.
While the brotherhoods are not involved directly in politics or
government affairs, these groups exert considerable influence in
society and therefore maintain a dialog with political leaders. Close
association with a brotherhood, as with any influential community
leader, religious or secular, may afford certain political and economic
protections and advantages that are not conferred by law. During the
campaign for the presidential elections held in February and March
2000, candidates consulted with and sought support of both Muslim and
Christian religious leaders. While some religious leaders issued
instructions to their followers to vote for certain candidates, this
attempt to influence voters was not widely practiced and the election
results revealed no apparent patterns of voting along religious lines.
Of the six presidential candidates, only one represented a religious-
based party founded by the leader of a small Islamic community. This
candidate received less than 1 percent of the vote.
Leaders of the larger religious groups, both Islamic and Christian,
have long maintained a public dialog with one another. For example, the
former Archbishop who led the country's Catholic community and the
Khalifs of the larger Islamic brotherhoods have for decades contributed
to a positive inter-faith dialog. The Catholic-sponsored Brottier
Center has promoted debate and dialog between Muslims and Christians on
political and social issues that confront the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains relations with all major religious
groups in the country. The Ambassador meets with the leaders or their
representatives at various times throughout the year to discuss social
and political issues. The Embassy maintains contacts with several
religiously-based NGO's, Western missionary groups operating in the
country, and human rights organizations and activists in order to
monitor issues of religious freedom. The Ambassador or his
representative regularly attends all major annual religious festivals
or gatherings to promote an open dialog with various religious groups.
__________
SEYCHELLES
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of religious freedom during the
period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Seventh-Day Adventist churches
and the Islamic mosques each have their own acts of incorporation. The
Baha'i local spiritual assembly was incorporated in 1999. Other
churches that are not a body corporate are registered as associations
with the Registrar General and are entitled to tax-free privileges,
similar to a charity. All religious organizations must register in
order to be entitled to tax-free privileges. If an organization does
not want tax-free privileges, it does not have to register.
The Government has not demonstrated favoritism toward one religion
over another in the past, but in early 2000 the Seychelles National
Party (SNP), which is the opposition political party and is led by an
Anglican minister, claimed that the Government gave a grant of $164,000
(SRS 900,000) to the Baha'i faith in 1999, following its incorporation.
According to the SNP, this grant has not been offered to other faiths
that have been established recently in the country. The Government has
not responded to the SNP's claim. In May 2000, the Government announced
that its employees who are Baha'i are allowed to take unpaid leave on
Baha'i holy days. This leave has not been available previously to
members of the Baha'i or other faiths. At the time of the announcement,
the Government also stated that other religions could submit
applications for the recognition of similar unpaid leave days.
President France Albert Rene's wife of 10 years is a member of the
Baha'i Faith while the majority of the government ministers are
Catholic.
Religious Demography
According to figures gathered in the 1994 census, 88 percent of the
population are Roman Catholic and 8 percent are Anglican. There are
other Christian churches, including Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists,
the Assembly of God, the Pentecostal Church, and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Hinduism, Islam, and the Baha'i Faith also are practiced. Almost 50
percent of the population are estimated to regularly practice their
faith.
The Government tends to remain outside of religious matters, but
provides program time to different religious organizations on the
national radio broadcasting service. On Sundays a radio broadcast of a
Catholic Mass alternates each week with a broadcast of an Anglican
service. All other faiths, including Islam, Adventist and Baha'i, are
entitled to a 15-minute radio broadcast one Sunday a month.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious groups and
tolerance for individual religious choice.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
SIERRA LEONE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in the society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The Government does not have requirements for recognizing,
registering, or regulating religious groups.
Religious Demography
Reliable data on the exact numbers of those who practice major
religions are not available. However, most sources estimate that the
population is 60 percent Muslim, 30 percent Christian, and 10 percent
practitioners of traditional indigenous religions.
Historically, most Muslims have been concentrated in the northern
areas of the country, and Christians were located in the south.
However, the ongoing civil war has resulted in movement by major
segments of the population.
According to sources, many syncretistic practices exist, with up to
20 percent of the population practicing a mixture of Muslim and
traditional indigenous practices or Christian and traditional
indigenous practices.
The Government permits religious instruction in public schools.
Students are allowed to choose whether they attend either Muslim- or
Christian-oriented classes.
The Government has not taken any specific steps to promote inter-
faith understanding.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
In the past, rebel forces have attacked both churches and mosques
and targeted Christian and Muslim religious leaders. In particular, the
rebels have targeted Roman Catholic priests and nuns largely on the
assumption that the Church would pay ransom for their return and
because troops from the Economic Organization (of West African States)
Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) used their missionary radio network in
support of the Government. During the period covered by this report,
some religious leaders were targeted by rebels for their peacekeeping
activities as members of civil society, not because of their religion.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities, and inter-faith marriage is common. The Inter-Religious
Council (IRC), composed of Christian and Muslim leaders, plays a vital
role in civil society and actively participates in efforts to further
the peace process. The IRC criticizes the use of force and atrocities
committed by the rebels, endorses reconciliation and peace talks, and
facilitates rehabilitation of the victims affected by the war,
including former child soldiers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
__________
SOMALIA
There is no constitution and no legal provision for the protection
of religious freedom; there were some limits on religious freedom.
There is no central government, but some local administrations,
including the ``Republic of Somaliland'' and ``Puntland,'' have made
Islam the official religion in their regions. Local tradition and past
law make proselytization a crime for any religion except Islam. Non-
Sunni Muslims often are viewed with suspicion by members of the Sunni
majority. Christians and other non-Muslims who proclaim their religion
sometimes face societal harassment.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Government does not maintain an official presence in
Somalia. This lack of diplomatic representation has limited the U.S.
Government's ability to take action to promote religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies of Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
There is no constitution and no legal provision for the protection
of religious freedom; there were some limits on religious freedom.
There is no central government, but some local administrations,
including the ``Republic of Somaliland'' and ``Puntland'', have made
Islam the official religion in their regions. The judiciary in most
regions relies on some combination of traditional and customary law
(Xeer), Shari'a law, the penal code of the pre-1991 Siad Barre
government, or some combination of the three. There are five Islamic
courts operating in Mogadishu, which are aligned with different
subclans, raising doubts about their independence. These courts
generally refrained from administering the stricter Islamic
punishments, such as amputation, but their militias administered
summary punishments, including executions, in the city and its
environs. With the collapse in December 1998 of the Shari'a courts in
north Mogadishu headed by Sheikh Ali Dere, the application of physical
punishment appears to have ceased.
In March 1999, the Minister of Religion in Somaliland issued a list
of instructions and definitions on religious practices. Under the new
rules, religious schools and places of worship are required to obtain
the Ministry of Religion's permission to operate. Entry visas for
religious groups must be approved by the Ministry, and certain
unspecified doctrines are prohibited.
Religious Demography
Citizens are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim. There are a small number
of non-Sunni Muslims. There is also a small, extremely low-profile
Christian community, in addition to small numbers of adherents of other
religions. In Somaliland, the number of adherents of radical Islam is
growing. In 1999 there was an influx of foreign Muslims into Hargeisa
in Somaliland, reportedly Islamic teachers from Afghanistan, Pakistan,
and Sudan (see Section II).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Local tradition and past law make proselytization a crime for any
religion except Islam. Proselytizing for any religion except Islam is
prohibited by law in Puntland and Somaliland. Christian-based
international relief organizations generally operate without
interference, provided that they refrain from proselytizing.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal by local authorities to allow such
citizens to be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Non-Sunni Muslims often are viewed with suspicion by members of the
Sunni majority. There is strong social pressure to respect Islamic
traditions, especially in enclaves controlled by radical Islamists,
such as Luuq in the Gedo region. There was an increase in religious
intolerance among Muslims by Al'Ittihad, a local radical Islamic group.
In north Mogadishu, Al'Ittihad forcibly took over two mosques. There
reportedly have been other mosque takeovers in Puntland and Lower
Shabelle.
On June 15, 2000, a group of conservative Muslims threw a hand
grenade into the compound of the Italian NGO COSV in Merca. The attack
started out as a protest against alleged Christian proselytizing by
teachers at COSV-funded schools. No one was injured in the attack, but
staff members were evacuated, and COSV programs were suspended for 2
weeks.
In 1999 there was an influx of foreign Muslim teachers into
Hargeisa in Somaliland to teach in new private Koranic schools. These
schools are inexpensive and provide basic education; however, there
were reports that these schools required the veiling of small girls and
other conservative Islamic practices not normally found in Somali
culture.
There is a small, low-profile Christian community. Christians, as
well as other non-Muslims, who proclaim their religion sometimes face
societal harassment.
There are no ecumenical movements or activities to promote greater
religious toleration.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government does not maintain an official presence in
Somalia. This lack of diplomatic representation has limited the U.S.
Government's ability to take action to promote religious freedom.
__________
SOUTH AFRICA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The Bill of
Rights, included in the Constitution, specifically provides for and
protects the freedom of religion. The Bill of Rights prohibits the
State from unfairly discriminating directly or indirectly against
anyone on the ground of religion, and it states that persons belonging
to a religious community may not be denied the right, with other
members of that community, to practice their religion and to form,
join, and maintain religious associations. Cases of discrimination
against a person on the grounds of religious freedom can be taken to
the Constitutional Court.
Religious groups are not required to be licensed or registered.
Religious Demography
According to a 1996 census, approximately 77 percent of a
population of more than 42 million adhere to the Christian faith.
Hindus and Muslims each account for approximately 1 percent of the
population, and about 0.4 percent are Jewish. There also are small
numbers of followers of Buddhism and Confucianism. A sizable minority
of the population, more than 15 percent, does not belong to any of the
major religions, but regard themselves as followers of traditional
indigenous religions or claim no specific religious affiliation.
The African Independent Churches make up the largest grouping of
Christian Churches. There are 4,000 or more African Independent
Churches, with a total membership of more than 10 million. Although
these churches originally were founded as breakaways from various
mission churches (the so-called Ethiopian churches), the African
Independent Churches consist mostly of Zionist or apostolic churches
and also include some Pentecostal offshoots. The Zion Christian Church
is the largest African Independent Church. The African Independent
Churches attract persons from rural and urban areas.
The Nederduits Gereformeerde, or Dutch Reformed, family of churches
consists of 3 related churches that represent almost 5 million persons.
The Nederduits Gereformeerde Church is the largest of these 3 churches
with a total of 1,263 congregations. Its member churches are the United
Reformed Church of South Africa and the small Reformed Church in
Africa, whose members are predominantly Indian. The Nederduitsch
Hervormde and Gereformeerde Churches also are regarded as part of the
Dutch Reformed Church family. In recent years, there has been a move
away from the Dutch Reformed churches by Afrikaners to charismatic and
Baptist churches.
Other established Christian churches include the Roman Catholic
Church, which has grown strongly in numbers and influence in recent
years and consists of approximately 8.8 percent of the population; the
Methodist Church (6.8 percent); the Church of the Province of South
Africa (Anglican, 4.4 percent); various Lutheran (2.9 percent) and
Presbyterian churches (1.7 percent); and the Congregational Church (1.5
percent). Although they consist of less than 1 percent of the
population, the Baptist churches represent a strong church tradition.
The largest traditional Pentecostal churches are the Apostolic Faith
Mission with a membership of 1.5 percent of the population, the
Assemblies of God (0.6 percent), and the Full Gospel Church (1.8
percent). A number of charismatic churches have been established in
recent years. The subsidiary churches of the charismatic churches,
together with those of the Hatfield Christian Church in Pretoria, are
grouped in the International Fellowship of Christian Churches. The
Greek Orthodox and Seventh-Day Adventist Churches also are active.
More than 15 percent of the total population claim no affiliation
with any formal religious organization. The majority of these persons
adhere to traditional indigenous religions. A common feature of the
traditional indigenous religions is the importance of ancestors. Also
known as the ``living dead,'' ancestors are regarded as part of the
community and as indispensable links with the spirit world and the
powers that control everyday affairs. Ancestors are not gods, but
because they play a key part in bringing about either good or ill
fortune, maintaining good relations with them is vital. Followers of
traditional indigenous religions also believe that certain
practitioners can manipulate the power of the spirits by applying
elaborate procedures that are passed down through word-of-mouth. Some
practitioners use herbs and other therapeutic techniques, as well as
supernatural powers; others are masters of black magic and engender
fear. As a result of close contact with Christianity, many persons find
themselves in a transitional phase somewhere between traditional
indigenous religions and Christianity.
Nearly two-thirds of Indians are Hindus, and the remainder is
either Muslim (20 percent) or Christian (12 percent), with a small
number of followers of various other religions. The Jewish population
is probably not more than 100,000 persons, or 0.4 percent of the
population. Of these, the majority is Orthodox Jews. There has been a
slight shift towards the Muslim faith by blacks.
Churches are well attended in both rural and urban areas, and most
are adequately staffed by a large number of clerics and officials.
A number of Christian organizations, including the Salvation Army,
Promise Keepers, Operation Mobilization, Campus Crusade, and the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, operate in the country doing
missionary work, giving aid, and providing training. The Muslim World
League also is active in the country, as is the Zionist International
Federation.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Constitution states that religious instruction at public
schools is permitted so long as it is voluntary and religions are
treated equally; however, the Department of Education still is using a
syllabus that requires public schools to administer one period of
religious instruction a week. The syllabus provides six options for
religious instruction: Bible Education, Hindu Studies, Islamic Studies,
Religious Education, Right Living, and Scripture. Many public schools
have dropped religious instruction in practice. In schools that do
administer religious instruction, students have the right not to attend
the religious instruction, and school authorities respect this right in
practice. A new syllabus has been drafted that, if implemented, would
provide for voluntary, not mandatory, religious instruction in public
schools. There are some private religious schools in which religious
instruction is required.
Members of the group People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD)
complained that they were the targets of police brutality. PAGAD is an
Islamic-oriented community-based organization that engaged in acts of
intimidation and violence against some suspected drug dealers, gang
leaders, and critics of PAGAD's violent vigilantism, including anti-
PAGAD Muslim clerics, academics, and business leaders. PAGAD's earlier
tactics of mass marches and drive-by shootings largely have been
replaced by pipe-bomb attacks. There was no indication that police
targeted PAGAD members for investigation because of their religious
affiliation. Some religious communities believe that the Government is
too lenient in regards to PAGAD.
PAGAD has been influenced heavily by Qibla, a radical Islamicbased
political group created in 1979 to promote the establishment of an
Islamic state in South Africa. Qibla is organized into cells in the
Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, and its membership is thought to number
only a few hundred. Qibla leaders dominate the Islamic Unity Convention
(IUC), an umbrella body formed in 1994 that claims to represent more
than 200 small Muslim organizations.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities generally are
amicable. However, there is a concern among Christians about the
perceived growing influence of Islam. Reports of violence perpetrated
by PAGAD have fueled these concerns.
PAGAD portrays itself as a community organization opposed to crime,
gangsterism, and drugs; however, it is known for its violent
vigilantism (see Section I). PAGAD also claims to be a multifaith
movement, even though the vast majority of its members are Muslim.
PAGAD is most active in the Western Cape, but also has branches
elsewhere in the country. Surveys indicated that some two-thirds of
Muslims supported PAGAD soon after its inception in 1995, but that
figure has dropped significantly since; the vast majority of Muslims no
longer support PAGAD. While PAGAD continues to lose support when it is
linked to violent acts, it gains sympathy any time high-profile
incidents occur that are perceived by the Muslim community to have been
acts of discrimination against Muslims.
In January 1997, a mosque in Rustenberg was struck in a series of
bombings that also struck a post office and general store and injured
two persons. The State's case is closed and sentencing of the three
persons convicted is scheduled for September 4, 2000. Two of the
convicted have been released on approximately $11,500 (Rand 80,000)
bail and one on $7,100 (Rand 50,000) pending sentencing.
In December 1998, a synagogue in Wynberg was bombed. Four suspects
have been arrested and their trial was still pending as of June 30,
2000.
There were occasional reports of killings linked to the continued
practice of witchcraft in some rural areas. In the Northern Province,
where traditional beliefs regarding witchcraft remain strong, officials
reported dozens of killings of persons suspected of witchcraft. The
Government has instituted educational programs to prevent such actions.
There are many official and unofficial bilateral and multilateral
ecumenical contacts between the various churches. The largest of these
is the South African Council of Churches (SACC), which represents the
Methodist Church, the Church of the Province of South Africa
(Anglican), various Lutheran and Presbyterian churches, and the
Congregational Church, among others. The major traditional indigenous
religions, most of the Afrikaans-language churches, and the Pentecostal
and charismatic churches are not members of the SACC and usually have
their own coordinating and liaison bodies. The Roman Catholic Church's
relationship with other churches is becoming more relaxed and it works
closely with other churches on the socio-political front.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Representatives of the U.S. Embassy have frequent contact with leaders
and members of all religious communities in the country.
__________
SUDAN
The Constitution, implemented in early 1999, provides for freedom
of religion; however, the Government severely restricts freedom of
religion in practice. The Government treats Islam as the state religion
and has declared that it must inspire the country's laws, institutions,
and policies.
The status of respect for religious freedom has not changed
fundamentally in recent years, and, particularly in the south, the
Government continues to enforce numerous restrictions. Authorities
continued to restrict the activities of Christians, followers of
traditional indigenous religions, and other non-Muslims. Non-Muslims
are forbidden to proselytize. There also continued to be reports that
security forces regularly harassed and at times used threats and
violence against persons based on their religious beliefs and
activities. As part of the civil war, the Government and government-
supported forces were responsible for indiscriminate bombings, the
burning and looting of villages, and the killings, abductions, rapes,
and arbitrary arrests and detentions of civilians, most of whom were
Christians or practitioners of traditional indigenous religions.
However, there were some areas in which the Government took steps that
improved the situation somewhat. For example, religious prisoners and
detainees were released, enforcement of public order laws was relaxed,
women imprisoned under the public order law were released, and
restrictions on religious visitors and gatherings were eased.
Traditionally there have been amicable relations between the various
religious communities, and the practice of religions other then Islam
remains legal. Non-Muslims legally are free to adhere to and practice
their faiths; however, in practice the Government's treatment of Islam
as the state religion creates an atmosphere in which non-Muslims are
treated as second-class citizens.
The U.S. Government's efforts in Sudan have been limited by the
nonresident status of U.S. diplomats prior to August 1998 and by the
evacuation of the Embassy's American staff in August 1998. Nonresident
American diplomats resumed visits to Khartoum in late February 2000.
The U.S. Government has made it clear to the Government of Sudan that
the issue of religious freedom is one of the key problems impeding a
positive relationship between Sudan and the U.S. The issue of religious
freedom has been raised consistently with both the Government and the
populace by Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, Special Envoy for
Sudan Harry Johnston, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs
Susan Rice, the U.S. mission to Sudan (resident in Nairobi), and U.S.
Missions to international forums. In September 1999, the Secretary of
State designated Sudan a country of particular concern under the
International Religious Freedom Act for particularly severe violations
of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution, implemented in early 1999, provides for freedom
of religion; however, the Government severely restricts freedom of
religion in practice. The Government treats Islam as the state religion
and has declared that it must inspire the country's laws, institutions,
and policies. The Constitution states that ``Shari'a and custom are the
sources of legislation.''
Religious organizations are subject to the 1994 Societies
Registration Act. It theoretically allows churches to engage in a wide
range of activities, but subjects churches to the same restrictions
placed on nonreligious corporations. Religious groups, like all other
organizations, must be registered in order to be recognized or to
gather legally. The Government also requires that houses of worship be
approved. Registered religious groups are exempt from most taxes.
Nonregistered religious groups, on the other hand, find it impossible
to construct a place of worship or to assemble legally. Registration
reportedly is very difficult to obtain in practice, and the Government
does not treat all groups equally in the approval of such registrations
and licenses. The Government reportedly is working on new legislation
to replace the Societies Registration Act, but has not yet invited the
participation of religious groups.
In recent years, the Roman Catholic Church has not been given
permission to build new churches, although some other Christian groups
have received permission. Islamic orders associated with opposition
political parties, particularly the Khatimia, regularly are denied
permission to hold large public gatherings. No permits have been
granted for church construction in Khartoum state in recent years,
despite the influx of non-Muslims to the capital.
Religious Demography
Sudan is a religiously mixed country, although Muslims have
dominated national government institutions since independence. There
are no accurate figures on the sizes of the country's religious
populations. A large majority of the population of approximately 30
million persons is Muslim: more than 75 percent of the population are
Muslim and adherents include numerous Arabic and non-Arabic groups.
Muslims predominate in the north. There are sizable minorities of
Christians and practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. Most
citizens in the south adhere to either Christianity or traditional
indigenous religions. There are reliable reports that Christianity is
growing rapidly in the south, particularly in areas outside of
government control. There is also evidence that many new converts to
Christianity continue to adhere to elements of traditional indigenous
practices. The influx of 1 to 2 million southerners displaced by the
war has brought sizable communities of practitioners of traditional
indigenous religions and Christians to the north. There are also small
but influential and long-established populations of Greek Orthodox and
Coptic Rite Christians centered around Khartoum. About 500,000 Coptic
Christians live in the north. There are a few atheists and agnostics in
the country, but exact figures are not available.
The Muslim population is almost entirely Sunni but is divided into
many different groups. The most significant divisions occur along the
lines of the Sufi brotherhood. Two brotherhoods, the Ansar and the
Khatimia, are associated closely with the Umma Party and the Democratic
Unionist Party (DUP), respectively.
Northern Muslims form a majority of the population, and government
institutions are dominated by northern Muslims of Arabic origin. The
southern ethnic groups fighting the civil war (largely followers of
traditional indigenous religions or Christians and largely of African
origin) seek independence, or some form of regional self-determination,
from the north.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Authorities continued to restrict the activities of Christians,
followers of traditional indigenous beliefs, and other non-Muslims, as
well as certain Islamic groups.
Muslims may proselytize freely in government-controlled areas, but
non-Muslims are forbidden to proselytize. Missionaries continue to do
other work, and a wide range of Christian missionary groups operated in
both government and rebel-controlled areas of the country. However,
authorities often harassed foreign missionaries and other religiously
oriented organizations and delayed their requests for work permits and
residence visas. A foreign priest was deported in August 1999. The
priest reportedly was summoned by the Immigration Department on July
15, 1999, and told to leave the country within 2 weeks. No reason was
given for his expulsion. The Government is generally least restrictive
of Christian groups that historically have had a presence in the
country, including Copts, Roman Catholics, and Greek Orthodox, and is
more restrictive of newer arrivals.
Although the Government considers itself an Islamic government,
restrictions often are placed on the religious freedoms of Muslims,
particularly on those orders linked to opposition to the Government.
Islamic orders such as the Khatimia regularly are denied permission to
hold large public gatherings. In November 1999, a religious leader was
arrested and detained, along with some followers, allegedly for
accusing the Government of being insufficiently Islamic. Authorities
released all of those detained within 1 week.
While the government permits non-Muslims to participate in services
in existing, authorized places of worship, the Government continued to
deny permission for the construction of Roman Catholic churches,
although some other Christian groups have received permission. However,
the Government permitted some makeshift structures to be used for Roman
Catholic services.
There is a longstanding dispute between the Episcopal Church and
the Government. In September 1999, the Episcopal Church stated that the
Government had moved to seize a portion of the property on which the
church office in Omdurman stands. A government-run health care center
had operated on the site since 1973. The Church claims that it has a
freehold title to the land, while the Government claims that it is a
leased. The Church claims that the courts would not act independently
of the Government in the case. The Church sent a memo to the Office of
the President concerning the issue, but the President's Office replied
that the case was a state rather than a federal issue. At a June 19,
2000 court session, a decision on the matter was postponed until August
2000.
In 1996 an Episcopal church was built in the Fetehab neighborhood
of Omdurman. In 1998 local residents filed a case against the church
for disturbances, and authorities closed the church as a result. The
case was forwarded to the Attorney General, but no decision was issued
on this matter as of mid-2000. Reportedly the Episcopal church tried to
resolve the conflict by applying to state authorities for approval to
build another church in a different location; however, the state
authorities did not grant approval.
The Khartoum state government continued to raze thousands of
squatter dwellings around Khartoum, which largely are populated by
displaced southerners, including large numbers of practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions and Christians. Earlier improvements
in procedures to grant squatters legal title to land in other areas and
to move squatters in advance of demolitions continued. In October 1999,
the First Vice President directed that demolition of churches and other
Christian facilities in Khartoum be suspended and that a committee be
formed under the Second Vice President to review the issue. Some church
officials indicated that the number of church and school demolitions in
squatter areas has declined, apparently because the replanning of
squatter areas is largely complete.
The Government requires instruction in Islam for Muslim students in
public schools in the north. In public schools in areas in which
Muslims are not a majority, students have a choice of studying Islam or
Christianity; however, Christian courses are not offered in the
majority of public schools, ostensibly due to a lack of teachers or
Christian students and, in practice, this means that many Christian
students attend Islamic courses.
In government-controlled areas of the south, there continued to be
credible evidence of prejudice in favor of Muslims and an unwritten
policy of Islamization of public institutions, despite an official
policy of local autonomy and federalism. In the past, some non-Muslims
lost their jobs in the civil service, the judiciary, and other
professions. Few non-Muslim university graduates found government jobs.
Some non-Muslim businessmen complained of petty harassment and
discrimination in the awarding of government contracts and trade
licenses. There also were reports that Muslims received preferential
treatment for the limited services provided by the Government,
including access to medical care.
In accordance with Islamic law, a Muslim woman has the right to
hold and dispose of her own property without interference, and women
are ensured inheritance from their parents. However, a daughter
inherits half the share of a son, and a widow inherits a smaller
percentage than do her children. It is much easier for men to initiate
legal divorce proceedings than for women. Islamic family law applies to
Muslims and not to those of other faiths, for whom religious or tribal
laws apply. A Muslim man may marry a non-Muslim; however, a Muslim
woman cannot marry a non-Muslim unless he converts to Islam. However,
this prohibition is not observed or enforced in areas of the south not
controlled by the Government, nor among Nubans.
Children who have been abandoned or whose parentage is unknown--
regardless of presumed religious origin--are considered by the state to
be both citizens and Muslims and can be adopted only by Muslims. Non-
Muslims may adopt only other non-Muslim children. No equivalent
restriction is placed on the adoption by Muslims of orphans or other
children. In accordance with Islamic law, children adopted by Muslims
do not take the name of their adopted parents and are not automatic
heirs to their property.
Various government bodies have decreed on different occasions that
women must dress according to modest Islamic standards, including
wearing a head covering. In January 1999, the governor of Khartoum
state announced that women in public places and government offices, and
female students and teachers would be required to conform to what is
deemed an Islamic dress code. However, none of these decrees have been
the subject of legislation. Enforcement of the dress code regulations
was reduced greatly during the period covered by this report. Women
often were seen in public wearing trousers or with their heads
uncovered. Public Order Police generally only gave warnings for
improper dress.
In rebel-controlled areas, Christians, Muslims, and followers of
traditional indigenous beliefs generally worship freely, although it
appears that many of the region's Muslim residents have departed
voluntarily over the years. The rebel SPLM officially favors secular
government; however, the movement is dominated by Christians, and local
SPLM authorities often have a very close relationship with local
Christian religious authorities. There is no evidence that this close
relationship has resulted in a failure to respect the rights of
practitioners of other religions.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
There continued to be reports that security forces regularly
harassed and at times used threats and violence against persons on the
basis of their religious beliefs and activities.
Catholic priests report that they routinely are stopped and
interrogated by police. Security forces also detained persons
apparently in relation to their religious beliefs and activities.
Generally, detentions based nominally on religion were of limited
duration; because the practice of religion is not technically illegal,
detainees could not be held formally on those grounds indefinitely.
However, in the past the Government often resorted to accusing, at
times falsely, those arrested for religious reasons of other crimes,
including common crimes and national security crimes, which resulted in
prolonged detentions.
On August 8, 1999, a group of members of the Ansar al Sunna Muslim
group reportedly threw stones at a Christian center in the Doroshab
neighborhood of Khartoum North. When a member of the center's staff
went to the local police, the police refused to take action, instead
briefly detaining the staff member. He subsequently was released.
There were reports that police in Hilla Kuku harassed members of
the Catholic Church. A Catholic seminarian stated that police stopped
him at the bus station in Hilla Kuku on June 22, 2000 and told him to
remove a wooden cross that he was wearing. After he refused, the police
took him to a police station where they detained him and beat him on
his neck and right wrist with a stick. After 3 hours, the police
returned his cross and released him. On July 7, 2000, a foreign
Catholic Church worker was stopped at the bus station in Hilla Kuku and
forced into a car by unidentified men who were reportedly plainclothes
security personnel. According to the worker, he initially was
questioned in the car; however, after he called for help on his mobile
telephone, he was blindfolded and taken to an unidentified house. In
the house, he was kept in a chair with his hands tied behind his back
and questioned about church activities. He was treated abusively and
believes that he may have been drugged. His captors released him after
dark, but warned him not to discuss what had happened.
The Government officially exempts the 10 southern states, whose
population is mostly non-Muslim, from parts of the Criminal Act. The
Act permits physical punishments, including lashings, amputations and
stonings, based on Shari'a (Islamic law). In late 1999 and early 2000
in the north, the Government reportedly carried out amputations under
Islamic law for the first time. Reports indicate that the Government
carried out three amputations during the period covered by this report
as punishment for violent crimes that resulted in death. All those
sentenced to amputations reportedly were Muslims. No reports cited
court-ordered Islamic law punishments, other than lashings, in
government-controlled areas of the south. The act could be applied in
the south, if the state assemblies so decide. Fear of the imposition of
Islamic law fueled support for the civil war.
During the period covered by the report, 73 Christian secondary-
school students in Khartoum reportedly were not allowed to continue
their compulsory military service because they left their duties to
attend church. The students, who had been training at a police unit in
Jebel Awlia province in Khartoum state, said that they received
physical abuse and insults from the police during the exercise. They
claimed to be among 231 Christians out of 1,200 students at the camp.
The national service coordination office in Khartoum state reportedly
denied that there was a problem at the training camps.
Government authorities, using soldiers for security, have razed
approximately 30 religious buildings with bulldozers since 1990.
While non-Muslims may convert to Islam, the 1991 Criminal Act makes
apostasy (which includes conversion to another religion) by Muslims
punishable by death. In mid-1998, the government began prosecution of
an apostasy case against Faki Koko, a Nuban, who was accused of
converting from Islam. Faki Koko reportedly was released during 1999
and allowed to leave the country for health reasons without charge or
trial, although his current status and location remain unclear.
Popular Defense Forces trainees, including non-Muslims, are
indoctrinated in the Islamic faith. In prisons government-supported
Islamic nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) pressure and offer
inducements to non-Muslim inmates to convert. Some NGO's reported that
persons in the government-controlled peace camps were subject to forced
labor and at times were pressured to convert to Islam. Children,
including non-Muslim children, in government-controlled camps for
vagrant minors are required to study the Koran, and there is pressure
on non-Muslim children to convert to Islam.
The Government charged Reverend Hillary Boma and Reverend Lino
Sebit, along with 18 other persons, with involvement in the June 1998
Khartoum bombings, but released them in December 1999. The charges were
viewed widely as unsubstantiated and possibly designed to intimidate
Christians and the political opposition.
Since the civil war resumed in 1983, an estimated 2 million persons
have been killed and 4 million displaced internally as a result of
fighting between the Government and insurgents in the south. The civil
war continued during the reporting period despite limited cease-fires,
and all sides involved in the fighting were responsible for abuses in
violation of humanitarian norms. Government and government-supported
forces in particular are responsible for the killings, abductions,
rapes, and arbitrary arrests and detentions of civilians, and for the
burning and looting of villages. There is a religious aspect to the
civil war: the Government is dominated by northern Muslims, while the
southern ethnic groups fighting the civil war are largely followers of
traditional indigenous religions or Christians.
As part of the civil war, the Government has engaged in a program
of high altitude, indiscriminate bombing of southern areas,
particularly in the states of Equatoria, Western Upper Nile, and the
Nuba Mountains. The bombings hit schools, medical facilities, and
civilian buildings in these areas inhabited primarily by persons
practicing traditional African religions and by Christians. For
example, Catholic Bishop Macram Max Gassis reported that on February 8,
2000, Government forces bombed a Catholic school in his diocese in the
Nuba Mountains killing at least 14 children and 1 teacher, and wounding
14 other persons. Government officials described the incident as a
legitimate bombing. In April 2000, the Government, responding to
international pressure, announced a halt to aerial bombardments
``except in self defense and in active operations areas.''
The taking of slaves, particularly in war zones, and their
transport to parts of central and northern Sudan, continued, and was
due, in part, to the victims' religious beliefs. There were frequent
and credible reports that Baggara raiders, armed and reportedly
supported by the Government, attacked a number of villages in the Bahr
al Ghazal region, taking a number of persons, almost exclusively women
and children, as slaves. For example, there was a report in July 1999
that the army attacked the towns in Ruweng county, burning several
churches, abducting hundreds of persons, and killing dozens of
civilians. The victims in the villages were largely Christians or
practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. Some children from
Christian and other non-Muslim families, captured and sold into
slavery, were converted forcibly to Islam. Militia and Baggara raids
were reduced significantly during the period covered by this report,
due largely to a reconciliation between the Dinka and Nuer tribes in
March 1999.
In June 2000, a group of 12 armed police entered the priests'
residence of the Catholic Comboni College secondary school with a
warrant to search for illegal immigrants and foreign currency. The
rooms of two priests and a medicine storeroom were searched. The police
did not arrest anyone, and spoke with one priest. Police took a camera,
a file of newspaper cuttings, five boxes of slides, a corrector tape,
three floppy disks, and a bottle of whiskey. The items were accounted
for at the time and returned 2 days later. A mobile telephone and cash
are believed to have disappeared, but were not listed among the items
taken by police during the search. No charges were filed in the case.
The Catholic Comboni College has a religiously and ethnically mixed
student body and generally operates without interference or harassment.
In July 1999, the principal of an Episcopal Church school in Haj
Yusuf requested assistance from the commissioner of Khartoum North to
build a new classroom. After construction, the commissioner asserted
that the school belonged to the Government. The Church refused to hand
over the school, and the commissioner filed suit against the church.
Both the court and the state governor have directed the commissioner to
cede control of the school to the Church, but reportedly the
commissioner has been reluctant to obey. In December 1999, police
injured five persons in a clash in northwest Khartoum over this issue.
The school remained closed as of June 30, 2000.
Improvements in Religious Freedom
There were some areas of improvement in the Government's respect
for religious freedom. During the period covered by this report, the
Public Order Police (controlled by Khartoum state) were less extreme in
their application of the Public Order Law. Women were seen more
commonly without head coverings and wearing trousers. When stopped by
the Public Order Police, they commonly were warned rather than
detained. In May 2000, President Omar Hassan Al-Bashir ordered that all
women in prison for violations of the Public Order Law be released. Of
the 563 women released, most were non-Muslims convicted of illegally
making and selling alcohol; however, some women reportedly were
subsequently arrested for illegally making and selling alcohol. Public
Order Courts and their special judges were abolished. The Minister of
Justice indicated in June 2000 that the Ministry was writing a new
national public order law; however, no changes were implemented by June
30, 2000. During the period covered by this report, prisoners held on
religious or seemingly religiously related grounds were released. Faki
Koko, allegedly held for apostasy, reportedly was released during 1999
and allowed to leave the country for health reasons without charge or
trial. Reverend Hillary Boma and Reverend Lino Sebit, along with 18
other persons charged with involvement in the June 1998 Khartoum
bombings, were released in December 1999 by presidential decree.
On at least some occasions, restrictions on religious visitors and
gatherings were relaxed. During the period covered by this report, the
Archbishop of Canterbury visited the country. German evangelist
Reinhard Bonnke also visited the country and held open-air services in
Khartoum attended by tens of thousands. Catholic Church representatives
stated that jubilee festivities attended by thousands of persons
routinely took place during the period covered by this report in
government-held areas without interference or harassment.
In May 1998, the Government formed the Committee for the
Eradication of the Abduction of Women and Children, which has
identified over 700 abductees, and returned many of them to their
families. The taking of slaves is due, in part, to the victims'
religious beliefs: abductees are largely Christians or practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions.
The Government sometimes works with the Islamic Council of Ulama,
the Sudan Council of Churches, and the Religious Dialogue to encourage
inter-faith dialog, but has not formed a specific mechanism for dialog
in recent years. The Government maintains regular contact with many of
the country's religious leaders.
Government and Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM)
delegations participated in IGAD-mediated peace talks in Nairobi,
Kenya, in July 1999, and in January, February, and April 2000. The
delegations continued discussions of the role of religion in national
affairs and the predominantly non-Muslim southern region's right to
self-determination.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of forced religious conversion of minor U.S.
citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Traditionally there have been amicable relations between the
various religious communities, although there were a small number of
clashes. For example, on August 8, 1999, a group of members of the
Ansar al Sunna Muslim group reportedly threw stones at a Christian
center in the Doroshab neighborhood of Khartoum North (see Section I).
Non-Muslims legally are free to adhere to and practice their
faiths; however, in practice, the Government's treatment of Islam as
the state religion creates an atmosphere in which non-Muslims are
treated as second class citizens.
There are reliable reports that Islamic NGO's in war zones withhold
other services from the needy unless they convert to Islam. There also
were reports that Christian NGO's used their services to pressure
persons to convert to Christianity.
Leaders of religious communities meet informally to discuss
community relations.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government's efforts in Sudan have been limited by the
nonresident status of U.S. diplomats prior to August 1998 and by their
evacuation that month. Nonresident American diplomats resumed visits to
Khartoum in late February 2000. Nonetheless, the U.S. Government and
the U.S. Embassy accredited to the Government of Sudan, whose American
staff is based in Nairobi and Cairo, have made concerted efforts to
encourage respect for religious freedom. The U.S. Government has made
it clear to the Government of Sudan that the issue of religious freedom
is one of the key problems impeding a positive relationship between
Sudan and the United States. The Embassy consistently raised the issue
at all levels of government, including with the Foreign Minister. While
present in Khartoum, representatives of the Embassy regularly meet with
leaders of the religious communities in the country.
During an October 1999 visit to Nairobi, Secretary of State
Albright met with a group of Christian and Muslim representatives of
civil society from northern and southern Sudan, including Catholic
Bishop Erkalan Lodu Tombe of Yei, and discussed the difficulties
encountered by both Christians and Muslims.
Special Envoy Johnston visited the country in March and June 2000.
During his two visits, he consistently and strongly raised the issue of
religious freedoms at all levels of government, including with the
First Vice President. He particularly emphasized the need for national
law to reflect the country's diversity and the practical need for non-
Muslims to be able to build houses of worship freely. Johnston credited
the Government with progress in identifying and returning abductees
through the Committee for the Eradication of the Abduction of Women and
Children, which has identified over 700 individuals. Johnston also met
with prominent Christian and Muslim leaders.
The U.S. Embassy and the Department of State worked to forcefully
raised religious freedom issues publicly in press statements and at
international forums, including the U.N. Human Rights Commission.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated Sudan a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
__________
SWAZILAND
There are no formal constitutional provisions for freedom of
religion; however, the Government respects freedom of religion in
practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
There are no formal constitutional provisions for freedom of
religion; however, the Government respects freedom of religion in
practice. The Government at all levels generally protects this right in
full, and does not tolerate its abuse, either by governmental or
private actors.
Followers of all religious faiths are free to worship without
government interference or restriction. The ongoing constitutional
review process is expected to address the issue of freedom of religion.
New religious groups or churches are expected to register with the
Government upon organizing in the country. To be considered organized a
religious group or church must demonstrate either possession of
substantial cash reserves or financial support from outside religious
groups with established ties to Western or Eastern religions. For
indigenous religious groups or churches, authorities consider
demonstration of a proper building, a pastor or religious leader, and a
congregation as sufficient to grant organized status. However, there is
no law describing the organizational requirements of a religious group
or church. While organized churches are exempt from paying taxes, they
are not considered tax-deductible charities. All religions are
unofficially recognized.
Religious Demography
Christianity is the dominant religion, with the Anglican and
Methodist Churches strongly represented. A large Roman Catholic
presence, including churches, schools, and other infrastructure, still
flourishes. Zionism (a local term for this religion) is a blend of
Christianity and indigenous ancestral worship and is the prominent
religion in rural areas. Followers of Islam and the Baha'i Faith
generally are located in urban areas. It is estimated that the
population is 40 percent Zionist, 20 percent Roman Catholic, and 10
percent Islamic, with the remaining 30 percent divided between
Anglican, Methodist, Baha'i, Mormon, Jewish, and other beliefs.
Missionaries inspired much of the country's early development and
still play a role in rural development. Missionaries are mostly Western
Christians, including Baptists, Mormons, evangelicals, and other
Christians. Baha'is are the most active non-Christian missionaries.
While the Government primarily observes Christian holidays, the
monarchy (and by extension the Government) supports many religious
activities in addition to Easter and Christmas. For example, the royal
family often attends public evangelical programs.
Portions of the capital city are zoned specifically for church
buildings of all denominations. Those religious groups that wish to
construct new buildings may purchase a plot and apply for the required
building permits. Any religion with the financial means may build a
place of worship.
The Government neither restricts nor formally promotes inter-faith
dialog, and it does not provide formal mechanisms for religions to
reconcile differences. Churches have access to the courts as private
entities.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Religious diversity is respected. Five different denominations
maintain adjoining properties peacefully. There was no public conflict
among faiths during the period covered by this report.
The Christian churches are well organized and are divided into
three groups: the Council of Churches, the League of Churches, and the
Conference of Churches. Each of these bodies represent the full
spectrum of Christian denominations in the country and primarily
concern themselves with producing common statements on political
issues, sharing radio production facilities, or engaging in common
rural development and missionary strategies. The various churches
belong to these organizations for the collective benefits derived from
such unity. Each organization has strong opinions, and they do not
always speak with one voice. However, on several occasions, they have
come together to address common issues.
Beginning in 1996, the different denominations came together in a
series of meetings to discuss whether the churches should speak out
publicly about the political situation in the country and about the
drafting of the country's third constitution.
Further, the Council of Churches, along with the National
Democratic Institute (an American nongovernmental organization) hosted
a conference in May 2000 on constitutional issues. Freedom of religion
in the country was not an issue during the conference.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy maintains contact and good relations with the various religious
organizations.
__________
TANZANIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice, subject to
measures that it claims are necessary to ensure public order and
safety.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Generally there are stable relations between the various religious
communities; however, some urban Muslim groups are sensitive to
perceived discrimination in government hiring and law-enforcement
practices. In addition, there is some tension between secular and
fundamentalist Muslims.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice, subject to
measures that it claims are necessary to ensure public order and
safety. The Government does not penalize or discriminate against any
individual on the basis of religious beliefs or practices, and it does
not designate religion on any passports or records of vital statistics.
However, individual government officials are alleged to favor persons
who share the same religion in the conduct of business.
The Government requires that religious organizations register with
the Registrar of Societies at the Home Affairs Ministry. In order to
register, religious organizations must have at least 10 followers and
must provide a constitution, the resumes of their leaders, and a letter
of recommendation from their district commissioner. Groups no longer
are required to provide three letters of recommendation from the
leaders of registered Christian churches or from registered mosques.
Prior to 2000, religious groups were exempt from paying taxes
because they were presumed to be nonprofit organizations. The
Government discovered in 1998 that some religious groups were importing
goods duty-free and then selling them for a profit, and began requiring
these groups to pay taxes. After successfully identifying these
organizations, the Government now allows legitimate religious groups to
order goods internationally without paying duty, provided they receive
an exemption certificate from the Tanzania Revenue Authority.
Religious Demography
Christians, including Roman Catholics, Pentecostals, Protestants,
Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses, constitute approximately 45 percent of
a population of about 30 million. Approximately 40 percent of the
population are Muslim. Adherents of traditional indigenous religions
and atheists account for approximately 10 percent of the population.
Approximately 5 percent of the population practice other faiths,
including Hinduism and Buddhism.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The law prohibits preaching if it incites persons against other
religions. In July 1999, police used tear gas and clubs to disperse a
peaceful demonstration by Muslims protesting a government ban on Muslim
school uniforms in public schools. In September 1999, police arrested a
popular Muslim leader for inciting his followers against other
religions. A week later, the police canceled a planned Muslim
demonstration to protest his arrest. In October 1999, the Muslim leader
was charged with seditious intent and denied bail.
In February 1998, police arrested a popular Muslim leader for
violating this law, which triggered widespread riots in the Mmwembechi
area of Dar Es Salaam. Police opened fire on the protesters, killing
three persons and wounding several others. Approximately 200 Muslims
were arrested. There are reports that police tortured and sexually
humiliated a group of Muslim women arrested during the riots and forced
them to sing Christian songs while in custody. Riots broke out again in
March 1998 after police cancelled a scheduled demonstration protesting
the treatment of these women. Authorities used tear gas, water cannons,
and clubs to quell the rioters; at least a dozen persons were injured
and at least 50 Muslims were arrested.
With the October 2000 elections on the horizon, government
officials have warned religious leaders to avoid using religion to
incite their adherents to violence during and after the electoral
campaign. Thus far, a repeat of the 1998 Muslim riots in Dar Es Salaam
has not occurred, although undercurrents of Christian-Muslim tension
remain in some quarters (see Section II).
The Government failed to respond to growing tensions between the
Muslim and Christian communities (see Section II). The Government
appears to recognize that a problem exists, but it chose not to take
action. The Government cancelled several meetings with Muslim and
Christian leaders aimed at improving relations between the two
communities. Even senior Muslim officials in the Government appear
unwilling to address the problem, apart from general criticism of those
who would foment religious conflict.
National and regional parole boards, constituted in 1998, were
dissolved when it was found that they did not include Muslim members,
and the Government named new boards in January 1999. It was disclosed
in February 1999 that the Government was investigating reports that the
National Muslim Council of Tanzania was receiving millions of dollars
from unknown sources in the Middle East and was considered a possible
``security risk.''
The Government has banned religious organizations from involvement
in politics.
Customary or statutory law in both civil and criminal matters
governs Christians. Muslims may apply either customary law or Islamic
law in civil matters. Zanzibar's court system generally parallels the
mainland's legal system but retains Islamic courts to adjudicate cases
of Muslim family law, such as divorce, child custody, and inheritance.
Missionaries are allowed to enter the country freely, particularly
if proselytizing is ancillary to other religious activities. Citizens
are allowed to go abroad for pilgrimages and other religious practices.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
While Muslim-Christian relations are generally stable, some urban
Muslim groups are sensitive to perceived discrimination in government
hiring and law enforcement practices. For example, Muslim women charged
that human rights organizations in the country ignored police abuses
against them following the dispersal of the rioters in Mmwembechi (see
Section I).
The Muslim community claims to be disadvantaged in terms of its
representation in the civil service, government, and parastatal
institutions, in part because both colonial and early post-independence
administrations refused to recognize the credentials of traditional
Muslim schools. As a result, there is broad Muslim resentment of
certain advantages that Christians are perceived to enjoy in employment
and educational opportunities. Muslim leaders have complained that the
number of Muslim students invited to enroll in government-run schools
still was not equal to the number of Christians. In turn, Christians
criticize what they perceive as lingering effects of undue favoritism
accorded to Muslims in appointments, jobs, and scholarships by former
President Ali Hassan Mwinyi, a Muslim. Despite these perceptions, there
does not appear to be a serious widespread problem of religious
discrimination in access to employment or educational opportunities.
A few leaders in the Christian and Muslim communities appear to be
fomenting religious tension between their groups. For example, there
were reports that some Muslims leaders distributed audiotapes of the
Mmwembechi riots to the Muslim community; the tapes later were outlawed
by the Government for being incendiary. Christian leaders reportedly
have used the 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Dar Es Salem and
Nairobi, Kenya, as a justification to criticize Muslims.
There are signs of increasing tension between secular and
fundamentalist Muslims, as the latter feel that the former have sold
out to the Government. The fundamentalist Muslims accuse the Government
of being a Christian institution, and Muslims in power as being only
interested in safeguarding their positions. In these circles, secular
Muslims who drink alcohol or marry Christian women are criticized
severely. Muslim fundamentalists attempted, unsuccessfully, to
introduce Muslim traditional dress into the national school system.
Fundamentalist groups also have exhorted their followers to vote only
for Muslim candidates.
During the period covered by this report, there have been two
seminars sponsored by local nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) that
sought to address divisions between Christians and Muslims. Prof.
Rweikaza Mukandala, the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the
University of Dar es Salaam, said his organization, Research, Education
and Democracy in Tanzania (REDET), was conducting a countrywide study
of Muslim claims that they are being discriminated against in
educational and employment opportunities. The study, which also
assesses the overall relationship between the Christian community and
their Muslim counterparts, should be completed in August 2000.
Mukandala said the University decided to undertake this study due to
the belief that religion again would be a contentious issue during the
October 2000 elections.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
TOGO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. There is no state
religion.
The Government establishes requirements for recognition of
religious organizations outside the three main faiths--Roman
Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam. Applications must be submitted
to the Interior Ministry's Division of Civil Security. A religious
organization must submit its statutes, a statement of doctrine, bylaws,
names and addresses of executive board members, the pastor's diploma,
contract, a site map, and a description of its financial situation.
There are no special requirements for foreign missionary groups. The
Interior Ministry issues official recognition. The Civil Security
Division also has enforcement responsibilities when there are problems
or complaints associated with a religious organization.
Official recognition of religious organizations has created a
dilemma for the Government over the years. In the 1970's, the
Government clamped down on cults and dubious religious associations,
citing national security concerns. Many of the dozens of organizations
that presented their credentials were run by persons from other West
African countries, principally Nigeria, who were in the country without
a valid residence permit. Official recognition was extended only to the
Catholic Church, Muslims, and most Protestant churches, including the
Assemblies of God, the Seventh-Day Adventists, and the Baptists.
In the early 1990's, the concepts of democracy and liberty
encouraged a proliferation of religious groups, which began to seek
recognition. Cases of individuals who used religion as a cover for
other activities also increased. At the same time, advocates for
religious freedom demanded more tolerance and protection for people of
all faiths. At the urging of the Togolese Association for the Defense
of Religious Liberty (ATDLR), which was founded in 1991, the Government
adopted a more liberal approach; however, the Government concluded that
the rise of cults and dubious religious associations was again a
problem. In 1995, the last year for which statistics are available, the
Government recognized only 71 of the 198 groups that applied for
official recognition during that year. It is believed that the others
continued to operate in clandestine fashion. These unregistered groups
are mostly little known groups within the major religions.
In 1997 the ATDLR submitted to the National Assembly a proposed law
designed to address the full range of issues pertaining to religious
freedom, including recognition, operating regulations, and penalties
for those who restricted the rights of others to worship freely. The
National Assembly has not yet taken action on the proposed ATDLR law,
nor is it likely to do so, in view of the basic constitutional
provision for freedom of religion. Scores of applications for
recognition await adjudication at the Ministry of Interior while
authorities investigate the bona fides of each organization. In the
meantime, these groups practice their faith.
Religious Demography
According to statistics published by the Ministry of Tourism, the
population is approximately 22 percent Catholic, 12 percent Sunni
Muslim, and 7 percent Protestant. The remaining 59 percent of the
population consist of followers of other faiths, including traditional
indigenous religions. Many converts to the larger faiths continue to
practice some rituals of traditional indigenous religions. Most Muslims
live in the central and northern regions.
Catholic, Protestant, and Islamic schools are common.
Missionary groups represent Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam.
In January 2000, as in past years, President Eyadema, a Protestant,
invited Catholic, Muslim, and Protestant religious leaders to an
ecumenical prayer service to commemorate the anniversary of his
military takeover. For the second year in a row, the Catholic Church
declined the invitation to attend the ``Day of National Liberation''
service, stating that it is inappropriate to hold a worship service in
a government building. In addition, under the leadership of the
Archbishop of Lome, the Catholic Church continues to refrain from
delivering political sermons praising President Eyadema. The
Archbishop's predecessor had used the pulpit to praise the President,
but such sermons alienated the congregation, which called for the
Archbishop's dismissal.
The 17-member National Human Rights Commission (CNDH) elected by
the National Assembly includes Catholic, Muslim, and Protestant
representatives. The CNDH hears appeals by religious organizations that
the Government has disallowed principally for disturbing the peace.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Constitution prohibits the establishment of political parties
based on religion and states explicitly that ``no political party
should identify itself with a region, an ethnic group, or a religion.''
Catholics, Protestants, and Muslims occupy positions of authority in
local and the central government.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned
to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
The Christian Council was founded in 1978 to address common issues
among Protestant denominations. The Council comprises the Assemblies of
God, Protestant Methodist, the Baptist Convention, Pentecostal
churches, Seventh-Day Adventist, Lutheran, and Evangelical Presbyterian
denominations. The Council continues to debate whether to expand its
membership to include other Protestant organizations. A program for
Islamic-Christian relations attempts to foster understanding between
the two religions. Catholics and Protestants collaborate frequently
through the Biblical Alliance. Members of different faiths regularly
invite one another to their respective ceremonies. Intermarriage across
religious lines is common.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. In
addition, the Embassy facilitated a meeting between the head of the
ATDLR and the U.S. State Department's Ambassador-at-Large for
International Religious Freedom in the fall of 1999. This meeting
focused on the efforts of the ATDLR to establish a headquarters in Lome
and to further their efforts to promote religious freedom in the West
Africa region.
__________
UGANDA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government forcibly disbanded several religious groups.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. Complaints by Muslim groups
of government bias lessened.
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities and no religious group actively impinges upon the right of
others to worship; however, the backlash from the death of over 1,000
citizens at the hands of a religious group has resulted in negative
public attitudes towards Christian groups that are viewed as cults.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government forcibly disbanded several religious groups.
All religious organizations are required to register with the
Nongovernmental Organizations Board. There were no reports that the
Government refused to grant such registration to any religious
organization.
Permits are also necessary for the construction of facilities,
including religious facilities. There were no reports that the
Government refused to grant such permits to any religious organization.
In the wake of discoveries in March, April, and May 2000 that over
1,000 citizens had been killed by members of a religious group, several
religious organizations were disbanded forcibly. In early April 2000,
following allegations that the church allowed youths to engage in
sexual relationships, the deputy resident district commissioner closed
the Revival Pentecostal Church in Nseko village, Kasangati. In mid-
April, police in Kasese district banned the activities of a church
group based in Hima public school, Busongora. On May 19, the Bushenyi
resident district commissioner ordered the closure of the Church of the
Servants of the Eucharistic Hearts of Jesus and Mary, which allegedly
was operating in the guise of a vocational school.
Religious Demography
Christianity is the majority religion, and its adherents constitute
approximately 66 percent of the population. Muslims account for
approximately 16 percent of the population. A variety of other
religions, including traditional indigenous religions, Hinduism, the
Baha'i Faith, and Judaism, are practiced freely and, combined, make up
about 18 percent of the population. Among the Christian groups, the
Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches claim approximately the same
number of followers, accounting for perhaps 95 percent of the nation's
professed Christians. The Seventh-Day Adventist Church, the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Baptist
Church, the Unification Church, and the Pentecostal Church, among
others, are active. Muslims are mainly Sunni, although there are also
Shi'a followers of the Aga Khan among the Asian community. Several
branches of Hinduism are represented. Atheism is negligible.
In many areas, particularly in rural settings, some religions tend
to be syncretistic. Deeply held traditional indigenous beliefs commonly
are blended into established religious rites or observed alongside such
rites, particularly in areas which are predominantly Christian.
Missionary groups of several denominations are present and active
in the country, and face no particular restrictions on their activity.
Foreign missionary groups, like foreign nongovernmental organizations
(NGO's), must register with the Government. There were no reports that
the Government refused to grant registration to any foreign missionary
groups.
Muslims and adherents of other minority religions occupy positions
of authority in local and central government.
Private Koranic and Christian schools are common. There is no
religious instruction in public schools.
Prisoners are given the opportunity to pray on days appropriate to
their faith. Muslim prisoners usually are released from work duties
during the month of Ramadan.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Some local governments have restricted the hours of operations of
religious organizations that are viewed as cults, for example,
prohibiting nighttime prayer meetings. The Government has largely
ignored calls for these churches to be shut down and their followers
returned to mainstream churches.
Local officials have dispersed meetings of religious groups. For
example, on March 12, 2000, security operatives in Mbale dispersed
hundreds of people who had gathered for an evangelistic event organized
by the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. On March 19, police in Kikinzi,
Rukungiri district, dispersed a baptism organized by the Seventh-Day
Adventist Church. On March 28, police in Mukono town dispersed a
meeting of over 200 adherents of the Universal Apostolic Church for the
Restless. On April 1, police dispersed an alleged ``cult'' gathering in
Kikandwa, Mubende district.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
During the period covered by this report, there was a decrease in
complaints by Muslim groups of government mistreatment and bias. The
Government's relationship with the Islamic community improved
significantly following the release in March 2000 of 56 members of the
Muslim Tabliq group who were accused of treason.
Following the murder on March 16, 2000 of more than 500 followers
of the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God and
the discovery of mass graves of approximately 500 other persons on
properties belonging to the group, the Government launched
investigations of numerous religious groups. Three groups were
disbanded forcibly and one religious leader was arrested. On March 29,
2000, former Rukungiri assistant resident district commissioner (ARDC)
Rev. Francis Mutazindwa was arrested for failing to act on information
about the activities of the Kanungu cult while he was the ARDC. He was
released on bond in early May, pending further investigation.
On May 2, five members of the Kisaaba Redeemed Church in Kayunga,
Mukono district--Benon Kaye, Monica Isabirye, Eseza Kisakye Lukwago,
Catherine Nagujja, and Willinstone Nagenda--were arrested and charged
with causing the death of a church member by denying him medical
treatment. Kaye and Isabirye were released on bail, and the other
members were freed.
On May 30, five members of the Mulungiomu Full Gospel Church in
Luweero--John Mwebaza, Florence Mirembe, Fred Mwesigwa, Sarah Mugabi,
and Geoffrey Beyongera--were arrested after reportedly telling their
followers to fast and sell their property. The five remained in custody
at Luzira prison at mid-2000.
Complaints by Muslim groups of government bias lessened during the
period covered by this report; however, the backlash from the death of
over 1,000 citizens at the hands of a religious cult resulted in
negative public attitudes towards fringe Christian groups and the
Government's forcible disbanding of some groups.
In 1998 approximately 100 Muslim men were detained and some were
tortured, on suspicion that they supported rebel groups. Many of those
detained were released, but the whereabouts of some remained unknown.
There was no clear indication that religion was the sole factor in
their arrests. The release of the 56 Tabliq prisoners in March 2000
resolved the issue of the unaccounted whereabouts of the Muslim
prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities, and no religious group actively impinges upon the right of
others to worship. However, the backlash from the death of over 1,000
citizens at the hands of a religious group resulted in negative public
attitudes towards fringe Christian groups. Some officials of
``mainstream'' Catholic, Protestant, and Muslim religious organizations
have called for the closure of Christian churches, which are viewed as
cults.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its dialog and policy of promoting human
rights.
__________
ZAMBIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
A 1996 amendment to the Constitution declared the country a
Christian nation while providing for freedom of religion in practice.
The Government respects the right of all faiths to worship freely.
There are governmental controls that require the registration of
religious groups. The Government approves all applications for
registration from religious groups without discrimination. There were
no reports that the Government rejected any religious groups that
attempted to register or obtain licenses.
Religious Demography
Approximately 85 percent of the population are Christian; 5 percent
are Muslim; 5 percent adhere to other faiths, including Hinduism and
the Baha'i Faith; and 5 percent are atheist.
The Christian faith was introduced by foreign missionary groups in
the 1890's. The majority of indigenous persons, spread throughout the
country, are either Roman Catholic or Protestant. Currently, there is
an upsurge of new Pentecostal churches, commonly known as the ``born
again'' churches, which have attracted many young persons into their
ranks.
Muslims are concentrated in certain parts of the country where
citizens of Asian origin have settled along the railroad line from
Lusaka to Livingstone, in Chipata, and in the eastern province. Most
citizens of Asian origin are Muslims, although Hindus constitute a
small percentage. A limited number of indigenous persons are also
Muslim.
Foreign missionary groups operate in the country and include the
Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Church, and the Church of God.
There were no reports that these missionary groups faced any special
requirements or restrictions.
There were no reports of complaints by the Muslim community of
discrimination during the period covered by this report.
The Government permits religious instruction in public schools.
Such instruction is conducted in the dominant Christian religion.
Religious instruction in Islam and other faiths is conducted in private
schools owned and controlled by those faiths.
Some religious organizations operate radio stations and television
networks.
In December 1996, the Government established an office for
religious affairs at the level of deputy minister in the President's
Office at State House. The office is responsible for dealing with
issues that pertain to religion and worship, and to the promotion of
state-church understanding and inter-faith dialog.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities.
Leaders of various ecumenical movements, namely, the Zambia
Episcopal Conference, the Christian Council of Zambia, and the
Evangelical Foundation of Zambia hold regular meetings to promote
mutual understanding and inter-faith dialog, and to discuss national
issues.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
ZIMBABWE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, a law
that reportedly criminalizes both purporting to practice witchcraft and
accusing persons of practicing witchcraft reportedly was viewed as
restrictive by some practitioners of indigenous religions. There is no
state religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities. The Government and the religious community in
the country historically have had good relations.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, a law
that reportedly criminalizes both purporting to practice witchcraft and
accusing persons of practicing witchcraft reportedly was viewed as
restrictive by some practitioners of indigenous religions. There is no
state religion. The Government generally recognizes all religions.
The Government does not require religious institutions to be
registered. However, approximately 3 years ago the Office of the
Registrar General considered whether to register such institutions and
enforce a code of conduct because it became concerned with the growing
number of religious schools, hospitals, and clinics that lacked
internal controls. To date, no formal registration process has been put
in place. However, religious organizations that run schools or medical
facilities must register those specific institutions with the
appropriate ministry involved in regulating those areas. Similarly,
religious institutions may apply for tax-exempt status and duty-free
privileges with the Customs Department, which generally grants it.
Religious Demography
There is no state religion, but between 60 and 70 percent of an
estimated population of 13 million belong to the mainstream Christian
denominations, with between 2-3 million identifying themselves as Roman
Catholic. However, there are no reliable statistics on the exact number
of Christian churches or religious movements in the country. There is
also a small Muslim population in the country, estimated at less than 1
percent. The evangelical denominations, mostly Pentecostal churches,
are the fastest growing congregation in the country. They appeal to
large numbers of disillusioned members from the established churches
who reportedly are attracted by these church leaders' promises of
miracles and messages of hope at a time of social and economic stress.
The remainder of the population consists of Greek Orthodox, Jews,
practitioners of traditional indigenous religions, indigenous
syncretistic African religions that mix Christianity and traditional
African culture and beliefs, a small number of Hindus, Buddhists, and
atheists.
The dominance of Christianity dates to the early contact of
Portuguese traders and Jesuit priests with Africans in the region in
the late 1500's. The Jesuits established churches and educational
institutions in the Zambezi Valley. Several centuries later Catholic,
Methodist, Anglican, Dutch Reformed, and Salvation Army missionaries
began to aggressively compete for territorial and spiritual monopolies
throughout the country, resulting in ``areas of interest'' for each of
these churches. Today, many persons identify with the Christian
denomination that had the longest historical connection to their area.
President Robert Mugabe is a Roman Catholic who professes to practice
his faith actively, and many of those who make up the elite of society
tend to be associated with one of the established Christian churches.
Due to its colonial and apartheid-like history, the vast majority
of the country's black population was prevented from attending
government schools, which were restricted to white students, and
Christian mission schools taught the few blacks who could claim any
formal education at all. Consequently, the vast majority of the
country's liberation war leadership, who later became the current
Government's senior officials, were trained by Christian educators.
The Muslim community consists primarily of South Asian immigrants
(Indian and Pakistani), migrants from other southern and eastern
African countries (Mozambique and Malawi), and a very small number of
North African and Middle Eastern immigrants. There are mosques located
in several large urban areas and a tiny number in rural areas. There
are 12 mosques in the capital Harare. The Muslim community generally
has been very insular. However, in recent years, the Islamic community
has begun proselytizing among the majority black indigenous population
with increasing success.
The indigenous African churches combine elements of established
Christian beliefs with some beliefs based on traditional African
culture and religion. These churches tend to be centered on a prophetic
figure, with members of the congregation identifying themselves as
``apostles.'' These church members wear long white robes and head
coverings. Many of these churches date back to the early 1920's, when
there was widespread racial and religious segregation. Many of the
founders of African indigenous churches broke away from Christian
missionary churches, and some of their teachings incorporate what has
become known as ``black consciousness.'' To a large extent, these
churches grew out of the Christian churches' failure to adapt to
traditional African culture and religion. A notable feature of the
indigenous churches is the acceptance and promotion of polygamy. These
indigenous churches have proliferated as a result of splits among the
followers of the different ``prophets.''
Many persons continue to believe, in varying degrees, in
traditional indigenous religions. These persons may attend worship in a
westernized Christian church on Sundays but consult with traditional
healers during the week. Belief in traditional healers spans both the
rural and urban areas. Traditional healers are so common that they are
licensed and regulated by the Zimbabwe National African Traditional
Healers' Association (ZINATHA). Traditional African religions remain
deeply rooted and are expected to grow as people seek spiritual comfort
from the country's economic hardships and the scourge of the HIV/AIDS
pandemic.
The Government permits religious education in private schools. The
country has had a long history of Catholic, Anglican, and Methodist
primary and secondary schools. Since independence there also has been a
proliferation of evangelical basic education schools. The Christian
schools constitute one third of the total number of the schools in the
country with the Catholic Church having the majority. Due to inadequate
resources, the Government has returned several former church schools,
which it had taken over at independence, to the respective churches in
the last few years. There are Islamic and Hebrew primary, secondary,
and high schools in the major urban areas. In addition, there are
several institutions of higher education that include religious studies
as a core component of the curriculum. There are two such institutions
in Harare--the Catholic University and Arrupe College. There is one
Methodist institution in Mutare, the Africa University, and a Seventh-
Day Adventist college in Matebeleland. The state-supported University
of Zimbabwe also has a Department of Religious Studies and Philosophy,
which has a multidenominational curriculum and faculty. All these
institutions have a religiously mixed student body. In addition, there
are some non-degree bearing institutions such as teacher training
colleges that also focus on religious studies.
Christian missions provided the first hospitals to care for black
citizens. Presently there are 123 hospitals and clinics in the country
that fall under the Zimbabwe Association of Christian Hospitals, an
association that consists of largely mainstream churches. The
individual churches are the predominant source of funding for
maintaining these hospitals because of the Government's increasing
inability to provide essential services. The Government does provide
small subsidies to facilitate the hospitals' functions, but these make
up only a small percentage of the operating budgets.
Governmental Restrictions in Religious Freedom
Witchcraft--widely understood to encompass attempts to harm others
not only by magic but also by covert means of established efficacy such
as poisons--traditionally has been a common explanation for diseases of
which the causes were unknown. Although traditional indigenous
religions generally include or accommodate belief in the efficacy of
witchcraft, they generally approve of harmful witchcraft only for
defensive or retaliatory purposes and purport to offer protection
against it. In recent years, interest in healing through traditional
religion and through prayer reportedly has increased as HIV/AIDS has
infected an estimated one-quarter of the adult population, and
affordable science-based medicines effective in treating HIV/AIDS have
remained unavailable.
The 1890 Witchcraft Suppression Act (WSA) reportedly criminalizes
purporting to practice witchcraft, accusing persons of practicing
witchcraft, hunting witches, and soliciting persons to name witches;
penalties reportedly include imprisonment for as much as 7 years. The
law reportedly defines witchcraft as the practice of sorcery, without
reference to the consequences intended by the practitioner. Since 1997
the Zimbabwe National African Traditional Healers' Association has
proposed amendments to the 1890 law that would redefine witchcraft in
terms of intent to cause harm including illness, injury, or death.
However, mainstream Christian churches reportedly have opposed such
legislation. Human rights groups also generally supported the existing
WSA; the Act has been used since independence primarily to protect
people, primarily women, who have been accused falsely of causing harm
to people or crops in rural areas where traditional religious practices
are strong.
There is some tension between the Government and the indigenous
African churches because of the latter's opposition to Western medical
practices that result in the reduction of avoidable childhood diseases
and deaths in those communities. Some members of the indigenous
churches believe in healing through prayer only and refuse to have
their children vaccinated. The Ministry of Health has had limited
success only in vaccinating children in these religious communities
against communicable childhood diseases. Human rights activists also
have criticized these indigenous churches for their sanctioning of
marriages for underage girls.
President Mugabe has expressed skepticism about the increasing
membership in evangelical and indigenous churches and has indicated
that he believes they could be subversive.
The Government maintains a monopoly on television broadcasting
(despite some restricted leased broadcast time to one other
broadcaster) through the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC). The
Government permits limited religious broadcasting on ZBC and
advertising in the government-influenced press by the older,
established Christian churches, as well as new evangelical churches and
institutions, such as The 700 Club and World Vision. Programming
produced by the U.S.-based Christian Broadcasting Network is shown on
ZBC. The Government generally follows the recommendations of the
Religious Advisory Board, an umbrella grouping of Christian
denominations, on appropriate religious material to broadcast. Muslims,
who are not represented on the board, approached the advisory board
about obtaining access to the airwaves. The Roman Catholic chairman of
the board is not opposed to recommending that Muslims be given air time
commensurate with their numbers in the country, as long as other
religions are not denigrated in the material presented. However, the
chairman acknowledged that other evangelical church groups are more
hostile to Islam and are unlikely to support the inclusion of Islamic
programming in the already limited religious broadcasting block. While
the ZBC officials with whom the chairman raised this issue in the past
had indicated informally that Islamic religious material would be
included on ZBC; none has been broadcast to date. The chairman of the
Religious Advisory Board believes that this is because Muslims
represent too small a percentage of society to take up minimal
religious airtime or to merit membership on the advisory board.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
communities. The Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, and Buddhist religious
communities are relatively small and generally not in competition with
Christian denominations for converts. Catholic Church officials say
they welcome inter-faith dialog with Muslims but believe some of the
evangelical churches are hostile to Islam.
There are at least four umbrella religious organizations primarily
focused on interdenominational dialog among Christians, and some
intrareligious activities. However, Muslims are not represented in any
of these organizations, and there is no vehicle for formal Christian-
Muslim dialog. Muslims have complained of discrimination by private
employers who refuse to allow them sufficient time to worship at their
mosques on Fridays.
The Zimbabwe Council of Churches (ZCC) is an umbrella organization
of all non-Catholic ecumenical Christian missionary churches, but does
not include evangelical organizations. It maintains a secretariat in
Harare, conducts development programs, has a Justice and Peace desk,
and collaborates with the much older Catholic Commission for Justice
and Peace in Zimbabwe (CCJP). The Catholic Church has observer status
within the ZCC and relations generally are cooperative. The Zimbabwe
Catholic Bishops' Conference currently is deliberating over whether to
seek membership in the ZCC. Some members of the Christian community are
hesitant to support Catholics joining the ZCC because of memories of
the inability of religious leaders to work together during the
liberation-war era and fear a repeat of that experience. The ZCC also
has worked with other church groups and civil society organizations on
social issues. The ZCC initially provided a secretariat for the
National Constitutional Assembly (NCA), a respected nongovernmental
organization formed to create a new constitution. After about a 2-year
collaboration, the ZCC withdrew from the NCA over political direction
and leadership style differences, although individual churches
subsequently rejoined. The ZCC generally is seen as supportive of
President Mugabe and unwilling to criticize the President or his
Government. However, a rift between the ZCC and the Government emerged
when the ZCC and NCA tried to bring together the different parties
working on election issues and the Government refused to participate,
branding the ZCC as the enemy.
The Heads of Denominations (HOD) is a pragmatic association of
Catholic and other Christian denominations that has no spiritual or
theological emphasis. It was created to enable collaboration among
Christian groups and the Government in the running of religious schools
and hospitals. The HOD provides a vehicle for Christian churches to
speak to the Government with a common voice on policy issues and
includes the Catholic Church, which runs a significant number of the
rural hospitals and schools in the country. The HOD has a loose
structure and no office. At present, the HOD's secretarial support is
provided by the general secretariat of the Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops'
Conference (ZCBC), and its secretary general holds the same position in
the ZCBC. The education secretaries of the various churches work
together under the HOD, as does the religious advisory board to the
ZBC. This broad grouping of churches under the HOD also collaborate on
a wide range of social issues including HIV/AIDS education and, in
conjunction with the ZCC, the Christian churches have addressed the
declining economic conditions affecting their members across the
country. In 1999 HOD issued a joint statement calling for HIV/AIDS to
be treated as a moral issue. The HOD continues to deliberate over the
role religious institutions should play in combating the HIV/AIDS
crisis. In addition the Catholic Church and other religious and lay
persons run a center for HIV/AIDS affected persons called
``Mashambanzou'' in Harare.
The Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe (EFZ) is another umbrella
organization of loosely affiliated evangelical churches that was
established in the early 1980's. The fellowship has observer status
with the HOD but does not work closely with either the ZCC or Catholic
Church. However, the evangelical and Catholic churches do collaborate
in the broadcasting of religious programs.
Fambidzano, which means ``walking together,'' is a relatively new
grouping of the indigenous African churches. A South African Dutch
Reformed Church theologian and social anthropologist, Inus Daneel, who
has researched these churches in South Africa and Zimbabwe, founded the
organization in the mid-1970's. Fambidzano was created to give the
leaders of these churches more theological and biblical education,
according to Daneel. There is little dialog between Fambidzano and the
Catholic Church. However, the two organizations are discussing the need
to work with the indigenous churches to which many persons are turning
because of their emphasis on physical healing and spiritual salvation.
ZINATHA is the closest thing to an organized representative body
for traditional African religion. The head of that organization is a
university professor and vocal Anglican who is working to increase
intrareligious dialog between ZINATHA and mainstream Christian
churches.
One area of ecumenical collaboration has been translation of the
Bible into the majority language, Shona. For the past 13 years, several
priests and ministers have worked on this project, which they hope to
complete by the end of 2000.
During the February 2000 constitutional referendum, more than 150
of these under the Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe (EFZ) lobbied for
Christianity to be enshrined in the new constitution as the country's
sole national religion. That position was rejected, primarily because
its opponents argued that Christianity had brought about colonization
in Africa.
There were reports of growing tensions between mainstream Christian
churches and practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. Leaders
of the Christian churches reportedly opposed the repeal or modification
of the Witchcraft Suppression Act sought by practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions. Several leaders of Christian churches
reportedly criticized a perceived increase in ``Satanism'' in the
country; acts of Satanism allegedly included drinking human blood and
eating human flesh.
There were increasing reports of ritual murders associated with
traditional religious practices, although the Government actively
enforces the law against all kinds of murder including ritual murders.
Gordon Chavanduka, chairman of ZINATHA, the national association of
traditional healers, reportedly has stated that black-market demand for
human body parts used in making potions has increased greatly in recent
years. Some observers suggested that this development might be
associated with the spread of HIV/AIDS in the country, and the lack of
affordable science-based medicines for treating infected persons. There
were increasingly frequent reports that persons killed children for
body parts practicing healing rituals associated with traditional
religions. In July 1999, Faber Chidarikire, a Zimbabwe African National
Union-Patriotic Front official and mayor of the northern town of
Chinhoyi, was charged with murdering a 13-year-old girl in 1987, but he
was released on bail after intervention by the Attorney General; there
were reports that Chidarikire cut off the girl's ear and excised her
genitals. In 1995 an examination of a severed head found in
Chidarikire's car in 1994 indicated that it had been severed with a
blade, not in a car accident as Chidarikire had maintained.
Several key church leaders and organizations strongly criticized
the apparently state-sanctioned politically motivated crimes and
violence during the period prior to the June parliamentary elections,
and urged the Government to restore peace in the country. A Catholic
clergyman, Father Fidelis Mukonori, was engaged publicly in an effort
to find a negotiated solution to the occupations by commercial farms by
war veterans, and he helped facilitate meetings between both sides and
with President Mugabe. The Catholic Bishops Conference also has met
with President Mugabe and expressed its concerns about the prevailing
violence in the country. The Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe and the
Zimbabwe Council of Churches also have written public letters to the
President expressing concern about the violence and have held meetings
with Police Commissioner, Augustine Chihuri, urging him to restore
order. Many churches have organized peace marches and prayer vigils.
Some clergymen criticized the Government vigorously for its
involvement in orchestrating the political violence. In April 2000,
Anglican priest Tim Neil of Harare publicly chastised President Mugabe
for condoning commercial farm invasions. Father Neil distributed
pamphlets at his Harare parish that questioned the President's
legitimacy to remain in office in light of the chaos he said Mugabe had
caused in the country. Father Neil subsequently received a death threat
letter signed by the secretary general of the Revival of African
Conscience, Ngonidzashe Mutasa, a previously unknown organization with
no established following or platform. The police later apprehended
Mutasa, and his case is pending. The Bulawayo Catholic Archbishop, Pius
Ncube, wrote public letters accusing the Government of fueling the
violence and urging citizens to exercise their vote. Government
supporters attacked several church workers accusing them of backing the
opposition in their areas.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government supports religious and other constitutionally
protected freedoms through demarches to the Government,
nondenominational financial support for community development projects
(which often are associated with religious institutions), and regular
dialog with and support for civil society organizations that advocate
and monitor respect for human rights, including freedom of religion.
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
----------
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change to the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Anglican, Methodist,
Moravian, and Roman Catholic) but religious freedom for others is not
affected adversely. The minority religions are Islam, the Baha'i Faith,
and Rastafarianism.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-
faith understanding but also does not monitor or discriminate according
to religious faith.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
There were no confirmed reports that the Government abused
religious freedom; however, members of the Rastafarian community have
complained that law enforcement officials unfairly target them.
However, it is not clear whether such complaints reflect discrimination
on the basis of religious belief by authorities or simply enforcement
of laws against marijuana, which is used as part of Rastafarian
religious practice.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The Antigua Christian Council, an interdenominational group,
conducts activities to promote greater mutual understanding and
tolerance among adherents of different denominations within the
Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives have discussed issues or events relating to
religious freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
ARGENTINA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Constitution states
that the Federal Government ``sustains the apostolic Roman Catholic
faith;'' however, other religious faiths are practiced freely.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
However, anti-Semitic incidents continue to occur.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by Government or private actors. The Constitution grants
to all residents the right ``freely to profess their faith,'' and also
states that aliens enjoy all the civil rights of citizens, including
the right ``freely to exercise their faith.''
The Constitution states that the federal government ``sustains the
apostolic Roman Catholic faith.'' The Government provides the Catholic
Church with a variety of subsidies totaling $8 million (8 million
pesos), administered through the Secretariat of Worship. The
Secretariat is responsible for conducting the Government's relations
with the Catholic Church, the nonCatholic Christian churches, and other
religious organizations in the country. The Secretariat was transferred
from the Office of the Presidency to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
International Trade, and Worship following the inauguration of
President Fernando de la Rua in December 1999. A requirement that the
President of the country be Catholic was removed when the Constitution
was amended in 1994.
The Secretariat of Worship maintains a National Registry of
approximately 2,800 religious organizations representing some 30
churches, including most of the world's major faiths. Religious
organizations that wish to hold public worship services and to obtain
tax-exempt status must register with the Secretariat, and must report
periodically to the Secretariat in order to retain their status.
Possession of a place of worship, an organizational charter, and an
ordained clergy are among the criteria the Secretariat considers in
determining whether to grant or withdraw registration.
Religious Demography
The majority of citizens are Catholic, but the Government has no
accurate statistics on the number of members that belong to the
Catholic Church and the other registered churches. The national census
does not elicit information on religious affiliation. According to an
article published in the mass-circulation magazine Gente in March 1999,
estimates for the religious affiliations of citizens included the Roman
Catholic Church, which claims 25,000,000 baptized members
(approximately 70 percent of the population). According to the article,
approximately 2,900,000 citizens, or about 8 percent of the population
are believed to be evangelical Protestants (of which 70 percent are
Pentecostal). There are approximately 800,000 Muslims, 250,000 Jews,
100,000 Apostolic Armenian Orthodox, and 4,000 Anglicans in the
country. These statistics are not necessarily authoritative. The figure
for Muslims, for example, has been disputed as far too high, probably
representing persons of Middle Eastern ethnic origins, many of whom
actually do not profess the Muslim faith. One prominent local historian
put the actual number of practicing Muslims at closer to 15,000.
However, a November 1999 article concerning the construction of a new
Muslim ``megacenter'' in Buenos Aires cited an even greater number of
Muslims--900,000. (In the case of the number of Armenian Orthodox, the
same historian also disputed the Gente figure as being approximately
four times too high.)
The Secretariat of Worship promotes religious pluralism through
such activities as conferences at which representatives of the various
churches meet to discuss current issues. Leaders of the non-Catholic
churches are invited regularly to attend the Te Deum Mass celebrated in
the Metropolitan Cathedral on important national holidays. In 1995 a
law was passed acknowledging the Jewish holidays of Rosh Hashanah
(Jewish New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) as holidays;
however, the law does not require employers to compensate Jewish
employees who choose to take these days off. The Delegation of
Argentine Jewish Associations (Delegacion de Asociaciones Israelitas
Argentinas--DAIA), which represents the Jewish community, is seeking to
have these days declared as national holidays.
In January 2000, President De la Rua committed the Government to
implementing a Holocaust Education Project carried out under the
auspices of the International Holocaust Education Task Force.
Registered religious organizations may bring foreign missionaries
to the country by applying to the Secretariat of Worship, which in turn
notifies the immigration authorities so that the appropriate
immigration documents may be issued.
Public education is secular, but students may request instruction
in the faith of their choice, to be carried out in the school itself or
at a religious institution, as circumstances warrant. Many churches
operate private schools, including seminaries and universities.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Fifteen former Buenos Aires provincial police officers have been
linked to a stolen vehicle ring, which furnished the van used in the
1994 AMIA Jewish Cultural Center bombing, and face various criminal
charges (see Section II). In April 2000, President De la Rua announced
the creation of a new task force of four independent prosecutors to
resolve any remaining questions surrounding the AMIA bombing. During
his June 2000 visit to the United States, President De la Rua made a
formal apology at the Holocaust Memorial Museum for Argentina having
accepted Nazi war criminals as immigrants after World War II.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities are amicable.
Inter-faith understanding is promoted actively by nongovernmental
organizations such as Argentina House in Jerusalem. Ecumenical
attendance is common at important religious events, such as the Jewish
community's annual Holocaust commemoration. In 1997 a memorial mural to
the victims of the Holocaust, the 1992 bombing of the Israeli Embassy
in Buenos Aires, and the 1994 bombing of the city's Jewish Community
Center (AMIA) was unveiled in the Chapel of Our Lady of Lujan in the
Metropolitan Cathedral in Buenos Aires. At an ecumenical service in
April 2000 commemorating the 1915 massacre of Armenians, religious
figures from a number of different faiths, including the Roman
Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Armenian Orthodox, Muslim, Maronite, and
other religions took part in conducting prayers in the Metropolitan
Cathedral in Buenos Aires.
However, anti-Semitism is a problem, and combating this and other
forms of intolerance is a priority for the National Institute Against
Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Racism (INADI), an agency of the
Ministry of Interior. The Institute investigates violations of a 1988
law that prohibits discrimination based on ``race, religion,
nationality, ideology, political opinion, sex, economic position,
social class, or physical characteristics,'' and carries out
educational programs to promote social and cultural pluralism and
combat discriminatory attitudes. However, in early 2000, INADI
underwent a prolonged process of reorganization, during which its
effectiveness was affected seriously.
There were a number of reports of anti-Semitic acts, of antiSemitic
violence, and of threats against Jewish organizations and individuals
during the period covered by this report.
In April 1998, a court sentenced three Buenos Aires youths to 3
years in prison for a 1995 assault on a man whom they believed to be
Jewish. It was the first instance of an oral trial under the 1988
antidiscrimination law. The court found that the three had acted out of
``hatred due to race, religion, or nationality'' and in violation of
the 1988 antidiscrimination statute. They were given the maximum
penalty provided by law. In February 1999, an appeals court overturned
the conviction and ordered the three retried in another court. In
October 1999, the Attorney General recommended to the Supreme Court
that the original verdict be sustained. The Supreme Court has no set
time limit within which it must render a decision. At the April 1998
sentencing, some persons in the courtroom had shouted antiSemitic
remarks. The National Institute Against Discrimination, the
nongovernmental Permanent Assembly for Human Rights, and the Delegation
of the Jewish-Argentine Associations filed suit demanding that the
perpetrators be identified and tried under the antidiscrimination law.
In August 1999, two Jewish families in Parana, Entre Rios province,
received telephonic bomb threats, and subsequently found military-type
grenades, which had to be deactivated by explosives experts.
In September 1999, a Jewish school in the locality of La Floresta
was struck by bullets attributed to six unknown individuals, who fled
after exchanging gunfire with a member of the Gendarmeria Nacional
(border police).
On September 17-18, 1999, the eve of Yom Kippur, unknown vandals
desecrated some 63 graves at the Jewish cemetery in La Tablada, Buenos
Aires province. The attack resulted in unusually vehement criticism by
senior government officials. Investigations continued into vandalism at
Jewish cemeteries in Ciudadela (1998) and La Tablada (1997), but there
have been no arrests. In October 1999, unknown individuals desecrated
the graves of 11 children at the Jewish cemetery in Liniers, Buenos
Aires province. There was no progress in the case where three youths
were arrested for smashing tombs in a Jewish cemetery in Liniers in
January 1998, or in the case of the two former Buenos Aires provincial
police officers who were suspected of December 1997 attacks on two
Jewish cemeteries.
In October 1999, a theater in Tucuman was evacuated during a
performance of the musical ``Fiddler on the Roof'' due to a telephoned
bomb threat. The provincial secretary of culture confirmed that the
anonymous caller used anti-Semitic language during the telephone call.
In December 1999, the Jewish Community Center (AMIA) (a new building
replacing the one demolished by terrorist bombing in 1994) was
evacuated as a result of anonymous telephone threats. No organization
took responsibility for the alleged bomb. Unknown persons have made
bomb threats against the center on several occasions.
In February 2000, a Jewish country club in San Miguel received bomb
threats. Following an evacuation of the building, it was established
that the threats were spurious.
In April 2000, several tombs were vandalized in the Jewish cemetery
at Posadas, in Misiones province. Local police subsequently arrested
seven adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 in connection with the
crime, but the police maintained that the acts of vandalism had no
religious connotations.
The investigations into the 1992 terrorist bombing of the Israeli
Embassy in Buenos Aires and the 1994 bombing of the Jewish Community
Center continued. On May 5, 1999, the Interior Minister called for an
investigation into an audiotape that reportedly contained an order from
a policeman redirecting a patrol car from the area around the Israeli
Embassy just before the bombing. In May 1999, the Supreme Court (which
is responsible for leading the investigation into the embassy bombing)
released a report that concluded that the bombing was the result of a
car bomb exploding outside the Embassy. In December 1999, the Court
released a more extensive finding which encompassed the May report. The
Court also formally determined that Islamic Jihad was responsible for
the bombing, based on claims made by the group following the attack and
on similarities with other bombings claimed by the group. In September
1999, the Court issued an international arrest warrant for Islamic
Jihad leader Imad Mughniyhah.
In the AMIA case, the investigating judge determined in February
1999 that there was insufficient evidence to hold Iranian Nasrim
Mokhtari, long suspected of complicity in the bombing. On July 16,
1999, the Supreme Court ruled that she could leave the country. Wilson
Dos Santos, who reportedly had linked Mokhtari to the bombing, again
recanted his testimony from early in the year; the press reported in
July 1999 that he had offered to return and testify in exchange for
money. An investigator interviewed him in Brazil, evaluated the
proposed testimony, and rejected his offer. In July 1999, authorities
brought formal charges against all the suspects currently being held in
connection with the attack, including a number of former Buenos Aires
provincial police officers. Fifteen former police officers have been
linked to a stolen vehicle ring, which furnished the van used in the
bombing, and face various criminal charges. Also in July 1999, the
judge released a public notice calling upon any and all potential
witnesses to come forward. According to press reports, ``Memoria
Activa,'' a group of some of the family members of the victims, has
presented a suit before the Organization of American States Inter-
American Human Rights Commission charging that the Government did not
take sufficient measures to prevent the attack; that the State has not
investigated the case actively; and that serious errors have occurred
in the investigation. Then-Interior Minister Carlos Corach denied the
charges. In late February 2000, the AMIA case was presented formally
for trial. In April 2000, the De la Rua administration--which assumed
office in December 1999--created a new task force of four independent
prosecutors to investigate certain areas relating to the AMIA case. In
the summer of 2000, on the sixth anniversary of the AMIA bombing,
President De la Rua and much of his cabinet attended the solemn
ceremony commemorating the victims at the now-rebuilt cultural center.
In November 1999, Foreign Minister Guido di Tella announced the
issuance of a report of the Government's Commission of Inquiry into the
activities of Nazism in the country. The Commission was established in
1997 by President Carlos Menem. The report included a preliminary count
of at least 180 ``war criminals'' from Germany, France, and Croatia,
who entered Argentina after World War II, and identified a shipment of
stolen gold from Croatia's central bank that also went to Argentina.
The report also addressed the extent of Nazi influence on the country
during the 1930's and 1940's.
During his June 2000 visit to the United States, President De la
Rua made a formal apology at the Holocaust Memorial Museum for
Argentina having accepted Nazi war criminals as immigrants after World
War II.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officers meet periodically with a variety of church
leaders, invite them to embassy social functions, and attend events
organized by churches and nongovernmental organizations that deal with
issues of religious freedom.
In October 1999, the U.S. Embassy cosponsored a special inaugural
screening of the Steven Spielberg film ``The Final Days,'' about the
Holocaust in Hungary. In March 2000, the Embassy's Charge d'Affaires
hosted a ceremony sponsored by Argentina House in Jerusalem and the
International Raoul Wallenberg Committee, at which a sculpture honoring
the memory of Raoul Wallenberg was presented to the Embassy.
In April 2000, an embassy officer attended the ecumenical ceremony
commemorating the 1915 Armenian massacre, held in the Metropolitan
Cathedral of Buenos Aires. In May 2000, an embassy officer attended a
DAIA-sponsored ceremony commemorating the 57th anniversary of the
Warsaw ghetto uprising. The ceremony also was attended by President De
la Rua, who made a speech in which he advocated greater respect for
persons of all religions and ethnic groups.
The U.S. Embassy on an ongoing basis assists with the Government's
implementation of a Holocaust Education Project carried out under the
auspices of the International Holocaust Education Task Force.
__________
BAHAMAS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
Although there is often reference to the country's strong Christian
heritage in political and public discourse, there is no established or
official state religion. Clergy are trained freely in the country and
the Constitution specifically forbids infringement of a person's
freedom to change religion.
Churches and other religious congregations do not face any special
registration requirements, although they must incorporate legally in
order to purchase land. There are no legal provisions to encourage or
discourage the formation of religious communities, which are required
to pay the same tariffs and stamp taxes as other companies once they
legally incorporate. The Government permits foreign clergy and
missionaries to enter the country and to practice their religion
without restriction.
Religious Demography
There are a wide variety of religious beliefs in the country. Over
90 percent of the population of 275,000 profess a religion, and
anecdotal evidence suggests that most of these persons attend services
on a regular basis. The country is ethnically diverse, with a Haitian
minority of as many as 40,000 persons, and a white/European minority
that is nearly as large. The country's religious profile reflects this
diversity. Protestant Christian denominations (including Baptists,
Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Evangelicals, Seventh-Day
Adventists, and the Salvation Army) are in the majority, but there are
significant Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox populations. Smaller
Jewish, Baha'i, and Muslim communities are also active. A small but
stable number of citizens identify themselves as Rastafarians, while
some members of the country's small resident Guyanese and Indian
populations practice Hinduism and other South Asian religions. Although
many unaffiliated Protestant congregations are almost exclusively
black, most mainstream churches are integrated racially. The Government
meets regularly with religious leaders, both publicly and privately, to
discuss social, political, and economic issues.
Religion is recognized as an academic subject at government schools
and is included in mandatory standardized achievement and certificate
tests for all students. The country's Christian heritage has a heavy
influence on religion classes in government-supported schools, which
focus on the study of Christian philosophy, biblical texts, and to a
much lesser extent, comparative and non-Christian religions. The
Constitution allows students or their guardians in the case of minors
to opt out of religious education and observance in schools, and this
right--although rarely exercised--is respected in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among religious congregations are generally harmonious.
There were no reports of religiously motivated violence or
discrimination against members of religious minorities in the period
covered by this report.
There are several interdenominational organizations and ecumenical
movements. These groups freely express their opinions on social,
political, and economic issues.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy engages the Government on a wide range of human
rights issues and concerns, including the issue of religious freedom.
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
BARBADOS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice. There was no change in the
status of respect for religious freedom during the period covered by
this report. Both government policy and the generally amicable
relationship among the religions in society contribute to the free
practice of religion. The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom
issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and
policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Anglican, Methodist,
evangelical, and Roman Catholic) but it does not adversely affect
religious freedom for others. The minority religions are Islam, the
Baha'i Faith, and Rastafarianism (Nyabinghi school).
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-
faith understanding but also does not monitor or discriminate according
to religious faith.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The Barbados Christian Council and the Caribbean Conference
of Churches conduct activities to promote greater mutual understanding
and tolerance among adherents of different denominations within the
Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives have discussed issues or events relating to
religious freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
BELIZE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by the report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There is no state religion.
Nevertheless, the preamble to the Constitution makes a very strong
affirmation that ``the nation of Belize shall be founded upon
principles which acknowledge the supremacy of God.''
Under the Constitution, freedom of religion is part of a broader
protection--that of freedom of conscience. In addition, the
Constitution provides that no one shall be compelled to take an oath
that is contrary to a person's religion or belief.
There are no special registration requirements or fees for
religious organizations, and legal incorporation for a religion or
denomination is a simple matter. Property taxes are not levied against
churches and other places of worship. However, property taxes are
levied against other church-owned buildings occupied on a regular basis
such as the pastor's/priest's residence.
Religious Demography
The country's population of approximately 250,000 includes a
growing Mestizo population (44 percent); a diminishing Creole component
(31 percent); a stable Mayan element (Ketchi Maya 4 percent; Mopan Maya
4 percent); a disputed number of Garifuna (estimates run between 7 and
10 percent); and a small number of East Indians (3 percent), Arabs,
Asians, Mennonites, Northern Europeans, and immigrant Americans. Most
citizens are Roman Catholic (58 percent). Even when Creoles
predominated, Roman Catholicism was the principal faith. At one time,
80 percent of the population was Roman Catholic, which underlies the
Church's continuing influence in society.
Despite the long period of British colonial rule, only 7 percent of
the population are Anglicans. Another 6 percent are Pentecostals. Other
faiths and denominations have fewer than 10,000 members. Among them are
Methodists (4.2 percent), Seventh-Day Adventists (4.1 percent), and
Mennonites (4 percent). There are approximately 5,000 Hindus and
Nazarenes and modest numbers of Baha'i, Baptists, Buddhists, Jehovah's
Witnesses, Mormons, Muslims, Rastafarians, and Salvation Army members,
all of whom are able to proselytize freely. Except for the Mennonites
and Pentecostals who mostly live in the rural districts of Cayo and
Orange Walk, followers of these minority faiths tend to live in Belize
City. Roman Catholics are numerous throughout the country and
constitute the majority faith in all but one of the country's six
districts. In Belize district, Catholics hold a plurality but Anglicans
constitute over 27 percent of the population. Only about 6 percent of
citizens identify themselves as nonbelievers or members of no religious
congregation. There were no reports of the mistreatment of atheists or
agnostics.
The Constitution stipulates that religious communities may
establish ``places of education'' and states that ``no such community
shall be prevented from providing religious instruction for persons of
that community.'' Although there is no state religion, separation of
church and state is ill-defined in the country's educational system,
which maintains by statute a strong religious curriculum. The
curriculum ties ``spirituality'' with social studies courses. It
requires in both public and private schools that primary school
students, from kindergarten through sixth grade, receive 220 minutes of
religious instruction and chapel every week. However, schoolexit exams
do not have a section on religion. There are efforts underway to lessen
the religious component of the school day, but most citizens likely
would object to a strictly secular school day. Roman Catholic holy days
are routinely school holidays. However, the Constitution forbids any
educational institution from compelling a child to receive religious
instruction or attend any religious ceremony or observance without his
consent or, if under the age of 18, the consent of the child's parents.
This constitutional safeguard is particularly important because most of
the country's primary and elementary schools, high schools, and
colleges are churchaffiliated.
The Constitution also stipulates that no one shall be required to
receive religious instruction or attend services without their consent
while serving in the armed forces or detained in prison or in any
corrective institution.
In order to help maintain religious harmony, the Constitution
reserves the right of the Government to intervene in religious matters
``for the purpose of protecting the rights and freedoms of other
persons,'' including the right to observe and practice any religion
``without the unsolicited intervention of members of any other
religion.''
Under the country's newly revised immigration and nationality act,
foreign religious workers are permitted to enter the country and
proselytize; however, they must be registered and purchase a religious
worker's permit. The yearly fee is modest. There is a steady stream of
religious workers and missionaries from the United States to Belize.
Besides preaching, these visitors are involved in building and/or
renovating schools and churches, providing free medical and dental
care, and distributing donated food, clothing, and home fixtures.
Clergy preach, teach, and train freely.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who were abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the faiths are harmonious. Religious groups
occasionally join forces in ecumenical efforts to distribute goods to
the needy, clean up neighborhoods, alert the public to the dangers of
sexual promiscuity, fight crime, protect children, and carry out
similar endeavors.
Extortion attempts have been made against Mennonite communities;
however, these incidents do not appear to have been due to the religion
of the victims. The motive for targeting Mennonites seems to be
monetary because some are very prosperous by the country's standards.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
BOLIVIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. Roman Catholicism
is the official religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. Roman Catholicism
predominates, and the Constitution recognizes it as the official
religion. The Roman Catholic Church receives support from the State
(about 300 priests receive small stipends from the State) and exercises
a limited degree of political influence through the Bolivian Bishops'
Conference.
In February 2000, a draft supreme decree (similar to an executive
order) governing the relationships between religious organizations and
the Government was submitted to President Hugo Banzer Suarez for his
signature. The draft updates a similar decree dating from 1985, which
has been the subject of criticism by Catholic and non-Catholic
churches. The new decree reflects input from the churches, and,
according to government authorities, is designed to increase
transparency and dialog in church-state relations. For example, under
the 1985 decree, evangelical groups must receive permission from the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs before conducting public gatherings such as
outdoor celebrations; the new decree requires only that groups consult
civil authorities to address concerns such as traffic. The draft decree
requires that the fundraising reports of religions be certified by a
notary public. This new requirement is designed to protect churches
against allegations of money laundering or receiving money from drug
funds.
Non-Catholic religious organizations, including missionary groups,
must register with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship, and
receive authorization (``personeria juridica'') for legal religious
representation. The Ministry has not disallowed any registrations by
missionary groups or other religious organizations. Religious groups
receiving funds from abroad may enter into a framework agreement
(``convenio marco'') with the Government, lasting 3 years, which
permits them to enjoy a judicial standing similar to the standing of
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) and to have tax-free status. Some
20 religious groups, including the Catholic Church, have this framework
agreement with the Government.
Hari Krishna is in the process of applying for registration as a
religious organization. Hari Krishna previously had registered as an
educational organization instead of as a religious organization. The
Government sought to expel Hari Krishna from the country in the mid-
1980's; however, the attempt failed when the Supreme Court declared it
illegal.
Religious Demography
Roman Catholics constitute the majority (estimated at 80 percent)
of the population. There are approximately 266 registered religious
groups, mostly Protestant; another approximately 130 applications are
pending.
Many of these 266 groups are missionary groups. They include
Mennonites, Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, Baptists, Pentecostals,
and many evangelical groups. Most can be characterized as Christian
minority religious groups rather than separate religions.
Many church representatives from other countries play a major role
in the country. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons) has inaugurated a temple/center in Cochabamba for its
activities in western South America. There is also a small Jewish
community with a synagogue in La Paz, and a few Muslims and a mosque in
the eastern city of Santa Cruz. Korean immigrants have their own church
in La Paz. The majority of Korean, Chinese, and Japanese immigrants
have settled in the city of Santa Cruz where they have established
communities. There is a university in the city founded by Korean
immigrants, which has evangelical/Presbyterian ties. There are Buddhist
and Shinto communities, as well as a considerable Baha'i community
spread throughout the country.
The Roman Catholic Church is weaker in the countryside than in the
cities; according to senior Church authorities, this is due to a lack
of resources. Thus, traditional religious practices of the Aymara and
Quechua Indians continue to have their place in indigenous beliefs and
rituals, with a focus on the ``Pachamama'' or ``Mother Earth'' figure,
as well as on ``Akeko,'' originally an indigenous god of luck,
harvests, and general abundance, whose festival is celebrated widely on
January 24. Many native superstitions continue to flourish.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Only Catholic religious instruction is provided in public schools.
Non-Catholic instruction is not yet available in public schools for
students of other faiths; an alternate course on ``ethics'' is planned
but has not yet been implemented.
In August 1999, the Unification Church complained of ongoing
harassment by the Government, specifically citing the August 1998
revocation of three civil registrations for churchaffiliated NGO's by
the La Paz departmental government. However, the Unification Church
still is registered legally as a religious organization with the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship. The Unification Church
participated in the discussions between religious groups and the
Government to draft the new Supreme Decree.
A local mission, the Ekklesia Church, protested its investigation
by the Government; however, the issue appeared to be more one of
adhering to administrative and fiscal norms than a true religious
matter.
The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-faith
understanding. If the President goes officially to Mass, it is
traditional for his Cabinet to accompany him, even though political
leaders may have different religious beliefs.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the country's diverse religious communities are
amicable. In June 1999, the Catholic Church announced that it would no
longer call neo-Pentecostal and evangelical churches ``sects,'' which
increasingly has been viewed as a pejorative term, but would call them
instead ``religious organizations.'' According to the Bolivian Bishop's
Conference, the Church considers these Pentecostal churches to have the
basic foundations of Christianity. As a demonstration of improving
Catholic-evangelical relations, Catholic-Pentecostal meetings were held
in Ecuador in May 1997, February 1998, and May 1999.
In June 1999, a meeting was held between Catholic, Protestant, and
Jewish religious leaders in order to initiate an inter-faith dialog in
the country. The Catholics and Methodists of Cochabamba have
collaborated on publications and vigils, and following the Vatican's
lead, Catholics and Lutherans in Bolivia now recognize each other's
rituals of baptism.
There are no serious rivalries between religious groups, although
there were reports of some resentment of missionary groups by Roman
Catholics.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights and
as an independent issue. The U.S. Ambassador and other embassy officers
meet regularly with religious authorities, including the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and Worship, principal religious leaders, and the Papal
Nuncio.
__________
BRAZIL
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion,
although a natural rivalry exists among various religious groups vying
for greater numbers of adherents.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. This includes a general
provision for access to religious services and counsel in all civil and
military establishments.
There are no registration requirements for religions or religious
groups. There is no favored or state religion. All faiths are free to
establish places of worship, train clergy, and proselytize, although
the Government controls entry into Indian lands.
Religious Demography
Nearly all major religions and religious organizations are present
in the country. The Catholic Church's National Council of Brazilian
Bishops (CNBB) estimates that roughly 75 percent of the population of
160 million identify themselves as Roman Catholic, although only a
small percentage of that number regularly attend Mass. Roughly 20
percent of the population identify themselves as Protestants, the
majority of which are Pentecostal/evangelical. Evangelical churches
have grown rapidly and have challenged the religious stronghold of the
Catholic Church. An estimated 85 percent of the country's Protestants
are affiliated with Pentecostal/evangelical minority religious groups.
Minor denominations include the Assembly of God and the Universal
Church of the Kingdom of God. Lutherans and Baptists make up the bulk
of the remaining Protestants and are centered in the southern part of
the country, where the majority of German and northern European
immigrants concentrated during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Followers of African and syncretistic religions such Candomble,
Xango, Macumba, and Umbanda constitute roughly 4 percent of the
population. Candomble is the predominant traditional African religion
practiced among AfroBrazilians. It centers on the worship of African
deities brought to the country as a result of the slave trade.
Syncretistic forms of African religions that developed in the country
include Xango and Macumba, which to varying degrees combine and
identify indigenous animist beliefs and Catholic saints with African
deities. The capital of Bahia State, Salvador, where most African
slaves arrived in the country, is considered the center of Candomble
and other traditional African religions. As a result of internal
migration during this century, AfroBrazilian and syncretistic religions
have spread throughout the country. Followers of spiritism, mainly
Kardecists--followers of the doctrine transcribed by Frenchman Allan
Kardec in the 19th century--constitute roughly 1 percent of the
population. Many citizens worship in more than one church or
participate in the rituals of more than one religion.
Sunni and Shi'a Islam are practiced predominantly by immigrants
from Arab countries who have arrived in the country during the past 25
years. Shintoism is maintained to a limited degree among the
JapaneseBrazilian community.
Foreign missionary groups, including the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) and several evangelical organizations,
operate freely throughout the country. The Government restricts the
access of missionary groups to indigenous people and requires groups to
seek permission from the National Indian Foundation to enter official
indigenous areas.
There are no official government programs or councils to promote
inter-faith dialog.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious
communities in the country, although a natural rivalry exists among
various religious groups vying for greater numbers of adherents. The
influence of evangelical churches in the country is growing. There is
no national ecumenical movement.
In 1999 leaders in the Jewish community expressed concern about the
appearance of anti-Semitic propaganda on neo-Nazi Internet sites in
Brazil during the past 3 years. Neo-Nazism appears to be a
predominantly regional problem directed at Afro-Brazilians who have
immigrated into Sao Paulo and the other southern states . Jewish
community activists report that, although neoNazi groups have issued
threats against at least one prominent leader, they were not aware of
any violent incidents directed at Jews.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
CHILE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
in the period covered by this report. The Government promoted and
Congress adopted a new religious law designed to bring other religious
entities closer to the legal status enjoyed by the Catholic Church;
however, the Catholic Church retained an advantaged position. The new
law entered into force in late March 2000.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Church and state are officially separate. However, the Catholic
Church enjoys a privileged position among religions and receives
preferential treatment. The Catholic Church's special legal position
stems from historical factors; the Church predates the Chilean national
State, and Roman Catholicism was the official state religion until
promulgation of the 1925 Constitution. At the time, the Government and
the Vatican agreed on an unwritten tacit concordat to govern treatment
of the Church, placing it outside government regulation.
Religious faiths and related organizations must register with the
Ministry of Justice as a foundation, corporation, or religiously
affiliated sports club to receive tax exempt status and the right to
collect funds. Groups without juridical status still may worship, but
do not enjoy the tax status, fund collection rights, and other benefits
that come with legal recognition. Some 800 religious faiths and related
organizations are registered with the Ministry of Justice. Government
refusal to register a religious group, or withdrawal of its legal
status, is rare, and generally has stemmed from misuse of funds by the
group or widespread criminal allegations.
The Catholic Church is not governed by the same regulations as
other religions; it does not have to register with the Ministry of
Justice and enjoys ``public right'' (``derecho publico'') status. Until
March 2000, the only other church body with this legal status was the
Antioch Orthodox Church. ``Derecho publico'' status provides that a
church cannot lose its juridical standing administratively; in the case
of the Catholic Church, it further means that the body cannot have its
status challenged at all. Until March 2000, all other religions, and
groups affiliated with other religions, enjoyed ``private rights''
(``derecho privado''), which allowed for the lifting of status
administratively. The Antioch Orthodox Church received its ``derecho
publico'' status in the early 1970's due to a law passed during the
administration of former President Salvador Allende. However, its
status theoretically could be challenged in court, which is not the
case with the Catholic Church.
On July 6, 1999, the Senate approved a new religious law (``ley de
culto''). Approval came after the legislation was reworded to make
clear that the status historically enjoyed by the Catholic Church would
not be affected by the new law. The legislation entered into effect in
late March 2000. Among other provisions, it bestows the same legal
status (``derecho publico'') that the Catholic Church previously
enjoyed upon all other faiths. This removed the possibility of other
faiths having their legal status challenged administratively (their
status still may be challenged in court; reflecting its historical
position, the legal status of the Catholic Church may not be challenged
legally).
The new religion law removed the ability of the State to dissolve
religious entities by decree. Instead, this only may occur after a
judicial review begun by a complaint filed by the semiautonomous
Council for the Defense of the State (CDE), which is the official
entity charged with defense of the State's legal interests.
Some 800 religious faiths and related organizations are registered
with the Ministry of Justice. Under the new religious law, the Justice
Ministry cannot refuse to accept a registry petition, but it can object
to the petition within 90 days on the grounds that all legal requisites
to register have not been satisfied. The questioned body then has 60
days to bring itself into conformity with the objections raised by the
Ministry or challenge the Ministry's observations in court. The
Catholic Church does not have to be registered with the Justice
Ministry.
Religious Demography
The 1992 census (the latest official figures available) placed the
total population over 14 at 9,660,367. (The census does not break down
religion for persons under age 14.) Of this group, 7,409,528 persons
were identified as Catholic. This represents approximately 77 percent
of the population over 14 years of age.
The term Evangelical in Chile is used to refer to all nonCatholic
Christian churches with the exception of the Orthodox (Greek, Persian,
Serbian, Armenian) Churches and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
Day Saints (Mormons). Most Evangelicals (approximately 90 percent) are
Pentecostal. The 1992 census used both ``Protestant'' and
``Evangelical'' to ask about religion, though the terms are considered
interchangeable. Evangelicals totaled 1,198,385 persons, or 12 percent
of the population over the age of 14. Those identifying themselves with
the term Protestant accounted for 80,259 persons, less than 1 percent
of the population. In the census, atheists and those ``indifferent''
totaled 562,285, or approximately 6 percent of the population over the
age of 14. All other religions totaled 409,910 persons, or slightly
over 4 percent.
In 1997 spokespersons for Protestant organizations estimated the
number of evangelical Christians in the country at between 1.8 and 2
million persons. Other estimates were as high as 3 million. The active
Jewish population is estimated to be around 30,000. The number of
Protestants has grown steadily with each census since 1930, when only
1.5 percent of the population claimed to be Protestant. The relative
percentage of Catholics falls as one goes down the socioeconomic
ladder. A 1991 survey found that 93.4 percent of high-income
respondents indicated they were Catholic; the proportions declined to
75.2 percent in the middle-income group, and to 69 percent among those
in the lower-income group. The survey found that 22 percent of persons
at the lower-income levels were Protestants. A June 1998 national
survey conducted by the Center for Public Studies (CEP) suggested that
43 percent of Evangelicals were converts from another religion; 98
percent of Catholics had been born into that religion.
The CEP study also found that 8 out of 10 citizens believe in the
existence of God, while 14 percent were doubtful and only 2 percent
declared themselves atheists. Seventy-two percent of those surveyed
identified themselves as Catholics, 16 percent identified themselves as
Evangelicals, 7 percent said they had no religion, 4 percent adhered to
other religions, and 1 percent did not answer.
The CEP poll also found that 18 percent of persons claimed to
attend a church or temple at least once a week. A 1995 CEP survey
placed this figure at 27 percent. In the 1998 survey, 29 percent of
persons said that they had never attended a church. Thirty-two percent
said that they prayed at least once a day and 15 percent said that they
never prayed.
While 51 percent of those surveyed expressed ``full or great''
confidence in their religious organization, two-thirds believed that
churches should not try to influence voting decisions or Government
actions. Some non-Catholics regard membership in the Christian
Democratic Party as contrary to their philosophical beliefs. Several
prominent politicians are not Catholic, including the President. There
are no Evangelical members of Congress.
There are a wide variety of active faiths. In addition to the
dominant Catholic Church and the Pentecostal Methodist Church, the
Wesleyan Church, Lutheran Church, Reformed Evangelical Church, Seventh-
Day Adventist Church, Anglican Church, Methodist Church, and the
Patriarch of Antioch Orthodox Church also are active. The Mormons are
active, and there is a Unification Church. Other faiths include
Judaism, Islam, and the Baha'i faith. Members of all major faiths are
concentrated in the capital, with the Catholic, Evangelical, and
Pentecostal churches also active in other regions of the country.
Jewish congregations also exist in Valparaiso, Vina del Mar, Valdivia,
Temuco, Concepcion, and Iquique (though there is no synagogue in the
latter city).
Foreign missionaries operate freely, and many priests are of
foreign origin.
Schools are required to offer religious education twice a week, on
an optional basis, through middle school. It is mandatory to teach the
creed requested by parents, although enforcement is sometimes lax.
All major faiths participated in a human rights ``dialog table''
held by the Defense Minister. In addition to Catholic events,
government officials attend major Protestant and Jewish religious and
other ceremonies. New President Lagos, for example, attended Holocaust
Remembrance Day ceremony in early May, along with the Defense and
Interior Ministers.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
in the period covered by this report. The Government promoted and
Congress adopted a new religious law designed to bring other religious
entities closer to the legal status enjoyed by the Catholic Church;
however, the Catholic Church retained an advantaged position.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
United States citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from
the United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such
citizens to be returned to the United States.
II. Societal Attitudes
Citizens generally are tolerant of religious differences, although
some discrimination occurs. A bill supported by the executive branch is
pending in Congress to outlaw acts of discrimination based on race,
religion, ethnicity, or national origin, and the new religion law also
includes a clause against religious discrimination. Before passage of
the new religion law, the country's Protestants assert that the
Government discriminates against them, based upon differing legal
status afforded to non-Catholics. They cite the absence of Protestant
armed forces chaplains (all chaplains are Catholic), difficulties for
pastors to visit military hospitals, and the predominantly Catholic
religious education in public schools. Military recruits, whatever
their religion, often have to attend Catholic events involving their
unit, and being a Catholic is considered beneficial to one's military
career.
Non-Catholic clergymen sometimes have difficulties gaining access
to prisons and public hospitals; access is at the discretion of
administrators. Catholic priests usually do not face such difficulties.
In April 2000, a small group of local Nazis attempted to hold an
international Nazi ideological conference. The Government, Congress,
and a wide array of societal groups criticized the attempt to hold this
meeting. The Government gave orders to immigration authorities to
prevent known Nazis from entering the country. On the eve of the
scheduled conference, the Chilean organizer of the event was arrested
by police and held for several days for previously passing false
checks. The meeting was held clandestinely with only a handful of
participants (one report said six); almost no persons from abroad
attended.
Local Nazis continue to announce their intention to form a
political party called the ``New Fatherland Society'' (``Patria Nueva
Sociedad''). This would be the first Nazi political party in the
country since the National Socialist Workers Party lost its legal
status in 1969. It is unclear whether such a party would be deemed
unconstitutional; most analysts question the ability of local Nazis to
reach the threshold of required signatures to try to register a party.
Ecumenical groups exist, although they often are formed on an ad
hoc basis, depending on the issue involved.
III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
U.S. Embassy representatives have met with a wide variety of
religious leaders, including Santiago's Archbishop and key
representatives of Evangelical and Jewish organizations. Informal
contact is maintained with representatives and leaders of several other
faiths.
As appropriate, embassy officials have cooperated on programs such
as anti-drug efforts with church-affiliated groups and the B'nai
B'rith.
__________
COLOMBIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between various faiths are generally amicable, although
some indigenous leaders reportedly were intolerant of nontraditional
forms of worship. The Roman Catholic Church enjoys a privileged
position in society, but many different religions are practiced.
Paramilitaries sometimes target representatives and members of the
Roman Catholic Church and evangelical Christian churches, generally for
political reasons. The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)
and National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrilla movements regularly target
representatives and members of the Roman Catholic Church and
evangelical Christian churches, generally for political reasons, and
committed acts of killing, kidnaping, and extortion, as well as
inhibiting free religious expression.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
The law states that there is no official or state church or
religion but adds that the State ``is not atheist or agnostic, nor
indifferent to Colombians' religious sentiment.'' Some observers have
interpreted this to mean that the State unofficially sanctions a
privileged position for the Roman Catholic Church. (Roman Catholicism
was the country's official religion until the adoption of the 1991
Constitution.) A 1994 Constitutional Court decision declared
unconstitutional any official government reference to religious
characterizations of the country.
The law on freedom of religion provides a mechanism for religions
to obtain the status of recognized legal entities. The Government
extends two different kinds of recognition to religions: recognition of
basic juridical personality, and special public recognition. The
Ministry of Interior regularly grants the former type of recognition.
The only requirement is submission of a formal request and basic
organizational information. Additionally, any foreign religious faith
that wishes to establish a presence in the country must document
official recognition by authorities from its home country. The Ministry
of Interior may reject any requests that do not comply fully with these
established requirements or that violate fundamental constitutional
rights. Among the religions practiced in the country are Roman
Catholicism, Anglicanism, the Mennonite Church, Calvinism, Lutheranism,
the Baptist Church, Presbyterianism, the Methodist Church, the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Islam, and Judaism.
Accession to the 1997 public law agreement between the State and
non-Roman Catholic religious entities currently is required for any
religion that wishes to minister to its adherents via any public
institution. For example, participation in the 1997 public law
agreement is required to minister to soldiers, public hospital
patients, and prisoners and to provide religious instruction in public
schools, and the State only recognizes marriages celebrated by churches
that are signatories to the 1997 public law agreement. When considering
granting accession to the 1997 agreement, the Government takes into
account the number of adherents of the religion, the degree of popular
acceptance the religion enjoys within society, and other factors deemed
relevant, such as the content of the religion's statutes and required
behavioral norms. To date, 18 nonRoman Catholic Christian churches have
received this special status. More than 40 churches have requested
accession to a new public law agreement with the Government, which, the
churches propose, would have lower standards for recognition than the
1997 agreement. However, no advances were made toward a new agreement
during the period covered by this report. Some prominent non-Christian
religious groups, such as the Jewish community, have not requested
state religious recognition.
Due to its special relationship with the State, officially
sanctioned in a concordat, the Roman Catholic Church was the only
religion that was permitted to minister and teach via public
institutions between 1887 and 1991. Although the Catholic Church was
separated from the State by the 1991 Constitution, it retains a de
facto privileged status.
Religious Demography
Although no official data are available, one 1996 study from Los
Andes University concluded that 88 percent of citizens are Roman
Catholics (although a large percentage do not practice their faith
actively), between 6 and 7 percent belong to other Christian
denominations, and the remainder belong to other religious faiths/
movements (e.g., Jews, Muslims, animists, adherents of various
syncretistic beliefs, agnostics, and atheists). Adherents of some
religions are concentrated in specific geographic regions. For example,
the vast majority of practitioners of a syncretistic religion that
blends Roman Catholicism with elements of African animism are Afro-
Colombians of Choco department. Jews are concentrated in the major
cities; Muslims are concentrated on the Caribbean coast; and adherents
of indigenous animistic religions generally are found in remote, rural
areas.
The Constitution provides parents with the right to choose the type
of education their children receive, including Roman Catholic or other
religious education. It also states that no one shall be obliged to
receive religious education of any type in public schools. The Roman
Catholic Church and non-Catholic religions and Christian denominations
that have acceded to the 1997 public law agreement with the State may
provide religious instruction in public schools. (No non-Christian
religion currently is a signatory to the 1997 public law agreement.)
Religions without this special recognition may establish private
parochial schools, provided they comply with Education Ministry
requirements. For example, the Jewish community operates its own
schools.
The Catholic Church has a unique agreement with the Government to
provide schools to rural areas that have no state-run schools. These
schools are also tax exempt.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Foreign missionaries require a special visa, which is valid for a
maximum of 2 years. The Ministry of Foreign Relations may issue visas
to foreign missionaries or members of a foreign religion or
denomination, provided that the religion or denomination has received
special public recognition. Applicants are required to have a
certificate issued by the Ministry of Interior confirming that the
religious institution is registered with the Ministry, a certificate
issued by the religious institution confirming the applicant's
membership in that institution and explaining the purpose of the
proposed travel, and proof of economic solvency.
The Government permits proselytizing among the indigenous
population, provided that it is welcome and does not induce members of
indigenous communities to adopt changes that endanger their survival on
traditional lands. There are no other restrictions on missionaries'
activities.
Although the Catholic Church was separated from the State by the
1991 Constitution, it retains a de facto privileged status. According
to military regulations, only Roman Catholic priests may serve as
chaplains.
All legally recognized churches, seminaries, monasteries, and
convents are exempt from national and local taxes. Local governments
also may exempt from taxes religiously affiliated organizations such as
schools and libraries. However, in practice, local governments often
exempt only organizations that are affiliated with the Roman Catholic
Church.
The FARC has placed religious restrictions on persons within the
``despeje,'' the demilitarized zone established in November 1998 in
order to facilitate a Government-FARC dialog leading to formal peace
talks. For example, in September 1999, the FARC gave a Polish priest 15
days to leave the despeje zone. The FARC guerilla movement did not
exclude Roman Catholic and evangelical churches from the arbitrary
payment of ``war taxes'' levied on many organizations in the despeje
and elsewhere in the country.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In April 1999, the army arrested Colonel Jorge Plazas Acevedo, the
chief of intelligence for the army's 13th Brigade, for allegedly
heading a kidnaping gang believed responsible for the kidnaping and
killing of several Jewish industrialists, including Benjamin Khoudari,
whose body was found in April 1999. The authorities also arrested a
lieutenant and a sergeant under Plazas's command, and placed all three
in preventive detention in April. The military judiciary determined
that the three should be tried in civilian courts. In July 1999, the
army retired Plazas, and an Attorney General's disciplinary
investigation of him was underway at year's end. In connection with the
crime, the authorities also arrested two former guerrillas who had
become army informants; they remained in detention and under
investigation at year's end.
Both the Constitutional Court (on October 7, 1998) and the Council
of State (on November 19, 1998) found that Jehovah's Witnesses and
Mennonite seminarians had been forced regularly into military service,
in violation of constitutional and other provisions for conscientious
objectors. Both the Court and the Council ordered the Government to
exempt the two Churches' seminarians in the same manner that it
exempted Roman Catholic seminarians. Since the Court and Council's
rulings, neither Church has experienced further problems of this sort.
Paramilitaries sometimes target representatives and members of the
Roman Catholic Church and evangelical Christian churches, generally for
political reasons. The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)
and National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrilla movements regularly target
representatives and members of the Roman Catholic Church and
evangelical Christian churches, generally for political reasons, and
committed acts of killing, kidnaping, and extortion, as well as
inhibiting free religious expression.
Faced with threats by paramilitaries or guerrillas, many
evangelical preachers were forced to refrain from publicly discussing
the country's internal conflict. The Bishops' Conference of the Roman
Catholic Church also reported that paramilitaries, the ELN, and the
FARC sometimes threatened rural priests with death for speaking out
against them.
On November 21, 1999, the bodies of Roman Catholic priest Jorge
Luis Maza and Spanish aid worker Inigu Egiluz were pulled from the
Atrato river in Choco department. Witnesses reported that the boat in
which the pair had been travelling was struck by a boat operated by
paramilitaries. Security forces later arrested nine paramilitaries in
connection with the crime.
In October 1999, paramilitaries distributed pamphlets at the
University of Antioquia campus in Medellin threatening evangelical
Christian students with murder.
On May 18, 1999, members of a small guerrilla group, the People's
Liberation Army (EPL), killed Catholic priest Pedro Leon Camacho in
Cachira, Norte de Santander, after he had denounced publicly the
guerrilla group's abuses of the civilian population.
The United Pentecostal Church of Colombia reported that on August
2, 1999, the FARC killed two of its preachers, Jose Honorio Trivino and
Miguel Antonio Ospina. Two other preachers and 25 evangelical church
members also were reported killed between January and August 1999,
mostly in areas greatly affected by the conflict. FARC members were
believed responsible for a majority of the killings.
Guerrillas were suspected of the April 2000 massacre of 2
evangelical preachers and 12 church members at Hato Nuevo, Carmen de
Bolivar, Bolivar department.
There have been unconfirmed reports that guerrillas attacked rural
evangelical Christians and their churches in the mistaken belief that
the churches were fronts for U.S. Government activities.
The Bishops' Conference of the Roman Catholic Church reported that
Roman Catholic churches in Huila, Tolima, Cauca, and Antioquia
departments were destroyed during guerrilla attacks on towns and police
stations.
On July 30, 1999, the Prosecutor General's human rights unit
indicted ``Arley Leal,'' commander of the FARC's 32nd Front, for the
September 1998 killing of Catholic priest Alcides Jimenez Chicangana.
Jimenez was shot 18 times as he gave a sermon in a Catholic church
hours after he led a public rally for peace. Charges against narcotics
trafficker Luis Angel Canas, who was detained in 1998 for the crime,
were dropped.
According to the Christian Union Movement, the FARC killed 46 of
the movement's affiliated preachers between January 1999 and June 2000.
As of June 2000, the group reported that the FARC had forced the
closure of over 300 evangelical churches in Meta, Guajira, Tolima,
Vaupes, Guainia, Guaviare, Vichada, Casanare, and Arauca departments.
Additionally, the group claimed that the FARC extorted and, in many
cases, forced the closure of rural evangelical schools.
On August 16, 1999, members of the EPL kidnaped the Roman Catholic
Bishop of Tibu, Jose de Jesus Quintero, between El Tarra and Tibu,
Norte de Santander department, and freed him on September 19. Quintero
had spoken out against a rash of paramilitary and guerrilla massacres
in the area. He had been kidnaped previously by the ELN in 1997.
On May 30, 1999, members of the National Liberation Army (ELN)
kidnaped over 140 persons, including at least 3 American citizens and a
Catholic priest, who were attending Mass at the La Maria Catholic
church in Cali. The attack apparently represented an attempt by the ELN
to raise its political profile; there was no indication that the
victims were targeted specifically because of their religious beliefs.
All eventually were released. In April 2000, the Administrative
Department of Security captured Ovidio Antonio Parra Cortes, the ELN
leader suspected of directing the kidnaping; the army later arrested
seven men believed to have participated in the kidnaping.
Despite increased pressure by the Government on the FARC to account
for three American missionaries from the New Tribes Mission, who were
kidnaped by FARC guerrillas in January 1993, their whereabouts and
condition remained unknown.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between various faiths are generally amicable. The Roman
Catholic Church and some evangelical churches reported that some
indigenous leaders were intolerant of nontraditional forms of worship.
Jewish community leaders estimated that as many as 20 percent of
the country's Jewish community had fled the country as of July 1999.
Among the principal causes was a string of kidnapings, assaults, and
murders affecting Jewish business leaders.
On April 11, 2000, at least three Mormon temples in Cali were
bombed. No one was injured in the attacks, which damaged buildings. No
one claimed responsibility for the attacks.
Some indigenous groups with distinct animistic or syncretistic
religious beliefs are targeted regularly for attack by guerrilla or
paramilitary groups. However, these attacks generally are motivated by
political differences (whether real or perceived) or by questions of
land ownership, rather than by religious differences.
On March 27, 2000, unidentified perpetrators killed Roman Catholic
priest Hugo Duque Hernandez at Supia, Caldas department.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains regular contact with representatives of
the Roman Catholic Church, other Christian denominations, and other
religions, and discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
COSTA RICA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. While the Constitution
establishes Roman Catholicism as the state religion, people of all
denominations freely practice their religion without government
interference.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The Constitution establishes Roman Catholicism as the state
religion and requires that the State contribute to its maintenance;
however, it also prohibits the State from impeding the free exercise of
other religions ``that do not impugn universal morality or proper
behavior.'' Members of all denominations freely practice their religion
without Government interference.
The law grants the Catholic Church tax-free status and allows for
the Government to provide land to the Catholic Church. In some cases,
the Government retains ownership of the land but grants the Church free
use while, in other situations, property simply is donated to the
Church. This second method commonly is used to provide land for the
construction of local churches. These methods do not meet all needs of
the Church, which also buys some land outright. Government-to-Church
land transfers are not covered under any blanket legislation. Instead,
they are handled by specific legislative action once or twice per year.
The Government does not inhibit the establishment of churches
through taxes or special licensing for religious organizations.
However, churches must incorporate to have legal standing, like any
other organizations.
Despite the official status of the Catholic Church, ties between it
and the State are limited clearly. The Constitution prohibits Church
involvement in political campaigning.
Religious Demography
An April 2000 Demoscopia, Inc. poll reported 73 percent of the
population as Catholic, with 15 percent belonging to other Christian
denominations. The mainstream Protestant denominations--largely
Methodist, Baptist, and Episcopalian--account for slightly less than 1
percent. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons)
claims a membership of less than 1 percent, spread evenly throughout
the country. In June 2000, it finished the construction of a temple
that is to serve as a regional worship center for Panama, Nicaragua,
and Honduras. Jehovah's Witnesses have a presence on the Caribbean
coast but represent only about 1 percent of the population. Seventh-Day
Adventists are present and operate a university, attracting students
from throughout the Caribbean basin. NonChristian religions (e.g.,
Judaism and Islam) represent 3 percent of the population. Groups such
as the Unification Church and Hare Krishna are in the country in small
numbers. Approximately 8 percent of the population do not practice any
religion.
The country's tradition of tolerance and professed pacifism has
attracted many religious groups. The Jewish population constitutes less
than 1 percent of the country's total; many of its members found refuge
before and during the Second World War. The mountain community of
Monteverde, a popular tourist destination, was founded during the
Korean War by a group of Quakers from the United States, acting on
their convictions as conscientious objectors. This community, as well
as those of Mennonites, Beechy Amish, and other pacifist religious
groups, was welcomed by Costa Rica.
Although not mandatory, Catholic religious instruction is permitted
in the public schools. Religious education teachers, including those in
public schools, must be certified by the Roman Catholic Episcopal
Conference, which does not certify teachers from other denominations or
faiths. Private schools, including those affiliated with Protestant
denominations, are free to include any religious instruction they see
fit.
The Government does not restrict the establishment of places of
worship. New churches, primarily evangelical Protestant churches that
are located in residential neighborhoods, occasionally have conflicts
with local governments due to neighbors' complaints about noise and
traffic. In contrast, established Catholic Churches are built around
the municipal square and do not present such problems.
Foreign missionaries and clergy of all denominations work and
proselytize freely.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Amicable relations exist between members of the country's different
religions, including religious minorities. The country has a history of
tolerance.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
CUBA
The Constitution recognizes the right of citizens to profess and
practice any religious belief, within the framework of respect for the
law; however, in law and in practice, the Government places
restrictions on freedom of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
In general unregistered religious groups continued to experience
varying degrees of official interference, harassment, and repression.
Some unregistered religious groups were not only subject to official
censure, but also faced pressures from registered religious groups. The
Government's policy of permitting apolitical religious activity to take
place in government-approved sites remained unchanged; however,
citizens worshiping in officially sanctioned churches were often
subject to surveillance by state security forces and the Government's
efforts to maintain a strong degree of control over religion continued.
The U.S. Government has raised issues of human rights, including
religious discrimination and harassment, with government officials;
however, the Government has dismissed these concerns. The U.S.
Government continuously urges international pressure on the Government
to cease its repressive practices.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution recognizes the right of citizens to profess and
practice any religious belief, within the framework of respect for the
law; however, in law and in practice, the Government places
restrictions on freedom of religion. Church and state have been
constitutionally separate since the early 20th century. In 1992 the
Constitution was changed and references to scientific materialism or
atheism were removed. The Government does not favor any one particular
religion or church.
The Government requires churches and other religious groups to
register with the provincial Registry of Associations within the
Ministry of the Interior to obtain official recognition. Although no
new denominations were registered during the period covered by this
report, the Government has tolerated some new religions on the island,
like the Baha'i Faith. However, in practice, the Government refuses to
register most new denominations.
Along with recognized churches, the Roman Catholic humanitarian
organization Caritas, the Masons, small human rights groups, and a
number of nascent fraternal or professional organizations are the only
associations outside the control or influence of the State, the
Communist Party, and their mass organizations. With the exception of
the Masons, who have been established in the country for more than a
century, the authorities continue to ignore other religious groups'
applications for legal recognition, thereby subjecting members of such
groups to potential charges of illegal association.
The Government's main interaction with religious denominations is
through the Office of Religious Affairs of the Cuban Communist Party.
The Ministry of Interior still engages in efforts to control and
monitor the country's religious institutions, including surveillance,
infiltration, and harassment of religious professionals and laypersons.
In January 1998, Pope John Paul II made a historic trip to Cuba.
The Pope celebrated public Masses in front of hundreds of thousands of
persons in several cities, which were televised nationally. In his 11
discourses while in the country, the Pope emphasized the need to allow
fundamental freedoms, to respect human rights, and to foster the
development of independent civil society. Although the Government
released some 300 prisoners from jails across the island, including a
little over 100 political prisoners, the Pope's visit did not lead to
the level of change expected in terms of increased religious freedom or
political change.
Religious Demography
There is no independent authoritative source on the size or
composition of religious institutions and their membership. Although a
1953 survey showed 93 percent of the population identified themselves
as Roman Catholic, today about 40 to 45 percent of the population
generally are believed to identify themselves, at least nominally, with
the Roman Catholic Church, according to information from the U.S.-based
Puebla Institute. A significant number of citizens share or have
participated in syncretistic Afro-Caribbean beliefs, such as santeria.
The Baptists, represented in four different conventions, are possibly
the largest Protestant denomination, followed closely by the
Pentecostal churches, in particular the Assemblies of God. Twenty-five
denominations recognized by the State, including Presbyterians,
Episcopalians, and Methodists, are members of the Cuban Council of
Churches (CCC). Another 24 officially recognized denominations,
including Jehovah's Witnesses and the small Jewish community, do not
belong to the CCC.
Although Cuba is nominally Roman Catholic, historically it has been
a largely secular society without an especially strong religious
character. Catholic Church officials usually estimate that about 10
percent of baptized Catholics go to Mass regularly. Membership in
Protestant churches is estimated at 500,000 persons. No figures on the
number of Pentecostals are available, although the Seventh-Day
Adventists have said that their membership numbers are around 30,000
persons. Church attendance has grown in recent years in some
denominations, and has increased substantially at Catholic Church
services in the wake of the Pope's visit in January 1998. Church
leaders, both Catholic and Protestant, believe that church attendance
peaked during 1999 and early 2000.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Marxist-Leninist ideology of the Government led to strong
confrontations with institutional churches in the early 1960's. During
that period, many church leaders and religious professionals left the
country, fearing persecution. Over 130 Catholic religious workers,
including priests, were expelled, and a few served long prison terms.
In 1965 the Government forced many priests, pastors, and others ``who
made religion a way of life'' into forced labor camps called military
units to aid production (UMAPS), alongside homosexuals, vagrants, and
others considered by the regime to be ``social scum.'' The UMAP system
ended in 1967. However, over the next 30 years, the Government and the
Communist Party systematically discriminated against and marginalized
persons who openly professed their faith by excluding them from certain
jobs (e.g., teachers). Although the Government abandoned its official
atheism in the early 1990's, most churches had been weakened seriously
by then, and active participation in religious services had fallen
drastically by that time.
In recent years, the Government has eased the harsher aspects of
its repression of religious freedom. In 1991 it allowed religious
adherents to join the Communist Party, which is the only legal
political entity. In 1992 it amended the Constitution to prohibit
religious discrimination and removed references to ``scientific
materialism,'' i.e., atheism, as the basis for the State. Nevertheless,
the Government discourages members of the armed forces from attending
religious services in their uniforms.
The law allows for the construction of new churches, but requires
churches to apply for permits to authorize such construction. However,
the Government rarely has authorized construction permits, forcing many
churches to seek permits to meet in private homes. Most registered
churches are granted permission to hold services in private homes.
Religious officials are allowed to visit prisoners, but prison
officials sometimes refuse visits to certain political prisoners.
Just before Holy Week, April 22-29, 2000, government officials
informed Catholic Church officials that no processions would be
allowed. When the Church made this information public, state officials
changed their position and informed Church officials that churches that
previously had requested permission to hold a procession could do so.
The Government continued to enforce a regulation that prevents any
Cuban or joint enterprise (except those with specific authorization)
from selling computers, facsimile machines, photocopiers, or other
equipment to any church at other than the official--and exorbitant--
retail prices.
Education is secular and religious institutions are not allowed to
operate schools. In the past, students who professed a belief in
religion were stigmatized by other students and teachers and were
disciplined formally for wearing crucifixes, and for bringing Bibles or
other religious materials to school. In some cases these students were
prohibited from attending institutions of higher learning, or from
studying specific fields. Students who profess a belief in religion now
commonly attend institutions of higher education, including enrollment
in the Department of Psychology.
Religion is not taught in schools. Churches provide religious
education classes to their members. Catholic Church officials report
that during the first 6 months of 2000 there was a drop in the number
of children attending catechism classes, mostly because of other
scheduled activities, usually by local school authorities. There have
been no reports of parents being restricted from teaching religion to
their children.
Church officials have encountered cases of religious persons
experiencing discrimination because of ignorance or personal prejudice
by a local official. Religious persons do encounter employment problems
in certain professions, like education.
In December 1998, the Government announced in a politburo
declaration that henceforth citizens would be allowed to celebrate
Christmas as an official holiday. (The holiday had been cancelled,
ostensibly to spur the sugar harvest, in 1969, and restored in 1997 as
part of the preparations for the Pope's visit.) However, despite the
Government's decision to allow citizens to celebrate Christmas as a
national holiday, it maintained a December 1995 decree prohibiting
nativity scenes in public buildings except those related to the tourist
or foreign commercial sector.
Religious groups are required to submit a request to the local
ruling official of the Communist Party before being allowed to hold
processions or events outside of religious buildings.
The Government has relaxed restrictions on most officially
recognized religious denominations. In October 1999, the secretary
general of the World Council of Churches officially visited the CCC and
met with government officials. During his stay, he presided in a
religious ceremony in the First Presbyterian Church in Havana.
Jehovah's Witnesses, once considered ``active religious enemies of the
revolution,'' are allowed to proselytize quietly door-to-door and are
not subject to overt government harassment, although there were
sporadic reports of harassment by local Communist Party and government
officials. The Government has authorized small assemblies of Jehovah's
Witnesses, the opening of a central office in Havana, and publication
of the group's magazine and other religious tracts.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Government harassment of private houses of worship continued, with
evangelical denominations reporting evictions from houses used for
those purposes. According to CCC officials, most of the private houses
of worship closed were unregistered, making them technically illegal.
In October 1999, the leader of the United Pentecostal Church,
Santos Osmany Dominguez Borjas, was expelled from Havana by security
agents and was forced to relocate to Holguin. Osmany returned to Havana
a few months later. Members of the United Pentecostal Church of Cuba-
Apostolic (``Iglesia Pentecostal Unidad de Cuba-Apostolica'')
previously had split from the ``Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ''
because they did not agree with their church's membership in the CCC.
Due to this split the group was not registered officially as a
religious group.
During 1999 and the first six months of 2000, state security
officers regularly harassed human rights advocates who sought to attend
religious services commemorating special feast days, such as the
September 8, 1999 celebration in honor of Our Lady of Charity, or
before significant national days. There were some reports that state
security officers detained laypersons in order to prevent them from
attending Christmas services and processions. Some persons who planned
to participate in the religious procession reportedly were going to use
the event to protest the continued imprisonment of political activists
and other dissidents.
As in previous years, state security agents in Santiago de Cuba,
Havana, and Pinar del Rio visited the homes of human rights activists
the night before and the morning of July 13, 1999--the fifth
anniversary of the Cuban Border Guard's sinking of the ``13th of
March'' tugboat in which 41 persons, including 21 children, died--to
warn them against commemorating the incident. Marcel Valenzuela Salt, a
member of Fraternal Brothers for Dignity (``Hermanos Fraternales por la
Dignidad''), and five other persons were arrested while driving to a
church in Guanabacoa to attend a mass commemorating the incident.
Police officers detained them and confiscated the truck driven by
Valenzuela, even though the truck's papers clearly indicated that
Valenzuela's father was the owner. The truck was returned to his father
after many months. Apart from these incidents, there were no reports of
religious detainees or prisoners.
The Ministry of the Interior continued to monitor religious
activities, and to use surveillance, infiltration, and harassment
against religious groups.
There are church-run publications that are watched closely by the
Government, and that are denied access to mass printing equipment.
During the Pope's visit, the Catholic Church's ability to distribute
even approved information pamphlets was constricted by its lack of
access to printing presses. In April 2000, a leading editor of one of
the Catholic Church's magazines was criticized in a major editorial of
the Communist Party's newspaper as a ``known counter-revolutionary.''
There are currently some 295 Catholic priests, 40 deacons, and 530
nuns in the country, less than half the total prior to 1960. The
Government allowed some foreign priests and nuns to enter the country,
but applications of 60 priests and 130 nuns remain pending. Overall
numbers of church officials are only slightly higher than before the
Papal visit, since most new arrivals replaced retiring priests or those
whose time of service in the country had ended. During the first 6
months of 2000, the Government did not extend the visa requests of two
priests, one in Havana and another in Santiago de Cuba, and the priests
were forced to leave the country.
There were no reports of government pressure against the practice
of santeria and other syncretistic Afro-Caribbean religions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report; the Pope's January 1998 visit
did not lead to the level of change expected by many persons.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Persons largely define themselves as Roman Catholic, although few
attend mass regularly. Catholicism has remained a major cultural
reference since colonial times. After 40 years of the current regime,
societal attitudes, including those toward religion, are heavily
conditioned by the attitude of President Fidel Castro and the ruling
regime. The Government's decision to allow, and even provide some
support for, the 1998 Papal visit greatly boosted the public perception
that espousing religious faith was again acceptable. President Castro
further cemented this view, most importantly among Communist Party
adherents and government officials, in nationally televised and
broadcast speeches in which he claimed that the Cuban Revolution had
``never'' persecuted religious believers.
There were some tensions among religions, often because some
religious groups perceived others to be too close to the Government.
Tension within the Pentecostal movement worsened due to the
establishment of house churches, which some churches believed was
fractious, and resulted in Government action against Pentecostal
worshippers.
In addition, Pentecostal members of the CCC have complained about
the preaching activities of unauthorized foreign missionaries that led
some of their members of their churches to establish a new denomination
without obtaining the required permits. In April 2000, because of these
complaints by the Pentecostals, the CCC formally requested overseas
member church organizations to assist them in controlling foreign
missionaries and prohibiting them from establishing unauthorized
Pentecostal churches.
The Cuban Council of Churches is the only ecumenical body that is
recognized by the Government. It comprises many Protestant and
Pentecostal denominations and engages in dialog with the Catholic
Church and the Jewish community. The Council and the Government
generally have a mutually supportive relationship.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Government policy toward Cuba is to promote peaceful,
democratic changes and respect for human rights, including religious
freedom. The U.S. Government encourages the development of civil
society, which includes the strengthening of religious institutions.
The U.S. Interests Section in Havana maintains regular contact with the
various religious leaders and communities in the country, and supports
nongovernmental organization initiatives that aid religious groups. The
U.S. Government regularly seeks to facilitate the issuance of licenses
for travel by religious persons and for donated goods and materials
that in some cases are provided to religious institutions. The U.S.
Interests Section has raised issues of human rights, including
religious discrimination and harassment, with government officials.
However, the Government has dismissed these concerns. The Interests
Section reports on cases of religious discrimination and harassment,
and the U.S. Government continuously urges international pressure on
the Government to cease its repressive practices.
__________
DOMINICA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religions in society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic,
Methodist, Anglican, and Seventh-Day Adventist) but religious freedom
for others is not affected adversely. The minority religions are Islam,
the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafarianism.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-
faith understanding but also does not monitor or discriminate according
to religious faith.
Governmental Abuses of Religion
There were no confirmed reports that the Government abused
religious freedom; however, members of the Rastafarian community have
complained that law enforcement officials unfairly target them.
However, it is not clear whether such complaints reflect discrimination
on the basis of religious belief by authorities or simply enforcement
of laws against marijuana, which is used as part of Rastafarian
religious practice.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversions of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The Dominica Christian Council and the Dominica Association
of Evangelical Churches conduct activities to promote greater mutual
understanding and tolerance among adherents of different denominations
within the Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives have discussed issues or events surrounding
religious freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There is no state religion. However, the Roman Catholic Church,
which signed a concordat with the Government in 1954, enjoys special
privileges not extended to other religions. These include the use of
public funds to underwrite some church expenses, such as rehabilitation
of church facilities, and a complete waiver of customs duties when
importing goods into the country.
Religious groups are required to register with the Government in
order to operate legally. Religious groups other than the Catholic
Church must request exemptions from customs duties from the Office of
the Presidency when importing goods. At times the process of requesting
and being granted a tax exemption can be lengthy; some requests have
been denied.
Religious Demography
The major religious denomination is the Roman Catholic Church.
Evangelical Christians (especially Assemblies of God, Church of God,
Baptists, Methodists, and Pentecostals,) Seventh-Day Adventists, the
Watchtower Society (Jehovah's Witnesses), and the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) have a much smaller but generally
growing presence. Jehovah's Witnesses have a large country
headquarters, school, and assembly hall complex in the national
district. Many Catholics also practice a combination of Catholicism and
Afro-Caribbean beliefs (santeria) or witchcraft (brujeria), but since
this practice rarely is admitted openly the number is impossible to
estimate. Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism are practiced. There are
synagogues (but no rabbis at this time) and there is as yet no mosque
in the country.
According to Demos 97, a population survey taken in 1997 by the
Instituto de Estudios de Poblacion y Desarrollo, the Dominican
population is 68.1 percent Roman Catholic and 11 percent Protestant
Christian, inclusive of evangelicals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and
traditional Protestants. In the same study, 20.1 percent of the sample
said they had no religion. However, evangelical Christians claim 20 to
25 percent of the population, while the Catholic Church claims 87
percent.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Although the Government generally does not interfere with the
practice of religion, attendance at Catholic Mass for members of the
National Police is compulsory.
Foreign missionaries are subject to no restrictions other than the
same immigration laws that govern other foreign visitors. There have
been no reports that the Government has ever used these laws to
discriminate against missionaries of any religious affiliation.
However, in practice the process of applying for and receiving
residency status can be long and costly for denominations that bring
many foreign missionaries, including groups that proselytize heavily
such as evangelical Protestant groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The acquisition of a
resident status from immigration authorities currently requires an
investment of approximately $35,000 (RD$ 577,500), which some groups
find overly burdensome. So far, the potential negative impact has been
avoided only by the liberal use of administrative appeals.
The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints and Jehovah's
Witnesses report improved relations with the Government. The Mormons
are building a major temple in Santo Domingo with an associated
administrative and educational facility. The construction has required
large-scale importation of materials, for which the Mormon Church had
to seek special exoneration from customs duties for each shipment
(unlike the Roman Catholics, for whom such exoneration is complete and
automatic). Nevertheless, church officials report no difficulties in
acquiring the exemption.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among different religious congregations are harmonious,
and society generally is tolerant with respect to religious matters.
However, there were occasional reports of religious discrimination on
the part of individuals. The evangelical churches proposed a bill
requiring Bible reading in public high schools. The Catholic Church has
opposed the measure, and negotiations between the two groups to reach a
compromise are proceeding amicably.
In August 1999, education authorities investigated a report that
the directors of Pilar Constanzo Polytechnic School, in Villa Duarte,
National District, were discriminating against students and teachers
who were not Catholics. The public school laid off at least 10
teachers, and there were also complaints that Protestant students were
refused admission, despite excellent test scores and grades. Students
whose parents are Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists, Mormons,
or who adhere to faiths other than Catholicism allegedly were refused
entry to the school. No new developments in the investigation were
reported during the period covered by this report.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
ECUADOR
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Constitution
grants all citizens and foreigners the right to practice the faith of
their choice freely, in public or in private; the only limits are
``those proscribed by law to protect and respect the diversity,
plurality, security, and rights of others.''
The Government does not require religious groups to be licensed or
registered unless they form nongovernmental organizations that engage
in commercial activity. Any religious group wishing to register with
the Government must file a petition with the Ministry of Government and
provide documentation through a licensed attorney.
Religious Demography
About 1,000 different religious groups, churches, societies,
Christian fraternities, and foundations coexist in the country.
Together with the military and the Government, the Roman Catholic
Church is viewed widely as one of the three pillars of society.
Approximately 90 percent of the population considers itself to be Roman
Catholic, though most citizens do not practice the religion or follow a
syncretistic version. For example, many sierra Indians follow a brand
of Catholicism that combines indigenous beliefs with orthodox Catholic
doctrine. Saints often are venerated in ways similar to Indian deities.
In 1998 the Catholic Church had only 36 bishops and 1,382 priests to
minister in 997 parishes. At the political level, the Government
retains strong ties to the Vatican; the Papal Nuncio is the customary
dean of the diplomatic corps. The Government allows missionary activity
and religious demonstrations by all religions.
Some Christian, non-Catholic, multidenominational groups such as
the Gospel Missionary Union (GMU), the Christian and Missionary
Alliance, and Hoy Cristo Jesus Bendice (HCJB) have been active in the
country for many years. The Christian Alliance was established in 1906;
HCJB began operating in the country in 1931, and its World Radio
Missionary Fellowship broadcasts reach all parts of the country. Other
active Protestant groups include the Evangelical Group, World Vision,
and the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), which operates in remote
areas with the eventual objective of translating the Bible into Indian
languages.
The combination of poverty, neglect, and syncretistic practices in
urban and rural areas created conditions that were conducive to the
spread of Protestant missionary and Pentecostal evangelical activity.
Such activity began in the 1960's, but became more pronounced in the
1980's. Southern Baptists, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints (the Mormon Church), Jehovah's Witnesses, and Pentecostals have
been successful in finding converts in different parts of the country.
The following faiths and denominations are also present in the country,
but in relatively small numbers: Anglican, Assembly of God, Baha'i,
Buddhist, Episcopalian, Hindu, Jewish, Lutheran, Muslim, Eastern
Orthodox, Presbyterian, Rosicrucians, Masons, Unification Church, and
the Church of Scientology. Two relatively new groups are the Native
American churches of Itzachilatan, whose adherents practice Indian
healing rites and nature worship, and the followers of Inti, the
traditional Inca sun god. Atheists also exist. The total of these non-
Catholic groups represents about 10 percent of the population.
The Government allows missionary activity and religious
demonstrations by all religions.
The Government does not permit religious instruction in public
schools; private schools have complete liberty to provide religious
instruction, as do parents in the home. There are no restrictions on
publishing religious materials in any language.
In early 1998, police in Pinchincha province suspended the meetings
of a group known as ``Gnostico Cristiano Universal,'' following the
suicide of 29 members of the ``Heaven's Gate'' cult in California,
while they investigated possible links between the two groups. The
Government's investigation was inconclusive. The group has since
resumed meetings and there are two branches currently operating in the
country.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
return to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Although relations between religious communities generally have
been amicable, there have been a few incidents of interreligious or
intrareligious tension or violence during periods prior to that covered
by this report.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is involved in a 4-
year legal fight with the former owner of some land purchased for a new
temple in Guayaquil. The Church is appealing a court judgement of
$800,000 handed down in favor of the landowner. The Church alleges that
the judge may have been bribed. There has been little progress in the
case.
In April 1999, Southern Baptist workers reported increasing
opposition from local residents to the development of a church and a
medical clinic in the town of Chachas. The Baptist workers were accused
of ``starting a new religion.'' Based on official permission from
community leaders to operate the clinic, local police promised to give
protection to the Baptist workers. However, the workers did not require
protection, and the clinic is operating normally.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
EL SALVADOR
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the freedom of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Constitution specifically recognizes the Roman Catholic Church,
and grants it legal status. In addition, the Constitution provides that
other churches may register for such status in accordance with the law.
The Civil Code specifies that a church must apply for formal
recognition through the General Office of Non-Profit Associations and
Foundations (DGFASFL) within the Ministry of Interior. Each church must
present a constitution and bylaws that describe, among other things,
the type of organization, location of offices, goals and principles,
requirements for membership, type and function of ruling bodies, and
assessments or dues. The DGFASFL must determine that the constitution
and bylaws do not violate the law before it can certify a church. Once
certified, the church must publish the DGFASFL approval and its
constitution and bylaws in the official government gazette.
In 1997 the Government implemented a law passed in 1996 that
charges the Ministry of Interior with registering, regulating, and
overseeing the finances of nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) and
non-Catholic churches in the country. The law specifically exempts
unions, cooperatives, and the Catholic Church. The Ministry of Interior
already was responsible for registering non-Catholic churches before
passage of the 1996 law. The 1996 law and the 1997 implementing
regulations did not change the existing mechanism for church
registration. There were no allegations that churches encountered
problems in obtaining registration.
The regulations implementing the tax law grant recognized churches
tax-exempt status. The regulations also make donations to recognized
churches tax deductible.
Religious Demography
The country is predominantly Roman Catholic. According to a 1995
survey by the Central American University Public Opinion Institute
(IUDOP), approximately 56.7 percent of the population were members of
the Roman Catholic Church. Additionally, 17.8 percent were members of
Protestant churches, 2.3 percent were associated with other churches
and religious groups, and 23.2 percent were not affiliated with any
church or religion. Outside of the Catholic and Protestant churches,
there are small communities representing the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-Day Adventist, Jewish, and Muslim
faiths, among others. A very small segment of the population practices
a native religion. The predominance of the Catholic Church does not
impact negatively on the religious freedom of other denominations.
Non-Salvadoran nationals seeking to promote actively a church or
religion must obtain a special residence visa for religious activities.
Visitors to the country are not allowed to proselytize while in the
country on a visitor or tourist visa. There were no allegations during
the reporting period of difficulties in obtaining visas for religious
activities.
Public education is secular. Private religious schools operate in
the country. All private schools, whether religious or secular, must
meet the same standards in order to be approved by the Ministry of
Education.
The Constitution requires the President, cabinet ministers and vice
ministers, Supreme Court justices, magistrates, the Attorney General,
the Public Defender, and other senior government officials to be
laypersons. However, there is no such requirement for election to the
National Legislative Assembly or municipal government offices.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In December 1999, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
published a report on the 1989 murders of six Jesuit priests, their
housekeeper, and her daughter. The report concluded that the State was
responsible for violating the right to life of the eight murdered
persons and had failed to investigate those violations effectively. The
report also criticized the 1993 general amnesty law, which resulted in
the release from custody of two military officers found guilty of the
murders in 1992, and called on the Government to reopen the case.
President Francisco Flores publicly noted the issuance of the report
and reiterated the steps taken through the Salvadoran justice system to
investigate and punish the crime. However, he declined to reopen the
case, stating that to do so would undermine the integrity of the post-
civil war amnesty, which he regarded as essential to the continuing
process of national reconciliation. In March 2000, the Central American
University formally filed a suit calling for the reopening of the case,
which brought formal charges before the Attorney General's office
against several persons who were high-ranking officials at the time of
the killings, including former President Alfredo Cristiani, and
requested the detention of five former military officers.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or
of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to
the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. Four of the largest Protestant denominations--the
Episcopal, Baptist, Lutheran, and Reform churches--have formed the
National Conference of Churches (CNI), an inter-faith organization
created to promote religious tolerance and to coordinate a church-
sponsored social program.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Government has cooperated with the United States and other nations in
international human rights forums in criticizing violations of
religious freedom. The U.S. Government maintains a regular dialog with
the principal religious leaders, church officers, church-sponsored
universities, and nongovernmental organizations.
__________
GRENADA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic,
Anglican, Presbyterian, and Methodist) but religious freedom for others
is not affected adversely. The minority religions are Islam and the
Baha'i Faith.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-
faith understanding but also does not monitor or discriminate according
to religious faith.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. There are no known activities to promote greater mutual
understanding and tolerance among adherents of different religions.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives have discussed issues or events surrounding
religious freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
GUATEMALA
The Constitution provides for the freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. There is no state
religion; however, the Constitution recognizes explicitly the separate
legal personality of the Catholic Church.
The Government does not establish requirements for the recognition
of religions. Members of a religion need not register simply in order
to worship together. However, the Government does require religious
congregations (as well as other non-religious associations and
nongovernmental organizations) to register as legal entities in order
to be able to transact business. Such legal recognition is necessary,
among other things, for a congregation to be able to rent or purchase
premises, enter into contracts, and enjoy tax exempt status. The
Government does not charge religious groups a registration fee.
The Catholic Church does not have to register as a legal entity.
For non-Catholic congregations, the process for establishing a legal
personality is relatively straightforward and the requirements do not
vary from one denomination to another. A congregation must file a copy
of its bylaws and a list of its initial membership with the Ministry of
Government. The congregation must have at least 25 initial members and
the bylaws must reflect that the congregation will pursue religious or
spiritual purposes. Applications are rejected only if the organization
does not appear to be devoted to a religious purpose, appears to be in
pursuit of illegal activities, or engages in activities that appear
likely to threaten the public order. There were no reports that the
Government rejected any group's application.
The Peace Accord regarding the rights of indigenous people, which
was signed in 1995, includes provisions protecting the exercise of
indigenous religious beliefs and practices. This agreement also
protects sacred and ceremonial indigenous sites as archaeological
preserves. The agreement called for Congress to pass legislation to
amend the Constitution in order to ``recognize, respect, and protect
the distinct forms of spirituality practiced by the Mayan, Garifuna,
and Xinca'' people. Congress subsequently passed a law containing 50
proposed constitutional amendments, including this amendment, but in
May 1999, the package was defeated in a popular referendum.
Religious Demography
Historically, Guatemala has been an overwhelmingly Catholic
country. However, in recent decades, evangelical Protestant groups have
gained a significant number of members. Although there is no accurate
census of religious affiliation, some sources estimate that
approximately 60 percent of the population are Catholic and
approximately 40 percent are Protestant, primarily evangelical. Other
groups are represented, including Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and
small communities of Jews and Muslims. Although many persons nominally
affiliated with Catholicism or a Protestant denomination do not
actively practice their religion, few citizens consider themselves
atheists. There are no accurate statistics on church attendance,
although various sources report that it is very high in the evangelical
community and somewhat lower in the Catholic community.
The largest Protestant denomination is the Assembly of God,
followed by the Church of God of the Complete Gospel, and the Prince of
Peace Church. There are numerous other Protestant denominations
represented, some specific to Central America and others, such as
Presbyterians, Baptists, and Mennonites, which are represented
worldwide. Within the indigenous population, a significant proportion
practices elements of traditional Mayan spirituality, generally in
conjunction with another religion, most commonly Catholicism.
Protestant churches historically have been less tolerant of
syncretistic practices than the Catholic Church, which reportedly
accepts any pre-Columbian or traditional practices that are not in
direct conflict with Catholic dogma.
Catholic and Protestant churches are distributed throughout the
country and their adherents are distributed among all major ethnic
groups and political parties. However, evangelical Protestants appear
to be represented in greater proportion in the Guatemalan Republican
Front (FRG), which became the governing party when it won the
presidency and a majority in Congress in the fall 1999 elections. The
FRG is headed by former de facto president and retired General Efrain
Rios Montt, now President of Congress and a longtime elder of the
Church of the Word.
The Government does not have any organized programs to promote
inter-faith understanding or dialog.
Foreign missionaries are required to obtain a missionary visa,
which is issued for a period of up to 1 year and is renewable. Such
visas require a sponsor who is able and willing to assume financial
responsibility for the missionary while he or she is in the country.
With a missionary visa, foreign missionaries may engage in all lawful
activities, including proselytizing.
The Government does not subsidize religious groups directly.
However, some sources report that the Government occasionally provides
financial assistance to private schools established by religious
organizations. The Constitution permits religious instruction in public
schools, although public schools are not required to provide such
instruction. There is no national framework for determining the nature
or content of religious instruction in public schools. Accordingly,
when provided, such instruction tends to be programmed at the local
level.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In January 2000, authorities arrested a former Presidential
Military Staff (EMP) specialist, an active duty EMP captain, and a
retired colonel for the April 1998 murder of Bishop Juan Gerardi (See
Section II).
In the case arising out of the 1994 murder of evangelical minister
Pascual Serech in Chimaltenango, charges remained pending against
military commissioner Victor Roman, an alleged collaborator in the
crime and also the accused perpetrator of the 1995 murder of
evangelical pastor Manuel Saquic. Roman remained at large despite an
order for his capture and the offer of a reward.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable, if distant. According to members of the Catholic, evangelical
Protestant, and Jewish communities, complaints of discrimination on the
basis of religion are rare. There were no reports of violence or
widespread societal discrimination against religious minorities.
However, there have been isolated reports of mob lynchings being
carried out in remote areas against persons suspected of sorcery.
On July 27, 1999, unidentified assailants shot and killed Mayan
priest Raul Coc Choc at his home in the department of Chimaltenango.
Coc Choc was a leader of the National Association of Mayan Priests;
members of the board reported that he had received numerous death
threats over the telephone. Religious and indigenous leaders called for
a thorough investigation. After detaining and later releasing a
suspect, the judge ordered the case provisionally closed for lack of
evidence, thereby enabling the prosecutors to continue their
investigation.
The April 26, 1998 murder of Bishop Juan Gerardi, the Coordinator
of the Archbishop's Office on Human Rights, occurred just 2 days after
his delivery of the final report of the office's ``Recovery of
Historical Memory'' project, which detailed many of the human rights
abuses committed during the 36-year-long internal conflict. Because the
Bishop's murder occurred so soon after his public delivery of the
report, which held the military, military commissioners, and civil
self-defense patrol forces responsible for approximately 80 percent of
war-related human rights violations, some observers suspect a political
motive for the crime. The authorities rearrested the slain Bishop's
assistant and co-occupant of the parish house, Father Mario Orantes, in
March 2000 and charged him with the murder for the second time. The
former parish house cook, Margarita Lopez, was rearrested in January
2000 and was charged as an accessory to the crime. Orantes and Lopez
are scheduled to stand trial in the latter half of 2000. Three other
suspects, former Presidential Military Staff (EMP) specialist Obdulio
Villanueva; active duty EMP captain Byron Lima Oliva; and Lima's
father, retired Colonel Byron Lima Estrada, were arrested in January
2000 for Bishop Gerardi's murder and also are awaiting trial in the
latter half of 2000. The Government's investigation appears to have
established a political motive for the killing, but details are
unavailable as prosecutors prepare their trial strategy. There is no
evidence that suggests that the murder was motivated by the Bishop's
religious faith or practice.
The ecumenical movement is weak, although there are occasional
inter-faith meetings.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
U.S. Embassy officials at various levels, including the Ambassador,
have met on many occasions with leaders of the Catholic Church, and of
Church-sponsored institutions. The Embassy also maintains an active
dialog with the Catholic Church hierarchy and affiliated organizations.
__________
GUYANA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society, despite ethnic tensions, contribute to the
free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discussed religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Members of all faiths are allowed to worship freely.
There is no state or otherwise dominant religion and the Government
practices no form of religious favoritism or discrimination.
Religious Demography
The country is a very diverse nation, both religiously and
ethnically. Nearly half the population traces its ancestry to the
Indian subcontinent, while more than one-third is of African descent.
These two major ethnicities, along with smaller groups of native South
Americans and persons of European and Chinese descent, practice a wide
variety of religions.
Approximately 50 percent of the population are either practicing or
nominal Christians--roughly one-third are Anglicans, one-quarter are
Roman Catholics, and 15 percent are Pentecostals; there are smaller
percentages of Baptists, Methodists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and
Jehovah's Witnesses. Practicing or nominal Hindus constitute roughly 41
percent of the population, while Sunni Muslims constitute about 9
percent. Although not included in official figures, substantial numbers
of the population practice Rastafarianism and/or a traditional
Caribbean religion known locally as ``Obeah,'' either apart from or in
conjunction with the practice of other faiths. Members of all ethnic
groups are well represented in all religions, with two exceptions:
almost all Hindus are Indo-Guyanese, while nearly all Rastafarians are
Afro-Guyanese. There are a wide variety of foreign missionaries in the
country, and there are no restrictions on foreign religious
proselytizing.
The Government has promoted cooperation among religious communities
as a means of addressing long-standing racial tensions.
Until 1979 almost all elementary and high schools in the country
were run by church-affiliated organizations. In 1979 the Government
effectively banned such schools, declaring that all schools would come
under government control and requiring that all children attend public,
non-denominational schools. However, beginning in the late 1980's,
these provisions were relaxed. Both public and religiously affiliated
schools now exist, and parents are free to send their children to the
schools of their choice without sanction or restriction. The Government
makes no requirements regarding religion for any official or non-
official purposes.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the country's diverse religious communities are
amicable. Although significant problems exist between the country's two
main ethnic groups, religious leaders have worked together frequently
to attempt to bridge these gaps.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
HAITI
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for the right to practice all religions
and faiths, provided that such practice does not disturb law and order,
and the Government respects this right in practice.
For many years, Roman Catholicism was the official religion of the
country. While its official status ended with the enactment of the 1987
Constitution, neither the Government nor the Holy See has renounced the
1860 Concordat, which continues to serve as the basis for relations
between the Roman Catholic Church and the State and the operation of
Catholic religious orders in the country. In many respects, Roman
Catholicism retains its traditional primacy among the country's
religions. Functions with an official or quasi-official character are
held in Catholic churches and cathedrals, and certain Catholic holy
days are observed officially as national holidays.
The Constitution provides that legal conditions for recognition and
operation of religious groups be established. The Ministry of Religious
Affairs administers the relevant laws and is responsible for
registering churches, clergy, and missionaries. Recognition by the
Ministry affords religious groups standing in legal disputes, protects
churches' tax-exempt status, and extends civil recognition to church
documents such as marriage and baptismal certificates. Registered
religious groups are required to submit an annual report of their
activities to the Ministry. Although many nondenominational Christian
groups and voodoo practitioners have not sought official recognition,
there were no reports of any instance in which this requirement has
hampered the operation of a religious group. Goods brought into the
country for use by churches and missionaries registered with the
Department of Revenue are exempted from customs duties, and registered
churches are not taxed.
Religious Demography
While precise statistics are unavailable, about 80 percent of
citizens are Roman Catholic. Most of the remainder belong to a variety
of Protestant denominations. The largest of these are Baptist (10
percent) and Pentecostal (4 percent). Other significant non-Catholic
Christian groups include Methodists, Episcopalians, Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons),
Adventists, and Orthodox. There are also many nondenominational
Christian congregations. The percentage of Protestants generally is
acknowledged to be growing, but reliable statistics are unavailable.
Small numbers of non-Christian groups are present, including Jews,
Muslims, Rastafarians, and Baha'is. Voodoo, a traditional religion
derived in part from West African beliefs, is practiced alongside
Christianity by a large segment of the population. While there are
associations of voodoo practitioners and priests, there is no organized
hierarchy or established voodoo church.
Foreign missionaries operate freely. They enter on regular tourist
visas and submit paperwork similar to that submitted by domestic
religious groups in order to register with the Ministry of Religious
Affairs. Many are affiliated with U.S.-based denominations or
individual churches. Others are independent, nondenominational
Christian groups. Missionary groups operate hospitals, orphanages,
schools, and clinics throughout the country. U.S. churches often send
teams to Haiti on short-term projects. Some of these projects involve
humanitarian or educational work, while others are purely evangelistic
in nature. While some missionaries were concerned by the slowness of
the Government to issue them residence permits, there was no indication
that such delay was due to deliberate harassment on the part of the
authorities.
The Constitution stipulates that persons cannot be required to join
an organization or receive religious instruction contrary to their
convictions. This is accepted to mean, among other things, that in
parochial schools run by the Catholic Church or one of the Protestant
denominations, the school authorities may not permit proselytization on
behalf of the church with which the school is affiliated. Parents have
been quick to complain and publicize the isolated instances in which
this principle has been violated.
Only 15 percent of the country's schools are public. In some of
these, Catholic and other clergy play a role in teaching and
administration. This is regulated by local authorities on an ad hoc
basis. Church-run schools and hospitals are subject to oversight by the
Ministries of Education and Health, respectively.
The Government does not interfere with the operation of radio and
other media affiliated with religious groups. In addition to the many
radio stations operated by religious (mostly Protestant and
evangelical) groups, religious programming is a staple of commercial
broadcasting.
Some Protestant and Catholic clergy are active in politics. A
Protestant pastor has founded a political party, MOCHRENA (Christian
Movement for a New Haiti). Several Catholic priests are among the
leadership of the Fanmi Lavalas party of former President Jean Bertrand
Aristide, who is himself a former priest. The Conference of Catholic
Bishops (CEH) also occasionally issues statements on political issues.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Religion plays a prominent role in society. Many citizens display a
keen interest in religious matters, and freely express their personal
religious beliefs or affiliation.
While society generally is tolerant of the variety of religious
practices that flourish in the country, Christian attitudes toward
voodoo vary. While many Christians accept voodoo as part of the
country's cultural patrimony, others regard it as incompatible with
Christianity, and this has led to isolated instances of conflict in the
recent past.
Ecumenical organizations exist. Inter-faith cooperation is perhaps
most effective in the National Federation of Private Schools (FONHEP).
Particularly in rural areas, accusations of sorcery have been known
to lead to mob violence resulting in deaths. Given the prevalence of
voodoo in these areas, it appears likely that voodoo practitioners are
targeted in some cases.
There were no developments in the case of the August 1998 killing
of social activist Father Jean Pierre Louis; the motives appear to have
been either criminal or political.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
consular section of the U.S. Embassy in Port-au-Prince maintains
contact with many American missionaries and is responsive to their
concerns.
__________
HONDURAS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There is no state religion. However, the Government consults with
the Roman Catholic Church on key issues of mutual concern, such as
education and foreign debt relief.
The Constitution grants the President the power to grant
``juridical personality'' to associations, including churches. This
personality is a prerequisite to being accorded certain rights and
privileges, such as tax exemption. Associations are required to submit
an application describing their internal organization, by-laws, and
goals to the Ministry of Government and Justice. In the case of
evangelical churches, the application is then referred to a group of
leaders from the ``Evangelical Fraternity of Churches'' for review.
This group has the power to suggest, but not require, changes. All
religious applications also are referred to the State Solicitor's
Office for a legal opinion that all elements meet constitutional
requirements. Applications almost always meet these requirements. The
President ultimately signs the approved resolutions granting juridical
personality. The Ministry of Government and Justice did not turn down
any applications for juridical personality on behalf of a church during
the period covered by this report. The Catholic Church and other
recognized churches are accorded tax exemptions and waivers of customs
duty on imports.
Religious Demography
There are no reliable government statistics on the distribution of
membership in churches. The Catholic Church reports a total membership
of just over 80 percent of the country's 6.0 million citizens. In
February and March 1999, the Le Vote company conducted personal
interviews on religious issues with persons age 18 or older in 1,330
households distributed throughout the country. The company reported
that 60.3 percent of the respondents identified themselves as
Catholics, 28.7 percent as evangelical Christians, and 6.8 percent as
other; 4.2 percent either did not know or provided no answer. The
principal faiths include Roman Catholicism, Judaism, the Greek Orthodox
rite, the Episcopal Church, the Lutheran Church, Jehovah's Witnesses,
the Mennonite Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,
the Union Church, and some 300 evangelical Protestant churches, the
most prominent of which include the Abundant Life, Living Love, and
Grand Commission churches. The National Association of Evangelical
Pastors represents the evangelical leadership.
There are religious schools and schools operated by churches; they
receive no special treatment from the Government, nor do they face any
restrictions.
The Government requires foreign missionaries to obtain permits to
enter and reside in the country. A Honduran institution or individual
must sponsor a missionary's application for residency, which is
submitted to the Ministry of Government and Justice. Permits generally
are granted by the Ministry; the resolution granting residency then is
registered with the Directorate General of Population and Migration
Policy.
The Government's attitude toward non-mainstream religious groups
can be less hospitable. In April 2000, the Government temporarily
detained, and subsequently deported, two Colombian nationals who
reportedly were members of a group known as ``The Patriarchate of the
Holy Universal Tao Christian Church of Interoceanic Rescue.'' The
Government claimed that the two individuals had entered the country as
tourists, but that they had intended to proselytize without applying
for legal status as foreign missionaries, as required under the law.
The Catholic Church is seeking the return of former properties of
historic interest confiscated by the Government at independence in
1825.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the principal religious communities are amicable.
The Catholic Church has designated the Archbishop of Tegucigalpa as the
national-level official in charge of ecumenical relations and the
Archbishop has established an ecumenical and interreligious dialog
section within his Archdiocese. The Archdiocese also is planning to
build an inter-faith library in Tegucigalpa to display books from a
wide variety of Christian denominations. Christian churches work
together through the private Christian Development Commission,
currently directed by a Mennonite official. There is some concern by
established churches over an alleged influx of Brazilian-origin
religious groups who have religious beliefs different from those held
by the established rites.
The Catholic Church sponsors a television station supported by a
studio and other facilities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
U.S. Embassy also maintains a regular dialog with religious leaders,
church-sponsored universities, and nongovernmental religious
organizations.
__________
JAMAICA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There is no state or
dominant religion. The Government has no requirements for recognition
as a religion.
Religious Demography
According to official government statistics compiled during the
1991 census (the latest available figures), 21 percent of the
population identify themselves as members of the Church of God, 9
percent as Seventh-Day Adventists, 9 percent as Baptist, 8 percent as
Pentecostal, 6 percent as Anglican, 4 percent as Roman Catholic, 3
percent as United Church, 3 percent as Methodist, 2 percent as
Jehovah's Witnesses, 1 percent as Moravian, 1 percent as Bretheren, 1
percent unstated, and 9 percent as ``other.'' (The category ``other''
includes Hindus, Jews, and Rastafarians.) Of those surveyed, 24 percent
stated that they had no religious affiliation. The majority of those
who reported no religion were children.
There are religious schools; they are not subject to any special
restrictions and do not receive any special treatment from the
Government. Foreign missionaries are subject to no restrictions other
than the same immigration laws that govern other foreign visitors.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country has a well-established tradition of religious tolerance
and diversity. Relations among the various religious communities are
amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
MEXICO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
are some restrictions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There is a generally amicable relationship among the various
religions in society, which contributes to the free practice of
religion; however, in parts of the state of Chiapas continued
political, cultural, and religious tensions have limited the free
practice of religion within some communities.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for the right to practice the religion of
one's choice, and the Government generally respects this right in
practice; however, there are some restrictions.
Religious groups cannot operate legally without registering as
religious associations with the Under Secretariat of Religious Affairs
of the Federal Secretariat of Government. Although the Government does
reject a few applications, usually because of incomplete documentation,
the registration process is routine. About 5,650 religious associations
are registered. Since July 1, 1999, 174 associations have been
registered, and 3 were rejected. The three applications were rejected
because of incomplete documentation under the Law of Religious
Associations and Public Worship.
To be registered as a religious association, the Government
requires that a group articulate its fundamental doctrines and body of
religious beliefs, not be organized primarily to make money, and not
promote acts physically harmful or dangerous to its members. Religious
groups must be registered to apply for official building permits,
receive tax exemptions, and to hold religious meetings outside of their
place of worship.
The current situation of religious freedom reflects the historic
tensions between the Catholic Church and the modern state. For most of
the country's nearly 300 years as a Spanish colony, the Catholic Church
involved itself heavily in politics. This involvement continued
throughout the post-independence period and through the end of the
Mexican Revolution in the early part of the 20 th century. Following
the Revolution, the Constitution included severe restrictions on the
rights of the Church and of members of clergy, reflecting strong anti-
clerical feelings. Tensions between the Church and the state eased
after 1940, but constitutional restrictions were maintained even as
enforcement became progressively lax over the ensuing decades. In 1992
the Government reestablished diplomatic relations with the Holy See and
the Government lifted almost all restrictions on the Catholic Church
by, among other things, granting religious groups legal status,
conceding them limited property rights, and lifting restrictions on the
number of priests in the country. However, the law continues to mandate
a strict separation of church and state.
The separation between church and state became a topic of debate
during the 2000 presidential election campaign. Candidates made
numerous public appearances with Catholic Church officials. Onesimo
Cepeda, Bishop of Ecatepec, personally congratulated Francisco
Labastida for winning the presidential primary election held by the
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Presidential election winner
Vicente Fox, candidate of the National Action Party (PAN), called for
revising the Constitution to allow for a closer relationship between
church and state. Some persons interpreted statements by leaders of the
Church as support for Fox. On March 24, 2000, the Mexican Bishops
Conference released a pastoral letter, which warned that the country's
democratic transition was not ensured and that an ``authoritarian
regression,'' even by electoral means, could not be ruled out. The
letter also criticized the use of ``intimidation and coercion'' of the
populace to promote a ``fear vote'' and called electoral fraud a sin.
Secretary of Government Diodoro Carrasco criticized the letter as an
example of inappropriate church involvement in politics, but took no
punitive action. Although most citizens are Catholic, 57 percent of the
population is against religious leaders influencing government
decisions, according to a May 2000 poll released by the newspaper
Reforma.
Religious Demography
There is no single definitive source on the religious makeup of the
population. According to various government, press, and religious group
sources, about 89 percent of population of approximately 100 million
are at least nominal believers in the Roman Catholic faith. There are
11,000 churches, and 14,000 ordained Catholic priests and nuns in the
country. An additional 90,000 laypersons work in the Catholic Church
system. Various sources maintain that Protestants account for
approximately 6 percent of the population. A recent press report
indicates that, of the Protestants, Presbyterians account for 1
percent; Seventh-Day Adventists, 0.81 percent; Jehovah's Witnesses,
0.51 percent; Baptists, 0.1 percent; Methodists, 0.04 percent;
Anglicans, 0.01 percent; and Lutherans 0.01 percent of the total
population. The Undersecretary of Religious Affairs reported in May
2000 that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons)
constitutes approximately 0.01 percent of the population; Orthodox
Christianity, 0.05 percent; and non-Christian groups, 2 percent
(including Judaism, 0.3 percent, and Muslims, 0.4 percent). Three
percent of the population do not identify with any organized religion.
There is no estimate of the number of atheists or of those who do not
practice any religion. Ninety-eight percent of citizens say that they
believe in God and 76 percent consider themselves religious. Fifty-five
percent attend religious ceremonies at least once a week, 19 percent
once a month, and 20 percent less than once a month, according to news
reports.
Some indigenous people in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and
Yucatan practice a syncretistic religion that mixes Catholic and pre-
Hispanic Mayan religious beliefs. Chiapas has the highest concentration
of Protestants in the country, about 45 percent of the state's
population, according to official estimates, although some evangelical
Protestant groups claim that the number is closer to 60 percent. The
competition among various religious groups for adherents there has
contributed to tension among religious groups which has resulted in
violence.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government requires religious groups to apply for a permit to
construct or convert existing buildings into new churches; 7,139 such
permits were granted between 1992 and August 1998 and religious groups
report no difficulty in obtaining Government permission for these
activities.
Religious buildings constructed under permits after 1992 are the
property of the respective churches, whereas previously, religious
buildings were declared ``national patrimony'' and the State claimed
ownership of about 85,000 religious structures. From July 1, 1999 to
May 16, 2000, the Government granted decisions on 661 property claims
in favor of churches, which resulted in religious groups gaining 854
properties. Religious groups have registered 8,834 properties with the
Government. The Government has denied 240 property claims since July 1,
1999 and 1,560 since 1993, because the properties in question were
deemed to be owned by the State.
Religious associations must notify the Government of their intent
to hold a religious meeting outside of a licensed place of worship. The
Government received 2,682 such notifications between January and mid-
May, 2000, and did not deny permission for any religious meetings. On
May 6, 2000, 50,000 persons celebrated the first large-scale outdoor
Catholic Mass in Mexico City's central square since 1924.
The law bars clergy from holding public office, advocating partisan
political views, supporting political candidates, or opposing the laws
or institutions of the State.
To visit the country for religious purposes, foreign religious
workers must secure government permission. Although the Government
limits the number of visas each religious group is allowed, it has
granted visas to 25,761 foreign religious workers since 1994, 2,555 of
them in the first six months of 2000. Some religious groups allege that
it is government policy to keep foreign religious practitioners out of
Chiapas and Oaxaca, thus making it more difficult for religious workers
going to those states to obtain visas. The Government maintains that it
does not deny visas based on religion, and does not expel religious
workers based on their religious activities. Rather the Government
argues that foreign religious workers have been expelled for
inappropriate political behavior.
Relations were difficult between the Catholic Diocese of San
Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, and the Government during the tenure
of Bishop Samuel Ruiz, which ended in April 2000. The situation in
Chiapas is a result of a complex mix of economic, ethnic, political,
and religious tensions. The San Cristobal Diocese has complained that
its foreign clergy are unable to get their visa status extended or
rectified (many enter on tourist visas). In February 1998, the
Government expelled French Catholic priest Michel Chanteau, who had
been the parish priest of Chenalho, Chiapas, for 32 years, on
immigration grounds. Chanteau had blamed the Government publicly for
the December 1997 Acteal massacre. In 1995 the Government expelled
Father Loren Riebe and two other foreign priests from Chiapas. In March
1999, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights found that the
three priests' rights to religious freedom had been violated and
recommended that the expulsion order be reversed. The Commission also
recommended that the officials involved in the case be investigated and
sanctioned. The Government maintains that the priests were expelled
solely for their political activity and rejected the Commission's
recommendations.
Local officials in Chiapas provided active or tacit support to
indigenous groups that physically prevented Catholic catechists from
occupying and opening existing churches. Local bosses at times
acquiesced in or ordered the harassment or violent expulsion of largely
evangelical groups (see Section II).
The Constitution mandates a strict separation of church and state.
Religious instruction is prohibited in public schools, but religious
associations are free to maintain their own private schools, which
receive no public funds. The Catholic Church maintains its own schools,
but complains of government restrictions on the running of those
schools and the raising and spending of school funds. It also contends
that the right to learn the religion of one's choice should not be
limited to those who can afford to pay for a parochial school
education.
Although religious associations cannot own or administer broadcast
radio or television stations, the Catholic Church owns and operates a
national cable television channel. Government permission is required to
transmit religious programming on broadcast radio or television, and
permission is granted routinely. In 1999 the Government authorized the
radio and television transmission of 7,297 Masses and other religious
activities, and in the first 6 months of 2000 it authorized 2,858 such
transmissions. It did not deny any requests.
The Under Secretariat of Religious Affairs promotes religious
tolerance and investigates cases of religious intolerance. Often these
cases involve infringements of religious freedom by local governments,
especially in Chiapas and Oaxaca. Since 1993 the Under Secretariat has
investigated 528 cases, including 54 in 1999 and 19 in the first six
months 2000, and has concluded 272 of them. A total of 256 cases remain
open.
In Ensenada, Baja Californaia, Veronica Torres Armenta, a member
Jehovah's Witnesses, was denied access to school because her faith does
not permit homage to national symbols, such as the flag. After
criticism from the state human rights commission the state secretary of
education ordered that the girl be allowed to matriculate.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees. The
Government continued to investigate the case of 13 Protestants arrested
in Mitziton, Chiapas in June 1999, but reported no new findings on the
case. Police arrested the Protestants as they were building a church.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There is a generally amicable relationship among the various
religions; however, in the state of Chiapas, tension between religious
groups and between pro-government armed civilian groups and religious
laypersons, persisted, and at times resulted in violence.
The Catholic Diocese of San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, has
complained that progovernment armed civilian groups threaten and harass
its lay catechists. Moreover, human rights groups allege that such
groups murdered five catechists between 1994 and 1997. Nonetheless, the
motive for these killings has not been established, nor has anyone been
apprehended or charged. The diocese also has alleged that these groups
vandalized 28 Catholic churches in Chiapas and caused more than 20
other churches to close between 1994 and 1997. Church closures often
occurred when local indigenous groups physically prevented Catholic
catechists from occupying and opening existing churches, with the
active or tacit support of local officials.
After years of neglect, the Chiapas state government has been
trying to mediate between communities divided by religious differences.
Its efforts occasionally have been successful. For example, state
government authorities negotiated solutions to conflicts in San Juan
Chamula, including the return of groups expelled in 1998 and 1999.
There is a long history of religious intolerance in, and expulsions
from, certain indigenous communities whose residents follow
syncretistic (Catholic-Mayan) religious practices and view other
religious practices as a threat to indigenous culture. In parts of
Chiapas, local bosses of indigenous communities sometimes regard
evangelical groups and Catholic lay catechists as unwelcome outside
influences, and potential economic and political threats. As a result,
these bosses sometimes acquiesced in, or actually ordered, the
harassment or expulsion of individuals belonging primarily, but not
exclusively, to Protestant evangelical groups. In many cases, these
expulsions involved the burning of homes and crops, beatings, and,
occasionally, killings. These problems more frequently arise in
``autonomous indigenous areas'' under the influence of the Zapatista
National Liberation Army (EZLN), according to evangelical leaders. The
abuse related to these and other incidents, apparently did not occur
solely and exclusively on the basis of religion. While religious
differences were often a prominent feature of such incidents, ethnic
differences, land disputes, and struggles over local political and
economic power were very often the basic cause of the problems.
There were three reports of conflict between Catholic/Mayan
syncretists and Protestant Evangelicals in Chiapas. On July 18, 1999,
Catholic/Mayan syncretists expelled 97 Evangelicals from their homes in
Icaluntic. The displaced group relocated temporarily to San Cristobal,
under the protection of the State Secretariat for Attention to
Indigenous Affairs. Two attempts by the displaced group to return to
Icaluntic failed. As part of the agreement that allowed the
Evangelicals to return, the Government paid them $77,000 (730,000
pesos) as compensation for damages to their houses, crops, livestock,
and other property. Consequently, on December 3, 250 police, federal
and state officials, as well as representatives of the Chiapas state
human rights commission escorted the Evangelicals to their homes. In
addition, state police officers stayed temporarily in Icaluntic to
prevent conflict between the Catholic/Mayan syncretists and the
Evangelicals.
On March 5, 2000, Catholic/Mayan syncretists evicted at least 70
evangelical families from Plan de Ayala, Chiapas. Later that month 250
state police escorted the Evangelicals back to Plan de Ayala, where
they remained for 2 weeks. However, in early April the Catholic/Mayan
syncretists again evicted 20 of the evangelical families from that
community. On April 16, 2000, the Catholic/Mayan syncretists drove out
the 70 police officers stationed there to keep the peace and set up
roadblocks around the town. The following day the expelled Evangelicals
attempted to return to the community, but were prevented from doing so
by the roadblock. Expelled evangelical families reported that the
Catholic/Mayan syncretists demanded that they sign a statement
renouncing their faith as a prerequisite for their return to the
community. Attempting to mediate, governor Roberto Albores offered
social programs to the Catholic/Mayan syncretists if they allowed the
Evangelicals access to the town. The Catholics accepted the offer, but
denied blocking access to community members, claiming that they only
wanted to ``prevent strangers from infiltrating the community and
causing problems.'' They removed the roadblock, but tensions remain.
Tension between Catholic/Mayan syncretists and evangelical groups
continues to be a problem in the municipality of San Juan Chamula. The
Evangelical Commission for the Defense of Human Rights claims that
municipal authorities have expelled 30,000 persons in the last 30
years. The children of Evangelicals have been denied access to the
local public schools in six communities since 1994.
Adventists in Oaxaca report that families who were members of their
denomination were expelled from the community of Santo Tomas Kirri. In
Santo Domingo, Mexico state, Adventists report that they were forced
temporarily to close their church. In Chiapas the Adventists viewed the
local government as reluctant to intervene in towns governed by
traditional ``practices and customs.''
On May 17, 2000, the body of an alleged witch doctor was found in
Comitan, Chiapas. The motive for his death is suspected to be the
victim's practice of witchcraft, which is common in rural areas of
southern Mexico; no suspects were arrested or charged.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with government
officials, nongovernmental organizations, and religious leaders.
Embassy officials have emphasized that the U.S. supports religious
freedom worldwide, and takes a proactive approach in specific cases.
__________
NICARAGUA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Constitution also
states that no one ``shall be obligated by coercive measures to declare
their ideology or beliefs.''
The Roman Catholic Church is not an official state religion;
however, it enjoys a close relationship with the secular Government.
The Roman Catholic Church is the most politically active religious
denomination and has significant political influence. Catholic Church
leaders routinely meet with senior government officials. The historical
position of the Church is such that most religiously affiliated
monuments and memorials are Catholic-related. However, the predominance
of the Catholic Church does not impact negatively on the religious
freedom of others.
The Government's requirements for legal recognition of a church are
similar to its requirements for other nongovernmental organizations
(NGO's). A church must apply for ``Personeria Juridica'' (legal
standing), which must be approved by the National Assembly. Following
assembly approval, a church must register with the Ministry of
Government as an association or a foundation.
A recognized church can be granted tax-exempt status, known as
exoneration. Exoneration is a contentious issue, in particular with
regard to exemption from customs duties on imported goods donated for
humanitarian purposes. Goods donated to established churches and other
nonprofit religious organizations recognized by the Government, and
that are intended for the exclusive use of the church or organization,
are eligible for exoneration from duties. Prior to 1997, the Government
provided exonerated churches with a letter confirming their tax-exempt
status. A church could obtain customs clearance for imported donated
goods by presenting its exemption letter. However, in 1997 the
Government implemented a new customs regime that required clearance
from the Office of External Cooperation, the Ministry of Finance, the
Customs Office, and the municipality in which the donated goods would
be used before a tax exemption could be approved and the goods
released.
A number of churches and other nonprofit religious organizations,
including the Lutheran Church, the Moravian Church, and the Council of
Evangelical Churches, reported bureaucratic delays in obtaining
exoneration from customs duties for humanitarian aid in the form of
donated goods. Some non-Catholic churches complained that the Catholic
Church was receiving favored treatment in this regard and in practice
did not face the same bureaucratic requirements applied to other
religious and humanitarian organizations. However, some Catholic
groups, including Catholic Relief Services, reported similar
bureaucratic problems in obtaining exoneration from duties on donated
goods. The Government published additional, more specific guidelines in
April and June 1999 in an attempt to address these problems, but the
issue remained controversial.
Religious Demography
Over 90 percent of the population belong to one of the Christian
denominations. According to the most recent census, conducted in 1995,
72.9 percent of the population were members of the Roman Catholic
Church, 15.1 percent were members of evangelical churches, 1.5 percent
were members of the Moravian Church, and 0.1 percent were members of
the Episcopal Church. An additional 1.9 percent were associated with
other churches or religious groups, and 8.5 percent professed no
religious affiliation or were atheistic. Some more recent church
figures differ from the official census information; for example, the
Episcopal Church claims a membership of nearly twice the census figure,
and the evangelical churches also have made credible claims of higher
current membership.
The total number of citizens who practice a religion other than
Christianity is extremely small. There are small communities of non-
Christians, including a small Jewish community that gathers for
religious holidays and Friday evening dinners but does not have an
ordained rabbi or a synagogue. In 1979 many of the country's
approximately 250 Jews fled abroad in the face of persecution and
imprisonment by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The
FSLN bombed and partially destroyed the country's only synagogue, then
confiscated the property shortly afterward and converted it into a
youth training camp. There is now a funeral home on the site. Some Jews
have returned since the Sandinista Government was ousted democratically
in 1990, but the total Jewish population of the country consists of
fewer than 50 persons.
There is a small number of Muslims as well--primarily foreigners,
or naturalized Nicaraguans from Iran, Libya, and Palestine who
immigrated to Nicaragua in the 1980's--but there is no mosque.
Minority religions also include the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Amish and Mennonite communities, the
Unification Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Scientology.
Although these religions are perceived as foreign, the Government
neither monitors them nor alerts the public to their presence.
Other immigrant groups include the ``Turcos''--Palestinian
Christians whose ancestors came to Central America in the early 1900's,
and the Chinese, who came to the country in large numbers shortly after
World War II but many of whom fled at the time of the 1979 revolution.
Chinese-Nicaraguans either arrived as Christians or converted to
Christianity, and intermarried frequently with native Nicaraguans.
There are no longer any pre-Colombian religions in the country,
although there is a ``freedom movement'' within some Moravian churches
to allow indigenous Amerindian spiritual expression, often through
music. The Catholic Church is the most syncretistic of the
denominations and does not criticize or interfere with non-Christian
aspects of religious festivals held in its name. For example, each
August up to 30,000 Nicaraguans--many of them painted red or coated in
motor oil--gather to carry ``Dominguito,'' a sacred 10-inch statue of
Saint Dominic, from his home church in a suburb of Managua to another
church downtown. A week later the revelers reconvene to carry the
statue back. Such events have historical roots that go back to pre-
Colombian times.
Geographically, Moravian and Episcopal communities are concentrated
on the Atlantic coast, whereas Catholicism and evangelical churches
dominate the Pacific and central regions. There is a strong correlation
between ethnicity and religion: blacks and Amerindians, generally from
the Atlantic coast, are more likely to belong to the Moravian or
Episcopal Church. Some evangelical churches have focused on the
booming, remote towns of the central South Atlantic Region and have a
strong presence there.
The evangelical churches are growing rapidly, especially in poor
and/or remote areas. For example, in 1980 the Assemblies of God had 80
churches and fewer than 5,000 members. According to church leader
Saturnino Cerato, they now have 700 churches and approximately 70,200
baptized members.
Anecdotal evidence points to proportionally higher church
attendance among members of the new evangelical churches than among
members of the Catholic and traditional Protestant churches. In the
poorer neighborhoods, the small evangelical churches are filled to
capacity nearly every evening. According to a Catholic Church official,
the Catholic Church is growing numerically but losing ground
proportionally.
Foreign missionaries operate in the country. The Mormons have 178
missionaries, the Unification Church has 6 families of missionaries,
and nearly all of the non-Catholic denominations have at least 1
missionary family in the country. Missionaries do not face any special
requirements other than the appropriate visa--the ``religious worker''
visa--which is given freely to everyone who follows the application
guidelines. The process of obtaining a religious worker visa takes
several months and must be completed before the missionary arrives in
the country. During the period covered by this report, there were no
reports of difficulties by missionaries in obtaining the proper visa.
Private religious schools operate in the country. The Government
provides financial support to a number of primary and secondary schools
owned and directed by the Catholic Church by paying the salaries of
teachers at these schools.
The Government does not take steps to promote inter-faith
understanding, nor does it sponsor inter-faith dialog.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among religions are very different on the two coasts. On
the Atlantic side, where the three dominant churches are the Moravian,
Episcopal and Catholic Churches, there is an ecumenical spirit. The
churches are even known to celebrate the Eucharist together. However,
on the Pacific side, ecumenicism is rare. Instead there is continuing
and energetic competition for adherents between the Catholic Church and
the evangelical churches.
Both the Catholic bishops and the leading evangelical leaders made
public statements during the period covered by this report indicating a
desire to work together more closely, but they generally have not done
so in practice.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights, and
also maintains a regular dialog with the principal religious leaders
and organizations.
__________
PANAMA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, with some
qualifications; however, the Government generally respects this right
in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for free exercise of all religious
beliefs, provided that ``Christian morality and public order'' are
respected; however, despite the qualified nature of this right, the
Government generally respects religious freedom in practice.
The Constitution recognizes Roman Catholicism as ``the religion of
the majority of Panamanians'' but does not designate the Roman Catholic
Church as the official state religion. The Constitution provides that
religious associations have ``juridical capacity'' and are free to
manage and administer their property within the limits prescribed by
the law, the same as other ``juridical persons.'' The Ministry of
Government and Justice grants ``juridical personality'' through a
relatively simple, transparent process that does not appear to
prejudice religious institutions. Juridical personality allows a
religion to apply for the full array of tax benefits available to
nonprofit organizations. There were no reports of cases in which
religious organizations were denied juridical personality or the
associated tax benefits.
Roman Catholicism's numerical predominance and ``unofficial''
recognition by the Constitution generally has not prejudiced other
religions. However, Catholicism does enjoy certain statesanctioned
advantages over other faiths. The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Panama--
but no other religious leader--enjoys privileges and immunities usually
reserved for government officials. Catholic religious workers from
outside the country benefit from a streamlined administrative process
that grants them 5-year work permits. Other foreign religious workers
must pass through a more arduous application process and must renew
their work permits on a yearly basis.
Religious Demography
According to a nationwide survey conducted in June, 1998, by the
Comptroller General's Office of Statistics and Census, 82 percent of
the population identify themselves as Roman Catholic, 10 percent as
evangelicals, and 3 percent as unaffiliated with any religious group.
There are also small but statistically identifiable congregations of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-Day Adventists, Jehovah's
Witnesses, Episcopalians, and other Christians. Many recent Chinese
immigrants still practice Buddhism. The country has small but
influential Jewish and Muslim communities, and is home to one of the
world's seven Baha'i Houses of Worship.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Although foreign Roman Catholic workers enjoy an advantageous work
permit regime, many other religious organizations also have foreign
religious workers in Panama. For example, as of June 1, 1999, the
Southern Baptist Convention had 22 foreign missionaries in Panama, and
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) had 197.
However, the Immigration and Naturalization Service no longer grants
religious worker visas or work permits to members of the Unification
Church. Officials based their decision on allegedly deceptive religious
worker visa applications, as well as certain Unification Church
practices (such as mass marriages) that officials believed ran contrary
to the constitutional requirement that religious conduct respect
Christian morality. The Unification Church has not appealed the
decision.
Foreign missionaries are granted temporary 3-month religious worker
visas upon submitting required paperwork, which includes an AIDS test
and a police certificate of good conduct. A 1-year extension
customarily is granted with the submission of additional, less onerous,
documentation. Foreign religious workers who intend to remain in Panama
more than 15 months must repeat the entire process. Such additional
extensions usually are granted.
The Constitution dictates that Catholicism be taught in public
schools, although parents have the right to exempt their children from
religious instruction.
The Constitution disadvantages ministers of religious faiths in
general by strictly limiting the type of public offices they may hold.
The Constitution prohibits clerics from holding public office, except
as related to social assistance, education, or scientific research.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the different, mostly Christian, faiths are
generally harmonious. The Roman Catholic Church, despite losing
membership through growing defections to evangelical and other
Christian churches, generally has not reacted defensively. Similarly,
most Protestant groups active in the country are not militantly anti-
Catholic. Aggressive evangelical Protestant criticism of ``new''
religions, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons) and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society (Jehovah's
Witnesses) is not widespread.
For the past 16 years, mainstream denominations, including the
Roman Catholic, Episcopal, and Methodist Churches, have participated in
a successful ecumenical movement directed by the nongovernmental
Panamanian Ecumenical Committee. The Committee sponsors interreligious
conferences to discuss matters of faith and practice and plans joint
liturgical celebrations and charitable projects. In conjunction with
the University of Santa Maria la Antigua, the Committee sponsors the
Institute for Ecumenicism and Society, which conducts its own
conferences and issues ecumenical publications. The Ecumenical
Committee is also a member of the Panamanian Civil Society Assembly, an
umbrella group of civic organizations that conducts informal
governmental oversight and has been the driving force behind ethical
pacts on the treatment of women and youth, civil society, responsible
journalism, and decentralization.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officials also have met with religious leaders to discuss human
rights and the promotion of democracy and civil society.
__________
PARAGUAY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion for all persons
and recognizes no official religion; the Government respects this right
in practice.
All religious groups must be registered with the Ministry of
Education and Culture, but the Government imposes no controls on these
groups and many informal churches exist.
Religious Demography
Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, but all persons are
free to worship as they choose. The Catholic Church is involved in
politics at the fringe, mostly in socio-economic matters, and does not
support any particular political party. The Church freely criticizes
the Government. There are active Catholic, mainline Protestant,
evangelical Christian, Jewish (both Orthodox and Reform congregations),
Mormon, Muslim, and Baha'i communities in the country. There also are
sizable Mennonite communities, whose members originally came to the
country in order to escape religious persecution. These communities
came to the country in several waves between 1880 and 1950.
The Government is secular. Most government officials are Christian.
The Government does not take any particular steps to promote inter-
faith understanding. Adherence to a particular creed confers no legal
advantage or disadvantage, and foreign and local missionaries
proselytize freely.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
While there is no large-scale ecumenical movement in the country,
all religious groups freely exercise their beliefs in a largely
tolerant environment. The Catholic Church often performs Mass for
government functions, Protestant and evangelical churches engage in
marches and prayer vigils, and part of the Jewish community holds a
large public menorah lighting every year for Hannukah.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The U.S.
Ambassador and embassy officials meet regularly with representatives of
different religious groups.
__________
PERU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however,
preferential treatment given to the Catholic Church in education, tax
benefits, and other areas continued to raise concerns about potential
infringements of religious liberties of non-Catholics.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedoms
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between members of the various religions generally are
amicable.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Governmental Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. Although the
Constitution establishes the separation of church and state, it also
acknowledges the Roman Catholic Church ``as an important element in the
historical, cultural, and moral development'' of the nation. The
dominant status accorded to Roman Catholicism in public life manifests
itself in various ways. For example, it is traditional for the
President to attend Mass on the occasion of the country's Independence
Day, and swearing-in ceremonies for cabinet ministers and other
officials are conducted with the crucifix in full view. Moreover, there
are four areas in which Roman Catholicism, the Catholic Church, and
Catholic clergy receive preferential treatment and tangible benefits
from the State: education, taxation of personal income, remuneration,
and taxation of institutional property.
Religious denominations or churches are not required to register
with the Government or apply for a license. Nevertheless, there is a
small Religious Affairs Unit within the Ministry of Justice whose
primary purpose is to receive institutional complaints of
discrimination among the various churches. This Religious Affairs Unit
also ensures that beyond the historic preferences (subsidies and
exemptions granted to the Catholic Church only), all denominations and
churches receive a variety of lesser financial benefits on an equal
basis, such as exemption from certain import taxes and customs duties
for which they are eligible.
Religious Demography
According to the 1993 census, of an overall population of
22,048,356, 88.9 percent declared themselves to be Catholics. These
included substantial numbers of individuals of sycretistic faiths, who,
for example, combine worship of the Catholic Church's saints with
worship of non-Christian concepts, such as mother earth and mountain
spirits. About 7.3 percent reported that they were non-Catholic
Christians, including evangelical Christians (such as Lutherans,
Calvinists, Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians,
Pentecostalists, and members of the Assemblies of God, the Christian
Missionary Alliance, the Evangelical Church of Peru, and the Church of
God). This 7.3 percent also includes non-evangelical Christians (such
as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Seventh-Day
Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Israelites). Israelites base their
beliefs and practices on the Old Testament. Adherents of non-Christian
religions, including Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, and Shintoists accounted
for 0.3 percent of the population, while agnostics and atheists
constituted 1.4 percent of the population. The remaining census
respondents specified no religious preferences. According to a
respected university researcher who recently has studied the country's
religious profile, evangelical Christians represent the fastest-growing
religious segment within the population, while an official of the
Episcopal Commission for Social Action estimates that only about 15
percent of the nation's Catholics attend church services on a regular
weekly basis.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Although teaching about Roman Catholicism has not been required in
the public school system since the education reforms of the 1970's,
most schools devote 1 hour a week to such study. Prior to 1977,
religious courses in public and private primary and secondary schools
were interdenominational. Since 1977 public primary and secondary
schools have offered only teaching about Catholicism, although some
non-Catholic private schools provided non-Catholic religion courses. In
April 1998, the Government issued an executive order that established
basic Catholic religion courses for all public and private primary
school students.
Traditionally, school authorities appoint religious education
teachers, upon individual recommendations by the presiding bishop of
the local diocese. In November 1999, the Education Ministry issued a
directive to implement a September 1998 decree that made it mandatory
for religion teachers to have the approval of the presiding bishop.
Parents who do not wish their children to participate in the prescribed
religion classes are asked to submit a written request for an exemption
to the school principal. Non-Catholics who wish their children to
receive a religious education in their own particular faith are free to
organize such classes, during the weekly hour allotted by the school
for religious education, but must supply their own teacher. The Freedom
of Conscience Institute (PROLIBCO), a nongovernmental organization
(NGO) that favors the strict separation of church and state and opposes
the preferential treatment accorded to the Catholic religion, objects
to the requirement for Catholic teaching in the school curriculum, and
claims that the alternatives made available to non-Catholic parents
violate the constitutional protection of the privacy and
confidentiality of one's convictions and beliefs.
PROLIBCO and other religious groups have challenged mandatory
teaching of Roman Catholicism, and their case is pending before the
Supreme Court. The case alleges that the mandatory catechism
requirement violates the rights of non-Catholic students to practice
their personal religious convictions. They also have challenged the
practice in which parents must ask school directors for permission to
excuse their children from mandatory religion courses and then pay for
their own teacher during the hour per week of religious study.
All work-related earnings of Catholic priests and bishops are
exempt from income taxes, while real estate, buildings, and houses
owned by the Catholic Church are exempt from property taxes. According
to an official of the Catholic Church's Episcopal Commission for Social
Action, there are, in addition, two groups of Catholic clergy whose
members receive state remuneration over and above the compensation paid
to them by the Catholic Church. These include the 52 Catholic bishops
as well as those Catholic priests whose ministries are located in towns
and villages along the country's frontiers. They are rewarded by the
State for their patriotism in helping to populate the most remote areas
of the country and in implementing the Government's ``fronteras
humanas'' (``human borders'') program. Finally, each diocese receives a
monthly institutional subsidy from the Government. According to church
officials, none of these payments are substantial. However, PROLIBCO
claims that the financial subsidies and tax benefits provided by the
Government to the Catholic Church and its clergy are far more
widespread and lucrative than publicly acknowledged. PROLIBCO has
instituted legal action in the Superior Court of Public Law to
eliminate all such preferential treatment. PROLIBCO also has alleged
discrimination against non-Catholic groups that must pay import duties
and a sales tax on Bibles brought into the country.
Conversion from one religion to another is respected, and
missionaries are allowed to enter the country and proselytize.
The Government takes no steps to promote inter-faith understanding
or dialog.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
During the country's period of internal conflict from 1980 to 1995,
the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) terrorist group targeted
evangelical churches in particular. The group killed about 750 members
of evangelical churches, including about 40 pastors. Sendero Luminoso
rejects religion and has been known to threaten and intimidate
religious workers. However, during the period covered by this report,
there were no reported instances in which security forces, vigilante
groups, or terrorists attacked individuals because of their religious
beliefs or practices.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between members of the various religions generally are
amicable. The Catholic and evangelical churches collaborate closely in
the area of human rights.
Since 1995 the Catholic Church (through its Episcopal Commission
for Social Action) and the National Evangelical Council of Peru
(through its loosely affiliated although independent Peace and Hope
Evangelical Association) have conducted joint national campaigns on
behalf of prison inmates and innocent prisoners wrongly charged or
sentenced for terrorism and treason.
There were occasional reports of incidents of anti-Semitism and
discrimination. Jewish community leaders in Lima claim that a number of
the capital city's most prestigious private social clubs historically
have refused to accept into their ranks prospective Jewish members.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Ambassador has met with a wide variety of religious
leaders, including Juan Luis Cipriani, Archbishop of Lima and Primate
of Peru, the president of the Catholic Church's Episcopal Conference,
the Archbishop of Callao, as well as leaders of Peru's Jewish community
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The Embassy's
human rights officer has met with representatives of the Episcopal
Commission for Social Action of the Catholic Church, the Peace and Hope
Evangelical Association, and the Freedom of Conscience Institute.
Embassy representatives also have discussed prison reform and broader
human rights issues with officials of the Episcopal Commission for
Social Action.
__________
ST. KITTS AND NEVIS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religions in society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Methodist, Anglican,
Roman Catholic, and Moravian) but religious freedom for others is not
affected adversely. There is a Baha'i minority.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-
faith understanding.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The local Christian council conducts activities to promote
greater mutual understanding and tolerance among adherents of different
denominations within the Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Embassy
representatives have discussed issues or events surrounding religious
freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
ST. LUCIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic,
Pentecostal, Seventh-Day Adventist, Baptist, and Methodist) but
religious freedom for others is not affected adversely. There is a
Baha'i minority.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any particular steps to promote
inter-faith understanding.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The St. Lucia Christian Council conducts activities to
promote greater mutual understanding and tolerance among adherents of
different denominations within the Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Embassy
representatives have discussed issues or events surrounding religious
freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change to the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religions in society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Christianity (Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman
Catholic, Anglican, Methodist) but religious freedom for others is not
affected adversely. There are Rastafarian and Baha'i minorities.
The Government is secular, but most government officials are
Christian. The Government does not take any particular steps to promote
inter-faith understanding.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
There were no confirmed reports that the Government abused
religious freedom; however, members of the Rastafarian community have
complained that law enforcement officials unfairly target them.
However, it is not clear whether such complaints reflect discrimination
on the basis of religious belief by authorities or simply enforcement
of laws against marijuana, which is used as part of Rastafarian
religious practices.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. However, some members of society do not regard Rastafarianism
favorably because of its popular association with drug use. The
Christian Council of Churches conducts activities to promote greater
mutual understanding and tolerance among adherents of different
denominations within the Christian faith.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom with the Government in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Embassy
representatives have discussed issues or events surrounding religious
freedom with government officials when soliciting support for
international organization resolutions concerning religious freedom.
__________
SURINAME
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
There is no state or otherwise dominant religion. Members of all
the various faiths in the country are allowed to worship freely.
Religions are not required to register with the Government.
Religious Demography
Suriname is an ethnically and religiously diverse nation, with a
tradition of religious tolerance. Slightly over one-third of the
population traces its ancestry to the Indian subcontinent, another
third is of African descent, nearly another third claims Indonesian
ancestry, and there are smaller percentages of the population that
claim Chinese, Amerindian, Portuguese, Lebanese, and Dutch ancestry.
Religious diversity in the country closely parallels the ethnic
diversity of the population.
According to government statistics, 45 percent of the population is
Christian (23 percent Roman Catholic, 16 percent Moravian, and 6
percent other denominations such as Lutheran, Dutch reformed and the
Evangelical Churches), 27 percent is Hindu, 20 percent Muslim, 6
percent follow native religions, and 2 percent claim no faith.
There are no restrictions on foreign missionary workers.
A large number of faiths, including U.S. based church groups, have
established missionary programs throughout the country. It is estimated
that nearly 90 percent of the American missionaries are affiliated with
the Baptist Church, with a small percentage of followers of the Mormon
Church also present. There are several chapters of Freemasons and
Druids. In addition to U.S. based groups, there are international
groups such as the World Islamic Call Society and the Baha'i Faith.
Aside from the standard requirement for an entry visa, missionary
workers face no special governmental restrictions. The Government,
which plans to develop the interior, has encouraged and, where
possible, supported the various groups without showing special
preference to any one group in particular.
The governmental educational system subsidizes to a small extent a
number of public elementary and secondary schools established and
managed by the various religious faiths. While the teachers at the
schools are civil servants, and the schools are considered public
schools, religious groups provide all funding with the exception of
teachers' salaries and a small maintenance stipend.
The Government has encouraged cooperation among the various ethnic
groups by, for example, declaring the most important holidays of the
major religions to be national holidays.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the country's various religious communities are
amicable. Most citizens, especially those living in Paramaribo,
celebrate the religious holidays of other groups to varying extents.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels protects this right in full, and does not tolerate abuse, either
by governmental or private actors.
To receive tax-exempt donations or gifts of land, religious groups
must register with the Government, which requires them to demonstrate
that they are nonprofit. Religious groups have the same rights and
obligations as most legal entities, whether or not they are registered.
They can own land but must pay property taxes, and they can hire
employees but must pay for government-mandated employee benefits.
Religious Demography
There is no dominant faith among the multiethnic population of 1.3
million, which is 40 percent African and 40 percent East Indian; the
remainder are of European, Syrian, Lebanese, and Chinese descent.
According to the latest official statistics (1990), about 29 percent of
the population are practicing or nominally Roman Catholic; 24 percent
are Hindu; 6 percent are Muslim; and 31 percent are Protestant
(including 11 percent Anglican, 7 percent Pentecostal, 4 percent
Seventh-Day Adventist, 3 percent Presbyterian/Congregational, and 3
percent Baptist). A small number of individuals follow Obeah and other
traditional Caribbean religions with African roots; sometimes these are
practiced together with other faiths.
The Government is known to monitor closely only one religiously
affiliated group, a radical Muslim organization called the Jamaat al
Muslimeen, some members of which attempted a coup in 1990. The
Government's surveillance has focused on the group's repeated attempts
to seize control of state-owned property adjoining its central mosque
and on any actions intended to incite revolt.
Foreign missionaries operate relatively freely in the country. They
include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons),
Baptists, Mennonites, and Muslims. Missionaries must meet standard
requirements for an entry visa, must represent a registered religious
group, and cannot remain in the country for more than 3 years. The
Mormons maintain the maximum total allowed (30) of foreign missionaries
per religious denomination in the country, while other denominations
maintain between 5 and 10 foreign missionaries.
The Government subsidizes religious and public schools. It also
permits religious instruction in public schools, setting aside a time
each week when any religious organization that has an adherent in the
school can provide an instructor in its faith. Attendance at these
classes is voluntary.
Government officials routinely speak out against religious
intolerance and generally take care not to favor any one religion
publicly. The Government has set aside public holidays for every
religion with significant followings, including Christians, Hindus, and
Muslims, as well as for the relatively small number of Baptists.
The Government does not formally sponsor programs that promote
inter-faith dialog; however, it supports the activities of the Inter-
Religious Organization (IRO), which brings together representatives
from most of the country's religions. The IRO, which was formed about
30 years ago by several religious leaders, is called upon routinely to
provide the prayer leader for several official events, such as the
opening of parliament and of the annual court term.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country's various religious groups peacefully coexist and
generally respect each other's beliefs and practices. Followers of one
faith often participate in public celebrations of another faith, most
notably in the Hindu celebration of Divali. The IRO, which is composed
of leaders from all faiths with significant followings except for the
Pentecostals, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Mormons (who have not
expressed an interest in membership because of doctrinal differences),
promotes inter-faith dialog and tolerance through study groups,
publications, and cultural and religious shows and exhibitions. No
group is excluded from membership in the IRO.
Complaints occasionally are made about the efforts of some groups
to proselytize in neighborhoods where another religion is dominant. The
most frequent public complaints have been lodged by Hindu religious
leaders against evangelical and Pentecostal Christians. Such clashes
mirror the racial tensions that at times arise between the Afro-
Trinidadian and Indo-Trinidadian communities.
The country's major conservative Hindu organization has pointed out
that current law, a legacy of British colonialism, protects only
Christian groups from blasphemous libel. The Government has proposed
legislation that would extend that protection to non-Christians. To
date, Parliament has not yet approved legislation extending blasphemous
libel to non-Christian groups.
In August 1999, the Orisa Marriage Act of 1999 was enacted by
Parliament. This bill allows registered marriage officers of Orisa
faith to conduct marriages, which are recognized as legally binding by
the Government. Previously only Christian, Hindu, and Moslem prelates
could be licensed marriage officers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
URUGUAY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Governmental Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
There is a strict separation of church and state, which dates to
the beginning of the century. Under the influence of reformist
President Jose Batlle y Ordonez, religious instruction in the schools
was banned in 1909, and separation of church and state was included in
the 1917 Constitution and reaffirmed in the current 1967 Constitution.
All religions are entitled to receive tax exemptions on their houses of
worship, and there were no reports of difficulties in receiving these
exemptions. Houses of worship must register to get tax exemptions. In
order to do so, a religion or minority religious group must register as
a nonprofit entity and draft organizing statutes. They then apply to
the Ministry of Education and Culture, which examines the legal entity
and grants religious status. The group must reapply every 5 years. Once
they have status granted to them by the Ministry, they can request an
exemption each year from the taxing body, which is usually the
municipal government.
Religious Demography
Among the country's population of 3.2 million persons, about 52
percent of the population are practicing or nominally Roman Catholic,
16 percent are Protestant or other Christian, approximately 1 percent
are Jewish, and 30 percent are members of other religions or profess no
religion. According to a 1978 survey, among the Catholic majority, only
a small percentage attend Mass regularly.
The mainstream Protestant minority is composed primarily of
Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran, and Baptist Churches. Other
denominations and groups include evangelicals, Pentecostals,
Mennonites, Eastern Orthodox, and Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) claims 65,000 members.
There are approximately 30,000 practicing members of the Jewish faith
in the country who support 15 synagogues.
A 1998 poll revealed that 13 percent of the population identified
themselves as atheists or agnostics, with a significant percentage
identifying themselves as deists. Some of the country's 6 percent
African-Uruguayan population, primarily those with roots in Brazil,
practice animism.
The Unification Church is active in the country and has major
property holdings. There also is a Muslim population that lives
primarily on the border with Brazil. Approximately 4,000 Baha'i live in
Montevideo.
The Government does not take any steps to promote inter-faith
understanding.
The public schools allow students who belong to minority religions
to miss school for religious holidays without penalty.
Many Christian groups perform missionary work in the country
without hindrance from the State. The Mormons, for example, have
approximately 350 missionaries in the country at any one time.
Missionaries face no special requirements or restrictions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities are amicable. The
Christian-Jewish Council meets regularly to promote inter-faith
understanding. In addition, the mainstream Protestant religions meet
regularly among themselves and with the Catholic Church.
Isolated neo-Nazi elements have carried out occasional, limited
attacks since 1997. In August 1999, an intensive police investigation
resulted in the arrest of eight members (including one minor) of a very
small neo-Nazi group suspected of creating racist and anti-Semitic
Internet websites. The authorities charged five of the suspects with
subversive association; two also were charged with inciting hate or
violence toward a particular group. Pending the court's final decision
in the case, the defendants were released after serving approximately
three months of imprisonment, the minimum statutory penalty for first
offenders in cases of this nature.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
During the period covered by this report, embassy staff members met
with human rights and religious nongovermental organizations and with
leaders of many of the religious communities, including representatives
of the Roman Catholic Church, the Jewish community, and Mormon and
Protestant leaders.
The Embassy maintains frequent contact with religious and
nonreligious organizations that are involved in the protection of human
rights, such as the Center for Documentation, Investigation, and Social
and Pastoral Promotion (OBSUR), Service of Peace and Justice (SERPAJ),
Ecumenical Service for Human Dignity (SEOHU), Institute for Legal and
Social Studies of Uruguay (ILSUR), and Mundo Afro, which represents the
interests of citizens of African descent.
__________
VENEZUELA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The country's previous Constitution provided for freedom of
religion, as long as the practice of a religion did not threaten public
order or violate good custom; the new Constitution, proclaimed on
December 30, 1999, provides for freedom of religion, on the condition
that the practice of a religion does not violate public morality,
decency, and the public order, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice.
The Directorate of Justice and Religion (DJR) in the Ministry of
Interior and Justice, which replaced the Office of Religion in an
executive branch reorganization, is the government office responsible
for maintaining a registry of religious groups, disbursing funds to the
Roman Catholic Church, facilitating the travel of missionaries and
religious officials, and promoting awareness and understanding among
the various religious communities. Each local church must register with
the DJR in order to hold legal status as a religious organization and
to own property. The requirements for registration are largely
administrative. However, some groups have complained that the process
of registration is slow and inefficient. In 1964 the Government and the
Holy See signed a concordat that underscores the country's historical
ties to the Roman Catholic Church and provides government subsidies to
the Church, including to its social programs and schools. The
Government annually provides over $1.5 million (approximately 1.1
billion bolivars) in subsidies to the Catholic Church's schools and
social programs. Other religious groups are free to establish and run
their own schools, which do not receive subsidies from the Government.
Religious Demography
According to the latest government figures, in 2000, approximately
70 percent of the population are Roman Catholic, approximately 29
percent are Protestant, and the remaining 1 percent practice other
religions or are atheists. There are small but influential Muslim and
Jewish communities. The capital city of Caracas has a large mosque, and
the country's Jewish community is very active. According to the
Government, Protestant churches are the country's most rapidly growing
religious community.
There are approximately 4,000 foreign missionaries working in the
country. Foreign missionaries require a special visa to enter the
country, which is obtained through the DJR. Missionaries are not
refused entry generally, but many complain that the DJR often takes
months or years to process a request.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
On several occasions, the Roman Catholic Church has been monitored
or threatened by state agents for political reasons.
In November 1999, Catholic Bishop Roberto Luckert of Coro
reportedly spoke against the new Constitution on his diocese's radio
station. The next day, two military intelligence agents allegedly
visited the station, accused its manager of opposing the political
process, and warned that they would be monitoring and recording future
broadcasts.
In April 2000, Monsignor Baltazar Porras, the president of the
Roman Catholic Episcopal Conference of Venezuela (CEV) publicly
criticized the Government regarding a lack of electoral transparency,
the lack of political diversity of the National Electoral Council, and
the need for monitoring the upcoming electoral process. He also
criticized the Government's rejection of some international aid during
devastating floods at the end of 1999, growing social instability, and
the supraconstitutional activities of the National Legislative
Commission. Following these criticisms, the press reported that the
State Political Police (DISIP) videotaped a Mass said by Monsignor
Porras. The Director of DISIP immediately apologized, the agent was
suspended, and the national Ombudsman's office opened an investigation
of the incident. Bishops also reported receiving telephone threats
during the CEV's assembly.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
There are numerous ecumenical groups throughout the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains close contacts with the various
religious communities and meets periodically with the DJR. The
Ambassador meets regularly with religious authorities and the Embassy
facilitates communication between U.S. religious groups and the
Government. The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with
the Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
EAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
----------
AUSTRALIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policy on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. A provision of the
Constitution precludes the adoption of a state religion. Minority
religions are given equal rights to land, status, and building of
places of worship.
Religious Demography
According to the 1996 census, 71 percent of citizens consider
themselves to be Christian, including 27 percent Roman Catholic, 22
percent Anglican, and 22 percent other Christian denominations. During
the first census in 1911, 96 percent of citizens identified themselves
as Christian. Traditional Christian denominations have seen their total
number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly
since the 1950's. Of the Christian denominations, Pentecostals and
Jehovah's Witnesses showed the largest increase in members from 1991 to
1996, 16 percent and 12 percent respectively. In 1996 17 percent of
citizens considered themselves to have no religion, a 35 percent
increase from 1991.
At the time of the European settlement of Australia, aboriginal
inhabitants followed religions that were animistic in nature, involving
belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of
ancestral spirit beings. Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality, even
among those aborigines who identify themselves as members of a
traditional organized religion, are intrinsically linked to the land
generally and to certain sites of significance in particular. According
to the 1996 census, 2 percent of Aborigines and 0.04 percent of all
citizens practice traditional indigenous religions. Almost 72 percent
of Aborigines practice some form of Christianity, while 16 percent list
no religion. The percentage of Aborigines who practice Christianity and
who list no religion mirrors almost exactly the percentages in the
wider community.
Recent increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle
East has expanded considerably the numbers of citizens who identify
themselves as Buddhists and Muslims, about 200,000 and 68,000
respectively. Affiliates of non-Christian religions, while only 3.5
percent of the population, have shown the largest increases in members
since the 1991 census. Stated affiliation with Hinduism increased by 55
percent, with Buddhism by 43 percent, with Islam by 36 percent, and
with Judaism by 8 percent. These changes have resulted partly from
trends in immigration. In 1996 48 percent of those who had arrived in
the country since 1991 were Christians, 23 percent had no religion, 8
percent were affiliated with Buddhism, 8 percent with Islam, and 1
percent with Judaism.
The Government has put in place extensive programs to promote
public acceptance of diversity and multicultural pluralism, although
none are focused specifically on religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In a 1998 report on freedom of religion and belief in Australia by
the federally funded but independent Human Rights and Equal Opportunity
Commission (HREOC), the Commission stated that ``despite the legal
protections that apply in different jurisdictions, many Australians
suffer discrimination on the basis of religious belief or non-belief,
including members of both mainstream and non-mainstream religions and
those of no religious persuasion.'' Many non-Christian adherents have
complained to the HREOC that the overwhelming dominance of traditional
Christianity in civic life has the potential to marginalize large
numbers of citizens. However, they have not presented any concrete
evidence of such marginalization. Persons who suffer discrimination on
the basis of religion may resort to the court system, which is an
effective method of obtaining redress.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
BRUNEI
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government imposes some restrictions on non-Islamic faiths.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The official religion is Islam, as practiced by the Shafeite
school. Other religions, such as Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism
also are practiced; however, non-Muslims are not allowed to
proselytize, nor are parochial schools allowed to teach the religions
of their respective faiths. However, government and most private
schools are required to teach courses on Islam.
Brunei describes its government as a Malay Islamic monarchy. The
Government actively promotes adherence to Islamic values and traditions
by its Muslim residents. The Ministry of Religious Affairs deals solely
with Islam and Islamic laws, which exist alongside secular laws, and
apply only to Muslims. During the period covered by this report,
officials mainly focused on promoting the sale and consumption of halal
products, enforcing the ban on the consumption of alcoholic beverages,
and guarding against the distribution and sale of items that feature
undesirable photographs or religious symbols.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution states that, ``The religion of Brunei Darussalam
shall be the Muslim religion according to the Shafeite sect of that
religion: Provided that all other religions may be practiced in peace
and harmony by the person professing them in any part of Brunei
Darussalam.'' However, the Government only partially respects these
rights, as it imposes some restrictions on non-Islamic religions.
Religious Demography
The Government does not publish detailed data on religious
affiliation. The majority of citizens are Muslim Malays. About 20
percent of the population are ethnic Chinese, of which about half are
Christians (Anglicans, Catholics, and Methodists); the other half are
Buddhists. There is also a large foreign-born workforce of Filipinos
and Europeans, the majority of whom are Christians, and Indians, who
are predominantly Hindus.
The Brunei-Muara district, including the capital, Bandar Seri
Begawan, has over 50 mosques and suraus (Islamic prayer rooms), but
there are only 2 churches and 1 Buddhist temple. There is no Hindu
temple.
The Government requires residents to carry an identity card that
states the bearer's religion, and all visitors must complete a landing
card that requests information on religion.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
In 1991 the Government began to reinforce the legitimacy of the
hereditary monarchy and the observance of traditional and Muslim values
by reasserting a national ideology known as the Malay Islamic Beraja
(MIB) or ``Malay Islamic Monarchy,'' the genesis of which reportedly
dates back to the 15th century. In 1993 the Government participated in
issuing the Kuala Lumpur Declaration, which affirms the right of all
persons to a wide range of human rights, including freedom of religion.
Despite this and the constitutional provisions providing for the full
and unconstrained exercise of religious freedom, the Government
restricts the practice of non-Muslim religions by: routinely
prohibiting proselytizing of Moslems; occasionally denying entry to
foreign clergy or particular priests, bishops, or ministers; banning
the importation of religious teaching materials or scriptures such as
the Bible; and refusing permission to expand, repair, or build new
churches, temples, or shrines. However, in February 1998, the
Government allowed the Roman Catholic Church to establish the first
apostolic prefecture in the country and to install a citizen of Chinese
origin as the country's first apostolic prefect. This development
marked a modest improvement in religious freedom.
The Government sporadically voiced alarm about ``outsiders''
preaching radical Islamic fundamentalist or unorthodox beliefs. (The
Al-Arqam movement was banned in 1995 and remains banned.) Citizens
deemed to have been influenced by such preaching (usually students
returning from overseas study) have been ``shown the error of their
ways'' in study seminars organized by mainstream Islamic religious
leaders. Moreover, the Government does not hesitate to investigate and
to use its internal security apparatus against these purveyors of
radical Islam.
In September 1998, officials of the Islamic Propagation Center
confiscated gold and other precious Buddhist and Christian icons from a
number of goldsmiths in the capital, stating that the open display of
these items ``offended local sensitivities.'' The confiscations were
made under the Undesirable Publications Act, which gives the Government
wide-ranging powers. Several days later, the goldsmiths were informed
that they could recover their property from the Ministry of Home
Affairs, which they did without difficulty, provided that their
documentation was correct. The Government also routinely censors
magazine articles on other faiths, blacking out or removing photographs
of crucifixes and other Christian religious symbols.
Religious affairs authorities continue to raid illegal night spots
and to monitor restaurants and supermarkets to ensure conformity with
``halal'' practices such as Islamic requirements covering the slaughter
of animals and the ban on pork products. The actions generally are
regarded by the majority of citizens as a means of upholding Islam.
While requiring courses on Islam or the MIB in all schools, the
Ministry of Education has restricted the teaching of the history of
religion or other courses on religion, in particular, Christianity, in
non-Islamic schools. Only the Brunei International School presently is
exempted from these restrictions, and it does not offer instruction in
any religion. The Jerudong International School offers an optional
Islamic Studies course. The Ministry requires that all students,
including non-Muslims, follow a course of study on the Islamic faith
and learn the jawi (Arabic script). Private mission schools are not
allowed to give Christian instruction and are required to give
instruction about Islam; however, the Government does not prohibit or
restrict parents from giving religious instruction to children in their
own homes. In January 2000, the Government responded to objections from
parents and religious leaders and set aside tentative plans to require
that more Islamic courses be taught in private, non-Islamic parochial
schools. In government schools and at the national university, Muslim
and non-Muslim female students must wear Muslim attire, including a
head covering as a part of their ``uniform.''
Since proselytizing by faiths other than official Islam is not
permitted, there are no missionaries working in the country.
There is no government-sponsored ecumenical activity.
The installation of the country's first apostolic prefect
constituted a modest step in the direction of improved religious
freedom, but as yet there is no broad trend toward increased religious
freedom.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
in the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general those adhering to faiths other than Islam are allowed to
practice their beliefs, provided that they exercise restraint and do
not proselytize. There is little reported dialog among the country's
religious leaders and their counterparts in the Christian and Buddhist
religions. The country's national philosophy, the Malay Islamic Beraja
(MIB) concept, discourages open-mindedness to other religions, and
there are no programs to promote understanding of religions other than
Islam. The country's indigenous people generally convert either to
Islam or Christianity but rarely to Buddhism. Consequently, Muslim
officials view Christianity as the main rival to official Islam.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of encouraging the growth of
rudimentary democratic institutions. The Embassy has good relations
with officials from the Muslim, Christian, and Buddhist faiths.
__________
BURMA
Burma has been ruled since 1962 by highly repressive, authoritarian
military regimes, and since 1998, when the armed forces brutally
suppressed massive prodemocracy demonstrations, a junta composed of
senior military officers has ruled by decree, without a constitution or
legislature. The most recent Constitution, promulgated in 1974,
permitted both legislative and administrative restrictions on religious
freedom, stating that ``the national races shall enjoy the freedom to
profess their religion provided that the enjoyment of any such freedom
does not offend the laws or the public interest.'' Most adherents of
all religions duly registered with the authorities generally enjoyed
freedom to worship as they chose; however, the Government imposed some
restrictions on certain religious minorities. In addition the
Government systematically restricted efforts by Buddhist clergy to
promote human rights and political freedom, and coercively promoted
Buddhism over other religions in some ethnic minority areas.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The Government imposed some restrictions on the religious freedom
of both Christian and Islamic groups, and individual Christians and
Muslims experienced some discrimination by the State. The Government
monitored the activities of members of all religions, including
Buddhism, in part because clergy and congregation members in the past
have become active politically.
Since 1988 a primary objective of U.S. Government policy towards
Burma has been to promote increased respect for human rights, including
the right to freedom of religion. In September 1999, the Secretary of
State designated Burma a country of particular concern under the
International Religious Freedom Act for particularly severe violations
of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Burma has been ruled since 1962 by highly authoritarian military
regimes. In 1997 the junta reorganized itself and changed its name from
the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) to the State Peace
and Development Council (SPDC). The military has governed without a
constitution or legislature since 1988. The most recent Constitution,
promulgated in 1974, permitted both legislative and administrative
restrictions on religious freedom, stating that ``the national races
shall enjoy the freedom to profess their religion provided that the
enjoyment of any such freedom does not offend the laws or the public
interest.'' Most adherents of all religions duly registered with the
authorities generally enjoyed freedom to worship as they chose;
however, the Government imposed some restrictions on certain religious
minorities. In addition, in practice, the Government systematically
restricted efforts by Buddhist clergy to promote human rights and
political freedom, and, according to numerous credible reports,
government authorities in some ethnic minority areas coercively
promoted Buddhism over other religions, particularly among members of
the minority ethnic groups.
There is no official state religion; however, the Government
continued to show a preference for Theravada Buddhism in practice.
Successive Governments, civilian and military, have supported and
associated themselves conspicuously with Buddhism.
Virtually all organizations must be registered with the Government.
Although there is a government directive exempting ``genuine''
religious organizations from registration, in practice only registered
organizations can buy or sell property or open bank accounts, which
induces most religious organizations to register. Religious
organizations register with the Ministry of Home Affairs with the
endorsement of the Ministry for Religious Affairs. However, at least
one religiously-affiliated organization was allowed to open a bank
account with the endorsement of the Myanmar Council of Churches instead
of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The State also provides some
utilities, such as electricity, at preferential rates to recognized
religious organizations.
Religious Demography
The great majority of the country's population at least nominally
follows Theravada Buddhism, although in practice popular Burmese
Buddhism includes veneration of many indigenous pre-Buddhist deities
called ``nats'' and coexists with astrology, numerology, and fortune-
telling. Buddhist monks, including novices, number more than 300,000,
roughly 2 percent of the male Buddhist population, and depend for their
material needs entirely on alms donated by the laity, including daily
donations of food. The clergy also includes a much smaller number of
nuns.
There are minorities of Christians (mostly Baptists as well as some
Catholics and Anglicans), Muslims (mostly Sunni), Hindus, and
practitioners of traditional Chinese and indigenous religions.
According to government statistics, almost 90 percent of the population
practice Buddhism, 4 percent practice Christianity, and 4 percent
practice Islam; however, these statistics may understate the non-
Buddhist proportion of the population.
The country is ethnically diverse, and there is some correlation
between ethnicity and religion. Theravada Buddhism is the dominant
religion among the majority Burman ethnic group, and among the Shan and
Mon ethnic minorities of the eastern region. In much of the country
there also is some correlation between religion and social class, in
that non-Buddhists tend to be better educated in secular matters, more
urbanized, and more commercially oriented than the Buddhist majority.
Christianity is the dominant religion among the Kachin ethnic group
of the northern region and the Chin and Naga ethnic groups of the
western region (some of which practice traditional indigenous
religions); it also is widely practiced among the Karen and Karenni
ethnic groups of the southern and eastern regions. Many other Karen and
Karenni are Theravada Buddhists. Hinduism is practiced chiefly by
Indians, mostly Tamils and Bengalis, who are concentrated in major
cities and in the south-central region (although many Tamils are
Catholic). Islam is practiced widely in Arakan Division on the west
coast, where it is the dominant religion of the Rohingya minority, and
among Indians and Bengalis and their descendants. The small Chinese
ethnic minorities practice traditional Chinese religions. Traditional
indigenous religions are practiced widely among smaller ethnic groups
in the northern regions and persist widely in popular Buddhist
practice, especially in rural areas. There are no reliable statistics
on religious affiliation and ethnicity.
Since independence in 1948, many of the ethnic minority areas have
been bases for armed resistance to the State. Although most armed
ethnic groups have negotiated cease-fire agreements with the Government
since 1989, active Shan, Karen and Karenni insurgencies continue, and a
Chin insurgency has developed since the late 1980's. Successive
civilian and military governments have tended to view religious freedom
in the context of threats to national unity.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government continued both to show preference for Theravada
Buddhism, the majority religion, and to control the organization and
restrict the activities and expression of its clergy (``sangha''). The
Government prohibits any organizations of Buddhist clergy other than
nine state-recognized monastic orders, which submit to the authority of
a state-sponsored State Clergy Coordination Committee (``Sangha Maha
Nayaka Committee''--SMNC) elected indirectly by monks. The Government
provides guidance and enforcement for the committee at the national
level and for its subordinate bodies at local levels. The Government
continued to fund two State Sangha Universities in Rangoon and Mandalay
to train Buddhist clergy under the control of the SMNC. The State's
relations with the Buddhist clergy and Buddhist schools are handled
chiefly by the Department for the Perpetuation and Propagation of the
Sasana (DPPS--``Sasana'' means Buddhist doctrine) in the Ministry of
Religious Affairs.
The Government monitored the activities of members of all
religions, including Buddhism, in part because clergy and congregation
members in the past have become active politically. In 1995 the
military Government prohibited the ordination as clergy of any member
of a political party. This measure remains in effect. Moreover, there
is a concentration of Christians among some of the ethnic minorities
against which the army has fought for decades, although many of the
ethnic insurgencies have been waged by groups that practice Buddhism.
At the same time, the Government, apparently in order to bolster
its legitimacy among the Buddhist majority, discriminated against
members of minority religions and restricted the educational,
proselytizing, and building activities of minority religious groups.
Christians and Muslims experienced difficulties in obtaining
permission to build places of worship and in importing indigenous-
language translations of traditional sacred texts. Through the 1990's,
the Government increasingly has made special efforts to link itself
with Buddhism as a means of asserting its own popular legitimacy.
State-controlled news media continued frequently to depict or describe
junta members paying homage to Buddhist monks, making donations at
pagodas throughout the country, officiating at ceremonies to open,
improve, restore or maintain pagodas, and organizing ostensibly
voluntary ``people's donations'' of money, food, and uncompensated
labor to build or refurbish Buddhist religious shrines throughout the
country. State-owned newspapers routinely featured, as front-page
banner slogans, quotations from the Buddhist scriptures. Buddhist
doctrine remained part of the state-mandated curriculum in all
elementary schools; however, individual children may opt out of
instruction in Buddhism, and sometimes do so in practice. The
Government has published books of Buddhist religious instruction. The
Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), a government-
sponsored mass organization in which participation often is not
entirely voluntary, has organized courses in Buddhist culture attended
by millions of persons, according to state-owned media reports.
In April 1997, following widespread riots that involved Buddhist
clergy, the Government effectively closed the two State Sangha
Universities and banned the administration of religious literature
examinations required for advancement in the clergy. However, during
the period covered by this report, the religious literature
examinations were administered again, and in May 2000 it was announced
that 48 monks received titles.
During the mid-1990's, the Government funded the construction of
the International Theravada Buddhist Missionary University (ITBMU) in
Rangoon, which opened in December 1998. The ITBMU's stated purpose is
``to share Myanmar's knowledge of Buddhism with the people of the
world,'' and the main language of instruction is English.
Government authorities repeatedly prohibited Christian clergy from
proselytizing. Local military commanders, who often provide such
orders, rarely cite any legal justification for their actions. In
general the Government has not allowed permanent foreign religious
missions to operate since the mid-1960's, when it expelled nearly all
foreign missionaries and nationalized all private schools and
hospitals, which were extensive and were affiliated mostly with
Christian religious organizations. The Government is not known to have
paid any compensation in connection with these extensive confiscations.
However, the Government has allowed a few elderly Catholic priests and
nuns who have worked in the country since before independence to
continue their work. Government authorities usually granted foreign
religious representatives visas only for short stays in the country but
in some cases permitted them to preach to congregations. Some Christian
theological seminaries established before 1962 have continued to
operate.
In October 1990, the military junta promulgated Order 6/90, which
bans any organization of Buddhist clergy other than the nine orders
constituting the SMNC; Order 7/90, which authorizes military commanders
to try Buddhist clergy before military tribunals for ``activities
inconsistent with and detrimental to Buddhism;'' and Decree 20/90,
``Law Concerning Sangha Organizations,'' which imposes on Buddhist
clergy a code of conduct enforced by criminal penalties. These edicts
remain in effect.
Christian and Islamic groups continued to have difficulties in
obtaining permission to build new churches and mosques, particularly on
prominent sites. In parts of Chin State, authorities reportedly have
not authorized the construction of any new churches since 1997. The
Government reportedly has denied permission for churches to be built on
main roads in cities such as Myitkyina, the capital of Kachin State. In
Arakan State reportedly in April 2000, authorities reportedly detained
12 Muslim elders for failing to demolish three mosques in Dodine
village. In Rangoon authorities also have instructed Chin and Kachin
Christian worship facilities to use the term ``religious center''
rather than ``church.'' Buddhist groups are not known to have
experienced similar difficulties in obtaining permission to build
pagodas or monasteries. In most regions of the country, Christian and
Muslim groups that seek to build small churches or mosques on side
streets or other inconspicuous locations eventually have been able to
obtain official permission, despite a generally time-consuming
bureaucracy.
Since the 1960's, Christian and Islamic groups have had
difficulties in importing religious literature. Religious publications,
like secular ones, remained subject to control and censorship.
Translations of the Bible and the Koran into indigenous languages could
not be imported legally, although Bibles can be printed locally in
indigenous languages. During the period covered by this report, there
were no reports of Bibles or other religious materials having been
confiscated; however, according to the Chin Freedom coalition, in early
1999, 16,000 Bibles were confiscated in Tamu Township. State censorship
authorities reportedly object to existing translations of the Bible and
the Koran, including some translations that became widely used and
accepted by some of the country's Christian and Muslim groups during
the colonial period. According to some reports, the censors have
objected to the use in Christian or Islamic literature of certain
indigenous-language terms long used in Buddhist religious literature;
the censors reportedly have maintained that the use of these terms is
appropriately limited to Buddhism. According to other reports, the
censors have objected to passages of the Old Testament and the Koran
that may appear to approve the use of violence against nonbelievers.
Although possession of publications not approved by the censors is an
offense for which persons have been arrested and prosecuted in recent
years, there were no reports of arrests or prosecutions for possession
of any traditional religious literature during the period covered by
this report.
The Government allowed members of all religious groups to establish
and maintain links with coreligionists in other countries and to travel
abroad for religious purposes, subject to restrictive passport and visa
issuance practices, foreign exchange controls, and the government
monitoring that extends to all international activities for any
purpose. The Government sometimes expedited its burdensome passport
issuance procedures for Muslims making the Hajj.
Religious affiliation sometimes is indicated on governmentissued
identification cards that citizens and permanent residents of the
country are required to carry at all times. There appear to be no
consistent criteria governing whether a person's religion is indicated
on his or her identification card. Citizens also are required to
indicate their religions on some official application forms, e.g., on
passports (which have a separate ``field'' for religion, as well as
ethnicity).
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government, which operates a pervasive internal security
apparatus, generally infiltrates or monitors the meetings and
activities of virtually all organizations, including religious
organizations.
During the period covered by this report the Government continued
to imprison Buddhist monks who exercised their rights to free speech
and association by calling for democracy and political dialog with
prodemocracy forces. More than 100 monks credibly have been identified
as having been imprisoned during the 1990's for supporting democracy
and human rights; however, about half of these have been released, and
there is no reliable estimate of the number of Buddhist clergy in
prisons or labor camps as of mid-2000. In the past, Buddhist monks
reportedly have died in prisons or labor camps run by the Government's
Department of Prisons; however, there have been no known reports since
1994. Monks serving sentences of life in prison reportedly included the
venerable U Kalyana of Mandalay, a member of the Aung San Red Star
Association, and the venerable U Kawiya of the Phayahyi monastery in
Mandalay. In Arakan State, authorities reportedly detained 12 Muslim
elders for failing to demolish 3 mosques in Dodine village. Two Chin
pastors, Reverend Biak Kam and Reverend Thawng Kam of Than Tlang
township were detained in October 1999, reportedly in connection with
the desertion of a Burmese soldier stationed in Chin State. They later
were released.
In May 2000 there were reports that in Pegu and Mandalay security
forces arrested or detained a group of monks called the Monk's Union in
connection with a February 17, 2000 letter calling for political
gatherings on May 26, 2000. The monks reportedly issued a 100-day
ultimatum threatening nationwide strikes in the event that dialog
between the military regime and the NLD did not occur. During this
time, government authorities publicly warned monasteries in Rangoon and
Mandalay against fomenting civil disorder and asked elder monks to
admonish the younger monks. For example, a senior military commander
lectured abbots and monks at a May 25, 2000 meeting by outlining all of
the resources expended by the military Government in support of
Buddhism, and indicating that some members of the faith required
``purification,'' because they were conducting acts that were ``not
proper in the eyes of the public.'' He requested the senior abbots not
to revere any members of religious orders who did not have correct
views and urged them to ``admonish'' those who failed to follow the
prescribed code of conduct. On the scheduled weekend, about 100 monks
reportedly walked from Rangoon to Mandalay, but no disturbances were
reported.
Security forces have destroyed or looted Buddhist temples, churches
and mosques in ethnic minority areas. Government security forces
continued efforts to induce members of the Chin ethnic minority to
convert to Buddhism and prevent Christian Chin from proselytizing by
highly coercive means, including religiously selective exemptions from
forced labor, and by arresting, detaining, interrogating, and
physically abusing Christian clergy. There continued to be credible
reports from diverse regions of the country that government officials
and security forces compelled persons, especially in rural areas, to
contribute money, food, or uncompensated labor to statesponsored
projects to build, renovate, or maintain Buddhist religious shrines or
monuments. The Government calls these contributions ``voluntary
donations'' and imposes them on both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
Authorities at times also restricted the freedom of movement of
clergy. For example, in July 1999, the senior abbots of five
monasteries around Mandalay reportedly protested a new order by the
regional military command that forbade Buddhist clergy from leaving
their township of residence without first surrendering their identity
cards and obtaining written permission from local authorities; persons
other than Buddhist clergy generally were not subject to such severe
restrictions on movement.
Non-Buddhists continued to experience discrimination at upper
levels of the public sector. Only one non-Buddhist served in the
Government at a ministerial level, and the same person, a brigadier
general, is the only non-Buddhist known to have held flag rank in the
armed forces during the 1990's. The Government discourages Muslims from
entering military service, and Christian or Muslim military officers
who aspire to promotion beyond middle ranks are encouraged by their
superiors to convert to Buddhism.
The Government ostensibly promotes mutual understanding among
practitioners of different religions. Official public holidays include
some Christian and Islamic holy days, as well as several Theravada
Buddhist holy days. The Government maintains a multireligion monument
in downtown Rangoon. In 1998 it announced plans to build a new
Multireligion Square on some of the land that it recovered in 1997 by
relocating Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, and Muslim cemeteries in
Rangoon's Kyandaw neighborhood, although as of June 2000, construction
had not begun yet.
Since 1990 government authorities and security forces have promoted
Buddhism over Christianity among the Chin ethnic minority of the
western part of the country. Until 1990 the Chin generally practiced
either Christianity or traditional indigenous religions. (The Chin were
the only major ethnic minority in the country that did not support any
significant armed organization in active rebellion against the
Government or in an armed cease-fire with the Government. However, Chin
opposition groups emerged in 1988 and subsequently developed into
active insurgencies against the Government.) Since 1990 government
authorities and security forces, with assistance from monks of the Hill
Regions Buddhist Missions, coercively have sought to induce Chins to
convert to Theravada Buddhism and to prevent Christian Chins from
proselytizing Chins who practice traditional indigenous religions. This
campaign, reportedly accompanied by other efforts to ``Burmanize'' the
Chin, has involved a large increase in military units stationed in Chin
State and other predominately Chin areas, state-sponsored immigration
of Buddhist Burman monks from other regions, and construction of
Buddhist monasteries and shrines in Chin communities with few or no
Buddhists, often by means of forced ``donations'' of money or labor.
According to multiple credible reports, authorities and security
forces promoted Buddhism among the Chin in diverse and often coercive
ways. For example, military units repeatedly located their camps on the
sites of Christian churches and graveyards, which were destroyed to
build these camps; local Chin Christians were forced to assist in these
acts of desecration. Local government officials ordered Christian Chins
to attend sermons by newly arrived Buddhist monks who disparaged
Christianity and promised monthly support payments to individuals and
households that converted to Buddhism. Government soldiers stationed in
Chin State reportedly were given higher rank and pay if they induced
Chin women to marry them and convert to Buddhism. The authorities
reportedly supplied rice to Buddhists at lower prices than to
Christians, distributed extra supplies of foodstuffs to Buddhists on
Sunday mornings while Christians attended church, and exempted converts
to Buddhism from forced labor. It credibly was reported that in Karen
State's Pa'an Township army units repeatedly conscripted as porters
young men leaving Sunday worship services at some Christian churches,
causing young men to avoid church attendance. Soldiers led by officers
repeatedly disrupted Christian worship services and celebrations. Chin
Christians were forced to ``donate'' labor to clean and maintain
Buddhist shrines. Local government officials separated the children of
Chin Christians from their parents under false pretenses of giving them
free secular education and allowing them to practice their own
religion, while in fact the children were lodged in Buddhist
monasteries where they were instructed in and converted to Buddhism
without their parents' knowledge or consent. The authorities reportedly
subjected Christian sermons to censorship. Government authorities
repeatedly prohibited Christian clergy from proselytizing. In the past,
soldiers beat Christian clergy who refused to sign statements promising
to stop preaching. Two Chin pastors from Than Tlang township were
detained in October 1999, reportedly in connection with the desertion
of a Burmese soldier stationed in Chin State. They later were released.
There were several credible reports of harassment of Christian
churches and pastors in Chin State and in the Chin community elsewhere
in connection with the celebration of the 100th year of Christianity
among the Chin in 1999.
Since the early 1990's, security forces have torn down or forced
villagers to tear down crosses that had been erected outside Chin
Christian villages. These crosses often have been replaced with
pagodas, sometimes built with forced labor. Many of these crosses had
been erected in remembrance of former missionaries from the United
States. However, in one case authorities allowed a cross removed from
the top of a hill to be rebuilt on the middle of the hill.
After parts of the Aungdawmu Buddhist pagoda in Chin State's Falam
Township collapsed in July 1999, Buddhist monks and army authorities
reportedly forced Chin villagers, most of whom were not Buddhists, to
labor for months without pay to repair it.
While in the 1990's, there were unconfirmed reports of arrests,
detentions and imprisonments of Chin pastors, there were no reports of
Chin pastors in custody during the period covered by this report.
There were unconfirmed reports of governmental restrictions on the
religious freedom of Christians among the Naga ethnic minority in the
far northwest of the country. These reports suggested that the
Government sought to induce members of the Naga to convert to Buddhism
by means similar to those it used to convert members of the Chin to
Buddhism. However, reports concerning the Naga, although credible, are
less numerous than reports concerning the Chin. Consequently, the
status of religious freedom among the Naga is more uncertain than that
of religious freedom among the Chin.
During 1999 the first mass exodus of Naga religious refugees from
the country occurred. In August 1999, more than 1,000 Christians of the
Naga ethnic group, from 8 different villages, reportedly fled the
country to India. These Naga reportedly claimed that the army and
Buddhist monks tried to force them to convert to Buddhism and had
forced them to close churches in their villages, then desecrated the
churches.
There were no known reports of government violations of religious
freedom in predominantly Christian Kachin State, although Christian
groups continued to have difficulty obtaining permission to build new
churches. Most of Kachin State was administered by the Kachin
Independence Organization (KIO), under a 1989 cease-fire arrangement
with the Government that allows KIO forces to remain armed. By
contrast, in the other ethnic minority regions where Christianity is
practiced widely, i.e., Karen and Chin States, armed ethnic groups were
engaged actively in hostilities against the Government.
Members of the Muslim Rohingya minority in Arakan State, on the
country's western coast, continued to experience severe legal,
economic, and social discrimination. The Government denies citizenship
status to most Rohingyas on the grounds that their ancestors allegedly
did not reside in the country at the start of British colonial rule, as
required by the country's highly restrictive citizenship law. In 1991
tens of thousands of Rohingya, according to some reports as many as
300,000 persons, fled from Arakan State into Bangladesh following anti-
Muslim violence alleged although not proven to have involved government
troops. Many of the 21,000 Rohingya Muslims remaining in refugee camps
in Bangladesh have refused to return to Burma because they feared human
rights abuses, including religious persecution. The U.N. High
Commissioner for Refugees reported that authorities cooperated in
investigating isolated incidents of renewed abuse of repatriated
citizens. However, returnees complained of severe government
restrictions on their ability to travel and to engage in economic
activity. Unlike the practice with other foreign persons in the
country, these Muslims are not issued a foreign registration card
(FRC). They are required to obtain permission from the concerned area
authorities whenever they wish to leave their village area. Permission
to travel to Rangoon usually is not granted to Rohingya Muslims, but
permission can sometimes be obtained through bribery. These
extraordinary payments result in limiting travel to the capital to only
the wealthiest people. There were credible reports that Muslims in
Arakan State continue to be compelled to build Buddhist pagodas as part
of the country's forced labor program. These pagodas often are built on
confiscated Muslim land. On November 19, 1999, in Arakan State's
Maungdaw Township, Myint Tun, director of the state's Buddhist
Religious Township Association, accompanied by officials of a local
Buddhist religious center, reportedly visited the village of Lower
Purma and ordered the village headman to demolish the village's largest
and oldest mosque, without citing any reason. During the period covered
by this report, Secretary-One of the SPDC, Lieutenant-General Khin
Nyunt, inaugurated a new pagoda in nothern Rakhine State that was built
on land confiscated from the local Muslims and built with forced Muslim
labor.
There were credible reports that during the spring of 1999
antiIslamic booklets were distributed throughout the country through
the USDA, a government-sponsored mass organization. This report
followed other reports in recent years of government instigation or
toleration of violence against Muslims.
Religious activities and organizations of all faiths are not exempt
from broad government restrictions on freedom of expression and
association. The Government subjects all publications, including
religious publications, to control and censorship. The Government
generally prohibits outdoor meetings of more than five persons,
including religious meetings.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. However, government
restrictions on speech, press, assembly, and movement, including
diplomatic travel, make it difficult to obtain timely and accurate
information about respect for human rights generally, including freedom
of religion. Information about abuses often becomes available only
months or years after the events, from refugees who have fled to other
countries, from released political prisoners, or from occasional travel
inside the country by foreign journalists and scholars.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are social tensions between the Buddhist majority and the
Christian and Muslim minorities, due in large part to government
preference in practice (although not in law) both for nonBuddhists
during British colonial rule and for Buddhists since independence.
There is widespread prejudice against Muslims, many of whom are ethnic
Indians or Bengalis. Even though the Government reportedly contributed
to or instigated anti-Muslim violence in Arakan State in 1991, in Shan
State and Rangoon in 1996, and in cities throughout the country in
1997, its reported ability to do so repeatedly reflects widespread
prejudice against Muslims, many of whom are ethnic Indians or Bengalis.
Since 1994 when the progovernment Democratic Karen Buddhist Army
(DKBA) was organized, there has been armed conflict between the DKBA
and the Karen National Union (KNU). Although the DKBA was formed and
has operated with government support and guidance and reportedly
includes some Christians, and although the KNU includes many Buddhists,
this armed conflict between two nongovernmental Karen organizations has
had strong religious overtones. During the mid-1990's, when the DKBA
captured a village from the KNU, it reportedly was common DKBA practice
to interrogate and release Buddhist villagers but to torture Christian
villagers and kill them if they refused to convert to Buddhism. DKBA
treatment of Christians reportedly improved substantially after the
DKBA settled down to administering the regions it had conquered.
According to one report, in February 2000, a DKBA unit ordered
villagers in Khwet Phoe village to destroy a local mosque after
arresting and executing five villagers for supporting the KNU. In April
2000, residents of Kaw Kyaik village in Karen State protested an order
from DKBA units to destroy the local mosque.
In October 1999, the Government claimed that members of the Chin
National Front (CNF) in Htan Hle village killed Buddhist monk U Thon
Nanda and looted a Buddhist monastery. The CNF criticized the killing
and denied that it was responsible. In June 2000, the authorities
claimed in an unconfirmed report that 28 Karenni National Progressive
Party insurgents shot and wounded a Catholic priest, Father Abe Lei,
and took 4 other persons hostage on June 17, 2000.
A 1996 incident of lethal violence at a major Buddhist religious
shrine remained unresolved. There continued to be no arrest warrants or
indictments issued in connection with the bombing, on Christmas day
1996, of a pagoda in Rangoon at which a relic of the Buddha's tooth,
then on loan from China, temporarily was lodged. The bombing killed 4
persons and injured 18 others. No organization is known to have claimed
responsibility for this bombing.
A reported 1997 desecration of a major Buddhist shrine also
remained unresolved. In early March 1997, reports that an ancient and
highly venerated image of the Buddha in Mandalay's Maya Myatmuni Pagoda
had been broken into, and that large rubies embedded in it had been
stolen, contributed to widespread public protest demonstrations by
Buddhist monks and laypersons demanding an investigation of the
incident. There has been no public judicial inquiry into this reported
desecration.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Since 1988 a primary objective of U.S. Government policy toward
Burma has been to promote increased respect for human rights, including
the right to freedom of religion. The United States discontinued
bilateral aid to the Government, suspended issuance of licenses to
export arms to Burma, suspended generalized system of preferences,
tariff preference for imports of Burmese origin, and suspended export-
import bank financial services in support of U.S. exports to Burma. The
U.S. Government also has not provided any overseas private investment
organization financial services in support of U.S. investment in Burma,
has suspended active promotion of trade with Burma, suspended issuance
of visas to high government officials and their immediate family
members, banned new investment in Burma by U.S. firms, opposed all
assistance to the Government by international financial institutions,
and urged the governments of other countries to take similar actions.
The U.S. Government actively supported the decision of the
International Labor Organization (ILO), in June 1999, to suspend the
Government of Burma from participation in ILO programs, based in part
on an August 1998 ILO Commission of Inquiry report that the Government
systematically used forced labor for a wide range of civilian and
military purposes.
The U.S. Embassy has promoted religious freedom in the overall
context of its promotion of human rights generally in numerous contacts
with government officials (both informally and through repeated formal
demarches), as well as to the public, to representatives of the
governments of other countries and of international organizations, to
international media representatives, to scholars, and to
representatives of U.S. and international businesses. Embassy staff
have met repeatedly with leaders of Buddhist, Christian, and Islamic
religious groups, members of the faculties of schools of theology, and
other religious-affiliated organizations and nongovernmental
organizations (NGO's) as part of their reporting and public diplomacy
activities.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated Burma a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
__________
CAMBODIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religious communities in society contribute to the free
practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The law requires all religious groups, including Buddhists, to
submit applications to the Ministry of Cults and Religious Affairs in
order to construct places of worship and to conduct religious
activities. Religious groups have not encountered significant
difficulties in obtaining approvals for construction of places of
worship, but some Muslim and Christian groups report delays by some
local officials in acknowledging that official permission has been
granted to conduct religious meetings in homes. Such religious meetings
generally take place unimpeded despite delay or inaction at the local
level, and no significant constraints on religious assembly were
reported during the period covered by this report.
Monks can move internally without restriction.
Religious Demography
Buddhism is the state religion. The Government promotes national
Buddhist holidays, provides Buddhist training and education to monks
and others in pagodas, and modestly supports an institute that performs
research and publishes materials on Khmer culture and Buddhist
traditions.
Over 95 percent of the population are Theravada Buddhist. The
Buddhist tradition is widespread and active in all provinces, with an
estimated 3,700 pagodas throughout the country. Virtually all ethnic
Cambodians are Buddhist, and there is a close association between
Buddhism, Khmer cultural traditions, and daily life. Adherence to
Buddhism generally is considered intrinsic to Cambodian ethnic and
cultural identity.
Most of the remainder of the population is made up of ethnic Cham
Muslims, who generally are located in Phnom Penh and in rural fishing
villages in Kompong Cham, Kompong Chhnang, and Kampot provinces. There
are four branches of Islam: The Malay-influenced Shafi branch, which
constitutes 70 percent of the Cham Muslims; the Saudi-Kuwaiti
influenced Wahabi branch (20 percent); the traditional Kom Iman-San
branch (7 percent); and the Indonestan Kadiani branch (3 percent).
The country's small Christian community constitutes less than 1
percent of the population. Over 100 separate Christian organizations or
denominations operate freely throughout the country and include over
700 congregations.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Foreign missionary groups generally operated freely throughout the
country and have not encountered significant difficulties in performing
their work. However, there reportedly are occasional local constraints
on evangelization by Christians in public places--especially in areas
of new Christian religious activitybut these generally are resolved
satisfactorily by intervention with provincial or central government
authorities.
Government officials expressed appreciation for the work of many
foreign religious groups in providing much needed assistance in
education, rural development, and training. Government officials also
expressed some concern that foreign groups use the guise of religion to
become involved in illegal or political affairs.
Government officials organize meetings for representatives of all
religious groups to discuss religious developments and to address
issues of concern. There are no constraints on the distribution of
religious books or literature.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations generally are amicable between the various religious
communities. The Constitution prohibits discrimination based on
religion, and minority religions experience little or no societal
discrimination in practice. Adherents of the minority Muslim or
Christian faiths reported few societal problems on issues of religion.
The Cham Muslims generally are well integrated into society, enjoy
positions of prominence in business and in the Government, and face no
reported persecution.
Occasional tensions have been reported among the various branches
of Islam, which receive monetary support from groups in Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Malaysia, or Indonesia depending on the tenets of the
particular branch. Some Buddhists also have expressed concern about the
Cham Muslim community receiving financial assistance from foreign
countries.
During the period covered by this report there were no reports of
tension between Cambodian Christians and non-Christians. However,
occasional tensions have been reported when Christian evangelists
attempted to remove Buddhist images or religious items from private
homes, but these disputes have not resulted in physical violence.
There are ecumenical and inter-faith organizations, which often are
supported by funding from foreign public or private groups.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy representatives met with some religious leaders and
are in contact with representatives of religious nongovernmental
organizations and other groups representing the Buddhist, Muslim, and
Christian faiths.
Embassy representatives have spoken with officials from the
government Ministry of Cults and Religious Affairs to discuss religious
freedom.
__________
CHINA
(Note: Tibet is discussed in a separate annex at the end of this
report.)
The Constitution provides for freedom of religious belief and the
freedom not to believe; however, the Government seeks to restrict
religious practice to government-sanctioned organizations and
registered places of worship and to control the growth and scope of the
activity of religious groups. There are five officially recognized
religions--Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism. For
each faith there is a government-affiliated association to monitor and
supervise its activities. Membership in many faiths is growing rapidly;
however, while the Government generally does not seek to suppress this
growth outright, it tries to control and regulate religious groups to
prevent the rise of groups or sources of authority outside the control
of the Government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
During the beginning of the period covered by this report (the last
6 months of 1999), the Government's respect for religious freedom
deteriorated markedly, especially for the Falun Gong and Tibetan
Buddhists, and the Government's repression and abuses continued during
the first 6 months of 2000. The atmosphere created by the harsh
crackdown on the Falun Gong spiritual movement and the unremitting
nationwide campaigns against ``cults'' and superstition, along with
frequent exhortations by senior leaders to ``strengthen religious
work,'' had an inevitable spillover effect on other faiths. In October
1999, as part of the Government's anti-Falun Gong crackdown, the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress adopted a decision
to ban ``cults,'' including the Falun Gong, under Article 300 of the
Criminal Law. Several non-Falun Gong qigong groups and unregistered
religious groups were banned under the decision. However, the
Government's basic policy of permitting apolitical religious activities
of registered religious groups to take place relatively unfettered in
government-approved sites remained unchanged.
In general, unregistered religious groups, including Protestant and
Catholic groups, continued to experience varying degrees of official
interference, harassment, and repression. Some unregistered religious
groups were subjected to increased restrictions--including, in some
cases, intimidation, harassment, and detention. However, the degree of
restrictions varied significantly from region to region, and the number
of religious adherents, in both registered and unregistered churches,
continued to grow rapidly, and in some areas, with little official
interference. In some regions, registered and unregistered churches
were treated in a similar fashion by the authorities. In regions with
high concentrations of Catholics, relations between the Government and
the underground church loyal to the Vatican remained tense. However,
citizens worshiping in officially sanctioned churches, mosques, and
temples reported little or no day-to-day interference by the
Government. The Government's efforts to maintain a strong degree of
control over religion, and its crackdown on groups that it perceived to
pose a threat, continued. Overall, however, in the two decades since
the Cultural Revolution, when all forms of religion were banned, there
has been a loosening of government controls and a resurgence in
religious activity.
Despite the Government's decision to suspend the U.S.-China
bilateral human rights dialog in May 1999, the Department of State, the
U.S. Embassy in Beijing, and U.S. Consulates General in Chengdu,
Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang made a concerted effort to encourage
religious freedom. In Washington and in Beijing, in public and in
private, U.S. officials repeatedly urged the Government to respect
citizens' rights to religious freedom. U.S. officials protested and
asked for further information about numerous individual cases of abuse,
and urged China to resume a dialog with the Dalai Lama. The
deterioration of religious freedom in China was a key factor in the
U.S. decision to introduce once again a resolution critical of China's
human rights record at the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva. In
September 1999, the Secretary of State designated China a country of
particular concern under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religious belief and the
freedom not to believe; however, the Government seeks to restrict
religious practice to government-sanctioned organizations and
registered places of worship and to control the growth and scope of the
activity of religious groups.
The Criminal Law states that government officials who deprive
citizens of religious freedom may, in serious cases, be sentenced to up
to 2 years in prison; however, there are no known cases of persons
being punished under this statute.
The state arrogates to itself the right to recognize and thus to
allow to operate particular religious groups and spiritual movements.
The State Council's Religious Affairs Bureau (RAB) is responsible for
monitoring and judging the legitimacy of religious activity. The RAB
and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) United Front Work Department
(UFWD), both of which are staffed by officials who are rarely if ever
religious adherents, provide policy ``guidance and supervision'' over
implementation of government regulations on religious activity,
including the role of foreigners in religious activity.
During the period covered by this report, the Government continued,
and in some areas, intensified a national campaign to enforce 1994
State Council regulations and subsequent provincial regulations that
require all places of worship to register with government religious
affairs bureaus and to come under the supervision of official
``patriotic'' religious organizations. During a September 1999 speech,
President Jiang Zemin noted the Party's policy on freedom of religious
belief but also called for stronger leadership over religious work and
intensified management of religious affairs. He added that ``we should
energetically give guidance to religion so that it will keep in line
with the Socialist society and serve ethnic unity, social stability,
and modernization.'' The need for vigilance against allegedly hostile
foreign forces bent on Westernizing or splitting the country,
containment of religious ``cults,'' the further adaptation of religion
to socialist imperatives, strengthening the ``rule of law'' in managing
religious affairs, enhanced political and ideological education for
religious figures, and increased vigilance against growing religiosity
in the Party and governing and military circles are identified as areas
in need of work in the January 20, 2000 document, ``Several Policy
Issues Concerning Current Religion Work,'' which was issued in
conjunction with a national meeting of the RAB. On March 11, 2000, the
Party's flagship newspaper, the People's Daily, published a commentary
on religious affairs work. The article urged all party members to
``promote atheist thought in a positive way and persist in educating
the masses of various ethnic groups with the Marxist perspective on
religion.'' While the commentary also called on the Party to protect
``citizens' freedom of religious belief,'' it warned that ``hostile
forces outside [China's] borders and separatist forces are taking
advantage of ethnicity and religion to bring about political
infiltration and the separation of the motherland.''
The Government officially permits only those Christian churches
affiliated with either the Catholic Patriotic Association/Catholic
Bishops Conference or the (Protestant) Three-Self Patriotic Movement/
Chinese Christian Council to operate legally. There are six
requirements for the registration of venues for religious activity:
possession of a meeting place; citizens who are religious believers and
who regularly take part in religious activity; an organized governing
board; a minimum number of followers; a set of operating rules; and a
legal source of income. There are five officially recognized religions:
Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Islam, and Taoism. Some groups
registered voluntarily, some registered under pressure, while
authorities refused to register others. Unofficial groups claimed that
authorities often refuse them registration without explanation. The
Government contends that these refusals were mainly the result of
inadequate facilities and meeting spaces. Many religious groups have
been reluctant to comply with the regulations out of principled
opposition to state control of religion or due to fear of adverse
consequences if they reveal, as required, the names and addresses of
church leaders. In some areas, efforts to register unauthorized groups
are carried out by religious leaders and civil affairs officials. In
other regions, registration is performed by police and RAB officials,
concurrently with other law enforcement actions.
On October 31, 1999, as part of the Government's anti-Falun Gong
crackdown, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
adopted a decision to ban all ``cults,'' including the Falun Gong,
under Article 300 of the Criminal Law. The Supreme People's Court and
the Supreme People's Procuratorate also provided ``explanations'' on
applying existing criminal law to the Falun Gong. The law, as applied
following these actions, specifies prison terms of 3 to 7 years for
cult members who ``disrupt public order'' or distribute publications.
Under the law, cult leaders and recruiters can be sentenced to 7 years
or more in prison. Several groups were declared ``cults'' and banned
under the decision, including Christian, Buddhist, and various qigong
groups. The Government banned Falun Gong in July 1999, but some Falun
Gong leaders, who were arrested after the July ban, were tried and
convicted under the anti-cult law in late 1999.
Religious Demography
According to an official government white paper, there are over 200
million religious adherents, representing a great variety of beliefs
and practices. Official figures from late 1997 indicate that there are
at least 3,000 religious organizations, 300,000 clergy, and 74
religious schools and colleges. There are also more than 85,000
approved venues for religious activities. Most religious adherents
profess Eastern faiths, but tens of millions adhere to Christianity.
According to estimates, 75 percent of the population practices some
form of traditional folk religion (worship of local gods, heroes, and
ancestors). Approximately 8 percent of the population are Buddhist,
approximately 1.4 percent are Muslim, an estimated 0.4 percent belong
to the official Catholic Church, an estimated 0.4 to 0.8 percent belong
to the unofficial Vatican-affiliated Catholic Church, an estimated 0.08
percent to 1.2 percent are registered Protestants, and perhaps 2.4 to
6.5 percent worship in house churches that are independent of
government control. There are no available estimates of the number of
Taoists. However, according to a 1997 government publication, there are
over 10,000 Taoist monks and nuns and over 1,000 Taoist temples.
The widespread traditional folk religion has revived in recent
years and is tolerated to varying degrees as a loose affiliate of
Taoism, or as an ethnic minority cultural practice; at the same time,
however, folk religion has been labeled as ``feudal superstition,'' and
local authorities have destroyed thousands of local shrines.
Buddhists make up the largest body of organized religious
believers. The Government estimates that there are more than 100
million Buddhists, most of whom are from the dominant Han ethnic group.
However, it is difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists
because they do not have congregational memberships and often do not
participate in public ceremonies. The Government reports that there are
13,000 Buddhist temples and monasteries and more than 200,000 nuns and
monks. In some areas, local governments enforced strictly regulations
on places of worship, particularly on illegally constructed Buddhist
temples and shrines.
According to government figures, there are 20 million Muslims,
35,000 Islamic places of worship, and more than 45,000 imams
nationwide.
The unofficial, Vatican-affiliated Catholic Church claims a
membership far larger than the 5 million persons registered with the
official Catholic Church. Precise figures are difficult to determine,
but Vatican officials have estimated that there are as many as 10
million adherents. According to official figures, the government-
approved Catholic Church has 69 bishops, 5,000 clergy, and about 5,000
churches and meeting houses. There are 60,000 baptisms each year. The
Government so far has refused to establish diplomatic relations with
the Holy See, and there is no Vatican representative in the country.
The Government maintains that there are between 10 and 15 million
registered Protestants, 18,000 clergy, over 12,000 churches, and some
25,000 registered Protestant meeting places. According to foreign
experts, perhaps 30 million persons worship in Protestant house
churches that are independent of government control, although estimates
by some house church groups range as high as 80 million.
Estimates of the number of Falun Gong practitioners vary widely;
the Government claims that there may be as many as 2.1 million
adherents of Falun Gong (or Wheel of the Law), also known as Falun
Dafa; followers of Falun Gong estimate that there are over 100 million
adherents worldwide. Some experts estimate that the true number of
adherents lies in the tens of millions. Falun Gong blends aspects of
Taoism, Buddhism, and the meditation techniques and physical exercises
of qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise discipline) with the
teachings of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi (a native of China who is
currently living abroad). Despite the mystical nature of some of Li's
teachings, Falun Gong does not consider itself a religion and has no
clergy or places of worship.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government tends to perceive unregulated religious gatherings
as a potential challenge to its authority, and during the period
covered by this report it moved swiftly against houses of worship
outside its control that grew too large or espoused beliefs that it
considered threatening to ``state security.'' Police closed
``underground'' mosques, temples, and seminaries, as well as large
numbers of Catholic churches, and Protestant ``house churches,'' many
with significant memberships, properties, financial resources, and
networks, and banned groups that it considered ``cults.'' Some places
of worship were destroyed. Leaders of unauthorized groups are often the
targets of harassment, interrogations, detention, and physical abuse.
In the past, official tolerance for religions considered to be
traditionally Chinese, such as Buddhism and Taoism, has been greater
than that for Christianity, and these faiths often face fewer
restrictions than the other recognized religions. As these non-Western
faiths have grown rapidly in recent years, there are signs of greater
government concern and new restrictions, especially on syncretic sects.
The Government continued, and in some places, intensified a
national campaign to enforce 1994 State Council regulations and
subsequent provincial regulations requiring all places of religious
activity to register with government religious affairs bureaus and come
under the supervision of official, ``patriotic'' religious
organizations. There are reports that despite the rapidly growing
religious population, it is difficult for new places of worship to be
registered even among the five officially recognized faiths. The
Government has restored or replaced churches, temples, mosques, and
monasteries damaged or destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, and
allowed the reopening of some seminaries. Implementation of this policy
has varied from locality to locality. However, there are far fewer
temples, churches, or mosques than existed 50 years ago (before the
Cultural Revolution), despite the recent increase in number of
religious believers. The difficulty in registering new places of
worship has led to crowding in many existing places of worship.
Some bishops in the official Catholic Church are not recognized by
the Holy See, although many have been recognized privately. In January
2000, bishops of the official Catholic Church, without consulting the
Holy See, ordained 5 new official church bishops on the same day that
the Pope consecrated 12 new Roman Catholic bishops in Rome. Some
bishops of the official church reportedly refused to attend the Beijing
ceremony, which they saw as a deliberate affront to the Vatican.
However, the May 7, 2000 ordination service of Bishop Zhao Fengchang
began with a statement that the Vatican had approved the ceremony.
There are many long-standing vacancies in the official Catholic
administration, particularly among bishops, and there are reports that
the RAB and the official church patriotic association are pressuring
the church to fill the vacancies quickly. However, some bishops who are
ordained without Vatican recognition are not fully accepted by church
members and other clerics, even in the official church. The
Government's refusal to allow the official Catholic Church to recognize
the religious authority of the Papacy has led many Catholics to refuse
to join the official Catholic Church on the grounds that this refusal
denies one of the fundamental tenets of their faith.
There are thriving Muslim communities in some areas, but government
sensitivity to concerns of the Muslim community is limited. In November
1998 a Qing dynasty mosque was destroyed in Chengdu's Muslim quarter to
make way for a boulevard near an expanded city square despite strong
opposition from the city's Muslim population; the mosque had been the
center of Muslim life in Chengdu. The construction of a new mosque over
a complex of retail establishments further offended the community. As
of June 2000, no construction upon the site of the Qing dynasty mosque
had yet occurred; the imam, or leader, of the mosque that was
demolished was ordered to leave Chengdu and has been forbidden to
engage in religious work. The new officially sanctioned mosque over the
retail complex has been attended only lightly since its opening.
The Government took some steps designed to show respect for the
country's Muslims, such as offering congratulations on major Islamic
holidays. When an official newspaper in Guangzhou published a picture
of the kaaba in Mecca next to an unrelated photograph of a cloned pig
in March 2000--outraging local Muslims, who cited the Muslim view of
pigs as unclean--the authorities disciplined the editor, and the
newspaper published an apology. The Government permits, and in some
cases subsidizes, Muslim citizens who make the Hajj (pilgrimage) to
Mecca. However, testimony before the congressionally mandated
Commission on International Religious Freedom in March 2000, as well as
other reports, stated that many Muslims of the Uighur minority are not
allowed to go on pilgrimage. According to credible reports, including
written testimony to the Commission, on one occasion, hundreds of
Uighurs with tickets and passports were denied permission to board an
airplane to go on Hajj, as they were not part of the state quota.
According to official government statistics, more than 45,000 Muslims
have made the pilgrimage in recent years--5,000 in 1998. There have
been nongovernmental reports that fewer persons participated in 1999
and 2000; according to some estimates less than 2,500 went in each of
those years. According to some reports, the major limiting factors for
participation in the Hajj were the cost, controls on passport issuance,
and corruption of the officials responsible for overseeing pilgrims'
travel for the Hajj.
In some areas where ethnic unrest has occurred, particularly among
Central Asian Muslims (and especially the Uighurs) in Xinjiang,
officials continue to restrict the building of mosques. However, in
other areas, particularly in areas traditionally populated by the non-
Central Asian Hui ethnic group, there is substantial religious building
construction and renovation. After a series of violent incidents in
Xinjiang beginning in 1997 and continuing into 2000, including reported
bombings in Xinjiang and other parts of the country attributed to
Uighur activists, police cracked down on Muslim religious activity and
places of worship accused of supporting separatism, and local
authorities issued regulations further restricting religious activities
and teaching. Restrictions on Muslim religious practice in Xinjiang
remain tight, and the authorities continue to restrict the religious
education of youths under the age of 18.
Provincial-level Communist Party and government officials
repeatedly called for stronger management of religious affairs and the
separation of religion from administrative matters in Xinjiang. For
example, the official Xinjiang Legal Daily reported that in recent
years a township in Baicheng county had found cases of ``religious
interference'' in judicial, marriage, and family planning matters. In
response, the authorities began conducting monthly political study
sessions for religious personnel. In addition, they required every
mosque to record the number of attendees and names of those attending
each day's activities. The official ``Xinjiang Daily'' reported that
Yining County reviewed the activities of 420 mosques, and implemented a
system of linking ethnic cadres to mosques in order to improve
vigilance against ``illegal religious activities.'' The article stated
that the county's persistent ideological propaganda efforts had led a
group of 24 women to shed their veils and ``raise their level of
civilization.'' The educational campaign reportedly also had led young
ethnic couples who had married illegally by means of an Islamic
betrothal ceremony to seek civil marriage certificates.
There were numerous reports in the official media of efforts by the
authorities to confiscate ``illegal religious publications'' in
Xinjiang. One report explained that such publications discussed ``holy
war'' and ``holy war history,'' promoted pan-Islamism, panTurkism, and
ethnic separatism; and ``fanned the flames of religious fanaticism.''
According to a July 2000 report of the International Coalition for
Religious Freedom, since April 1996, only one publisher, the Xinjiang
People's Publication House, has been allowed to print Muslim literature
in Xinjiang.
The increase in the number of Christians has resulted in a
corresponding increase in the demand for Bibles. During 1999 the
Government approved the printing of more than 3 million Bibles, and
there currently are more than 22 million Bibles in print. One printing
company that is a joint venture with an overseas Christian organization
printed over 2.3 million Bibles during 1999, including Bibles in
Braille and minority dialects, such as Korean, Jingbo, Lisu, Lahu,
Niao, and Yao. Although Bibles can be purchased at some bookstores,
they are not readily available and cannot be ordered directly from
publishing houses by individuals. However, they are available for
purchase at most officially recognized churches, and many house church
members buy their Bibles from churches without incident. Nonetheless,
some underground Christians hesitate to buy Bibles at official churches
because such transactions sometimes involve receipts that identify the
purchaser. Foreign experts confirm reports of chronic shortages of
Bibles, mostly due to logistical problems in disseminating Bibles to
rural areas, though the situation has improved in recent years due to
improved distribution channels, including to house churches. Customs
officials continue to monitor for the ``smuggling'' of Bibles and other
religious materials into the country. There have been credible reports
that the authorities sometimes confiscate Bibles in raids on house
churches.
The authorities permit officially sanctioned religious
organizations to maintain international contacts that do not entail
``foreign control.'' What constitutes ``control'' is not defined.
Foreigners are not permitted to conduct missionary activities, but
foreign Christians currently are teaching English and other languages
on college campuses with minimum interference from authorities as long
as their proselytizing is low key. There were reports that in early
1999 the Government issued a circular to tighten control over foreign
missionary activity in the country. Regulations enacted in 1994
codified many existing rules involving foreigners, including a ban on
proselytizing by foreigners, but for the most part allow foreign
nationals to preach to foreigners, bring in religious materials for
their own use, and preach to Chinese citizens at churches, mosques, and
temples at the invitation of registered religious organizations.
In recent years, some local authorities, especially in northeastern
China, have subjected worship services of alien residents to increased
surveillance and restrictions. In other areas, authorities have
displayed increasing tolerance of religious practice by foreigners.
Weekly services of the foreign Jewish community in Beijing have been
held uninterrupted since 1995 and High Holy Day observances have been
allowed for more than 15 years. In September 1999, with the support of
local authorities, the Shanghai Jewish community was allowed to hold a
service in an historic Shanghai synagogue, which had been restored as a
museum, for the first time since 1949. Local authorities indicated that
the community could use the synagogue in the future for special
occasions on a case-by-case basis. The community has used the synagogue
three times, most recently for Passover services in April 2000. Upon
the city's request, the Shanghai Rabbi and the community have submitted
a list of additional holidays that they would want to celebrate.
Official religious organizations administer local Bible schools, 54
Catholic and Protestant seminaries, 9 institutes to train imams and
Islamic scholars, and institutes to train Buddhist monks. Students who
attend these institutes must demonstrate ``political reliability'' and
all graduates must pass an examination on their theological and
political knowledge to qualify for the clergy. Some young Uighur
Muslims study outside of the country in Muslim religious schools. The
Government has stated that there are 10 colleges conducting Islamic
higher education and 2 other Islamic schools in Xinjiang operating with
government support.
The Government permitted limited numbers of Catholic and Protestant
seminarians, Muslim clerics, and Buddhist clergy to go abroad for
additional religious studies. In most cases, funding for these training
programs is provided by foreign organizations. Both official and
unofficial Christian churches have problems training adequate numbers
of clergy to meet the needs of their growing congregations. Due to the
restrictions on religion between 1955 and 1985, no priests or other
clergy in the official churches were ordained; most priests and pastors
serving currently were trained either before 1955 or after 1985. Most
religious institutions depend on their own resources. Frequently
religious institutions run side businesses selling religious items, and
at times they run strictly commercial businesses (restaurants are
popular). Contributions from parish members are common among both the
Catholics and Protestants. Sometimes the State will fund repairs for
temples or shrines having cultural or historic significance. There are
some reports that government funds are allocated only to registered
churches, depending upon how independent they are perceived to be--
those deemed too independent reportedly have their budgets cut. Due to
government prohibitions, unofficial churches have particularly
significant problems training clergy or sending students to study
overseas, and many clergy receive only limited and inadequate
preparation.
The law does not prohibit religious believers from holding public
office; however, most influential positions in government are reserved
for Party members, and Communist Party officials state that Party
membership and religious belief are incompatible. Party membership also
is required for almost all high level positions in government and in
state-owned businesses and organizations. The Communist Party
reportedly has issued two circulars since 1995 ordering Party members
not to adhere to religious beliefs and ordering the expulsion of Party
members who belong to religious organizations, whether open or
clandestine. There were reports that the Government issued a circular
in early 1999 to remind Party cadres that religion was incompatible
with party membership, a theme reflected in authoritative media during
the summer of 1999. For example, President and CCP General Secretary
Jiang Zemin said in a September 1999 speech that ``party members of all
ethnic groups must have a firm faith in socialism and communism, cannot
believe in religion, cannot take part in or organize religious
activities, and cannot take part in feudal superstitious activities.''
Muslims allegedly have been fired from government posts for praying
during working hours. The ``Routine Service Regulations'' of the
People's Liberation Army (PLA) state explicitly that servicemen ``may
not take part in religious or superstitious activities.'' Party and PLA
military personnel were expelled for adhering to the Falun Gong
spiritual movement, which the Government has banned as a ``cult.''
However, according to government officials, many local Communist Party
officials engage in some kind of religious activity; in certain
localities, as many as 20 to 25 percent of Party officials engage in
religious activities. Most officials who practice a religion are
Buddhist or practice a folk religion. Religious figures, who are not
members of the CCP, are included in national and local government
organizations, usually to represent their constituency on cultural and
educational matters. The National People's Congress (NPC) includes
several religious leaders, including Pagbalha Geleg Namgyai, a Tibetan
``living Buddha,'' who is a vice chairman of the Standing Committee of
the NPC. Religious groups also are represented in the Chinese People's
Political Consultative Conference, a forum for ``multiparty''
cooperation and consultation led by the Chinese Communist Party, which
advises the Government on policy.
The Government teaches atheism in schools. The participation of
minors in religious education is prohibited by regulation. However,
enforcement varies dramatically from region to region, and in some
areas large numbers of young people attend religious services at both
registered and unregistered places of worship.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
During the period covered in this report, unapproved religious and
spiritual groups came under greater scrutiny--and, in some cases, harsh
repression--even as officially sanctioned religious activity went
largely unaffected. There were government actions that violated
internationally recognized norms regarding freedom of religion, freedom
of assembly, and freedom of speech. Although there was no significant
change in the central government's official policy toward religious
freedom, the unremitting campaign against Falun Gong and other
``heretical cults,'' plus frequent exhortations by senior leaders to
``strengthen religious work,'' had an inevitable spillover effect.
Between 1997 and 2000, there were reported bombings in Xinjiang and
other parts of the country attributed to Uighur activists. The
authorities responded with a harsh crackdown on Uighur Muslims in the
Xinjiang Autonomous Region that failed to distinguish between those
involved with illegal religious activities and those involved in ethnic
separatism or terrorist activities. It is therefore difficult to
determine whether particular raids, detentions, arrests, or judicial
punishments are aimed primarily at religious expression. The Yili
Intermediate Court sentenced Turhan Saidalamoud, Nurahmet Niyazi, and
Krubanjiang Yusseyin to death in September 1999 for ``illegal religious
proselytizing,'' murder, and manufacturing explosives, according to a
foreign press report that cited official media. The same press report
said that Alim Younous, Dulkan Rouz, and Turhong Awout were convicted
and executed in Urumqi for murder, robbery, and the illegal
manufacture, transportation, and storage of arms, ammunition, and
explosives. Alim Yanous allegedly had set up a ``party of Allah'' in
the southern Chinese city of Guangzhou, ``with the aim of splitting
national unity and setting up an Islamic power.'' According to a
February 2000 report by Human Rights Watch, the pace of executions and
imposition of long prison terms for suspected separatists in Xinjiang
increased during 1999, and there were more frequent public sentencing
rallies during the year. Human Rights Watch also reported tightening of
control over the teaching materials, curriculums, and leadership of
mosques and religious schools in 1999, and that six imams from Hotan
City and Karakash County were detained toward the end of 1999 in part
for non-compliance with religious regulations and for failing to teach
government policy at religious meetings.
An official newspaper in Xinjiang reported in October 1999 that a
cleric at a mosque in Karakash (Moyu) County in southern Xinjiang had
mentioned the term ``holy war'' before crowds numbering more than
2,000. The cleric also reportedly had interfered with marriage and
other administrative matters. The mosque allegedly became ``a hotbed
for illegal religious activities and separatism.'' The article ran
under the headline ``Take Care of Anyone Who Conducts Illegal Religious
Activities,'' but did not state how the unnamed cleric described in the
story had been ``taken care of.'' Several employers in Lop County were
fined in September 1999 for laxity in opposing illegal religious
activities and for harboring wanted men, including those promoting
``holy war.''
There is a great deal of variation in how the authorities deal with
unregistered religious groups. In certain regions, government
supervision of religious activity is minimal, and registered and
unregistered churches are treated similarly by authorities, existing
openly side by side. In such areas, many congregants worship in both
types of churches. In other regions, particularly where considerable
unofficial and official religious activity takes place, local
implementing regulations call for strict government oversight of
religion, and authorities have cracked down on unregistered churches
and their members. Implementing regulations, provincial work reports,
and other government and Party documents continued to exhort officials
to enforce vigorously government policy regarding unregistered
churches. Since 1998, Guangzhou has had highly restrictive religious
regulations. In 1999 Zhejiang province promulgated new religious
affairs regulations that stipulated that ``illegal'' property and
income would be confiscated from those who ``1) preside over or
organize religious activities at places other than those for religious
activities or at places not approved by a religious affairs department;
2) do missionary work outside the premises of a place of religious
activity; and 3) sponsor religious training activities without
obtaining the approval of a religious affairs department at or above
the county level.'' Regulations in Guangxi, Shanghai, and Chongqing
also call for strict government oversight. In April 2000, the Fujian
provincial government convened a meeting of religious affairs workers
in order to exhort them to ``ensure stability in religious circles and
lead religious circles in making new and greater contributions to
Socialist material and spiritual civilization.'' At the meeting, a
provincial leader also called on all religious affairs workers to
``firmly establish a Marxist outlook on religion.''
In some areas, security authorities used threats, demolition of
unregistered property, extortion of ``fines,'' interrogation,
detention, and at times beatings and torture to harass unofficial
religious figures and followers. Authorities particularly targeted
unofficial religious groups in Beijing and the provinces of Henan and
Shandong, where there are rapidly growing numbers of unregistered
Protestants, and in Hebei, a center of unregistered Catholics.
However, many family churches, generally made up of family members
and friends, and which conduct activities similar to those of home
Bible study groups, are tolerated by the authorities as long as they
remain small and unobtrusive. Family churches reportedly encounter
difficulties when their memberships become too large, when they arrange
for the use of facilities for the specific purpose of conducting
religious activities, or when they forge links with other unregistered
groups.
Some Protestant house church groups reported more frequent police
raids of worship services and detentions than in previous years. In
addition, according to press reports, in 1999 more than 20 unregistered
Catholic churches were demolished, some with explosives, by the
authorities in Changle and other localities in Fujian province. The
churches were destroyed on the grounds that they had been built without
the required permit or had been built with the wrong type of permit
(such as with a permit for a building other than a church). Most of the
churches reportedly were built by local congregations with the aid of
remittances from relatives working abroad.
On the same day in October 1999 police disrupted services with
nearly simultaneous raids on two of Guangzhou's most prominent house
churches--those of pastors Samuel Lamb and Li Dexian. Li and his wife,
along with an Australian missionary, were detained for several hours,
and Li's church was ransacked by the police. Bibles were confiscated
from his congregation and members of the congregation reportedly were
threatened. Pastor Li was detained again in April 2000 for 15 days,
during which time he was forced into a crouch for three days, unable to
sleep or use toilet facilities, with his wrists and ankles manacled
together. Li also has been detained on other occasions and reports that
in some instances he was beaten. According to credible reports, on May
16, 2000, seven house churches were raided in Guangdong province.
According to a press release of Christian Solidarity International,
more than 10 house church leaders were arrested in the raids. Several
house churches also were closed by the authorities.
The Jianghuai Morning Daily in Anhui province reported that on
April 9, 2000, police detained 47 members of the unregistered Full
Scope Church. According to the newspaper, six church leaders were to
face criminal charges for organizing an ``illegal sect,'' while eight
others likely would receive ``administrative'' (usually meaning
reeducation-through-labor) sentences. The leader of the Full Scope
Church, Xu Yongze, subsequently was released from prison in late May
2000, 2 months after he should have been released upon the expiration
of his 3-year sentence. Although he was released from a labor camp, it
is unclear whether Xu remains subject to some restrictions.
In some regions, coexistence and cooperation between official and
unofficial churches, both Catholic and Protestant, is close enough to
blur the line between the two. However, in some areas relations between
the two churches remain hostile. In Hebei, where perhaps half of the
country's Catholics reside, friction between unofficial Catholics and
local authorities continued. Hebei authorities have been known to force
many underground priests and believers to make a choice of either
joining the ``patriotic'' church or facing punishment such as fines,
job loss, periodic detentions, and, in some cases, having their
children barred from school. Some were forced into hiding. In September
1999, police, allegedly at the instigation of the local official
Catholic Church in Wenzhou, instructed 12 underground Catholic church
leaders--including Bishop Lin Xili, Chen Nailiang, and Wang Zhongfa--to
go to a hotel, where they were pressured to join the official Catholic
church. There were reports in May 2000 that local authorities in
Zhejiang province had closed down seven Catholic churches because they
failed to join the official Catholic Church. In May 2000, Father Jiang
Shurang, an underground priest in Zhejiang province, was sentenced to 6
years in prison for illegally printing Bibles and other religious
material. There also are reports of divisions within both the official
Protestant church and the house church movement over issues of
doctrine; in both the registered and unregistered Protestant churches,
there are groups with conservative views and groups with more
unorthodox views. In some areas there are reports of harassment of
churches by local religious affairs bureau officials which is
attributed, at least in part, to financial issues. For example,
although regulations require local authorities to provide land to
church groups, some local officials may try to avoid doing so by
denying registration. Official churches may also face harassment if
local authorities wish to acquire the land on which a church is
located. In addition to refusing to register churches, there are also
reports that religious affairs bureau officials have requested illegal
``donations'' from churches in their jurisdictions as a means of
raising extra revenue.
The Party's Central Committee issued a document on August 16, 1999,
calling on the authorities to tighten control of the official Catholic
Church and to eliminate the underground Catholic Church if it does not
bend to Government control. The Commission on International Religious
Freedom also reported that in recent months, there has been increasing
pressure by the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association on underground
Catholic bishops to join the official church, and that the authorities
have reorganized dioceses without consulting church leaders. The
Government in 1993 shortened the required number of years of seminary
training for priests.
The Hong Kong press reported that the Guangdong provincial
government had issued a circular ordering authorities to increase the
monitoring of Christian and Muslim activities.
On March 25, 2000, police raided a house church service in Jilin
and confiscated the Bible and camera of a foreigner who was in
attendance. The foreign Christian subsequently was fined, and one local
official described the house church service as a ``heretical religious
activity.''
Tibetan Buddhists outside of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)
appear to face significant restrictions and are subject to patriotic
education campaigns. On October 24, 1999, three Tibetan Buddhist monks,
Sonam Phuntsok, Agya Tsering, and Sonam, were arrested at Dargye
monastery in western Sichuan province. The three reportedly were
suspected of being in contact with exile groups, and of supporting the
Dalai Lama. These arrests reportedly were linked by the Government to
the bombing of a medical clinic on October 7. Their detention sparked a
large local protest later in the month, during which police reportedly
fired into the crowd and injured demonstrators. (A discussion of
government restrictions on Tibetan Buddhism in the TAR can be found in
the Tibet annex to this report.)
The Government has waged a severe political, propaganda, and police
campaign against the Falun Gong spiritual movement during the period
covered by this report. On July 22, 1999, three months after 10,000
Falun Gong adherents had demonstrated peacefully in front of the
Zhongnanhai leadership compound in Beijing, the Government officially
declared Falun Gong illegal and began a nationwide crackdown. Around
the country, tens of thousands of practitioners were rounded up and
detained for several days--often in open stadiums--under poor and
overcrowded conditions, with inadequate food, water, and sanitary
facilities. Practitioners who refused to renounce their beliefs were
expelled from schools or fired from jobs. Some detainees were
government officials and Communist Party members. A few high-ranking
practitioners were forced to disavow their ties to Falun Gong on
national television. Government officials who are practitioners were
required to undergo anti-Falun Gong study sessions, and were prohibited
from Falun Gong activities; some were expelled from the Party for
refusing to recant their beliefs. There were reports that local
government leaders and heads of institutions in the northeast were
summoned to Beijing or fired if too many persons under their
jurisdictions participated in Falun Gong demonstrations. There were
also reports that Public Security Bureau forbade the renting of
apartments to Falun Gong practitioners. On July 29, 1999 the Government
issued a warrant for the arrest of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi, who
was charged with holding demonstrations without appropriate permits and
disturbing public order. The Government requested INTERPOL's assistance
in apprehending Li, who resides abroad, but INTERPOL declined to
assist, on the grounds that the offense was not a crime recognized
under the INTERPOL charter, and that the request was political in
nature. Late in the year, President Jiang Zemin announced that the
campaign against the Falun Gong was one of the ``three major political
struggles'' of 1999.
In July 1999, the Government also launched a massive anti-Falun
Gong propaganda campaign that for weeks dominated the nightly news with
details of Falun Gong's alleged crimes and the effectiveness of the
Government's effort to crush the group. Special programs revealing the
Falun Gong's alleged ``evil nature'' featured testimonials by self-
proclaimed former practitioners recounting how they had been duped by
the ``cult.'' The media campaign continued through the end of 1999,
with articles appearing regularly though with far less frequency than
at the campaign's height. The Government also seized and destroyed
Falun Gong literature, including over 1 million books, in well
publicized sweeps of homes and bookstores. Police in Dandong City,
Liaoning province, reported that they had arrested six workers and a
factory boss for printing outlawed Falun Gong material. According to a
November 1999 official press report, the Qinghai People's Publishing
House was suspended by the State Press and Publication Administration
for printing four Falun Gong books in January 1999, and those
responsible reportedly were punished.
Authorities attempted to shut down Falun Gong Internet websites.
According to a press report, an attack on a foreign-based website was
traced to government security departments. A Hong Kong based human
rights group reported that a Falun Gong website designed and operated
in Jilin by computer engineer Zhang Haitao was shut down on July 24,
1999, and that Zhang was arrested July 29, 1999. According to Amnesty
International, Zhang Ji, a computer science student, was arrested in
Heilongjiang and charged with using the Internet to spread ``subversive
information'' after sending e-mails to Canada and the United States
about mistreatment of Falun Gong practitioners. There have been reports
that Falun Gong practitioners living in other countries have received
virus-infested e-mail messages.
On October 28, 1999, several Falun Gong practitioners held a
clandestine press conference for foreign reporters in which they
described an increase in harassment and in physical abuse by the
police. Many of the practitioners involved later reportedly were
arrested; the authorities questioned some of the foreign journalists
who attended the press conference and temporarily confiscated their
press credentials and residence permits. Several foreign reporters also
were detained briefly on April 25, 2000, after having taken photographs
of police detaining Falun Gong demonstrators on Tiananmen Square.
Foreign tourists routinely had their film and videotape confiscated
after recording (often inadvertently) some of the detentions.
Practitioners defied government efforts to prevent them from
entering Beijing. Protests (by individuals or small groups of
practitioners) at Tiananmen Square occurred almost daily during the
period covered by this report. Demonstrations also continued around the
country. Police quickly broke up demonstrations, at times kicking and
beating protestors, and detained them. In September 1999, a
nongovernmental organization (NGO) reported that at least 300 adherents
were arrested in 9 cities in 1 week. In late October, the pace of
detentions picked up as practitioners converged on Beijing and began a
series of peaceful, low-key protests of a pending decision by the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress to ban all cults.
Most protests were small and short-lived as expanded police units
quickly detained anyone who admitted to being or appeared to be a
practitioner. In late October, a Party official stated that 3,000
persons from around the country were detained in police sweeps of
Beijing for nonresidents. On November 16, 1999, during a visit by the
UN Secretary General, more than 12 practitioners who unfurled a Falun
Gong banner were detained forcibly at Tiananmen Square. On November 30,
1999, Vice Premier Li Lanqing stated that authorities detained over
35,000 practitioners between July 22 and October 30 1999 (the
Government later clarified Li's statement, noting that the figure
represented the total number of confrontations of police with adherents
and that many persons had multiple encounters with police). Hundreds of
practitioners reportedly were arrested at Tiananmen Square in February
2000 during lunar New Year protests, forcing a brief closure of the
Square. Large numbers were arrested while protesting on March 5
(opening of the National People's Congress), April 25 (the anniversary
of the 1999 Zhongnanhai demonstration), and May 11 (reportedly Falun
Gong founder Li Hongzhi's birthday). Authorities also briefly detained
foreign practitioners (it remains unclear whether the authorities were
aware that such persons were foreigners). On November 24, 1999, four
foreign practitioners were detained in Guangzhou; the foreigners were
released a few days later and expelled from the country, while Chinese
citizens detained with them remained in custody. On December 15, three
Chinese nationals with foreign residency were detained in Shenzhen for
visiting other Falun Gong practitioners; they were given 15 days of
administrative detention. In February 2000, a U.S. citizen practitioner
was detained for 3 days.
During the period covered by this report, there were numerous
credible reports of police involvement in beatings, detention under
extremely harsh conditions, torture (including by electric shock and by
having hands and feet shackled and linked with crossed steel chains),
and other abuses of detained Falun Gong practitioners. Police often
used excessive force when detaining peaceful protesters, some of them
elderly or accompanied by small children. There are credible reports
that estimate at least 24 practitioners have died while in police
custody since July 1999. Zhao Jinhua, of Shandong province, reportedly
was detained on September 27, 1999, while meditating. Over the next 10
days, police reportedly tortured Zhao using rubber batons and electric
shocks. On October 7, she died reportedly due to injuries suffered
while in detention. The official media reported that Zhao had died of a
heart attack. Similarly, Gao Xianmin died in police custody on January
17, 2000. Gao was detained with a group of fellow practitioners in
Guangzhou on December 31, 1999. Credible reports indicate that Gao was
tortured while in custody, including by having high-density salt water
forced into his stomach. Police gave no explanation for his death. On
February 17, 2000, 60-year-old Chen Zixiu was detained in Weihai as she
attempted to travel to Beijing to join peaceful protests. Over the next
few days, her family received word from another detainee that Chen was
being beaten. On February 21, local police informed the family that
Chen had died. Family members report that her body was covered with
bruises and her teeth and nose were broken. According to press reports,
Zhou Zhichang, a practitioner imprisoned in Heilongjiang Province since
September 1999, died in custody in May 2000, after an 8-day hunger
strike. On October 27, 1999, police in Heilongjiang province stated
that Chen Ying, an 18-year-old practitioner of Falun Gong who died
while in police custody in August, had jumped to her death from a
moving train. Zhao Dong also allegedly jumped from a train while in
police custody; he reportedly died in late September 1999.
Although the vast majority of practitioners detained were later
released, those identified by the Government as ``core leaders'' were
singled out for particularly harsh treatment. On October 25, 1999, the
official media reported that at least 13 Falun Gong leaders had been
charged with stealing and leaking state secrets. On October 31, 1999,
as part of the Government's anti-Falun Gong crackdown, the Standing
Committee of the National People's Congress adopted a decision to ban
``cults,'' including Falun Gong, under Article 300 of the Criminal Law.
Under the decision, cult members who ``disrupt public order'' or
distribute publications can receive prison terms of 3 to 7 years. Cult
leaders and recruiters can be sentenced to 7 years or more in prison.
On November 3, days after action by the Standing Committee of the
National People's Congress to ban all cults under the Criminal Law,
authorities used this law to charge 6 Falun Gong leaders, some of whom,
it is believed, were arrested in July 1999. On November 8, the
Government confirmed that 111 practitioners had been charged with
serious crimes including disturbing social order and stealing state
secrets. On December 26, a Beijing court sentenced four adherents for
using a cult ``to obstruct justice, causing human deaths in the process
of organizing a cult, and illegally obtaining state secrets.'' Li
Chang, a former Public Security Ministry official, was given 18 years
in prison; former Railways Ministry official Wang Zhiwen was sentenced
to 16 years. Two other prominent adherents, Ji Liewu and Yao Jie,
received 12 years and 7 years, respectively. According to an
international human rights organization, the Ministry of Justice
required attorneys to obtain government permission to represent Falun
Gong adherents. Amnesty International reports that some lawyers have
been prevented from entering pleas of ``not guilty'' for practitioners.
Human rights organizations estimate that as many as 300 people have
been sentenced to prison terms of up to 18 years for involvement with
Falun Gong.
Many other practitioners were sentenced administratively, without
trial, to up to 3 years in reeducation-through-labor camps. According
to credible estimates, as many as 5,000 may have received such
sentences. According to credible reports, authorities also have started
confining some practitioners to psychiatric hospitals. Amnesty
International reported that, on January 20, 2000, a Changguang Police
Station spokesman confirmed that about 50 ``extremist'' Falun Gong
practitioners had been placed in a psychiatric hospital near Beijing,
and cited reports from Falun Gong practitioners that the practitioner's
families were asked for fees to cover living expenses in the hospital.
Amnesty International also reports that practitioners were taken to
psychiatric hospitals in Jiaozhou, Shandong, Province, in September
1999, and in Xinxiang, Henan, in December 1999.
Religious groups that preach beliefs outside the bounds of
officially approved doctrine (such as the imminent coming of the
Apocalypse, or holy war) or that have charismatic leaders often are
singled out for particularly severe harassment. Some observers have
attributed the unorthodox beliefs of some of these groups to
undertrained clergy. Others acknowledge that some individuals may be
exploiting the reemergence of interest in religion for personal gain.
Police continued their efforts to close down an underground evangelical
group called the ``Shouters,'' an offshoot of a pre-1949 indigenous
Protestant group. The Government also initiated a general crackdown on
other groups it considered ``cults.'' In September 1999, 31 members of
the ``Cold Water Religion'' reportedly were arrested in Lianping
County, Guangdong; 3 of the group's churches reportedly were destroyed.
Liu Jiaguo, leader of the Supreme Deity sect, was executed in October
1999. He was convicted on charges of raping 11 women and of defrauding
cult members.
The crackdown on ``cults'' intensified later in the year, with
press reports stating that restrictions would be tightened on several
``cults'' and various Christian groups. The Zhong Gong qigong group,
which reportedly had a following rivaling that of Falun Gong, was
banned under the anti-cult application of the Criminal Law, and its
leader, Zhang Hongbao, was charged with rape, forgery, and illegal
crossing of boundaries. Zhong Gong, like other qigong groups, teaches
that the body's vital forces, or qi, can be harnessed for healing
purposes and spiritual growth through meditation and spiritual
exercises. According to a news report, a local Zhong Gong leader in
Zhejiang Province, Chen Jilong, was convicted in January 2000 of
illegally practicing medicine and was sentenced to 2 years in prison.
Two leaders of other qigong groups also reportedly were arrested, and
the Government banned the practice of qigong exercises on public or
government property. This has created an atmosphere of uncertainty for
many, of not most, qigong practitioners, and there are reports that
some qigong practitioners now fear practicing or teaching openly. There
were reports that 14 unofficial Christian groups and a Buddhist
organization were branded by the Government as ``evil sects,'' as well.
There were many religious detainees and prisoners in addition to
the thousands of Falun Gong practitioners detained during the period
covered by this report. In some cases, public security officials have
used prison or reeducation-through-labor sentences to enforce religious
affairs regulations. Qin Baocai and Mu Sheng, colleagues of Protestant
house church leader Xu Yongze, continue to serve reeducation-through-
labor sentences. The Government's 1997 White Paper on Religious Freedom
stated that Xu had violated the law by promoting a cult, preaching that
the Apocalypse was near, and asking worshipers to wail in public spaces
for several consecutive days. Group members deny these charges. On
August 18, 1999, eight house church leaders--Zhao Dexin, Yang Xian,
Miao Hailin, Chen Zide, Li Wen, Han Shaorong, and two others--
reportedly were arrested in Henan. On August 24, 1999, 40 house church
members reportedly were arrested in Fengcheng, Henan. Among those
detained were David Zhang (Rongliang) and Zheng Shuqian of the
Fengcheng church group; both church leaders were sentenced to
reeducation-through-labor. According to a Hong Kong human rights
organization, on March 2, 2000, 15 members of the China Evangelistic
Fellowship were arrested while holding a service in Nanwang City, Henan
province. Two of the group's leaders, Jiang Qinggang and Hao Huaiping,
reportedly faced reeducation-through-labor sentences. The director of
the Government's Religious Affairs Bureau had labeled the fellowship
publicly as a ``cult'' at the end of 1999. In December 1999, Shen
Yiping and three other Fellowship leaders were sentenced to
reeducation-through-labor for being ``cult leaders.''
The whereabouts of Roman Catholic Bishop Su Zhimin, whose followers
reported that he was arrested in 1997, remained unclear. Underground
Catholic sources in Hebei claimed that he still was under detention,
while the Government denied having taken ``any coercive measures''
against him. Reliable sources reported that Bishop An Shuxin, Bishop
Zhang Weizhu, Father Cui Xing, and Father Wang Quanjun remained under
detention in Hebei; Bishop Liu reportedly remained under house arrest
in Zhejiang province. According to a Freedom House report, in the last
half of 1999, four Catholic Bishops reportedly were detained or
arrested for refusing to join the official church or for conducting
unauthorized services. The four were Bishop Jia Zhiguo (of Hebei
province, on August 15); Bishop Xie Shiguang (of Fujian province, in
mid-October); Bishop Lin Xili (of Zhejiang province, on October 28);
and Bishop Han Dingxiang (of Hebei province, around December 1). All of
the bishops reportedly were arrested for refusing to join the official
church or for conducting unauthorized services. In January 2000, Father
Hu Duo reportedly was detained in Hebei; according to a Human Rights
Watch report, authorities that month also reportedly detained, beat,
and fined an unknown number of underground Catholics in Baoding, Hebei.
In Fuzhou, Fujian province, a large group of police arrested 80-year-
old underground Catholic Bishop Yang Shudao on February 10, 2000. The
Government denied that the elderly Bishop is being detained, claiming
that he is receiving medical treatment. Underground Catholic Bishop
Joseph Fan Zhongliang of Shanghai remained under surveillance and often
had his movements restricted. Roman Catholic Bishop Zeng Jingmu, who
was released from a labor camp in 1998, reportedly remains under house
arrest.
During the beginning of the period covered by this report (the last
6 months of 1999), the Government's respect for religious freedom
deteriorated markedly, especially for the Falun Gong and Tibetan
Buddhists, and the Government's repression and abuses continued during
the first 6 months of 2000. There were no indications of a relaxation
of the Government's restrictions on religious freedom, or of its
crackdown on Falun Gong, as of mid-2000.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The communities of the five official religions--Buddhism, Islam,
Taoism, Catholicism, and Protestantism--coexist without significant
friction. However, in some parts of the country, there is a tense
relationship between registered and unregistered Christian churches. In
other areas, the two groups coexist without problems. In general the
majority of the population shows little interest in the affairs of the
religious minority beyond visiting temples during festivals or churches
on Christmas Eve. Religious/ethnic minority groups such as Tibetans and
Uighurs experience societal discrimination, but this is not based
solely on their religious beliefs. Traditionally, there also has been
tension between the Han and the Hui, a Muslim ethnic group.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The Department of State, U.S. officials in Beijing, and the
Consulates General in Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang make a
concerted effort to encourage greater religious freedom in the country,
using both focused external pressure on abuses and support for positive
trends within the country. In exchanges with the Government, including
with religious affairs officials, diplomatic personnel consistently
urge both central and local authorities to respect citizens' rights to
religious freedom. U.S. officials protest vigorously whenever there are
credible reports of religious persecution or discrimination, in
violation of international laws and standards, and request information
in cases of alleged persecution where the facts are incomplete or
contradictory. At the same time, U.S. officials make the case to the
country's leaders that freedom of religion can strengthen, not harm,
the country. The U.S. Embassy and consulates also collect information
about abuses and maintain contacts in China's religious communities
with a wide spectrum of religious leaders including bishops, priests,
ministers of the official Christian churches, and Taoist and Buddhist
leaders. U.S. officials also meet with leaders and members of the
unofficial Christian churches. The Department of State's
nongovernmental contacts include experts on religion in China, human
rights organizations, and religious groups in the United States. The
Department of State is sending increasing numbers of Chinese religious
leaders and scholars to the U.S. on international visitor programs to
see first hand the role that religion plays in the United States. The
Embassy also brings experts on religion from the United States to China
to speak about the role of religion in American life and public policy.
In May 1999, the Chinese government suspended the official
U.S.China bilateral human rights dialog. The suspension, which remains
in effect, has limited the U.S. Government's ability to express
concerns about religious freedom to Chinese officials. At times,
government officials have refused to grant meetings to U.S. embassy
officials who intended to raise religious freedom or other human rights
issues. Despite these limitations, U.S. officials in Washington and
Beijing have continued to protest individual incidents of abuse. For
example, Embassy officials have continued to seek clarification about
the status of Roman Catholic Bishop Su Zhimin. On numerous occasions,
both the Department of State and the Embassy in Beijing protested
government actions taken against Falun Gong followers, including the
temporary detention of thousands of adherents in July 1999 and the
sentencing of four group leaders later in the year. In May 2000, senior
embassy officials urged the Chinese to release Pastor Xu Yongze, whose
reeducation-through-labor sentence expired in March 2000. Consulate
Guangzhou officials also protested to local officials the detention and
harassment of Pastor Li Dexian. State Department officials called in
senior Chinese embassy officials in Washington to protest the January
detention of Roman Catholic Bishop Yang Shudao.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated China a
country of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom
Act for particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
tibet
(This section of the report on China has been prepared pursuant to
Section 536 (b) of Public Law 103-236. The United States recognizes the
Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)--hereinafter referred to as ``Tibet''--to
be part of the People's Republic of China. Preservation and development
of Tibet's unique religious, cultural, and linguistic heritage and
protection of its people's fundamental human rights continue to be of
concern.)
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China provides for
freedom of religious belief; however, the Government maintains tight
controls on religious practices and places of worship in Tibet. Most
Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism. Although the authorities permit
some traditional religious practices and public manifestations of
belief, those activities viewed as vehicles for political dissent, such
as religious activities that are perceived as advocating Tibetan
independence, including displaying the Dalai Lama's picture, or any
form of separatism (which is described as ``splittist''), are not
tolerated and are promptly and forcibly suppressed.
The Chinese Government strictly controls access to and information
about Tibet, and it is difficult to determine accurately the scope of
religious freedom violations; however, repression of religious freedom
continued, and the Government's record of respect for religious freedom
deteriorated during the period covered by this report.
The Government continued its ``patriotic education'' campaign aimed
at enforcing compliance with government regulations and either cowing
or weeding out monks and nuns who refuse to adopt the Party line and
remain sympathetic to the Dalai Lama (the leading religious figure in
Tibetan Buddhism). The ``patriotic education'' campaign also is
intended to increase the Government's control over the Tibetan Buddhist
establishment. The ``patriotic reeducation'' of monks and nuns, which
began in 1996 in Lhasa area monasteries and in subsequent years was
intensified and extended throughout Tibet and to monasteries outside of
the TAR, continued but at a lower level of intensity. A new round of
political education classes in monasteries began at the end of 1999 in
Lhasa and in some smaller monasteries in more remote parts of the TAR.
However, the current pattern of classes several times per week or per
month seems less frequent than previously. Many persons, including
monks and nuns, were arrested by authorities while attempting to
protest peacefully or for refusing to abide by rules applied by
government authorities in Buddhist monasteries, including the
renunciation of the Dalai Lama and the acceptance of the unity of China
and Tibet. Many others remain in detention, some serving long prison
terms, for similar offenses. There were reports of imprisonment and
abuse or torture of monks and nuns accused of political activism, and
the death of prisoners; at least two major monasteries were closed for
part of the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Government continues to make a concerted effort to
encourage greater religious freedom in Tibet, by urging central
government and local authorities to respect religious freedom in Tibet,
by protesting credible reports of religious persecution or
discrimination, by discussing cases with the authorities, and by
requesting information about specific incidents.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China provides for
freedom of religious belief and the freedom not to believe; however,
the Government seeks to restrict religious practice to government-
sanctioned organizations and registered places of worship and to
control the growth and scope of the activity of religious groups. The
Government maintains tight controls on religious practices and places
of worship in Tibet. Although the authorities permit some traditional
religious practices and public manifestations of belief, those
activities viewed as vehicles for political dissent, such as religious
activities that are perceived as advocating Tibetan independence,
including displaying the Dalai Lama's picture, or any form of
separatism (which is described as ``splittist''), are not tolerated and
are promptly and forcibly suppressed.
The Government continued its harsh rhetorical campaign against the
Dalai Lama, the most important figure in Tibetan Buddhism, and his
leadership of a ``government-in-exile''. The official press continued
to criticize vehemently the ``Dalai clique'' and, in an attempt to
undermine the credibility of his religious authority, repeatedly
described the Dalai Lama as a ``criminal'' who was determined to split
China. Both central government and local officials often insist that
dialog with the Dalai Lama is essentially impossible and claim that his
actions belie his repeated public assurances that he does not advocate
independence for Tibet. Nonetheless, the Government asserts that the
door to dialog and negotiation is open as long as the Dalai Lama
publicly affirms that Tibet is an inseparable part of China and that
Taiwan is a province of China.
The Government claims that since the end of the Cultural
Revolution, it has contributed sums in excess of $40 million (300 to
400 million rmb) toward the restoration of tens of thousands of
Buddhist sites, which were destroyed before and during that period. The
Government funding of restoration efforts ostensibly was done to
support the practice of religion, but also was done in part to promote
the development of tourism in Tibet. Most recent restoration efforts
are funded privately; Samye monastery near Lhasa airport is the only
large site currently known to be enjoying government-funded restoration
efforts.
Religious Demography
Most Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism to some degree. Many ethnic
Tibetan government officials and Communist Party members practice
Buddhism. Chinese officials state that Tibet has more than 46,300
Buddhist monks and nuns and approximately 1,787 monasteries, temples,
and religious sites. Officials have used these same figures for several
years, though there are credible reports that the numbers of monks and
nuns have dropped at many sites, especially since the beginning of the
``patriotic education'' campaign, which has resulted in the expulsion
from monasteries and nunneries of many monks and nuns who refused to
denounce the Dalai Lama or who were found to be ``politically
unqualified'' to be monks or nuns. The numbers represent only the Tibet
Autonomous Region; thousands of monks and nuns live in other Tibetan
areas of China, including parts of Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu, and Qinghai
Provinces.
While officials state that there is no Falun Gong activity in the
TAR, reports indicate that there are small numbers of practitioners of
Falun Gong present in the region, among the ethnic Han population.
There were reports that a few practitioners of Falun Gong have been
detained in Tibet since Falun Gong was banned in July 1999.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Buddhist monasteries and proindependence activism are closely
associated in Tibet, and the Government has moved to curb the
proliferation of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, which it charges are a
drain on local resources and a conduit for political infiltration by
the Tibetan exile community. The Government states there are no limits
on the number of monks in major monasteries and that each monastery's
democratic management committee decides on its own how many monks the
monastery can support. However, these committees are government-
controlled; and in practice, the Government generally imposes strict
limits on the number of monks in major monasteries. The Government has
the right to disapprove any individual's application to take up
religious orders; however, these restrictions are not always enforced.
Monasteries continue to house and train young monks. Although by
regulation monks are prohibited from joining a monastery prior to the
age of 18, many younger boys in fact continue the tradition of entering
monastic life. However, many young novices, who traditionally served as
attendants to older monks while receiving a basic monastic education
and awaiting formal ordination, have been expelled from monasteries in
recent years for being underage; the fact that these novices were not
regular members of the monasteries has allowed authorities to deny that
there has been a significant decline in the numbers of monks.
The Government continued to oversee the daily operations of major
monasteries. The Government, which does not contribute to monasteries'
operational funds, retains management control of the monasteries
through the government-controlled democratic management committees and
the local religious affairs bureaus. During 1999 the Tibet Autonomous
Region Religious Affairs Bureau confirmed that all RAB officers are
members of the Communist Party, and that Party members are required to
be atheists; however, it is not possible to confirm that members of the
local RAB's are atheists. Regulations restrict leadership of management
committees of monasteries to ``patriotic and devoted'' monks and nuns
and specify that the Government must approve all members of the
committees. At some major monasteries, government officials also sit on
the committees. Despite these government efforts to control the
Buddhist clergy and monasteries, antigovernment sentiment remains
strong.
In January 2000, officials closed the Tsurphu monastery (the home
of the Karmapa, the highest ranking lama of Tibetan Buddhism's Karma
Kargyu school) to visitors after the Karmapa's flight to India. Many
other persons, including lay persons, were questioned in connection
with the Karmapa's escape. There were reports that several high ranking
TAR officials were called to Beijing after the escape to account for
their actions. According to the Tibet Information Network (TIN),
authorities replaced monks on the monastic management committee at
Tsurphu after the Karmapa's escape, while other monks were admonished
to improve their ``political attitudes'' or face further ``patriotic
education'' sessions. Officials and monks at the monastery reportedly
were under investigation by the authorities. The dramatic departure of
the Karmapa added to tensions and increased the authorities' efforts to
control monastic activity in the TAR. Consequently, it has also made
the authorities pay more attention to illegal border crossings. There
were reports that in May 2000, as many as 50 Tibetan students returning
to Tibet from India were arrested at the Nepal-China border. The TIN
reported that the Reting Monastery near Lhasa was closed to visitors in
May 2000 after the arrest of eight monks for protesting the
authorities' selection of 2-year-old Sonam Phuntsog in January 2000 as
the seventh reincarnation of the Reting Rinpoche. The TIN also reported
that the Taglung Drag monastery in Lhasa municipality was threatened
with closure and its monks with expulsion if they refused to denounce
the Dalai Lama after monks from the monastery shouted pro-independence
slogans in two separate incidents in March and August 1999. According
to TIN, ``patriotic education'' activities were increased, and 16 of 24
monks reportedly left the monastery in September 1999 rather than
denounce the Dalai Lama.
Agya Rinpoche, former Abbott of Kumbum monastery, and a senior
Tibetan religious leader and official at the Deputy Minister level,
left the country in November 1998. In a hearing held in March 2000
organized by the Commission on International Religious Freedom, he
stated that his reasons for leaving Tibet were that he was forced to
denounce the Dalai Lama and his religion and that the Government
demanded a heightened role for him in legitimizing Gyaltsen Norbu, the
boy recognized by the Government as the Panchen Lama.
The Government continued its ``patriotic education'' campaign aimed
at enforcing compliance with government regulations and either cowing
or weeding out monks and nuns who refuse to adopt the Party line and
remain sympathetic to the Dalai Lama (the leading religious figure in
Tibetan Buddhism). The ``patriotic education'' campaign also is
intended to increase the Government's control over the Tibetan Buddhist
establishment. The campaigns, which have been largely unsuccessful in
changing Tibetans' attitudes, are aimed at controlling the monasteries
and expelling supporters of the Dalai Lama. The campaigns require monks
to be ``patriotic'' and sign a declaration agreeing to reject
independence for Tibet; reject Gendun Choekyi Nyima, the boy recognized
by the Dalai Lama as the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama; reject
and denounce the Dalai Lama; recognize the unity of China and Tibet;
and not listen to the Voice of America. According to some reports,
monks who refused to sign were expelled from their monasteries and were
not permitted to return home to work. Others were forced to leave their
monasteries after failing to pass exams associated with the campaigns,
and still others left ``voluntarily'' rather than denounce the Dalai
Lama. Government ``work teams'' remain in some monasteries and conduct
classes that monks are required to attend on a regular basis. Topics
include relations between Tibetans and Han Chinese, Tibet's historical
status as a part of China, and the role of the Dalai Lama in attempting
to ``split'' the country. Portraits of Gyaltsen Norbu, the boy selected
by the Government to be the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama,
were on prominent display in some monasteries, as were sets of rules
governing religious activity. The Government still banned pictures of
Gendun Choekyi Nyima, the boy recognized by the Dalai Lama as the
Panchen Lama. There has been intense resistance to the campaigns. Both
monks and lay Buddhists deeply resented the Government's efforts. The
campaign has disrupted religious activities severely in many
monasteries and prompted monks and nuns to flee to India. Approximately
3,000 Tibetans enter Nepal each year to escape conditions in Tibet,
according to the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees; onethird of these
refugees claim that they left because of the ``patriotic reeducation''
campaigns.
The Government approved the selection of 2-year-old Sonam Phuntsog
on January 16, 2000 as the seventh reincarnation of the Reting
Rinpoche. A Tibetan government official stated that officials
supervising religion should ensure that the boy ``loves the Communist
Party of China, the Socialist country, and Tibetan Buddhism'' and that
he would help to ``preserve the unity of the Chinese nation.'' The
Dalai Lama, who normally must approve the selection of important
religious figures such as the Reting Rinpoche, did not recognize this
choice; many of the monks at Reting monastery reportedly did not accept
the child as the Reting Rinpoche.
The Government continued to insist that the boy it selected in 1995
is the Panchen Lama's 11th reincarnation. The authorities tightly
control all aspects of his life, and he has appeared publicly in
Beijing only on rare occasions. The Panchen Lama is Tibetan Buddhism's
second most prominent figure, after the Dalai Lama. His public
appearances were marked by a heavy security presence. At all other
times, the authorities strictly limit access to the boy.
The ban on the public display of photographs of the Dalai Lama
continued, and such pictures were not readily available except through
illegal means. Some monasteries and many individuals displayed them
privately, but in the spring of 2000 Lhasa area neighborhood committees
began sending teams to the homes of ordinary citizens to confiscate
books about and pictures of the Dalai Lama. This restriction is in
effect in Tibetan areas outside the TAR. Although a few shops still
quietly sell his photograph, outside the TAR the vast majority of
monasteries no longer display his photo.
Some 1,000 religious figures hold positions in local people's
congresses and committees of the Chinese People's Political
Consultative Conference. However, the Government continues to insist
that Communist Party members and government employees adhere to the
Party's code of atheism. During the period covered by this report, in
Lhasa and other areas the authorities increased restrictions on
religious activities, prohibiting government and Communist Party
officials from going into monasteries, visiting the Jokhang temple,
having altars in their homes, participating in religious activities
during the Tibetan New Year, or placing new prayer flags on their roofs
(a traditional practice during the Tibetan New Year). There were also
reports during the spring of 2000 that some government employees were
forbidden to make donations to monks and nuns in Lhasa. In some areas,
private citizens also were prohibited from engaging in traditional New
Year's activities such as placing prayer flags on the top of Bumpari, a
mountain near Lhasa, burning incense, and making the traditional
``lingkor'' (pilgrimage circuit around the sacred sites of Lhasa)
during the festival of Sagadawa in June 2000. Government employees
reportedly were threatened with dismissal if they made the ``lingkor.''
According to credible reports, there were instances in which the
authorities threatened to terminate the employment of Tibetan
government employees who sent their children to receive a religious
education in India, and in which authorities searched the homes of
government workers for religious objects or pictures of the Dalai Lama.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Tibetan Buddhism came under additional attack during the period
covered by this report. In August 1999, according to an Amnesty
International report, two monks from the Taglung Drag monastery were
detained as part of a protest involving monks and nuns after shouting
proindependence slogans during a cultural performance held in
conjunction with the National Minority Games. In late December 1999,
14-year-old Ugyen Trinley Dorje, recognized by both the Government and
the Dalai Lama as the Karmapa, left Tibet secretly and fled to India,
reportedly to seek religious education. He stated that he left because
of controls on his movements and the refusal either to allow him to go
to India to be trained by his spiritual mentor or to allow his mentor
to come to him. The Karmapa, who is the third most well respected and
influential religious figure in Tibetan Buddhism, arrived in India in
early January, 2000. Shortly after his departure, the seat of the
Karmapa, the Tsurphu monastery, was raided. Authorities arrested at
least two persons from the monastery. There was also a Tibet
Information Network report that the Karmapa's parents were placed under
surveillance. Government officials denied that there were any arrests
at the Tsurphu monastery or that the Karmapa's parents have faced
restrictions of any kind.
There were numerous arrests of monks charged with distributing or
possessing pictures of the Dalai Lama or with having links to exile
groups; some of these reports came from areas outside of the TAR. In a
Tibetan area of Sichuan province, at least five monks were arrested
over the summer and fall of 1999 for engaging in such activities.
According to TIN, in July 1999, new restrictions were imposed by the
authorities to prevent celebration of the Dalai Lama's birthday.
Reports indicate that Tibetans were forbidden to hold traditional
incense-burning ceremonies anywhere in Lhasa, and that all places of
worship were closed. Authorities also detained three monks on October
1, 1999 after a peaceful protest near the Potala palace in Lhasa.
A foreign nongovernmental organization reported in June 2000 that
Tashi Rabten, a monk at Thenthok monastery, died on May 1, 2000, after
falling from a third floor window after interrogation by government
officials. He allegedly protested the removal of the Dalai Lama's
photographs during a raid of the monastery. Three other monks who also
protested the removal of the photos allegedly were beaten severely.
In July 1999, Phuntsok Legmon, age 16, and Namdrol, age 21, two
monks who had been detained and reportedly had been beaten severely the
previous March after demonstrating in Barkhor Square in Lhasa, were
sentenced to 3 and 4 years respectively in Drapchi prison.
A large number of monks and nuns have been detained and/or
imprisoned. A number of individual such cases were cited by the U.N.
Special Rapporteur on Torture in his report to the 56th session of the
U.N. Commission on Human Rights in the spring of 2000. The director of
the Prison Administration Bureau told a visiting foreign delegation
that there were over 100 monks and nuns imprisoned in the TAR's three
prisons, of whom 90 percent were incarcerated for ``endangering state
security.'' There were reports of imprisonment and abuse or torture of
monks and nuns accused of political activism, and the death of
prisoners; at least two major monasteries were closed for part of the
period covered by this report. There are credible reports from a number
of prisons that prisoners accused of political offenses who resisted
political reeducation imposed by prison authorities, particularly
demands to denounce the Dalai Lama and accept Gyaltsen Norbu, the boy
recognized by the Government as the Panchen Lama, also were beaten. The
TIN reports severe beatings of several nuns serving long prison
sentences, including Ngawang Choezon and Puntsog Nyidrol. Nun Ngawang
Sangdrol also was beaten severely on multiple occasions and held in
solitary confinement for an extended period, according to credible
reports. Her prison sentence was extended for a third time in 1998, for
taking part in demonstrations in prison, to a total of 21 years.
Ngawang Sangdrol's health is reportedly poor, although government
officials have claimed that her health is fine. The TIN reported that
Gyaye Phuntsog, a 68-year-old monk from Qinghai province, may have been
deprived of food and sleep for several days during his interrogation,
prior to his release on medical parole during the summer of 1999.
Several sources report that he is now unable to walk without the use of
crutches.
Prisoners have resisted political reeducation imposed by prison
authorities, particularly demands to denounce the Dalai Lama and accept
the Panchen Lama appointed by the Government. According to the TIN,
punishments meted out to uncooperative prisoner leaders have resulted
in hunger strikes among female prisoners on at least two occasions at
Drapchi prison. Officials also resort to lengthening periods of
solitary confinement to isolate demonstrators.
The Government continued to hold Gendun Choekyi Nyima, who the
Dalai Lama recognized as the 11th Panchen Lama, along with his family.
Government officials have claimed that the boy is being held for his
own protection and that he lives in Tibet and attends classes as a
``normal schoolboy.'' The location of Gendun Choekyi Nyima and his
family remains unknown, and all requests from the international
community for access to the boy to confirm his whereabouts and his
wellbeing have been refused. The Government denied press reports in
November 1999 that Gendun Choekyi Nyima died and was cremated secretly;
however, the Government continued to refuse international observers
access to the boy. The majority of Tibetan Buddhists recognize the boy
recognized by the Dalai Lama as the Panchen Lama; refugee monks in
January 2000 told a foreign official that they believe that virtually
all Tibetans hold this view. Tibetan monks have claimed that they were
forced to sign statements pledging allegiance to the boy the Government
selected as the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama. The Communist Party
also urged its members to support the ``official'' Panchen Lama, and
the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party committees at both the
regional and city levels had pictures of the boy printed for use in
public and private religious displays.
According to credible reports, Chadrel Rinpoche, who was accused by
the Government of betraying state secrets while helping the Dalai Lama
choose the incarnation of the 11th Panchen Lama, has been held in a
secret compound of a Sichuan prison where he has been separated from
other prisoners, denied all outside contacts, and restricted to his
cell since his 1997 sentence to 6 years' imprisonment after a trial
that was closed to the public. The Government told a visiting foreign
delegation that he is ``fine physically.''
The Chinese Government strictly controls access to and information
about Tibet, and it is difficult to determine accurately the scope of
religious freedom violations; however, repression of religious freedom
continued, and the Government's record of respect for religious freedom
deteriorated during the period covered by this report.
During the period covered by this report, many foreign groups,
including NGO's and tourists, reported increasing restrictions on
movements. Two NGO's, Medecins Sans Frontieres and the Tibet Heritage
Fund, were threatened with expulsion. Restrictions on travel also were
reported during the period covered by this report. The Government
tightly controlled visits by foreign officials and official foreign
visitors had few opportunities to meet local Tibetans not previously
approved by the local authorities.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Most Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism. Although the Christian
population in Tibet is extremely small, there is societal pressure
aimed at converts, some of whom reportedly have been disinherited by
their families.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The Department of State, the U.S. Embassy in Beijing, and the
Consulate General in Chengdu are making a concerted effort to encourage
greater religious freedom in Tibet. In regular exchanges with the
Government, including with religious affairs officials, diplomatic
personnel consistently urge both central government and local
authorities to respect religious freedom in Tibet. Embassy officials
protest and seek further information on cases whenever there are
credible reports of religious persecution or discrimination. Diplomatic
personnel stationed in the country also regularly travel to Tibet to
monitor conditions, including the status of religious freedom. However,
the Special Coordinator for Tibet and a member of her staff were denied
visas to travel to Tibet during the period covered by this report. U.S.
officials maintain contacts with a wide spectrum of religious figures,
and the Department of State's nongovernmental contacts include experts
on religion in Tibet and religious groups in the United States. The
Embassy, including the Ambassador and other senior officers, raised
with government officials the cases of religious prisoners and reports
of religious persecution. Senior embassy officials meet regularly with
the head of the Religious Affairs Bureau and raised cases during those
discussions. Cases raised by the Embassy include those of Gendun
Choekyi Nyima, the boy recognized by the Dalai Lama as the llth Panchen
Lama, Abbot Chadrel Rinpoche, Ngawang Sangdrol, and other Tibetan monks
and nuns. Other embassy officers raised specific cases in meetings with
officials from the Religious Affairs Bureau and the United Front Work
Department.
__________
TAIWAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
authorities respect this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both the authorities' policy and the generally amicable
relationship among religions in society contribute to the free practice
of religion.
The American Institute in Taiwan discusses religious freedom issues
with the Taiwan authorities in the context of its overall dialog and
policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
authorities respect this right in practice. The authorities at all
levels generally protect this right in full, and do not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious organizations may register with the central authorities
through their island-wide associations under either the Temple
Management Law, the Civic Organizations Law, or the chapter of the
Civil Code that governs foundations and associations. While individual
places of worship may register with local authorities, many choose not
to register and operate as the personal property of their leaders.
Registered organizations operate on a taxfree basis and are required to
make annual reports of their financial operations. In the past, concern
over abuse of tax-free privileges or other financial misdeeds
occasionally prompted the authorities to deny registration to new
religions whose doctrines were not clear, but there were no reports
that the authorities sought to suppress new religions during the period
covered by this report.
Religious Demography
Approximately 50 percent of the population regularly participate in
some form of organized religious practice. Sixteen religious
organizations have registered with the Ministry of the Interior. While
reliable statistics are not available, it can be estimated from
registration figures provided to the Ministry of the Interior that of
the total population approximately 22 percent are Buddhist; 22 percent
are Taoist; 4 percent follow I Kuan Tao; 2 percent are Protestants; 1.5
percent are Roman Catholics; 1 percent follow Tien Li Chao (Heaven
Reason Religion); 1 percent follow Tien Ti Chiao (Heaven Emperor
Religion); 1 percent follow Tien Te Chiao (Heaven Virtue Religion); 0.7
percent follow Li-ism; 0.6 percent follow Hsuan Yuan Chiao (Yellow
Emperor Religion); and .02 percent are Sunni Muslim. There are no
statistics available for the three religions newly registered in 1999:
Confucianism, Ta I Chao (Great Changes Religion), and Hai Tzu Chiao
(Innocent Child Religion). It has also been estimated by knowledgeable
observers that almost 14 percent of the population are atheists. Among
the Protestants, the following denominations are represented among the
population: Presbyterians, True Jesus, Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Baptists, Lutherans, Seventh-Day
Adventists, Episcopalians, and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also
small numbers of adherents of Judaism, the Baha'i Faith, Falun Gong,
and the Mahikari religion. More than 70 percent of the indigenous
population is Christian. The majority of religious adherents are either
Buddhist or Taoist, but a large percentage consider themselves both
Buddhist and Taoist.
Whatever their religion, many persons also follow a collection of
beliefs that might be called ``traditional Chinese folk religion,''
which is deeply ingrained in Chinese culture. These beliefs include,
but are not limited to, shamanism, ancestor worship, magic, ghosts and
other spirits, and aspects of animism. This folk religion may overlap
with an individual's belief in Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or other
traditional Chinese religions. Knowledgeable observers have estimated
that perhaps as many as 80 percent of the population believe in some
form of traditional folk religion.
Religious beliefs cross political and geographical lines.
Individual members of Taiwan's political leadership practice various
faiths, including minority religions.
Foreign missionary groups operate freely. For example, missionaries
of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and the Watch Tower
Society (Jehovah's Witnesses) operate without restriction.
Religious instruction is not permitted in public or private schools
at the elementary, middle, or high school levels. However, universities
and research institutions have religious studies departments, and
religious organizations operate theological seminaries.
The Ministry of the Interior promotes inter-faith understanding
among religious groups by sponsoring symposiums (or helping to defray
the expenses of privately sponsored symposiums) on religious issues.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners. However,
there are 10 members of the Watch Tower Society (Jehovah's Witnesses)
who remain in prison for failing to follow orders while in military
service. Nonetheless, there is no indication that members of the Watch
Tower Society have been singled out for their beliefs. In late 1999,
the Legislative Yuan passed legislation allowing for a civilian
alternative to military service for conscientious objectors. The
legislation would benefit members of the Watch Tower Society and others
who previously had been imprisoned for failing to follow orders while
in military service. The law is in the process of being implemented,
and the program is expected to begin on July 1, 2000.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the authorities' refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities are generally
amicable. The Taiwan Council for Religion and Peace, the China
Religious Believers Association, and the Taiwan Religious Association
are private organizations that promote greater understanding and
tolerance among adherents of the different religions. Those
associations and various religious groups occasionally sponsor
symposiums to promote mutual understanding.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The American Institute in Taiwan is in frequent contact with
representatives of human rights organizations and occasionally meets
with leaders of various religious communities.
__________
FIJI
The abrogated Constitution provided for freedom of religion, and
the Government respects this right in practice. The status of the
country's Constitution and political organization are uncertain as a
result of the takeover of Parliament on May 19, 2000.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. The status of the country's
Constitution and political organization are uncertain as a result of
the takeover of Parliament on May 19, 2000. The Constitution was
abrogated by the military regime that deposed President, Ratu Sir
Kamisese Mara on May 29, 2000; however, there was no change in
religious freedom.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Constitution was
abrogated by the military regime that deposed President Mara on May 29,
2000; however, there was no change in religious freedom.
The abrogated Constitution's article on the State and religion
declared that religion and the State are separate, but that the
citizenry acknowledged that worship of and reverence for God are the
source of good government and leadership. This article reflected a
compromise that was reached in negotiations on the Constitution to
accommodate the strong Christian religious influence prevalent in the
ethnic Fijian community as well as the concerns of the largely non-
Christian (Hindu and Muslim) Indo-Fijian community.
The abrogated Constitution contained a detailed article with
respect to the protection of freedom of religion and belief. The
article stated that individuals have the right to freedom of
conscience, religion, and belief; the right to manifest their religion
or belief in worship, observance, practice, or teaching; the right not
to receive religious instruction or to take part in religious
ceremonies; and that persons cannot be compelled to take an oath that
is contrary to their religion or belief.
Religious Demography
The dominant religion is Methodism, followed by Roman Catholicism;
however, many other Christian denominations also are represented in the
country. The Methodist Church is supported by the majority of the
country's chiefs and remains influential in the ethnic Fijian
community, particularly in rural areas. The nonethnic Fijian community,
which constitutes slightly less than half the population, consists
primarily of Indo-Fijians and, in much smaller numbers, Europeans who
are the descendants of colonial settlers. The European community is
predominantly Christian (Methodist). The Hindu faith is predominant
within the Indo-Fijian community. The Muslim (Sunni) minority makes up
approximately 10 percent of the IndoFijian community. Both the Hindu
and Muslim communities have a number of active religious and cultural
organizations. There are a small number of apparently cult-like
organizations.
The Government does not restrict foreign clergy and missionary
activity or other typical activities of religious organizations. There
are numerous Christian missionary organizations that are active
nationally and regionally in social welfare, health, and education.
Many major Christian denominations and notably the Methodist Church
have missionaries in the country; they operate numerous religious
schools, including colleges, which are not subsidized by the
Government.
The Government partly sponsors an annual ecumenical prayer
festival.
The role of religion continues to be a political issue. In the
past, former Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka publicly indicated his
willingness to consider making the country ``a Christian state'';
however, he helped to create the new Constitution's compromise
language. Several predominantly ethnic Fijian political parties
contesting the 1999 general elections called for a Christian state and
the reintroduction of measures to mandate respect for Christian values,
such as a ban on Sunday for all but essential services. (Fiji
introduced such a ban following the two 1987 coups, but it was lifted
in 1995.) Other parties, which are dominated by Indo-Fijians, do not
support such actions and insist that church and state should remain
separate. The president of the Methodist Church has stated that the
church has no official role in politics. However, numbers of senior
Methodist leaders, including a past church president, were candidates
for office in the 1999 general elections. The Christian Democratic
Party used the Methodist Church headquarters to hold the swearing-in
ceremony for its candidates.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities. However, the largest societal divide in the country
remains ethnic, not religious, between the ethnic Fijian and Indo-
Fijian communities.
Incidents of desecration of Hindu temples in 1997 continue to be
under investigation. There were no reports of any attacks on religious
institutions during the period covered by this report.
The Muslim Indo-Fijian community, which is a minority within the
Indo-Fijian community, at times indicated that it is neglected and
discriminated against by the predominantly Hindu Indian community.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy actively supports efforts to improve and expand
governmental and societal awareness of and protection for human rights,
including the right to freedom of religion. Representatives of the U.S.
Embassy met with leaders of many religious communities during the
period covered by this report. Embassy officers also met with
nongovernmental organizations that have an interest in religious
freedom. Embassy officers made consular visits to one apparently cult-
like organization to ascertain the safety and welfare of U.S. citizens.
__________
INDONESIA
The Constitution provides for religious freedom for members of five
of the six officially recognized religions and belief in one supreme
God, and the Government generally respects these provisions; however,
there are some restrictions on certain types of religious activity,
including unrecognized religions. The law officially ``embraces'' six
religions--Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Confucianism. The Government generally respects the freedom to worship
of adherents to each of these religions. Presidential Decree No. 6,
promulgated in January 2000, lifted severe legal restrictions on the
practice of Confucianism that had existed since 1967. While only these
six religions are recognized officially, the law states that other
religions are not forbidden. A few groups are banned explicitly,
including Jehovah's Witnesses, whose adherents may experience
difficulty processing civil matters like marriage. Likewise, citizens
who are members of religions other than the six officially recognized
may be obliged to identify themselves as Catholics, Muslims, etc., in
order to obtain national identity cards or process other civil matters.
The Government's level of respect for religious freedom remained
generally constant during the period covered by this report; however,
religious intolerance within society became markedly more visible and
was manifested in scores of violent incidents in Maluku, Sulawesi,
Lombok, and elsewhere.
There were numerous attacks on churches in various locations
throughout the country, ranging from minor damage to total destruction;
only a few cases, if any, were investigated thoroughly, and there were
no reports that any perpetrators were punished. Mosques also were
targeted for attack in some instances, especially during the ongoing
inter-religious strife in North Maluku and Maluku provinces (also known
as the Molucca Islands), and around Poso, Central Sulawesi. Religious
intolerance led to violence in several regions, particularly in the
Moluccas and Central Sulawesi. It generally is estimated that
approximately 4,000 persons have been killed in the Moluccus strife
since violence erupted in January 1999. The victims were roughly
equally divided between Christians and Muslims. In addition to
intercommunal violence in Maluku and North Maluku provinces,
significant religious conflict also occurred on the islands of Sulawesi
and Lombok. Churches and other Christian facilities continued to be
targeted for attack in Java, where Muslims are a majority, although not
to the extent to which they were targeted in 1996-97.
The U.S. discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in
the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for religious freedom for members of five
of the six officially recognized religions and belief in one supreme
God, and the Government generally respects these provisions; however,
there are some restrictions on certain types of religious activity,
including unrecognized religions. Law No. 1/1965 states that the
Government ``embraces'' Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,
Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism. Law No. 14/1967 on Chinese
Worship, Religion and Customs restricted severely the practice of
Confucianism by, for example, confining Chinese worship, religion and
customs to the home and temple; however, in January 2000, Presidential
Decree No. 6/2000 revoked the 1967 restrictive legislation. While the
law formally ``embraces'' only these six religions, it explicitly
states that other religions, including Judaism, Zoroastarianism,
Shintoism, and Taoism are not forbidden. The Government permits the
practice of other religions, including Sikhism and the mystical,
traditional beliefs called ``Aliran Kepercayaan.'' The Government bans
other faiths, such as Jehovah's Witnesses and some Islamic groups. The
People's Consultative Assembly adopted a new Human Rights Charter in
November 1998 which provides citizens the freedom to practice their
religion, without specifying any particular religions.
The legal requirement to adhere to the official state ideology,
``Pancasila,'' extends to all religious and secular organizations.
Because the first tenet of Pancasila is belief in one supreme God,
atheism is forbidden. Although individuals are not compelled to
practice any particular faith, all citizens must classify themselves as
members of one of the six officially recognized religions. As this
choice must be noted on official documents, such as the identification
card, failure to identify a religion can make it impossible to obtain
such documents. Members of other religious communities must be
identified with one of the six sanctioned religions. For example, Sikhs
generally are classified as Hindus. Prior to the passage of
Presidential Decree No. 6/2000, Confucians were required to identify
themselves as one of the other officially recognized religions;
however, according to domestic news reports, as of May 2000,
approximately 100 persons had succeeded in obtaining recognition as
adherents of Confucianism on their identification cards.
The Government continues to oppose strongly any Muslim group that
advocates the establishment of an Islamic state or the supplanting of
civil law with Sharia (Islamic law). However, at times it was reluctant
to challenge extreme Muslim groups openly (see Section II).
Religious Demography
The population, estimated at 211,000,000 persons, is approximately
85 percent Muslim, 10 percent Christian, 2 percent Hindu, and 1 to 1.5
percent Buddhist, with the remainder members of other religions.
Animism still is practiced in remote regions of Kalimantan and Papua
(also known as Irian Jaya).
Muslims are the majority population in most regions of Sumatra and
Java. Muslims also predominate in regions of Sulawesi and Kalimantan
and are present as minorities in most other parts of the country. The
vast majority of Muslims are Sunni, although there also are Shi'a and
adherents of Sufism, Ahmadiyah, and other branches of Islam. The Muslim
community primarily breaks down into two groups: ``modernist,'' mainly
urban communities, which adhere more closely to orthodox Sunni
theology, and larger ``traditionalist'' communities, composed mainly of
rural Javanese Muslims, who incorporate some elements of Javanese
mysticism, Hinduism, and Buddhism into their practice of Islam.
Most Christians reside in the eastern part of the country. Roman
Catholicism is the predominant religion in the provinces of Nusa
Tenggara Timor and southeast Maluku, while Protestantism is the
predominant religion in central and north Maluku. In the easternmost
province of Papua, Protestants are predominant in the north, and
Catholics are the majority in the south. Other significant Christian
populations are located in North Sumatra, seat of the influential Batak
Protestant Church, which in early 1999 reunited after a government-
manipulated division in 1993. There also are significant Christian
populations in west and central Java, and in Kalimantan. Many urban
Sino-Indonesians adhere to Christian faiths as well.
Migration, both government-sponsored and spontaneous, gradually is
increasing the Muslim population in the eastern part of the country.
Some Christian critics have alleged that the Government has attempted
to alter the demographic balance of the eastern part of the country by
resettling Muslims in the area and providing various subsidies for
those who settle spontaneously. The critics claim that growing communal
violence in eastern Indonesia is a product of this policy (see Section
II). However, government programs have not sponsored most Muslims who
have moved into the region.
Most Hindus live in Bali, where they form about 93 percent of the
population. Balinese Hinduism has developed various local
characteristics that distinguish it from Hinduism as practiced on the
Indian subcontinent. There also is a significant Hindu minority (the
Keharingan) in central Kalimantan.
Seven schools of Buddhism are practiced in the country: Buddhayana,
Mahayana, Theravada, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Nichiren, and Maitreya.
Most, but not all, Buddhists are of ethnic Chinese origin. Like the
Sino-Indonesian population, most Buddhists are located in major urban
and trading centers, rather than rural areas.
The Government actively promotes mutual tolerance and harmony among
officially recognized religions. Citizens practicing the recognized
religions maintain active links with coreligionists inside and outside
the country and travel abroad for religious gatherings. The Government
both facilitates and regulates Muslims' participation in the annual
Hajj pilgrimages to Mecca.
For the first time since the beginning of the Soeharto regime,
religiously oriented parties, predominantly Islamic but including some
Christian, were allowed to form and to contest the June 1999
parliamentary elections. Christian parties received relatively few
votes; Muslim parties won about 30 percent of the vote. Of the Muslim
parties, those with moderate views on the role of Islam in government
and society dominated. Parties that strongly advocated an Islamization
of government policy won a small percentage of the vote and few
parliamentary seats.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Restrictions exist on certain types of religious activity,
including restrictions on officially recognized religions. For example,
a number of regulations enacted subsequent to the passage of Law No. 1/
1965 severely restrict some religious groups. Moreover, a 1976 decision
by the Attorney General, reinforced by a separate decision by the same
office in 1978, banned Jehovah's Witnesses from practicing their faith.
Jehovah's Witnesses claim that significant abuse, including detention
and torture, lasted until 1997. Although government hostility toward
Jehovah's Witnesses has subsided, open practice of the faith remains
banned, and members report that they continue to experience difficulty
registering marriages, enrolling children in school, and in other civil
matters. The Government in some provinces banned the messianic Islamic
school, Darul Arqam; the Government also bans the Al-Ma'Unah school in
some provinces. Members of the Baha'i faith did not report problems
during the period covered by this report. The Government closely
monitors Islamic groups considered to be deviating from orthodox tenets
and in the past has dissolved such groups. Historically, the Government
has tried to control ``heterodox'' Muslim groups, due to pressure by
nongovernmental leaders of ``mainstream'' or ``orthodox'' Muslim groups
as well as the Government's concern for national unity. In addition
``mainstream'' Christian leaders have influenced government policy
against ``fundamentalist'' Christians. Non-Trinitarians (Jehovah's
Witnesses) have faced government bans that they claim were instigated
by Trinitarian Christians. After the passage of Presidential Decree No.
6/2000, Confucianists, who in the past were restricted severely, were
permitted to celebrate publicly the Chinese New Year for the first time
in over 30 years.
A 1969 regulation dictates that before a house of worship can be
built, agreement must be obtained from local residents living near the
site, and a license must be obtained from the regional office of the
Ministry of Religion. Some Christians claim that this regulation is
used to discriminate against them and to prevent them from building
churches. Despite the problems, the building of churches continued,
sometimes without permits. Muslims contend that Christians, in some
instances, seek to erect churches in areas with small Christian
populations with the aim of creating a base in a Muslim area in order
to proselytize.
The law allows for conversion between faiths, and such conversions
do occur. Independent observers note that it has become increasingly
difficult to gain official recognition of inter-faith marriages between
Muslims and non-Muslims. Persons from religions outside the six
accepted religions also have difficulty in getting their marriages
recognized officially.
The Government views proselytizing by recognized religions in areas
heavily dominated by another recognized religion as potentially
disruptive and discourages it. Foreign missionary activities are
relatively unimpeded, although in Papua, and occasionally elsewhere,
missionaries have experienced difficulties and delays in renewing
residence permits. In addition visas allowing the entrance of new
foreign clergy sometimes are difficult to obtain. Foreigners present in
the country holding tourist visas may be deported for proselytizing.
Laws and decrees from the 1970's limit the number of years that foreign
missionaries can spend in the country; some extensions were granted in
remote areas like Papua. Foreign missionary work is subject to the
funding stipulations of the 1984 ORMAS law, which regulates the
activities of all nongovernment ``mass'' organizations in the country.
The October 1999 election of Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahid as
President was greeted with optimism by Christians and members of other
religious minority groups because of his longstanding advocacy of
religious tolerance and harmony. In addition to Muslims, Wahid
appointed Christians, a Hindu, and a Buddhist to his Cabinet. Wahid
continued actively to promote tolerance as President, and demonstrated
his commitment to religious freedom by calling on leaders of Hindus,
Buddhists, Sikhs, and others during their religious festivals.
The Government's level of respect for religious freedom remained
generally constant during the period covered by this report; however,
religious intolerance within society became markedly more visible and
was manifested in scores of violent incidents in Maluku, Sulawesi,
Lombok, and elsewhere (see Section II).
The most widespread inter-religious violence erupted in the
Moluccas, where several hundred houses of worship, both mosques and
churches, were destroyed and thousands of persons were killed as
Christians and Muslims waged an internecine conflict (see Section II).
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Religious violence and the lack of an effective government response
to punish perpetrators and prevent further attacks led to allegations
that officials were complicit in some of the incidents or, at a
minimum, allowed them to occur with impunity. Although the President
and other officials repeatedly have criticized instances of inter-
religious violence, the Government's efforts to end or reduce such
violence generally have not been effective. The Government continued to
demonstrate reluctance to intervene in mob attacks on houses of
worship. Security forces proved ineffective in controlling the violence
in North Maluku and Maluku provinces, where both Christians and Muslims
repeatedly were targeted for attack on the basis of their religion and
ethnic group.
In North Maluku and Maluku provinces Christian sources alleged that
elements of the security forces were biased against them. For example,
predominantly Muslim units dispatched from Java and Sulawesi allegedly
sided with Muslim vigilantes and used excessive force against
Christians. In other instances, security forces appeared to be biased
against Muslims. For example, Muslims on Ambon charged that members of
the predominantly Christian police force also were partial in helping
their coreligionists. There was no evidence to suggest that the
security forces, as an institution, supported one side or the other.
Some individuals and some units occasionally sided with their
coreligionists, but their actions appeared to be random and contrary to
orders. In fact some military troops were detained and interrogated for
allegedly openly siding with militia in at least one episode on Haruku;
however, there were no reports that such perpetrators ever were
punished. Several hundred police officers have themselves been
attacked, and some even killed because of their religion; hundreds of
police members and their families, as well as numerous other government
officials, are among the refugees.
Reviving a centuries-old Ambonese practice, in March 2000, the
provincial government enlisted Muslims and Christians to cooperate in
the reconstruction of two major places of worship that were destroyed
during rioting, Silo Church and An'nur Mosque (see Section II). In a
highly publicized ceremony, the governor, the Vice President, and
others, presided over the laying of cornerstones for each building.
However, as of mid-2000, workers had made little progress.
In response to heightened violence in the Moluccas in the first
half of 2000 (see Section II), on June 23, 2000, President Wahid banned
all travel to the Moluccas; on June 26, 2000, the President declared a
state of civil emergency. However, during the period covered by this
report, the Government was unable to suppress the violence or fully
contain the flow of fighters and weapons to the Moluccas.
In contrast the governors of the provinces of Sulawesi, working
with military and police leaders, responded to the outbreak of communal
violence in the Poso area in the first quarter of 2000 by implementing
a comprehensive program to prevent the violence from spreading. This
response included investigation and detention of suspects,
comprehensive weapons searches, and an effort to return refugees to
their home villages as soon as possible. As of mid-2000, this response
seemed to have halted the cycle of retaliation.
In East Timor, before and after the August 30, 1999 vote in favor
of independence, pro-Indonesia militias killed numerous Catholic
priests and nuns who were engaged in humanitarian activities and
destroyed many Catholic places of worship, many of which were being
used to shelter thousands of internally displaced persons (IDP's). In
general the abuses were not motivated by religious differences but by
pro-Indonesia militia groups' efforts to discourage a vote for
independence and later to take revenge after their efforts failed.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners during
the period covered by this report.
In the summer of 1999, two Christians, one a pastor, one a
parishioner, were sentenced to 5- to 10-year prison terms in a
sensational case in Padang, West Sumatra. Salmon Ongirwale was
convicted of kidnaping in connection with his relationship with a
Muslim woman, then a minor. The pastor was convicted as an accomplice.
Some members of the Muslim community, including the woman's parents,
alleged that the two persons had plotted to kidnap their daughter and
force her to convert to Christianity. Members of the Christian
community alleged that the defendants had been charged and tried
unfairly, and were singled out for such harsh treatment because they
were Christians.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The concept of religious freedom generally is accepted within
society. Religious organizations, nongovernmental organizations
(NGO's), and individuals regularly conduct programs and activities
aimed at promoting tolerance and cooperation between different
religious communities. In the political sphere, leading government and
opposition political figures regularly address the need for inter-
religious harmony. Several of the major political opposition parties
and the current ruling coalition are nonsectarian.
There were markedly fewer reports of specifically anti-Chinese
violence during the period covered by this report. While attacks on
ethnic Chinese churches clearly reflect religious tensions, other
contributing factors are underlying socioeconomic and political
tensions between Muslims and relatively more affluent Sino-Indonesians.
During the period covered by this report, groups that actively
advocate a more prominent role for Islam in society continued to
emerge. However, there currently is minimal public support for the
establishment of an Islamic state. The Government continues to oppose
Muslim groups that advocate the establishment of an Islamic state or
the supplanting of civil law with Shari'a (Islamic law). However, some
Islamic political parties and Islamic groups advocate the establishment
of what they describe as ``an Islamic society.''
In early 2000, a movement known as the Islamic State of Indonesia
(NII) emerged on university campuses in Java. There were sporadic
reports from some neighborhoods of Jakarta that student followers of
the NII movement set up roadblocks, checked identification cards, and
harassed passing non-Muslims, in some cases forcing them to recite
passages from the Koran. Similar incidents took place in Makassar,
South Sulawesi.
Another Muslim group that appeared in early 2000, the Laskar Jihad
(``holy war troops'') engaged in paramilitary training and moved about
freely, armed with swords, daggers, and spears. Some members of the
movement reportedly believed that they could ``enter heaven by killing
infidels.'' Leaders of the group announced that they were planning to
wage war on Christians in the Moluccas. The Government clearly was
reluctant to challenge them openly. The Government did close a
conspicuous Laskar Jihad training camp south of Jakarta, but as of June
2000, the group had not been disbanded. Many of its recruits were
deployed to Maluku and North Maluku provinces starting in late April
2000; some continued training elsewhere. In Yogyakarta, central Java,
members of the Laskar Jihad openly called for intervention in the
Moluccas, while others collected funds for Laskar Jihad on street
corners.
There were numerous instances of attacks on churches, mosques,
temples, and other religious facilities between July 1, 1999 and June
30, 2000. Christian groups recorded 135 attacks in which churches and
other Christian facilities were closed, damaged, or burned during this
time (including the violence in the Moluccas and Sulawesi). The attacks
ranged in severity from broken windowpanes to total destruction. For
example, on December 15, 1999, Muslim crowds burned and ransacked a
Christian seminary and a social service complex in southeast Jakarta,
killing 1 person in the process and injuring 20 others. According to
many Christian officials, the anti-Christian sentiment behind this
violence is not new, but the impunity associated with such acts is.
This has contributed significantly to such attacks since Soeharto
resigned in May 1998. There are no available national estimates of how
many mosques were damaged or destroyed during the period covered by
this report. The Government did not investigate fully most cases of
attacks on religious facilities that occurred during riots, and in
other cases, did not investigate such incidents at all.
There also were reports of preaching and publications against
Christians, which led to concerns that societal support for religious
tolerance was under pressure.
In the Jakarta and other incidents, interethnic tensions, as well
as inter-religious tensions, were factors that contributed to the
violence. Other factors included a general breakdown in civil and
military authority and a concomitant rise in societal violence, as
citizens took justice into their own hands. Security forces, which have
been criticized widely for previous human rights violations, for
reasons such as lack of training, fear of criticism, and the potential
for legal restriction, showed reluctance to intervene, as they
routinely did under previous regimes, to stop religious and ethnic
disputes from turning violent.
During the period covered by this report, thousands of citizens
were attacked by other citizens, and according to multiple sources (at
times, official) perhaps as many as 4,000 to 5,000 persons were killed,
largely because of their religious identity in North Maluku and Maluku
provinces and in Central Sulawesi province in the eastern part of the
country. Over 300,000 persons were displaced internally. Some Christian
IDP's from Ambon fled to the southeastern part of the province; others
fled to North Maluku; and many others fled to North Sulawesi province,
which is predominantly Christian in many areas. Muslim IDP's from Ambon
fled to parts of North Maluku; others fled to South and Southeast
Sulawesi provinces. Many of these IDP's carried the conflict with them.
In North Maluku alone, provincial statistics listed 97 mosques and
106 churches burned, as Christians and Muslims waged an internecine
conflict. Other mosques and churches were attacked and many destroyed
in parts of Maluku province and in Poso, Central Sulawesi. This
represented the most widespread inter-religious violence during the
period covered by this report. The fighting in all three provinces had
political, economic, ethnic, and religious overtones. While initial
conflicts emerged over land tenure issues and the political and
economic status of local residents versus transmigrants, in many cases
the conflicts later evolved into highly charged religious clashes.
Inter-religious fighting in the Moluccas, which began in Ambon on
January 19, 1999, spread in sporadic but steady waves from Ambon to
neighboring islands in the central and southern areas of the Moluccas
from July to December 1999. The use of firearms, mostly homemade but
increasingly sophisticated, grew, as did the number of deaths.
Buildings in the central business district of Ambon, many of them
Chinese-owned, were destroyed in late July 1999 and early August 1999,
marking the first time that major fighting spread from outlying
neighborhoods. Allegations of outside provocation and interference rose
during this period, and authorities came under increasing criticism for
failing to halt the violence or actively abetting it (see Section I).
From December 1999 and continuing to June 30, 2000, religious
clashes rapidly spread to most major islands in the Moluccas. Violence
erupted in North Maluku province after Christmas as Christian gangs and
militia (and to a lesser extent, Muslim gangs and militia) launched
offensives against isolated villages.
Meanwhile, IDP's fleeing conflict-torn areas of Ambon island poured
into the city of Ambon. Many directed their anger against Ambon;
extensive damage resulted in which numerous houses, shops, and places
of worship were burned. Predominantly Muslim military units dispatched
from Java and Sulawesi were accused of siding with Muslim vigilantes
and using excessive force against Christians. Muslims on Ambon charged
that the predominantly Christian police force also was acting with bias
(see Section I), and Christian gangs also were guilty of severe
attacks.
On December 28, 1999, Christian militia invaded a small Muslim town
in north Halmahera Island (North Maluku province) and massacred at
least 113 men, women, and children in and around a mosque. Several
hundred more persons died in other attacks, apparently initiated by
Christian gangs.
Following the December 1999 incident, Muslims became more militant.
During the first half of the year 2000, they drove Christian
populations away from many areas of North Maluku and Maluku provinces.
As IDP's fled to neighboring areas and islands, their resentment
against those who had attacked them often sparked conflict in their new
places of residence.
In response to the increased violence, the armed forces deployed
fresh troops to the Moluccas in January 2000. In Ambon, army, marines,
and police personnel enforced a curfew and began disarming civilians in
house-to-house searches. By late January 2000, a semblance of normality
had returned to Ambon. However, internecine fighting escalated in
Halmahera and other parts of North Maluku (including Bacan, Obi, and
Morotai islands) and in Maluku (Seram and Buru islands).
By April 2000, there were some signs of reconciliation in Ambon as
the provincial government inaugurated reconstruction programs and
markets were established in border areas. The cease-fire in Ambon
abruptly ended in late April 2000, when serious rioting immediately
broke out upon the conclusion of Vice President Megawati
Soekarnoputri's visit. There was a further upsurge in violence in mid-
May as boatloads of Laskar Jihad volunteers (ultimately reaching 2,000
to 3,000 persons) began arriving in Ambon and other parts of the
Moluccas. Periodic waves of violence and destruction continued in Ambon
during the weeks that followed. Law and order continued to deteriorate
steadily, all but collapsing by late June 2000, when violent mobs
stormed through the city with little or no interference by the security
forces.
In May and June 2000, there were large-scale Muslim attacks against
Christians in Halmahera, in apparent revenge for the January 2000
massacre. There were further allegations that the security forces were
taking sides in the fighting (see Section I). For example, on June 19,
2000, about 4,000 Muslims surrounded the town of Duma and killed from
110 to 180 largely defenseless Christians before burning down their
church. Laskar Jihad later claimed that it was involved, but locally
based Muslim groups primarily were responsible. The military forces
admitted that they stood aside because troops were outnumbered
(officials have alleged that only 70 to 100 troops were available at
the time). Other witnesses (including a local Laskar Jihad leader)
claimed that at least six soldiers joined the Muslims in the attack.
However, troops were able to prevent 300 Christian gang members from
counterattacking days later.
On June 23, 2000, President Wahid announced a ban on all travel to
Maluku and North Maluku provinces; however, the ban was enforced
loosely. On June 26, 2000, the President declared a state of civil
emergency for both provinces (see Section I).
It is estimated that over 2,000 persons died in the Moluccas
between January and June 2000, and that 300,000 persons, or 15 percent
of the population, were displaced internally. These population
movements have resulted, in effect, in the partition of the Moluccas
into Muslim and Christian areas. For example, in Ternate the original
population of 105,000 persons included 15,000 Christians. During the
period covered by this report, all Christians fled, and 80,000 Muslim
IDP's arrived from elsewhere in the same province.
While religious tension and hatreds have been the main sources of
intercommunal warfare in the Moluccas, the conflict partly is rooted in
social, political, and economic grievances among the many diverse
communities living there. In some cases, Muslims and Christians from
the same or affiliated ethnic groups banded together and attacked
Muslim migrants from another, distant ethnic group. This phenomenon
occurred in Halmahera in the clash between the villages of Kao (local
Christian and Muslim ethnic groups) and Malifut (largely settled by
Muslim transmigrants from the island of Makian). In addition unverified
reports of provocators and conspiracies have fueled what has become a
continuous cycle of violence. Both sides claim that outside agitators
helped trigger the violence. Both insist that coreligionists fought
back only after being assaulted by persons of the opposite religion.
Furthermore, traditional leadership structures have eroded, leaving
conflicting groups without a respected and effective mechanism for
resolving intercommunal and interreligous tensions.
In January 2000, there were anti-Christian riots in Mataram,
Lombok. Several rioters were killed and numerous persons were injured
in the violence. In addition Muslim gangs destroyed, damaged, and
looted Christian homes, businesses, and other property. Thousands of
Christians fled the violence. However, by the end of January 2000 the
situation became calmer, and as of June 30, 2000, reports of further
violence were rare; nevertheless, tensions remained.
Small-scale rioting broke out in pockets of Makassar, South
Sulawesi on January 17 and 18, 2000. The problem began when about 2,000
Muslim gang members began stopping motorists in front of Hasanuddin
University, demanding identification to determine religious
affiliation, and in at least six cases, dragging out and beating
Christians ``in retaliation for what happened to their brothers in
Maluku.''
On January 30, 2000, there was a series of attacks on churches in
Yogyakarta, central Java. The problem began after a Muslim rally of
from 10,000 to 20,000 persons to protest the inter-religious violence
in the Moluccas ended. Hundreds of participants drove through the city
on motorcycles and threw rocks through the windows of eight churches, a
Christian campus dormitory, and two houses.
Beginning in late May 2000, the area of Poso in Central Sulawesi,
as well as numerous villages in the region, experienced renewed
religious riots and violence, resulting in numerous deaths and
widespread destruction. Christian gangs from surrounding villages
reportedly expelled Muslims from the town of Poso in retaliation for
past hostilities, which included the burning of hundreds of Christians'
houses in the preceding months. In the most serious incident, Christian
gangs brutally murdered well over 100 unarmed Muslims in a small
village outside Poso. Foreign Christian missionaries, who were worried
about the possible spread of religious violence, fled Central Sulawesi.
While Christian gangs and militia burned mosques and Muslim houses,
Muslim gangs and militia reportedly burned what Christian property they
could while fleeing town. As of June 10, 2000, over 120 persons were
confirmed dead. The most recent casualty estimate listed 214 victims,
and casualty estimates ranged as high as 500 persons dead. Over 2,000
houses were destroyed in the Poso area. Both Christian and Muslim
outsiders were accused of helping to instigate the violence.
Between July 1999 and July 2000, there were a number of reports of
persons who practice traditional medicine magic (``dukun santets'')
being killed. In the Malang area of East Java, villagers broke into the
home of suspected shamans in the middle of the night on January 18,
2000, and beat to death a 45-year-old woman in front of her teenage
sons. The mob then dragged her body to a cemetary and hung it from a
tree, where it hung until dawn. That morning, 200 villagers turned
themselves in to the local police station. The police stated that they
were searching for the ``true instigators'' of the violence; no arrests
were made. Since then, more individuals were attacked for suspected
shamanism in the Pasuruan area of East Java. While it is difficult to
estimate accurately the frequency of such attacks, journalists believe
that lynch killings still occur. Aside from killings, ``dukun santets''
faced other constraints on their freedom. For example, in Banyuwangi,
East Java, many known shamans essentially were forced (by the
authorities) to migrate to Bali to get them out of ``harm's way.'' Many
others were forced to renounce their craft by local Muslim leaders who
told them that it was forbidden by Muslim law.
In West Kalimantan, 40,000 persons who were displaced by communal
fighting in early 1999 remained in temporary camps as of June 2000.
They were displaced as a result of clashes between groups composed of
Dayaks (mostly Christian or animist) and Melayu (mostly Muslim) on one
side and Madurese migrants (Muslims) on the other. Ethnic differences
and tensions between indigenous people and newcomers appeared to be the
source of the conflict, rather than religious differences.
Muslims are a religious minority in the easternmost province of
Papua (also known as Irian Jaya). Local sentiment against the efforts
of Muslim missionaries to win converts in the predominantly Christian
province, as well as resentment of the arrival in the province of
mainly Muslim migrants from other parts of the country either under
government sponsored ``transmigration'' programs or with the
encouragement of various government incentives, has in the past led to
attacks on mosques in Papua. However, there were no reports of attacks
on mosques in Papua during the period covered by this report.
Nevertheless, tensions stemming from ethnic differences and economic
disparities remain and sometimes are expressed in religious terms.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government publicly criticized the intercommunal violence
that occurred in various parts of the country by continually:
expressing its deep concern with the ongoing cycle of violence and
retaliation between Christian and Muslim communities in the Moluccas
and elsewhere; urging the Government to take further measures to
prevent bloodshed and take action against those who initiate violence,
while adhering to international standards for the protection of human
rights and exercising appropriate restraint; and calling on all parties
to show restraint, refrain from violence, and resolve their differences
through dialog and negotiation.
With respect to the violence between Christian and Muslim
communities in the Moluccas, Central Sulawesi, and elsewhere, President
Clinton and other senior U.S. Government officials raised their
concerns with Indonesian counterparts on numerous occasions.
The Ambassador and embassy and consulate Surabaya staff routinely
conveyed to government officials at all levels the U.S. view that
religious freedom must be respected. In addition throughout the period
covered by this report, the Ambassador and embassy and consulate staff
regularly met with leaders of religious communities and traveled widely
throughout the country to keep abreast of developments affecting
religious freedom.
During the period covered by this report, the public affairs
section of the Embassy funded the travel of several persons under the
International Visitors program, as well as exchange visitors, to study
human rights and religion in the U.S., among other topics. They
included religious and student leaders, and legal activists from Aceh,
Papua, East Timor, and other locations. The Fulbright Commission in
Indonesia funded one senior U.S. scholar to teach comparative religion
at the State Islamic Institute (IAIN) in Jakarta and a senior U.S.
scholar/researcher who studied and taught women's role in Koranic verse
at the same institution.
The U.S. Government also provides significant funding for NGO's
that implement projects to promote religious tolerance in various parts
of the country.
__________
JAPAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There are virtually no barriers to registering new religions, and
organized religious groups enjoy generous tax benefits.
The Government does not require that religious groups be licensed.
However, to receive official recognition as a religious organization,
which brings tax benefits and other advantages, a group must register
with local or national authorities as a ``religious corporation.'' In
practice almost all religious groups register. In response to Aum
Shinrikyo terrorist attacks in 1995, a 1996 amendment to the Religious
Corporation Law gives governmental authorities increased oversight of
religious groups and requires greater disclosure of financial assets by
religious corporations. The Cultural Affairs Agency estimates that
nearly 5,000 religious groups across the nation appear dormant. In May
1998, the Matsuyama District Court ordered the dissolution of a
registered Shinto religious group that had been dormant since 1982.
This was the first time that a court had accepted the Cultural Affairs
Agency's request to dissolve a religious body since the Religious
Corporation Law went into effect in 1951. However, in June 1998, the
Nagoya High Court upheld a lower court ruling ordering the Toyama
prefectural government to pay monetary damages to 88 followers of a
Buddhist group for violating their rights by ignoring for more than 10
years their application for certification as a religious group. Aum
Shinrikyo, officially renamed Aleph in February 2000, lost its legal
status as a religious corporation in 1996 following the indictment of
several members.
Some Buddhist and Shinto temples and shrines receive public support
as national historic or cultural sites. However, this situation may
change in the aftermath of a 1997 Supreme Court ruling that a
prefectural government may not contribute public funds to only one
religious organization, if the donations supported, encouraged, and
promoted a specific religious group. In July 1998, the Kochi District
Court ruled that using village government funds to repair two Shinto
shrines was tantamount to allocating public funds to a religious group
and therefore was unconstitutional.
Religious Demography
Participation in religious activities by the public is low, and
accurately determining the proportions of adherents to specific
religions is difficult. According to statistics published by the Agency
for Cultural Affairs in 1998, 49.2 percent of citizens adhered to
Buddhism, 44.7 percent to Shintoism, 5.3 percent to so-called ``new''
religions, and 0.8 percent to Christianity. However, a 1996 Jiji Press
Service poll showed that 46.6 percent of the population identified
themselves with no particular religious group, 44.3 percent choose
Buddhism, 3.2 percent Shintoism, 3.1 percent ``new'' religions, and 1.0
percent Christianity. A 1994 poll indicated that less than 7 percent of
the population regularly took part in formal religious services.
Shintoism and Buddhism are not mutually exclusive religions; most
members claim to observe both.
The major Buddhist sects are Tendai, Shingon, Joudo, Zen, Nichiren,
and Nara. In addition to traditional Buddhist orders, there are a
number of Buddhist lay organizations, including the 8-million-plus-
member Soka Gakkai. The three main schools of Shintoism are Jinja,
Kyoha, and Shinkyhoha.
Among Christians, both Catholic and Protestant denominations enjoy
modest followings.
Faiths classified as New Religions include both local chapters of
international religions such as the Unification Church of Japan and the
Church of Scientology as well as the Tenrikyo, Seichounoie, Sekai
Kyusei Kyo, Perfect Liberty, and Risho Koseikai religions, which were
founded in Japan.
A small segment of the population, mostly foreign-born residents,
attend Orthodox, Jewish, and Islamic services.
There are no known restrictions on proselytizing.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In September 1999, the Jehovah's Witnesses alleged that police
maintain surveillance of church activities. The Government denies that
it monitors the activities of the group or other recognized religious
groups.
The only religion under active government surveillance is the Aum
Shinrikyo ``cult,'' which also was designated by the U.S. Department of
State as a terrorist organization following the cult's 1995 Sarin gas
attack in the Tokyo subway system. Aum Shinrikyo lost its legal status
as a religious organization in 1996 following the indictment of several
cult members. It reportedly has an estimated 2,000 followers, down from
10,000 in 1995. From October 1999 through mid-2000, the Tokyo District
Court gave death sentences to four of the five senior cult members
guilty of the release of the Sarin gas. The exception, former Aum
physician Ikuo Hayashi, had been sentenced in October 1998 to life
imprisonment for his ``cooperative and repentant'' attitude. Cases
still are pending in district courts against other senior Aum members,
including cult leader Shoko Asahara. In March 2000, the Tokyo District
Court ordered the cult to pay 688 million yen ($640,000) to survivors
and next-of-kin to those killed in the attack. As of mid-2000, Aum had
remitted but one installment of the damages awarded, and authorities
publicly expressed concern that the cult is hiding and diverting funds
to other purposes.
In February 2000, the Education Ministry asked officials of Saitama
prefecture to reverse their decision not to allow two 6year-old
daughters of Aum Shinrikyo cult members to attend the local elementary
school. However, the national Government did not intervene in decisions
by local school administrators in Ibaraki and Tochigi prefectures in
2000 to block the registration of three children of Aum founder Shoko
Asahara.
Members of the Unification Church have alleged that police do not
act in response to allegations of forced deprogramming of church
members. In April 2000, a national Diet legislator raised this
allegation in a committee session. National Policy Agency and Ministry
of Justice officials considered the member's request for ``appropriate
actions,'' but took no action during the period covered by this report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities. There were few reports of physical violence against
members of religious organizations. At least eight municipalities in
which Aum facilities are active refused to register group members as
residents; other communities continued to block the establishment of
new Aum settlements through protests and public appeals through mid-
2000.
Members of the Unification Church alleged in June 1999 that police
do not act in response to allegations of forced deprogramming of church
members (see Section I). They also claimed that police do not enforce
the laws against kidnaping when the victim is held by family members
and that Unification Church members are subjected to prolonged
detention by individuals, who are not charged by police. In September
1999, the Jehovah's Witnesses asserted that their members are
mistreated similarly.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights
including the promotion of religious freedom internationally. The U.S.
Embassy maintains periodic contact with representatives of religious
organizations.
__________
KIRIBATI
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
Religious Demography
There is no state or politically dominant religion. The State does
not favor a particular religion, nor are there separate categories for
different religions.
Christianity was introduced widely into the area by missionaries in
the 19th century. Major religions include: the Roman Catholic Church;
the Kiribati Protestant Church (KPC), formerly the Congregational
Church; Seventh-Day Adventists; the Baha'i Faith; and the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Roman Catholics are the dominant
Christian denomination and constitute an estimated 54 percent of the
population; members of the KPC constitute an estimated 38 percent.
Other religious groups each account for 1 to 2 percent of the
population. Persons with no religious preference account for about 5
percent of the population.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned
to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Christianity, the religion more than 90 percent of the population,
is a dominant social and cultural force, but there are amicable
relations between the country's religions. Nonbelievers, who constitute
a very small percentage of the residents, do not suffer discrimination.
Virtually all governmental and social functions begin and end with an
interdenominational Christian prayer delivered by an ordained minister,
cleric, or church official.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF KOREA
The Constitution provides for ``freedom of religious belief;''
however, in practice the Government discourages organized religious
activity except that which is supervised by officially recognized
groups. Genuine religious freedom does not exist.
Overall, there was no change in the status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report; however, there were
several unconfirmed reports of executions of members of underground
Christian churches.
There was some easing of religious discrimination policies in the
late 1980's when the Government launched a campaign highlighting Kim
Jong Il's ``benevolent politics.'' Although the government-sponsored
religious groups that were established at that time continue to operate
and visits by foreign religious figures have increased, the regime
appears to have cracked down on unauthorized religious groups in recent
years. In particular, religious persons who proselytize or who have
ties to overseas evangelical groups operating across the border with
China appear to have been arrested and subjected to harsh penalties,
according to several unconfirmed reports. The interKorean summit in
mid-June 2000 has led to an increase in contacts with the Republic of
Korea; its impact on the religious freedom situation remains unclear.
The U.S. Government does not have diplomatic relations with the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), and information about the
situation for religious freedom in the country is limited.
``The United States does not have diplomatic relations with the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea. North Korea does not allow
representatives of foreign governments, journalists, or other invited
visitors the freedom of movement that would enable them to fully assess
human rights conditions there. This report is based on information
obtained over more than a decade, updated where possible by information
drawn from recent interviews, reports, and other documentation. While
limited in detail, this information is nonetheless indicative of the
religious freedom situation in North Korea today.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for ``freedom of religious belief;''
however, in practice the Government discourages organized religious
activity except that which is supervised by officially recognized
groups. Genuine religious freedom does not exist. The Constitution also
stipulates that religion ``should not be used for purposes of dragging
in foreign powers or endangering public security.''
During and immediately after the Korean War, large numbers of
religiously active persons were branded as ``counterrevolutionaries,''
and many of them were executed or sent to concentration camps. The peak
of this oppression was in the early 1970's when a constitutional
revision added a clause about ``freedom of anti-religious activity.''
The DPRK began to moderate its religious discrimination policies in the
late 1980's, when it launched a campaign highlighting North Korean
leader Kim Jong Il's ``benevolent politics.'' As part of this campaign,
the regime eased the system it instituted after a period of factional
strife in the 1950's of classifying the population into dozens of
rigidly defined categories according to family background and loyalty
to the regime, and allowed the formation of several government-
sponsored religious organizations. These serve as interlocutors with
foreign church groups and international aid organizations. Foreigners
who have met with representatives of these organizations believe that
some are genuinely religious but note that others appear to know little
about religious dogma or teaching.
A constitutional change in 1992 deleted the clause about freedom of
anti-religious propaganda, authorized religious gatherings, and
provided for ``the right to build buildings for religious use.''
Religious Demography
The number of religious believers is unknown but has been estimated
at 10,000 Protestants, 10,000 Buddhists, and 4,000 Catholics. In
addition, the Chondogyo Young Friends Party, a government-sponsored
group based on a traditional Korean religious movement, is still in
existence. There has been a limited revival of Buddhism with the
translation and publication of Buddhist scriptures that had been carved
on 80,000 wooden blocks and kept at an historic temple. In the late
1980's, the Government sent two novice priests to study religion in
Rome. However, the two returned before being ordained, so it still is
not known whether any Catholic priests, whose role is a fundamental
element for the practice of the Catholic faith, remain in the country.
Seoul Archbishop Nicholas Jin-Suk Cheong, appointed by the Pope as
Apostolic Administrator of Pyongyang, was quoted in July 2000 as
stating that while there were 50 priests in the country in the 1940's,
it is not known if they are still alive today. A visit to the DPRK by
the Archbishop and Cardinal Stephen Sou-hwan Kim in mid-May 2000 was
postponed because of the inter-Korean summit but reportedly is to be
rescheduled.
There are 300 Buddhist temples. Most of the temples are regarded as
cultural relics, but in some of them religious activity is permitted.
Two Protestant churches under lay leadership and a Roman Catholic
church (without a priest) have been opened since 1988 in Pyongyang. One
of the Protestant churches is dedicated to the memory of North Korean
leader Kim Il Sung's mother, Kang Pan Sok, who was a Presbyterian
deacon. Several foreigners resident in Pyongyang attend Korean services
at these churches on a regular basis. Although some foreigners who have
visited the DPRK over the years say that church activity appears
staged, others believe that church services are genuine, although
sermons contain both religious and political content supportive of the
regime. The Government claims, and visitors confirm, that there are
more than 500 authorized ``house churches.'' Hundreds of religious
figures have visited the DPRK in recent years, including papal
representatives, the Reverend Billy Graham, and religious delegations
from the Republic of Korea, the United States, and other countries.
Overseas religious relief organizations also have been active in
responding to the country's food crisis. An overseas Buddhist group has
been operating a factory in the Najin-Sonbong Free Trade Zone since
1998 to produce food for preschool children.
Several schools for religious education exist. There are 3-year
religious colleges for training Protestant and Buddhist clergy. A
religious studies program also was established at Kim Il Sung
University in 1989; its graduates usually go on to work in the foreign
trade sector.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Persons engaging in religious proselytizing may be arrested and are
subject to harsh penalties, including imprisonment and prolonged
detention without charge. The Government appears concerned about
religiously based South Korean relief and refugee assistance efforts
along the northeast border with the People's Republic of China becoming
entwined with more political goals, including overthrow of the regime.
The food crisis apparently has heightened government concern about
antiregime activity. An article in the Korean Workers Party newspaper
in 1999 criticized ``imperialists and reactionaries'' for trying to use
ideological and cultural infiltration, including religion, to destroy
socialism from within. South Korean law requires all parties, including
religious groups, travelling to North Korea or contacting North Koreans
to request permission from the South Korean security agency. This
requirement increases suspicions among North Korean officials about the
intentions of such groups.
Little is known about the actual life of religious persons in the
DPRK. Members of government-recognized religious groups do not appear
to suffer discrimination; in fact, some reports claim they have been
mobilized by the regime. Persons whose parents were believers but who
themselves are nonpracticing are able to rise to at least the midlevels
of the bureaucracy, despite their family background. Such individuals,
as a category, suffered broad discrimination in the past. Members of
underground churches connected to border missionary activity appear to
be regarded as subversive elements.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government deals harshly with all opponents, including those
engaging in religious practices deemed unacceptable to the regime. In
April 1999, witnesses testified before the U.S. Congress on the
treatment of persons held in prison camps through the early 1990's. The
witnesses stated that prisoners held on the basis of their religious
beliefs generally were treated worse than other inmates were. One
witness, a former prison guard, testified that those believing in God
were regarded as insane, as the authorities taught that ``all religions
are opium.'' He recounted an instance in which a woman was kicked
repeatedly and left with her injuries unattended for days because a
guard overheard her praying for a child who was being beaten. Because
of the effectiveness of the Government in barring outside observers,
such allegations could not be substantiated.
Religious and human rights groups outside the country have provided
numerous, unconfirmed reports that members of underground churches have
been beaten, arrested, or killed because of their religious beliefs.
One unconfirmed report stated that a dozen Christians were executed
during the period covered by this report. According to another
unconfirmed report, 23 Christians were executed between October 1999
and April 2000; some reportedly were executed under falsified criminal
charges, and some reportedly were tortured prior to their executions. A
religious nongovernmental organization quoted an unnamed South Korean
pastor's claims that 400 Christians were executed in 1999. These
reports could not be confirmed or disproved because of the
effectiveness of the Government in barring outside observers.
Nonetheless, the collective weight of anecdotal evidence of harsh
treatment of unauthorized religious activity lends credence to such
reports. The regime deals harshly with its critics, and views religious
believers belonging to underground congregations or with ties to
evangelical groups in North China as opponents. Reports of executions,
torture, and imprisonment of religious persons in the country continue
to emerge.
There is no reliable information on the number of religious
detainees or prisoners, but there have been unconfirmed reports that
some of those detained in the country are detained because of their
religion.
It appears that there was no verifiable change in the status of
respect for religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
There was some easing of religious discrimination policies in the late
1980's, and several government-sponsored religious groups established
at that time continue to operate. The regime appears to have cracked
down on unauthorized religious groups in recent years, especially
persons who proselytize or who have ties to overseas evangelical groups
operating across the border with China. There were several unconfirmed
reports of executions of such persons. The interKorean summit in mid-
June 2000 has led to an increase in contacts with the Republic of
Korea; its impact on the religious situation remains unclear.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There was no information available on societal attitudes toward
religious freedom. The regime does not allow representatives of foreign
governments, journalists, or other invited guests the freedom of
movement that would enable them to assess fully religious freedom in
the country. The Unification Church, which has business ventures in the
country, currently is constructing an inter-faith religious facility in
Pyongyang.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The United States does not have diplomatic relations with the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) and has no official
presence there. The DPRK is a closed society, and is extremely averse
and resistant to outside influences. U.S. policy allows U.S. citizens
to travel to the country and a number of churches and religious groups
have organized efforts to alleviate suffering caused by shortages of
food and medicine.
__________
REPUBLIC OF KOREA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promotion
of human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There is no state religion,
and the Government does not subsidize or favor a particular religion.
There are no government-established requirements for religious
recognition. To protect cultural properties such as Buddhist temples,
the Government established the Traditional Temples Preservation Law. In
accordance with this law, Buddhist temples receive some subsidies from
the Government for their preservation and upkeep.
The Religious Affairs Bureau of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
takes the lead in organizing groups such as the Korea Religious Council
and the Council for Peaceful Religions to promote inter-faith dialog
and understanding. The Bureau also is responsible for planning regular
events such as the Religion and Art Festival, the Seminar for Religious
Leaders, and the Symposium for Religious Newspapers and Journalists.
Religious Demography
According to a 1995 government survey, the country's major
religions and the number of adherents of each are: Buddhism--
10,321,012; Protestantism--8,760,336; Roman Catholicism--2,950,730;
Confucianism--210,927; Won Buddhism--86,923; and other religions--
267,996. There were 21,593,000 atheists or non-practitioners.
Among those practicing a faith, 41.7 percent said that they attend
religious services or rituals at a temple or church at least once a
week. Six percent responded that they attend religious services two to
three times a month; 9.4 percent attend once a month; 6.8 percent
attend once every 2 to 3 months; 26.9 percent attend once a year; and
9.2 percent do not attend any services.
Among practicing Buddhists, 1.2 percent responded that they attend
religious services. A total of 71.5 percent of Protestants and 60.4
percent of Catholics responded that they attend religious services.
Buddhism has approximately 38 orders, such as the ``Korea Buddhist
Kwaneum Order.'' The Catholic Church has 15 dioceses, including Seoul.
There are 83 Protestant denominations, including the Methodist,
Lutheran, Baptist, and Presbyterian denominations, the Anglican Church,
and the Korean Gospel Church Assembly.
Although no official figures for the number of adherents are
available, there are also several minority religions, such as the
Elijah Evangelical Church, the Jesus Morning Star Church, and the All
People's Holiness Church. Muslims, members of the Unification Church,
members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and
Jehovah's Witnesses are also present.
There are 17 Protestant and 6 Catholic missionary groups operating
in the country. Among the Protestant groups are: Christians in Action,
Korea; the Church of the Nazarene, Korea Mission; the Overseas Mission
Fellowship; and World Opportunities International, Korea Branch. Among
the Catholic missionary groups are the Missionaries of Guadalupe, the
Prado Sisters, and the Little Brothers of Jesus. In accordance with the
March 1, 1999 change in the Immigration Control Law, foreign missionary
groups no longer are required to register with the Government. There
were no reports of foreign missionaries being arrested or detained for
their missionary activities.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
In August 1998, Catholic priest Moon Kyu Hyun was arrested on
charges of violating the National Security Law after returning from
North Korea, where he allegedly wrote in praise of Kim IlSung in a
North Korean visitor's book and participated in a North Korean-
sponsored reunification festival in Panmunjom. The eight other priests
who traveled with him were not arrested, and Father Moon's arrest
apparently was not based on his religious beliefs. Moon was released on
bail in October 1998; as of late 1999 his trial was still underway.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between religious groups are generally amicable and free
of incident, and religious tolerance is widespread. There have been
press reports of so-called ``Protestant fanatics'' damaging Buddhist
temples and artifacts through vandalism and arson. Such reports
generate calls for religious tolerance and mutual respect in the media
and among the general public. However, such incidents are rare, and
religious leaders regularly meet both privately and under the aegis of
the Government to promote mutual understanding and tolerance. These
meetings are given wide and favorable coverage by the media. Violence
in October 1999 at the Chogye-sa Temple between Buddhist groups
resulted from a leadership struggle rather than from religious motives.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officials also meet regularly with members of various religious
communities to discuss issues related to human rights.
__________
LAOS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice. Some government officials
committed abuses of citizens' religious freedom.
The Government's already poor record of respect for religious
freedom deteriorated in some aspects during the period covered by this
report.
The Government sought greater and more uniform regulation of the
activities of religious organizations. Although some officials of the
central government occasionally attempted to restrain antireligious
activities by local officials, such problems continued. Largely due to
the actions of a few party cadres in a few provinces, renunciation
campaigns, harassment, and detentions increased at the end of 1999, but
slackened by mid-2000. Official mistrust of ``foreign'' religions and
ethnic tensions contributed to the deteriorating conditions for
religious freedom.
U.S. Embassy representatives remained in contact with religious
leaders. They discussed the need for greater religious freedom at
working levels in the central Government. The Charge pressed the
governor of Luang Prabang province to facilitate greater religious
freedom there. The U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom
visited the country twice during the period covered by this report. He
urged the Government to respect citizens' rights to religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice. The Constitution prohibits
``all acts of creating division of religion or creating division among
the people.'' The Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party (LPRP) and Government
appear to interpret this constitutional provision narrowly, thus
inhibiting religious practice by all persons including the Buddhist
majority and a large population of animists. Although official
pronouncements accept the existence of religion, they emphasize its
potential to divide, distract, or destabilize.
The Constitution notes that the State ``mobilizes and encourages''
monks, novices, and priests of other religions to participate in
activities ``beneficial to the nation and the people.'' The Department
of Religious Affairs in the Lao Front for National Construction
(formerly known as the Lao National Front for Reconstruction), an LPRP
mass organization, is responsible for overseeing all religions.
Although the Government does not require registration, all functioning
religious groups report to the Department of Religious Affairs
quarterly. Reports of activities effectively constitute a system of
approval; the approval process for new facilities is bureaucratic and
time consuming.
The Department of Religious Affairs reportedly drafted regulations
for religious organizations in late 1999, but took no further action.
It held no public consultations with religious leaders on the new
guidelines during the period covered by this report.
Although the State is secular in both name and practice, members of
the LPRP and governmental institutions pay close attention to Theravada
Buddhism, which is practiced by more than 60 percent of the population.
The Government's observation, control of clergy, training support
(including Marxist-Leninist training for monks), and oversight of
temples and other facilities constitutes less a form of favoritism than
a means to supervise and limit religious freedoms among the dominant
Buddhist faith. Many persons regard Buddhism as both an integral part
of the national culture and a way of life. In 1999 the National
Assembly formally raised the possibility of a constitutional amendment
to make Buddhism the state religion. However, no action was taken on
this matter, after the National Assembly leadership indicated that a
national consultation would be held before any proposed constitutional
amendments would be considered.
Religious Demography
Estimates of the number of persons who practice various faiths rank
Theravada Buddhism first, with from 60 to 65 percent of the population,
especially among lowland Lao. Many believers in animism--an estimated
30 percent of the population--are found among Lao Theung (mid-slope
dwelling) and Lao Soung (highland) minority tribes. Among lowland Lao,
particularly in the countryside, there is both a certain syncretistic
practice of, and tolerance for, animist customs among those who devote
themselves to Buddhist beliefs and rituals. Christians, including Roman
Catholics, constitute at most 1.5 percent of the population. Other
minority religions include the Baha'i Faith, Islam, Mahayana Buddhism,
and Confucianism. A very small number of citizens follow no religion.
In Vientiane there are five Mahayana Buddhist pagodas, two serving
the Lao-Vietnamese community and three the Lao-Chinese community.
Buddhist monks from Vietnam, China, and India have visited these
pagodas freely to conduct services and minister to worshipers. There
are at least four more large Mahayana Buddhist pagodas in other urban
centers. There are also unconfirmed reports of other, smaller Mahayana
pagodas in villages near the borders of Vietnam and China. A few of the
pagodas are served by Buddhist nuns. Whether a monk could reside
permanently in any of these pagodas is unknown; the key determinant
appears to be the expense for the congregation. One Mahayana pagoda in
Pakse has at least one monk from Vietnam in residence at all times.
The Catholic Church has a following of 30,000 to 40,000 adherents.
It is unable to operate effectively in the highlands and much of the
north. However, it has an established presence in five of the most
populous central and southern provinces, where Catholics are able to
worship openly. There are three bishops, located in Vientiane, Thakhek,
and Pakse, who visited Rome in late 1998, where they were able to
confer with other bishops and the Pope. Although the Government does
not recognize the Vatican, the Papal Nuncio visits from Bangkok,
Thailand and coordinates with the Government on assistance programs,
especially for lepers and the disabled. A Catholic seminary opened in
Thakhek in early 1998 and is expected to train enough priests to serve
the Catholic Community. As of June 2000, the status of the Catholic
Church in Luang Prabang town continued to be in doubt; there appears to
be a congregation there but, due to local obstructions, worship may not
be conducted readily. However, Catholics are now able to practice more
openly in neighboring Sayabouly province, and a priest visits the Luang
Prabang diocese regularly.
Over 250 Protestant congregations conducted services throughout the
country for a Protestant community numbering from 30,000 to 40,000
persons. The Lao National Front has recognized two Protestant groups,
the Lao Evangelical Church, the umbrella Protestant church, and the
Seventh-Day Adventist Church. The Front strongly encourages all other
Protestant groups to become a part of the Lao Evangelical Church. The
Government has granted permission to four Protestant congregations from
the approved denominations to have church buildings in the Vientiane
area. In addition the Lao Evangelical Church has church buildings in
Savannakhet and Pakse.
There are two active mosques in Vientiane that minister to the
Sunni and Shafie branches of Islam. All persons in the 400strong
Islamic community--the vast majority of whom are foreign permanent
residents--appear to practice their faith openly, freely attending
either mosque. Daily prayers and the weekly Jumaat prayer on Fridays
proceed unobstructed and all Islamic celebrations are allowed. Citizens
who are Muslims are able to go on the hajj. Groups that conduct Tabligh
teachings for the faithful come from Thailand once or twice per year. A
former mosque in Sayabouli province closed in the early 1990's due to
the lack of an active Islamic community, since most Muslims in the
province had moved to Vientiane.
The Baha'i Faith has more than 1,200 adherents and four centers:
Two in Vientiane municipality, one in Vientiane province, and one in
Pakse. Local spiritual assemblies and the national spiritual assembly
routinely hold Baha'i 19-day feasts and celebrate all holy days. The
National Spiritual Assembly meets regularly and is free to send a
delegation to the Universal House of Justice in Mount Carmel, Haifa,
Israel.
There were unconfirmed reports that small groups of followers of
Confucianism and Taoism practice their beliefs in the larger cities.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Party controls the Buddhist clergy (Sangha) in an attempt to
direct national culture. After 1975 the Government attempted to
``reform'' Buddhism and ceased to consider it the state religion,
causing thousands of monks to flee abroad, where most still remain. The
Government has only one semireligious holiday, Boun That Luang, which
is also a major political and cultural celebration. However, the
Government recognizes the popularity and cultural significance of
Buddhist festivals, and many senior officials openly attend them.
Buddhist clergy are featured prominently at important state and party
functions. The Lao National Front directs the Lao Buddhist Fellowship
Association, which adopted a new charter in April 1998. The Front
continues to require monks to study Marxism-Leninism, to attend certain
party meetings, and to combine the party-state policies with their
teachings of Buddhism. In recent years, some individual temples have
been able to receive support from Theravada Buddhist temples abroad, to
expand the training of monks, and to focus more on traditional
teachings.
The Government's tolerance of religion varied by region. In general
central government authorities appeared unable to control or mitigate
harsh measures that were taken by some local or provincial authorities
against the practices of members of minority religious denominations.
Although there was almost complete freedom to worship among
unregistered groups in a few areas, particularly in the largest cities,
government authorities in many regions allowed properly registered
religious groups to practice their faith only under circumscribed
conditions.
Although authorities tolerate diverse religious practices in the
southern panhandle, a pattern of petty local harassment persists. Many
converts must run a gauntlet of harsh government interviews; however,
after overcoming that initial barrier, they are permitted to practice
their new faith unhindered.
The authorities continue to remain suspicious of parts of the
religious community other than Buddhism, including some Christian
groups, in part because these faiths do not share a similar high degree
of direction and incorporation into the government structure, as is the
case with Theravada Buddhism. Authorities especially appear to suspect
those religious groups that gain support from foreign sources, that
aggressively proselytize among the poor or uneducated, or that give
targeted assistance to converts. The Government permits major religious
festivals of all established congregations without hindrance.
The Government prohibits foreigners from proselytizing, although it
permits foreign nongovernmental organizations with religious
affiliations to work in the country. Although there is no prohibition
against proselytizing by citizens, there has been increased local
government investigation and harassment of citizens who do so under the
constitutional provision against creating division of religion.
The Government does not permit the printing of religious texts or
their distribution outside a congregation and restricts the import of
foreign religious texts and artifacts. However, in practice all
approved congregations are able to supply texts to the faithful and
decorate their places of worship. The Government requires and routinely
grants permission for formal links with coreligionists in other
countries. However, in practice the line between formal and informal
links is blurred, and relations generally are established without much
difficulty.
Recognized, organized religious groups appeared to grow in size but
to derive only minimal benefit from increased personal freedoms in
economic activity, travel, and availability of media. While the
Government continued to prohibit proselytizing by foreigners, Lao
Christian proselytizers were active in some areas, resulting in some
new conversions. However, the Government's response to evangelizing was
strong and tended to restrict this activity. These conflicting trends--
maintaining limited freedoms among established groups, alongside a
clash between small bands of highly active proselytizers and some
government hard-liners--tended to contribute to an overall atmosphere
that was not conducive to change, particularly in the easing of
existing government restrictions.
Some minority religious groups reported that they were unable
during the period covered by this report to register new congregations
or receive permission to establish new places of worship, including
places in Vientiane. Authorities sometimes advised new denominations to
join other religious groups having similar historical antecedents,
despite clear differences between the groups' beliefs. Some groups did
not submit applications for establishment of places of worship because
they did not believe that their applications would be approved.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In areas such as Luang Prabang, Houaphanh, Savannakhet, Oudomxay,
Phongsaly, and Attapeu, the authorities arrested and detained religious
believers and their spiritual leaders without charge. In Luang Prabang,
three evangelical Christians were sentenced on November 26, 1999 to 5
years' imprisonment under Article 66 of the Penal Code for gathering to
create social turmoil. Each of the three was a well-known Christian
spiritual leader. In an appeal that the three submitted jointly to the
national appellate court on February 25, the defendants stated that two
were in the house of the third only to stop by while waiting for the
return of a neighbor, that they had private business with the neighbor,
and that they did not see the third defendant, let alone meet with him.
In more isolated cases, provincial authorities instructed their
officials to monitor and arrest persons who professed belief in
Christianity, Islam, or the Baha'i Faith. For example, there is clear
evidence that in Luang Prabang and Savannakhet provinces the
authorities continued to force hundreds of Christians to sign
renunciations of their faith. Some civil servants were threatened with
loss of their positions if they did not sign the renunciations.
Citizens in Luang Prabang since 1999 reported that authorities ordered
them to stop completely their Christian activities, under threat of
arrest. The order appeared to apply only to new converts; believers of
long standing were allowed to continue their beliefs but not to conduct
worship or openly practice their faith. Despite general inaction by
officials on their threats, such threats have had a chilling effect on
religious practice in these provinces. The overwhelming preponderance
of arrests in the country have been of religious leaders and the most
active and visible proselytizers, not of practitioners. For example, in
a southern province in 1998, police refused to release a Lao Christian
who was arrested for proselytizing until the detainee pledged not to
proselytize again.
In Savannakhet province, district authorities supported by police,
military, and representatives of the National Front, closed Christian
churches in at least three districts in the latter part of 1999. Most
of the churches closed had been built in the past 10 years. Churches of
longer standing remained open, and most practitioners who found that
their churches had been closed were able to move their activities to
these places of worship. In a few villages in which churches had been
closed in late 1999, security forces set up roadblocks during Sunday
worship hours that prevented villagers from traveling to other places
to conduct worship services. Although the closed churches were not
reopened, physical obstruction of church attendance appeared to have
abated by mid-2000.
Members of long-established congregations have few problems in
practicing their faith; however, in the second half of 1999 some
churches established a century ago were subjected to harassment by
local government officials in Savannakhet. Many groups of
coreligionists seeking to assemble in a new location are thwarted in
attempts to meet, practice, or celebrate major religious festivals.
Authorities continued to arrest persons for their religious
activities. With new arrests in Houaphanh and Phongsaly provinces at
the end of 1999 and in early 2000, an estimated 55 to 60 members of
religious minorities were in detention at one time. This number
decreased with releases in 2000 in Houaphanh and Phongsaly and a
release of 16 detainees in Savannakhet in June 2000. However, another
11 persons were arrested in Luang Prabang in March 2000 but then
released within a few weeks. In total about 100 persons were arrested
and detained at least briefly for their religious activities during the
period covered by this report.
In rare cases, some local authorities harassed citizens who
traveled outside the country for short-term religious training on the
grounds that these persons had not provided their full travel plans to
the authorities prior to departing from the country. At least five such
persons were detained for this reason in early 1999. This restriction
on freedom of movement appeared to affect primarily those who applied
for crossborder passes into Thailand. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
has the power to grant exit visas and usually grants them as a matter
of routine. There is no evidence that the central Government
investigated travelers on their return.
The enhanced status given to Buddhism in Luang Prabang--famed for
its centuries-old Buddhist tradition and numerous temples--apparently
led some local officials there to act more harshly toward minority
religions, particularly toward Christian and Baha'i groups, than in
other areas of the country.
As of June 30, there were 5 known convicted religious prisoners and
an estimated 20 religious detainees. They were detained in the
following locations: Savannakhet, 2; Attapeu, 10; Houaphanh, 2;
Oudomxay, 4; Luang Prabang, 3; Phongsaly, 2; and Vientiane, 2. In Luang
Prabang, three persons were tried and convicted; in Savannakhet, two
persons were tried and convicted.
A few of the religious detainees are singled out for special
treatment: They must wear chains on their legs or fixed manacles on
their wrists. One detainee was in solitary confinement for a period of
3 to 4 weeks; others had one foot placed in a fixed stock.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Because society places a high premium on harmonious relations, and
because the dominant Buddhist faith is generally tolerant of other
religious practices, the various religious communities coexist
amicably. Although there is no ecumenical movement, and there are no
efforts to create greater mutual understanding, cultural mores
generally instill respect for longstanding, wellknown differences in
belief. However, the Government is considerably less tolerant of newly
introduced religions, especially ``foreign'' religions introduced among
ethnic groups. Some evidence suggests that the Government makes little
effort to ameliorate existing societal discrimination against ethnic
minorities when that social tension can be used to restrict religious
activities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy representatives discussed religious freedom issues
included in this report with the Human Rights Unit of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs (MFA). The Charge has raised high profile cases with
high-ranking MFA officials and relevant provincial governors. In
addition the Embassy has an ongoing dialog with the Department of
Religious Affairs in the Lao National Front and with other high ranking
officials in the National Front.
Embassy representatives have met with all religious leaders in the
country. Embassy officials have actively encouraged religious freedom
despite an environment that is restricted by the government-owned and
government-controlled media.
U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom Robert A. Seiple
visited the country in July 1999 and in January 2000. Seiple met with
high ranking officials in ministries and offices concerned with the
administration of religious affairs. He also visited places of worship
and met with religious leaders, including the supreme patriarch of the
Buddhist hierarchy. During his second visit, Ambassador Seiple sat at a
first-ever group meeting of religious leaders and officials, where he
raised religious freedom as a topic for discussion. Although government
officials' presence did not encourage frank dialog, the meeting was
unprecedented. Ambassador Seiple stressed to government officials the
importance of honoring the universally recognized right to freedom of
religion. Underlining Ambassador Seiple's public diplomacy mission, the
Embassy ensured wide press coverage of the visit by national media,
which stated explicitly his intent to discuss the U.S. International
Religious Freedom Act.
__________
MALAYSIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government places some restrictions on this right. Islam is the
official religion; however, the practice of Islamic beliefs other than
Sunni Islam is restricted significantly.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The country's various believers generally live amicably.
Religious minorities generally worship freely although with some
restrictions. The Government enforces some restrictions on the
establishment of non-Muslim places of worship and on the activities of
political opponents in mosques.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government places some restrictions on this right. Islam is the
official religion; however, the practice of Islamic beliefs other than
Sunni Islam is restricted significantly. Religious minorities include
Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, and Sikh communities. Government funds
support an Islamic religious establishment (the Government also grants
limited funds to nonIslamic religious communities), and it is official
policy to ``infuse Islamic values'' into the administration of the
country. The Government imposes Islamic religious law on Muslims only
in some matters and does not impose Islamic law beyond the Muslim
community. Adherence to Islam is considered intrinsic to Malay ethnic
identity, and therefore Islamic religious laws bind ethnic Malays.
Religious Demography
According to government census figures, in 1991 59 percent of the
population were Muslim; 18 percent practiced Buddhism; 8 percent
Christianity; 6 percent Hinduism; 5 percent Confucianism, Taoism, or
other religions that originated in China; 1 percent animism; and 0.5
percent other faiths, including Sikhism and the Baha'i Faith. Estimates
of the religious practices of the remainder were not stated.
Non-Muslims are concentrated in East Malaysia, major urban centers,
and other areas.
In February 2000, the opposition-controlled state of Kelantan
announced plans to form an Inter-religious Council.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
For Muslims, particularly ethnic Malays, the right to leave the
Islamic faith and adhere to another religion is a controversial
question, and in practice it is very difficult for Muslims to change
religions. Persons who wish to do so face severe obstacles. The legal
process of conversion is unclear; in practice it is very difficult for
Muslims to change their religion legally. In March 1999, the country's
highest court ruled that secular courts have no jurisdiction to hear
applications by Muslims to change religions. According to the ruling,
the religious conversion of Muslims is solely the jurisdiction of
Islamic courts. If the High Court continues to affirm this ruling in
future cases, it would make conversion of Muslims nearly impossible in
practice.
The issue of Muslim apostasy is very sensitive. In 1998 after a
controversial incident of attempted conversion, the Government stated
that apostates (i.e., Muslims who wish to leave or have left Islam for
another religion) would not face government punishment as long as they
did not defame Islam after their conversion. The Government opposes
what it considers deviant interpretations of Islam, maintaining that
the ``deviant'' groups' extreme views endanger national security. In
the past, the Government imposed restrictions on certain Islamic
schools, primarily the small number of Shi'a. The Government continues
to monitor the activities of the Shi'a minority, and the Government
periodically detained members of what it considers Islamic ``deviant
sects'' without trial or charge under the Internal Security Act (ISA)
during the period covered by this report. In April 2000, the state of
Perlis passed a Shari'a law subjecting Islamic ``deviants'' and
apostates to 1 year of ``rehabilitation.'' In early 2000, other states
were reportedly considering similar Shari'a laws. (Under the
Constitution, religion, including Shari'a law, is a state matter.)
However, there were no reports of arrests for apostasy.
In June 2000, the Government announced that all Muslim civil
servants must attend religious classes, but only Islamic classes would
be held. In addition only teachers approved by the Government would be
employed.
The Government generally respects non-Muslims' right of worship;
however, state governments carefully control the building of non-Muslim
places of worship and the allocation of land for non-Muslim cemeteries.
Approvals for such permits sometimes are granted very slowly. After a
violent conflict in Penang between Hindus and Muslims in March 1998,
the Government announced a nationwide review of unlicensed Hindu
temples and shrines. However, implementation was not vigorous, and the
program is no longer a subject of public debate.
In July 1999, the Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, and Sikhism (MCCBCHS), a nongovernmental
organization representing minority religions, protested the planned
implementation of Ministry of Housing and Local Government guidelines
governing new non-Muslim places of worship. The MCCBCHS specifically
complained that the guidelines required an area to have at least 2,000
adherents to a particular non-Muslim faith for a new non-Muslim place
of worship to be approved (no such requirement exists for Muslim places
of worship). The group also complained that, under the guidelines, the
State Islamic Council must approve the establishment of all non-Muslim
places of worship. In September 1999, the Government agreed to revise
the proposed guidelines. By mid-2000, the guidelines still had not been
implemented, and there were no reports on the status of the revisions.
Proselytizing of Muslims by members of other religions is
prohibited strictly, although proselytizing of non-Muslims faces no
obstacles. The Government discourages--and in practical terms forbids--
the circulation in peninsular Malaysia of Malay-language translations
of the Bible and distribution of Christian tapes and printed materials
in Malay. However, Malay-language Christian materials are available.
Some states have laws that prohibit the use of Malay-language religious
terms by Christians, but the authorities do not enforce them actively.
The distribution of Malay-language Christian materials faces few
restrictions in East Malaysia. Visas for foreign Christian clergy are
restricted severely.
For Muslim children, religious education according to a government-
approved curriculum is compulsory. There are no restrictions on home
instruction.
The Government generally restricts remarks or publications that
might incite racial or religious disharmony. This includes some
statements and publications critical of particular religions,
especially Islam. The Government also restricts the content of sermons
at mosques.
After the November 1999 national elections, the Government
significantly expanded efforts to restrict the activities of the
Islamic opposition party at mosques. Several states announced measures
including banning opposition-affiliated imams from speaking at mosques,
more vigorously enforcing existing restrictions on the content of
sermons, replacing mosque leaders and governing committees thought to
be sympathetic to the opposition, and threatening to close down
unauthorized mosques with ties to the opposition. The Government
justified such measures as necessary to oppose the ``politicization of
religion'' by the opposition.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners during
the period covered by this report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covering by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country's various believers generally live amicably.
The Government has a comprehensive system of preferences in
housing, education, business, and other areas for Bumiputras, ethnic
Malay Muslims, and a few other groups that practice various religions.
Ecumenical and inter-faith organizations of the non-Muslim
religions exist and include the Malaysian Consultative Council of
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Sikhism, the Malaysian Council of
Churches, and the Christian Federation of Malaysia. Muslim
organizations generally do not participate in ecumenical bodies.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives have met with some religious leaders.
__________
MARSHALL ISLANDS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religious communities in society contribute to the free
practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
Religious Demography
Major religions include the United Church of Christ (formerly--
Congregational) with 54.8 percent of the population; the Assembly of
God with 25.8 percent; and the Roman Catholic Church with 8.4 percent.
Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God
Part Two) with 2.8 percent; the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-
Day Saints with 2.1 percent; Seventh-Day Adventists with 0.9 percent;
Full Gospel with 0.7 percent; and Baha'i Faith with 0.6 percent.
Persons without any religious affiliation account for 1.5 percent of
the population, and another 1.4 percent belong to religions not named
by the census.
There are missionaries from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
Day Saints and Seventh-Day Adventists. Religious schools include the
Assumption Catholic School and the Rita Christian School as well as
facilities operated by the United Church of Christ and the Assembly of
God.
The Government takes no active steps to promote inter-faith
understanding, and it does not intervene in inter-faith discussion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Although Christianity is a dominant social and cultural force,
there are amicable relations between the country's religious
denominations. Nonbelievers, who constitute a very small percentage of
the residents, do not suffer discrimination. Typically, governmental
and social functions begin and end with an interdenominational
Christian prayer delivered by an ordained minister, cleric, or church
official.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Bill of Rights forbids
establishment of a state religion and governmental restrictions on
freedom of religion.
Religious Demography
Most Protestant denominations as well as the Roman Catholic Church
are present on the four major islands of the country. The most
prevalent Protestant denomination is the United Church of Christ.
Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, members of the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon), and adherents of the Baha'i Faith are
also represented. On Kosrae 99 percent of the population are members of
the United Church of Christ; on Pohnpei approximately 50 percent of the
population are Protestant and 50 percent are Catholic; on Chuuk and
Yap, approximately 60 percent are Catholic and 40 percent are
Protestant. There is a small group of Buddhists on Pohnpei.
On the island of Pohnpei, clan divisions mark religious boundaries
in some measure. More Protestants live on the western side of the
island, but more Catholics live on the eastern side.
Missionaries of many faiths work within the nation. Seventh-Day
Adventists, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,
and other foreign missionary groups operate without hindrance on all
four islands.
Most immigrants are from the Philippines; most of these are
Catholics and join local Catholic churches.
There is no government-sponsored ecumenical activity.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
MONGOLIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however,
proselytizing is limited by forbidding the use of incentives, pressure,
or deceptive methods.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
However, some conservative elements of society resent foreign
interference in the form of religion. Government limits on
proselytizing and bureaucratic harassment of groups that seek to
register hinder the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of conscience and religion,
the right both to worship and not to worship, and the Government
generally respects these provisions in practice; however, the law
limits proselytizing, and some groups that sought to register have
faced bureaucratic harassment. The Constitution explicitly recognizes
the separation of church and state. The law regulating the relationship
between church and state was passed in 1993 and amended in 1995. While
the Ministry of Justice is responsible for registrations, local
assemblies have the authority to approve applications at the local
level.
Although there is no official state religion, traditionalists
believe that Buddhism is the ``natural religion'' of the country. The
Government has contributed to the restoration of several Buddhist
sites. These are important religious, historical, and cultural centers.
The Government does not subsidize the Buddhist religion otherwise.
Under the provisions of the law, the Government may supervise and
limit the numbers of both places of worship and clergy for organized
religions, but there were no reports that it has done so. However,
religious groups must register with the Ministry of Justice. Some
groups encountered harassment during the registration process,
including random demands by mid-level city officials for financial
contributions in return for securing legal status. Even when
registration was completed, the same authorities threatened some
religious groups with withdrawal of approval. The registration process
is decentralized with several layers of bureaucracy, in which officials
sometimes demand financial benefits in exchange for authorization.
Additionally, registration in the capital may not be sufficient if a
group intends to work in the countryside where local registration also
is necessary. In general it appears that difficulties in registering
primarily are the consequence of bureaucratic action by local officials
and attempts to extort financial assistance for projects not funded by
the city. Of the 260 temples and churches founded in the past 10 years,
about 150 are registered, including 90 Buddhist, 40 Christian, and 4
Baha'i, in addition to 1 Muslim mosque and other organizations.
Religious Demography
Buddhism and Mongolian traditions are tied closely, and it appears
likely that almost all ethnic Mongolians (93 percent of the population)
practice some form of Buddhism. Lamaist Buddhism of the Tibetan variety
is the traditional and dominant religion, but this circumstance does
not adversely affect religious freedom for others. Since the end of
Socialist controls on religion and Mongolian traditions in 1990, active
interest in and practice of Buddhism has grown. The Buddhist community
is not completely homogenous, and there are several competing schools,
including a small group that believes that the sutras should be in the
Mongolian language and that all religious clergy should be Mongolian.
However, the rivalry between the schools has not affected religious
freedom, nor is it a matter of public concern.
Kazakhs are the largest of the ethnic minorities, constituting
approximately 4 percent of the population nationwide and 85 percent of
the population of the western province, Bayan-Olgiy. Most Kazakhs are
practicing Muslims. The Kazakhs freely worship and run Islamic schools
for their children. They sometimes receive financial assistance from
religious organizations in Kazakhstan and Turkey. Their status as a
majority in Bayan-Olgiy was established in the former Socialist period
and continues in much the same circumstances.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The law does not prohibit proselytizing, but limits it by
forbidding use of incentives, pressure, or deceptive methods to
introduce religion. With the opening of the country following the 1990
democratic changes, religious groups began to arrive to provide
humanitarian assistance and open new churches. Some friction between
missionary groups and citizens developed because this assistance was
mixed with proselytizing activities. Proselytizing by registered
religious groups is allowed, although a Ministry of Education directive
bans mixing foreign language or other training with religious teaching
or instruction. The edict is enforced, particularly in the capital
area. Contacts with coreligionists outside the country are allowed.
Foreign missionaries include Roman Catholics, Lutherans,
Presbyterians, various evangelical Protestant groups, the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day
Adventists, and adherents of the Baha'i Faith. Some of these groups are
still in the process of registering with the Ministry of Justice; the
process is protracted for some groups, but others are registered
quickly. Religious groups are being granted the right to hold church
services and have their own church buildings in addition to operating
charitable institutions.
There are no government-sponsored ecumenical activities.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners. A report
that in April 2000 a Christian in Bayan-Olgiy (a predominantly Muslim
province) was imprisoned for distributing religious material was
determined to be false.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable,
but there are no significant ecumenical movements or inter-faith
dialog. Citizens generally are tolerant of the beliefs of others, and
there were no reports of religiously motivated violence, although there
has been some friction between missionary groups and citizens because
humanitarian assistance in the past was mixed with proselytizing
activity (see Section I). Some conservatives have criticized foreign
influences on youth and children, including religion and the use of
incentives to attract believers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officials have discussed with mid-level bureaucrats
specific registration difficulties encountered by Christian churches.
These discussions focused attention on U.S. concern for religious
freedom and opposition to corruption; they resulted in a clarification
of the requirements for registration.
When draft amendments to the law that would have limited religious
freedom were circulated by the Ministry of Justice in the fall of 1999,
the Embassy made official demarches to the Government, informally
discussed U.S. concerns with key legislators, and coordinated a
response with other embassies and multilateral organizations.
Subsequently the Government did not consider these amendments.
The U.S. Embassy maintains regular contact with Buddhist leaders.
Additionally, embassy officials have met with representatives of U.S.-
based religious and humanitarian organizations. The Embassy also
maintains contact with the staff of the local office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) to discuss human rights and religious
freedom.
__________
NAURU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both Government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
Religious Demography
Christianity is the primary religion. Approximately two-thirds of
the Christians are Protestants, and the remaining one-third are Roman
Catholics. The population as a whole is 58 percent Nauruan, 26 percent
other Pacific Islanders, 8 percent European, and 8 percent Chinese.
Some of the latter group may be Buddhist or Taoist.
Christianity was introduced in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries by Western missionaries. There are a few active Christian
missionary organizations, including representatives of the Anglican,
Methodist, and Catholic faiths.
The Government has not taken specific actions to improve inter-
religious relations. However, it has set aside land for the renovation
and construction of places of worship.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Inter-faith relations appear amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Representatives of the U.S. Embassy in Fiji visit periodically to
discuss religious freedom issues with the Government in the overall
context of the promotion of human rights. They also meet with leaders
of religious communities and nongovernmental organizations that have an
interest in religious freedom.
The U.S. Embassy actively supports efforts to improve and expand
governmental and societal awareness of and protection for human rights,
including the right to freedom of religion.
__________
NEW ZEALAND
The law provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The law provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
respects this right in practice.
Religious Demography
The religious composition of the country is predominantly Christian
but is becoming more diverse. According to the 1996 census, 60.6
percent of citizens identified themselves as Christian or as affiliated
members of individual Christian denominations; less than 3 percent were
affiliated with nonChristian religions.
The four major Christian denominations of Anglican, Roman Catholic,
Presbyterian, and Methodist experienced a decline in membership between
1991 and 1996, with the proportion of the population affiliated with
these denominations falling from 57.6 percent to 49.1 percent.
Anglicans remained by far the largest Christian denomination, with 18
percent of the population in 1996. Pentecostals were the only major
Christian group to experience significant growth (55 percent) during
the same period. Among non-Christian religions, the number of Buddhists
and Muslims more than doubled, while the number of Hindus increased by
approximately 50 percent, although each of these groups still
constitutes less than 1 percent of the population. The number of
persons who indicated no religious affiliation also increased markedly
between 1991 and 1996, rising by 33 percent to over one-fourth of the
population. The indigenous Maori (approximately 15 percent of the
population) are overwhelmingly members of Presbyterian, Church of Jesus
Christ of the Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Ratana, Ringatu, and other
faiths.
According to 1996 census data, the following were the numbers and
percentages of the population's religious affiliation: Anglican--
631,764 (18.42 percent); Roman Catholic--473,112 (13.79 percent);
Presbyterian--458,289 (13.36 percent); Methodist--121,650 (3.55
percent); Baptist--53,613 (1.56 percent); Mormons--41,166 (1.20
percent); Pentecostal--39,228 (1.14 percent); Ratana (a Maori/Christian
group with services in the Maori language)--36,450 (1.06 percent);
Buddhist--28,131 (0.82 percent); Hindu--25,293 (0.74 percent);
Brethren--19,950 (0.58 percent); Jehovah's Witnesses--19,524 (0.57
percent); Assemblies of God--17,520 (0.51 percent); Salvation Army--
14,625 (0.43 percent); Islam--13,548 (0.39 percent); Seventh-Day
Adventist--12,324 (0.36 percent); Apostolic Church of New Zealand--
8,913 (0.26 percent); Congregational--8,838 (0.26 percent); Ringatu (a
Maori/Christian group with services in the Maori language)--8,268 (0.24
percent); Orthodox Christian--6,936 (0.20 percent); Spiritualist--5,097
(0.15 percent); Lutheran--5,007 (0.15 percent); Jewish--4,812 (0.14
percent); Churches of Christ--4,233 (0.12 percent); Reformed--3,288
(0.10 percent); Baha'i--3,111 (0.09 percent); Elim--3,018 (0.09
percent); Sikh----814 (0.08 percent); Protestant--2,778 (0.08 percent);
Exclusive Brethren--1,986 (0.06 percent); Christadelphians--1,743 (0.05
percent); Uniting/Union Church--1,728 (0.05 percent); Evangelical--
1,584 (0.05 percent); Religious Society of Friends--1,161 (0.03
percent); Satanist--909 (0.03 percent); Worldwide Church of God--624
(0.02 percent); Rastafarianism--582 (0.02 percent); Taoism--561 (0.02
percent); Nazarene--459 (0.01 percent); Hauhau--408 (0.01 percent);
Christian Science--294 (0.01 percent); Revival Centres--273 (0.01
percent); Unitarian--267 (0.01 percent); Hare Krishna--258 (0.01
percent); Church of Scientology--216 (0.01 percent); Commonwealth
Covenant Church--168 (less than 0.01 percent); Unification Church--135
(less than 0.01 percent); other Christian--188,670 (5.50 percent);
other non-Christian--4,596 (0.13 percent); other response including no
religion--893,910 (26.06 percent); object to statement--256,593 (7.48
percent); not specified--187,881 (5.50 percent); total--3,618,303
(100.00 percent).
The Auckland statistical area (which accounts for roughly 30
percent of the country's total population) exhibits the greatest
religious diversity. Farther south on the North Island, and on the
South Island, the percentage of citizens who identified themselves with
Christian faiths increased while those affiliated with non-Christian
religions decreased.
The Education Act of 1964 specifies in its ``secular clause'' that
teaching within public primary schools ``shall be entirely of a secular
character.'' However, it also permits religious instruction and
observances in state primary schools within certain parameters. If the
school committee in consultation with the principal or head teacher so
determines, any class may be closed at any time of the school day
within specified limits for the purposes of religious instruction given
by voluntary instructors. However, attendance at religious instruction
or observances is not compulsory. According to the Legal Division of
the Ministry of Education, public secondary schools also may permit
religious instruction at the discretion of their individual school
boards. The Ministry of Education does not keep centralized data on how
many individual primary or secondary schools permit religious
instruction or observances, but a curriculum division spokesperson
maintains that in practice religious instruction, if it occurs at a
particular school, usually is scheduled after normal school hours.
Under the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act of 1975, the
Government, in response to a burgeoning general primary school role and
financial difficulties experienced by a large group of Catholic
parochial schools, permitted the incorporation of private schools into
the public school system. Designated as ``integrated schools,'' they
were deemed to be of a ``unique character'' and permitted to receive
public funding provided that they allowed space for nonpreference
students. A total of 303 of the 2,784 primary schools are integrated
schools with this designation. More than 250 of these 303 schools are
Catholic; there are a handful of non-Christian or non-religious
schools, such as Islamic, Hare Krishna, or Rudolph Steiner--a school of
spiritual philosophy. Primary school students are not required to
attend an integrated school.
Christmas Day, Good Friday, and Easter Monday are official
holidays. The small but growing non-Christian communities called for
the Government to take into account the increasingly diverse religious
makeup regarding holiday flexibility.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Amicable relations exist among the various religious communities.
Incidents of religiously-motivated violence are extremely rare. Due
to the infrequency of their occurrence and difficulties in clearly
establishing such motivations, the police do not attempt to maintain
data on crimes that may have been motivated by religion. However, in
August 1998, arsonists burned the Islamic mosque in Hamilton. The
mosque was later rebuilt, and Ramadan services were conducted there in
1999 and 2000 without incident.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
PALAU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. Both government policy and
the generally amicable relationship among religions in society
contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religion freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Government does not promote or restrain religious activities.
However, the Government regulates the establishment of religious
organizations by requiring them to obtain charters as nonprofit
organizations from the office of the Attorney General. This
registration process is not protracted, and no applicants have been
denied during the period covered by the report. As nonprofit
organizations, these churches and missions are tax exempt. There is
government financial support for religious schools; the Government also
provides small scale financial assistance to cultural organizations.
Religious Demography
There are 15 Christian denominations. The Roman Catholic Church is
the dominant religion and approximately 65 percent of the population of
18,000 are members. Other religions with a sizable membership include
the Evangelical Church (with approximately 2,000 members), the Seventh-
Day Adventists (with approximately 1,000), the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints (about 300), and Jehovah's Witnesses (about 70).
Modekngei, which embraces both pagan and Christian beliefs and is
unique to Palau, has about 800 adherents.
A large percentage of citizens do not practice their faith
actively. However, the primarily Catholic Filipino labor force
(approximately 3,100 persons) practices its faith actively. There is
active participation by the majority of the country's religious groups
in Easter and Christmas services. There is also a small group of
Bangladeshi Muslims in the labor force who practice their faith
actively. However, employers have complained to the Division of Labor
under the Ministry of Commerce and Trade that the Muslims' religious
practices interfere both with activity in the workplace and with the
living arrangements of the employing families. As a consequence of
these complaints, the Ministry of Commerce and Trade decided to deny
work permits to Bangladeshi workers in the future. Current workers are
not being expelled.
There are two religious groups with independent radio stations, the
High Adventure Ministries and the Seventh-Day Adventists.
Since the arrival of Jesuit priests in the early 19th century,
foreign missionaries successfully have converted the population to
their various faiths. Some missionaries have been in the country for
years and speak the language fluently. A number of groups (the Baha'i
Faith, the Roman Catholic Church, the Chinese Agriculture Mission, the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, the Evangelical Church,
the High Adventure Ministries, the Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Korean Church, the Korea Presbyterian Church, the
Pacific Missionary Aviation, the Palau Assembly of God, and the
Seventh-Day Adventists) have missionaries in the country on
proselytizing or teaching assignments.
The Seventh-Day Adventist and the Evangelical Churches have
missionaries teaching in their respective elementary and high schools.
The Government does not permit religious instruction in the public
schools.
There are no government sponsored ecumenical activities.
Although the Government does not affiliate with religious groups or
promote religious activities, official ceremonies at the national or
state level, such as public and private school graduations, always are
conducted with a prayer to open and close the ceremonies.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities. Most religious groups and activities are concentrated in
the capital of Koror, where approximately 80 percent of the population
lives.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The predominance of Christianity is recognized in the preamble of
the Constitution, which refers to ``our noble traditions and the
Christian principles that are ours.'' Nevertheless, the Constitution's
provisions for freedom of conscience, thought, and religion have
consistently been interpreted to mean that any religion may be
practiced or propagated as long as it does not interfere with the
freedom of others. The population largely belongs to various Christian
churches. Many Christian denominations and some non-Christian groups
meet and preach freely in the country, and there is a high level of
regular participation in group worship and religious activities.
However, many citizens combine their Christian faith with some pre-
Christian traditional indigenous practices.
Religious Demography
According to the 1990 census, the churches with the largest number
of members are the Roman Catholic Church, the Evangelical Lutheran
Church, the United Church, the Evangelical Alliance, and the Seventh-
Day Adventists. At that time, 97 percent of citizens identified
themselves as members of a Christian church. Less than 0.3 percent
identified themselves as non-Christian, and less than 3 percent
identified themselves as having no religion.
The mainstream churches are those that proselytized on the island
of New Guinea in the 19th century. Initially, colonial governments
assigned different missions to different geographic areas. Since
territory in Papua New Guinea is synonymous with language group and
ethnicity, this policy led to the identification of certain churches
with certain ethnic groups. However, as the country's economy
modernized and populations became more mobile, churches of all
denominations moved with them, and churches of major denominations are
now found in all parts of the country.
Nonmainstream Christian churches and non-Christian religious groups
are active throughout the country as well. According to the Papua New
Guinea Council of Churches, recently both Muslim and Confucian
missionaries have become active.
Immigrants and noncitizens are free to practice their religion. The
Muslim community has a mosque in the capital of Port Moresby. In
general the Government does not subsidize the practice of religion. The
Department of Family and Church Affairs has a nominal policymaking role
that until recently has been confined to reiterating the Government's
respect for church autonomy. In late 1999, a privately-sponsored bill
was introduced in Parliament that proposed to replace the existing
Council of Churches with a National Council of Christian Churches, the
leadership of which would be appointed by the Minister for Family and
Church Affairs and which would be funded by the Government. The
churches did not support the bill, and it was not adopted.
However, most of the schools and many of the health services in the
country were built and continue to be run by the churches, and the
Government provides support for those institutions. At independence the
Government recognized that it had neither the funds nor the human
capital with which to take over these institutions and agreed to
subsidize their operations on a per pupil/per patient basis. The
Government also pays the salaries of national teachers and health
staff. In recent years, although the education and health
infrastructures continue to rely heavily on churchrun institutions,
some have closed periodically because they did not receive the promised
government support. These problems are due in part to endemic financial
management problems in the Government.
It is the policy of the Department of Education to set aside 1 hour
a week for religious instruction in the public schools. Church
representatives teach the lessons, and the students attend the class
run by the church of their choice. Children whose parents do not wish
them to attend the classes are excused.
Foreign missionary activity is high. The Pentecostal Church
particularly has made inroads into the congregations of the more
established churches, but nearly every conceivable movement and faith
that proselytizes has representatives in the country. The Summer
Institute of Linguistics is an important missionary institution; it
translates the New Testament into native languages.
The Roman Catholic Church is the only mainstream church that still
relies to a large extent on foreign clergy.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities.
As new missionary movements proliferate, representatives of some
established churches and some individuals have questioned publicly
whether such activity is socially desirable. Some persons have proposed
legislation to limit such activity. However, the courts and government
practice have upheld the constitutional right to freedom of speech,
thought, and belief, and no legislation to curb those rights has ever
been adopted. For example, when the Muslim community applied to the
Land Board for permission to acquire property on which to build a
mosque, some churches objected, citing Papua New Guinea's historical
character as a Christian country. Nevertheless, permission to acquire
the land was granted.
The Papua New Guinea Council of Churches makes the only effort at
inter-faith dialog. The Council members consist of the Anglican,
Gutnius and Union Baptist, Catholic, Lutheran and United churches, and
the Salvation Army. In addition, it has 15 para-religious
organizations, like the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA),
which participate in its activities. However, the Council has only
Christian affiliates. The Council is self-financing. The ecumenical
work of the Council of Churches is confined primarily to cooperation
between churches on social welfare projects.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy engages the Government on a wide range of human
rights issues, including religious freedom. The Ambassador continued
discussions with the Council of Churches and individual church leaders
throughout the period covered by this report. The Ambassador and the
Embassy's consular officer visit regularly with U.S. citizen
missionaries of all denominations.
__________
PHILIPPINES
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Adherents of all faiths are free to exercise their religious
beliefs in all parts of the country without government interference or
restriction. However, there is a socioeconomic disparity between the
Christian majority and the Muslim minority. There is also some ethnic-
cultural discrimination against Muslims. This has led some Muslims to
seek--and the Government to grant--a degree of political autonomy to
Muslims in the southwestern part of the country. The principal
remaining armed insurgent Muslim group continued to seek greater
autonomy or an independent Muslim state. Negotiations between the
Government and this group are punctuated by violent clashes that have
claimed many lives on both sides, including noncombatants. Militant
Muslim splinter groups, which demand the immediate establishment of an
Islamic state, have resorted to terrorism. Mainstream Muslim leaders
strongly criticized these tactics.
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. Embassy staff members have met with representatives of
all major faiths to learn about their concerns on a variety of issues.
In addition the U.S. Government supports the Government's peace process
with Muslim insurgents in Mindanao, which has the potential to
contribute to a better climate for inter-faith relations. The U.S.
Agency for International Development provides training and economic
assistance to former Muslim combatants who seek jobs and business
opportunities, and support for their agricultural livelihood projects.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. Both national and other
levels of government generally protect this right and do not tolerate
its abuse, either by government or private institutions. Although
Christianity, particularly Roman Catholicism, is the dominant religion,
there is no state religion. The Government does not restrict adherents
of other religions from practicing their faith. The Government provides
no direct subsidies to institutions for religious purposes, including
aid to the extensive school systems maintained by religious orders and
church groups.
Organized religions must register with the Securities and Exchange
Commission as nonstock, nonprofit organizations, and with the Bureau of
Internal Revenue to establish their taxexempt status. There were no
reports of discrimination in the registration system during the period
covered by this report.
The Office of Muslim affairs, funded through the Office of the
President, generally limits its activities to fostering Islamic
religious practices, although it also has the authority to coordinate
projects for economic growth in predominantly Muslim areas. The
office's Philippine Pilgrimage Authority helps coordinate the travel of
religious pilgrimage groups to Mecca, in Saudi Arabia, providing bus
service to and from airports, hotel reservations, and guides. The
Presidential Assistant for Muslim Affairs helps coordinate relations
with countries that have large Islamic populations that have
contributed to Mindanao's economic development and to the peace process
with insurgent groups.
In 1996 the Government signed a peace agreement with the Islamic
Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), concluding an often violent
struggle that had lasted more than 20 years. The Government is working
with the MNLF's leaders on a variety of development programs to
reintegrate former MNLF fighters into the market economy through jobs
and business opportunities. During the first half of 2000, government
forces engaged in armed clashes with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF), the chief remaining armed separatist group. Peace talks were
suspended in April 2000. The MILF continued its armed struggle for an
independent Islamic state in Mindanao for the Bangsa Moro, who are
Islamic citizens. Most Philippine Muslims do not support the MILF.
The Code of Muslim Personal Laws, enacted in 1977, recognizes the
Shari'a civil law system as part of national law. However, it applies
only to Muslims regardless of their place of residence in the country.
As part of their strategy for a moral and religious revival in western
Mindanao, some Muslim religious leaders (ulamas) argue that the
Government should allow Islamic courts to extend their jurisdiction to
criminal law cases, a step beyond the many civil law cases that they
already can settle as part of the judicial system in western Mindanao.
Some ulamas also support the MILF's goal of forming an autonomous
region governed in accordance with Islamic law.
Religious Demography
Over 85 percent of citizens of this former Spanish colony claim
membership in the Roman Catholic Church, according to the most recent
official census data on religious preference (1990). Believers within
the Christian tradition comprised 93.7 percent of the population.
Followers of the Islamic faith totaled 4.6 percent, and Buddhists 0.1
percent. Indigenous and other religious traditions accounted for 1.2
percent of those surveyed. Atheists and persons who did not designate a
religious preference equaled 0.3 percent. Some academics question the
accuracy of the statistical sampling in the 1990 census. Some Muslim
scholars argue that census takers seriously undercounted the number of
Muslims because security concerns in western Mindanao, where Muslims
are still a majority, often prevented them from conducting accurate
counts outside urban areas. Current estimates place the number of
Muslims at about 5 million, or approximately 7 percent of the
population. Muslims reside principally in Mindanao and nearby islands
and are the largest single minority religious group in the country.
There is no available data on ``nominal'' members of religious
organizations. Estimates of nominal members of the largest group, Roman
Catholics, range from 60 to 65 percent of the total population. These
estimates are based on regular church attendance. El Shaddai, a lay
charismatic movement affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, has
grown rapidly in the last decade; it claims over 6 million members, but
this figure includes congregations abroad, largely composed of Filipino
workers.
Among Protestant and other Christian groups, there are numerous
denominations, including Seventh-Day Adventists, United Church of
Christ, United Methodist, Assemblies of God, and Philippine (Southern)
Baptist denominations. In addition there are two churches established
by Filipino religious leaders, the Independent Church of the
Philippines or Aglipayan and the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ).
A majority of the country's nearly 12 million indigenous people
reportedly are Christians. However, observers note that many indigenous
groups mix elements of their native religions with Christian beliefs
and practices.
Most Muslims belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. There is a small
number of Shi'a believers in the provinces of Lanao del Sur and
Zamboanga del Sur. Approximately 19 percent of the population of
Mindanao is Muslim, according to the 1990 census. Members of the Muslim
minority are concentrated in five provinces of western Mindanao:
Maguindanao; Lanao del Sur; Basilan; Sulu; and Tawi-Tawi. There are
also significant Muslim communities in nearby Mindanao provinces,
including Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Sultan Kudarat, Lanao
del Norte, and North Cotabato. There are sizable Muslim neighborhoods
in metropolitan Manila on Luzon, and in Palawan.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Intermittent government efforts to integrate Muslims into political
and economic society have achieved only limited success to date.
Muslims, who are concentrated in the most impoverished parts of western
Mindanao, complained that the Government has not made sufficient effort
toward economic development in those areas.
The Government's National Ecumenical Commission (NEC) fosters
inter-faith dialog among the major religious groups--the Roman Catholic
Church, Islam, Iglesia ni Cristo, the Philippine Independent Church
(Aglipayan), and Protestant denominations. The Protestant churches are
represented in the NEC by the National Council of Churches of the
Philippines and the Council of Evangelical Churches of the Philippines.
Members of the NEC met periodically with the President to discuss
social and political questions.
Christians, Muslims, and others are free to proselytize.
Based on a traditional policy of promoting moral education, local
public schools make available to church groups the opportunity to teach
moral values during school hours. Attendance is not mandatory, and
various churches rotate in sharing classroom space. In many parts of
Mindanao, Muslim students routinely attend Catholic schools from
elementary to university level. These students are not required to
undertake Catholic religious instruction.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Religious affiliation is customarily a function of a person's
family, ethnic group, or tribal membership. Historically, Muslims have
been alienated socially from the dominant Christian majority.
Intermittent government efforts to integrate Muslims into political and
economic society have achieved only limited success to date. Muslims,
who are concentrated in the most impoverished parts of western
Mindanao, complained that the Government made insufficient efforts
toward economic development in these areas.
Christian and Muslim communities live in proximity throughout
central and western Mindanao and, in many areas, their relationship is
harmonious. However, efforts by the dominant Christian population to
resettle in traditionally Muslim areas, particularly over the past 60
years, have brought resentment from some Muslim residents.
Muslims view Christian proselytizing as an extension of a
historical effort by the Christian majority to deprive them of their
homeland and cultural identity as well as their religion. Christian
missionaries work in most parts of western Mindanao, often within
Muslim communities. The killing of Roman Catholic bishop Benjamin de
Jesus in Jolo City in Sulu province near Mindanao in 1997 still has not
been resolved, but most observers doubt that the motivation for the
killing was rooted in religious differences.
Religious dialog and cooperation among the country's various
religious communities are generally amicable. Many religious leaders
are involved in ecumenical activities and also in interdenominational
efforts to alleviate poverty. The Inter-faith Group, which is
registered as a nongovernmental organization, includes Roman Catholic,
Islamic, and Protestant church representatives who have joined together
in an effort to support the Mindanao peace process through work with
communities of former combatants. Besides social and economic support,
the Inter-faith Group seeks to encourage Mindanao communities to
instill their faiths in their children.
Amicable ties between religious groups are reflected in many
nonofficial organizations. The leadership of human rights groups, trade
union confederations, and industry associations represent many
religious persuasions.
The national culture, with its emphasis on familial, tribal, and
regional loyalties, creates informal barriers whereby access to jobs or
resources is provided first to those of one's own family or group. Some
employers have a biased expectation that Muslims have a lower
educational level. Many Muslims claim that they continue to be
underrepresented in senior civilian and military positions.
Predominantly Muslim provinces in Mindanao continue to lag behind the
rest of the island of Mindanao in almost all aspects of socioeconomic
development.
As part of their strategy for a moral and religious revival in
western Mindanao, some Muslim religious leaders (ulamas) argue that the
Government should allow Islamic courts to extend their jurisdiction to
criminal law cases, a step beyond the many civil law cases they already
can settle as part of the judicial system in western Mindanao. Some
ulamas also support the MILF's goal of forming an autonomous region
governed by Islamic law.
Some Muslim religious leaders asserted that Muslims suffer from
economic discrimination, which is reflected in the Government's failure
to provide money to stimulate southwestern Mindanao's sluggish economic
development. They also cited the lack of proportional Muslim
representation in the national government institutions. At present
there are no Muslim cabinet secretaries, senators, or Supreme Court
justices. Nine Muslims hold seats in the 222-member House of
Representatives. Leaders in both Christian and Muslim communities
contend that economic disparities and ethnic tensions, more than
religious differences, are at the root of the modern separatist
movement that emerged in the early 1970's.
The Bishops-Ulamas Conference, which meets periodically to deepen
mutual doctrinal understanding between Roman Catholic and Muslim
leaders in Mindanao, helps further the Mindanao peace process. The co-
chairs of the conference are the Archbishop of Davao, Ferdinand
Capalla, and the president of the Ulama Association, Majid Mutilan, who
is also the governor of Lanao del Sur province. The conference seeks to
foster exchanges at the local level between parish priests and local
Islamic teachers. Paralleling the dialog fostered by religious leaders,
the Silsila Foundation in Zamboanga City hosts a regional exchange
among Muslim and Christian academics and local leaders meant to reduce
bias and promote cooperation.
Despite the pronounced increase in fighting between government
forces and the MILF, there was continuing progress in improving
Christian-Muslim relations through the Southern Philippines Council on
Peace and Development, which coordinates economic growth in 14
provinces in Mindanao. MNLF chairman Nur Misuari chairs the council. He
also serves as the elected governor of the four-province Autonomous
Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The ARMM was established in 1990 to
meet the demand of Muslims for local autonomy in areas where they are a
majority or a substantial minority. In September 1999, the plebiscite
promised in the 1996 peace agreement between the Government and the
MNLF on autonomy for an expanded Islamic region was postponed for 1
year, and it appears unlikely to take place before 2001.
Continued integration of ex-MNLF fighters into the armed forces and
police generally was accomplished without difficulty; in some cases, it
eased suspicions between Christians and Muslims. However, progress
leading to economic development has been halting, and there was a sharp
increase in hostilities between the Government and separate MILF forces
beginning in January 2000.
Two prominent terrorist kidnapings by splinter Muslim separatist
groups occurred in the first half of 2000 and remain unresolved at the
end of the period covered by this report. In both cases, political and
religious motives have been voiced.
On March 20, members of the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), an extremist
MNLF offshoot that seeks a separate Islamic state in the southern
Philippines, kidnaped 53 persons on Basilan island. Most of the victims
were teachers and school children from two schools, one public and one
private (Roman Catholic). The headmaster of the Catholic school, a
priest, was among those kidnaped. In addition to money, the ASG
kidnapers' demands included the creation of a separate Islamic state in
Mindanao, the removal of crosses from public places, and an end to the
teaching of Christian values in schools. Following negotiations with
the Government in April, the ASG released all 24 Muslim hostages but
continued to hold all 29 Christians captive. In May 2000, as government
troops approached and 15 hostages attempted to escape their captors,
the ASG killed four hostages, including the priest. The kidnapers had
tortured some victims, including the priest. Five of the students
between the ages of 10 and 13 years were released in June in a
``hostage swap'' for members of the family of an ASG leader.
On Easter Sunday, April 23, 2000, another band of Islamic
separatists with links to the Basilan ASG kidnaped 21 tourists and
workers of several nationalities in Malaysia's Sabah province and
brought them to the Philippine island of Jolo in Sulu province. The
hostages suffered from hunger, diarrhea, and malnutrition. One
Malaysian hostage was released in June 2000, but the others remained in
custody at the end of that month. Although the kidnapers originally
demanded the establishment of a separate Islamic state and the release
of terrorists held in a Western country, their principal objective was
ransom money.
The ASG seeks the immediate establishment of an independent Islamic
state in the southwestern Philippines. Although many Muslims believe
that discrimination against them is rooted in their religious culture,
most do not favor the establishment of a separate state, and the
overwhelming majority rejects terrorism as a means of achieving a
satisfactory level of autonomy. Mainstream Muslim leaders, both
domestic and foreign, have strongly criticized the actions of the ASG
and its renegade offshoots as ``un-Islamic.''
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. Embassy staff members have met with representatives of
all major faiths to learn about their concerns on a variety of issues.
The United States supports the Government's peace process with Muslim
insurgents in Mindanao as a way of contributing to a better climate for
inter-faith cooperation. The U.S. Agency for International Development
provides training and economic assistance to former MNLF combatants
seeking jobs and business opportunities.
__________
SAMOA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion along with
freedom of thought and conscience, and the Government generally
respects these rights in practice. However, local officials at times
infringe on these rights.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion along with
freedom of thought and conscience, and the Government generally
respects these rights in practice; however, local officials at times
infringe on these rights.
The preamble to the Constitution acknowledges ``an Independent
State based on Christian principles and Samoan custom and traditions.''
Nevertheless, while Christianity is constitutionally favored, there is
no official or state denomination.
Religious Demography
As a result of a strong missionary movement in the 19th century,
nearly 100 percent of the population is Christian; most of the
population is Protestant, although Roman Catholicism is a significant
force. Based on the 1991 census, the religious distribution of the
population is estimated to be: Congregational Christian Church (43
percent); Catholic (21 percent); Methodist (17 percent); the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (10 percent); and Seventh-Day
Adventist (about 3 percent). There are small congregations of other
Christian denominations, as well as members of the Baha'i Faith and
adherents of Islam. This distribution of church members is reflected
throughout the population, but individual villages, particularly small
ones, may have only one or two of the major churches represented.
Missionaries operate freely, either as part of one of the
established churches, or by conducting independent revival meetings.
The major denominations, for example, Congregational, Methodist,
Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, that are present
in the country also have missionaries. There is an independent
Christian radio and television station.
The Constitution provides freedom from unwanted religious
indoctrination in schools but gives each denomination or religion the
right to establish its own schools; these provisions are adhered to in
practice. There are both religious and public schools; the public
schools do not have religious instruction as part of their curriculum.
There are pastoral schools in most villages to provide religious
instruction following school hours.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Although the Constitution grants each person to right to change
religion or belief and to worship or teach religion alone or with
others, in practice the matai (village chiefs) often choose the
religious denomination of the aiga (extended family). In previous
years, despite the constitutional protection, village councils--in the
name of maintaining social harmony within the village--sometimes
banished or punished families that did not adhere to the prevailing
religious belief in the village. In June 1999, 32 persons were
convicted of assault and arson in connection with destruction of the
home of a family banished by the Salamumu village council for rejecting
the Methodist Church. The families instead were holding private prayer
meetings at home. The defendants were fined the equivalent of about
$1,000 each. The judge ruled that the village council should have
arraigned them. Sentencing was scheduled to have taken place in August
1999.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
A high percentage of the population attends church weekly. There is
strong societal pressure at the village and local level to attend
church, participate in church services and activities, and support
church leaders and projects financially. In some denominations, such
financial contributions often total more than 30 percent of family
income.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
SINGAPORE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government bans some religious groups.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The relationship among religious communities in society is
generally amicable. The Government does not tolerate speech or actions
that affect religious harmony.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government bans some religious groups. The Constitution provides that
every citizen or person in the country has a constitutional right to
profess, practice, or propagate his religious belief as long as such
activities do not breach any other laws relating to public order,
public health, or morality.
There is no state religion. However, all religious groups are
subject to government scrutiny and must be registered legally under the
Societies Act. The 1990 Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, which was
prompted by actions that the Government perceived as threats to
religious harmony, including aggressive and ``insensitive''
proselytizing and ``the mixing of religion and politics,'' gave the
Government the power to restrain leaders and members of religious
groups and institutions from carrying out political activities,
criticizing the Government, creating ``illwill'' between religious
groups or carrying out subversive activities. The act also prohibits
judicial review of its enforcement or of any possible denial of rights
arising from it. The Government deregistered the Singapore Convention
of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1972 and the Unification Church in 1982,
making them unlawful societies.
The Government plays an active but limited role in religious
affairs. It does not tolerate speech or actions, including ostensibly
religious speech or action, that affect racial and religious harmony.
The Government also seeks to assure that citizens, the great majority
of whom live in publicly subsidized housing, have ready access to
religious organizations traditionally associated with their ethnic
groups by assisting religious institutions to find space in these
public complexes. The Government maintains a semiofficial relationship
with the Muslim community through the Islamic Religious Council (MUIS)
set up under the Administration of Muslim Law Act. The MUIS advises the
Government on concerns of the Muslim community and has some regulatory
functions over Muslim religious matters. The Government facilitates
some financial assistance to build and maintain mosques.
Religious Demography
Approximately 77 percent of the citizen and permanent resident
population of just over 3.2 million are Chinese, 15 percent are Malay,
and 7 percent are Indian. According to an official survey, 86 percent
of citizens and residents profess some religious faith or belief. Of
this group, slightly more than half (54 percent) practice Buddhism,
Taoism, ancestor worship, or other faiths traditionally associated with
ethnic Chinese. Approximately 15 percent are Muslim, 13 percent are
Christian, and 3 percent are Hindu. Among Christians, the majority of
whom are Chinese, non-Catholics, mostly Protestants, outnumber Roman
Catholics slightly more than two-to-one. There are also small Sikh,
Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Jain communities.
The Constitution acknowledges ethnic Malays as ``the indigenous
people of Singapore'' and charges the Government to support and promote
their political, educational, religious, economic, social, cultural,
and language interests. Virtually all ethnic Malays are Muslim.
The Presidential Council on Minority Rights examines all pending
bills to ensure that they are not disadvantageous to a particular
group. It also reports to the Government on matters affecting any
racial or religious community and investigates complaints. In June
1998, the Government established a select committee, at the request of
members of the Muslim community, to consider the community's views on
legislation that could affect the scope of Islamic courts. In October
1999, the Government proposed compulsory education for all children,
which prompted concern from the Malay/Muslim community on the fate of
madrasahs (Islamic religious schools). In response the Government
proposed to exempt madrasah students from compulsory attendance in
national schools provided that the students meet minimum standards in
core secular subjects such as science, mathematics, and English. No
decision was reached by mid-2000.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government restricts certain religions by application of the
Societies Act; it has banned Jehovah's Witnesses and the Unification
Church. The Government deregistered and banned the Singapore
Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1972 on the grounds that its
roughly 2,000 members refuse to perform military service (which is
obligatory for all male citizens), salute the flag, or swear oaths of
allegiance to the State. The Government regards such refusal as
prejudicial to public welfare and order. Although the Court of Appeals
in 1996 upheld the rights of Jehovah's Witnesses to profess, practice,
and propagate their religious belief, the result of deregistration has
been to make meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses illegal. The Government
also has banned all written materials published by the International
Bible Students Association and the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society,
both publishing arms of Jehovah's Witnesses. In practice this has led
to confiscation of Bibles published by the group, even though the Bible
itself has not been outlawed.
In 1998 a member of Jehovah's Witnesses lost a law suit against a
government school for wrongful dismissal, allegedly because he refused
to sing the national anthem or salute the flag. The Court of Appeals
heard his appeal in March 1999 and subsequently denied it.
The Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World
Christianity, also known as the Unification Church, was dissolved in
1982 by the Minister for Home Affairs.
Missionaries, with the exception of Jehovah's Witnesses and
representatives of the Unification Church, are permitted to work and to
publish and distribute religious texts. However, while the Government
does not prohibit evangelical activities in practice, it discourages
activities that might upset the balance of intercommunal relations.
The Presidential Council on Religious Harmony reports to the
Ministry of Home Affairs on matters affecting the maintenance of
religious harmony that are referred to the Council by the Minister or
by Parliament. The Council also considers and makes recommendations to
the Minister on restraining orders referred to the Council by the
Minister. Such orders are directed at individuals to restrain them from
causing feelings of enmity, hatred, ill-will, or hostility among
religious groups, putting them on notice that they should not repeat
the act of conduct, and advising that failure to do so would result in
prosecution in a court of law.
The Government does not promote inter-faith understanding directly.
However, it sponsors activities to promote interethnic harmony, and,
since the primary ethnic minorities are predominantly of one faith
(most Malays are Muslim, and most Indians are Hindu), its programs to
promote ethnic harmony have implications for inter-faith relations.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among religious communities in society are generally
amicable. Virtually all ethnic Malay citizens are Muslim, and ethnic
Malays constitute the great majority of the country's Muslim community.
The perspectives held by non-Malays on the Malay community and by
Malays on the non-Malay community are made up of attitudes toward
ethnicity and religion that are virtually impossible to separate.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
SOLOMON ISLANDS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Department of Home and Cultural Affairs has a nominal
policymaking role concerning religion. It characterizes this role, on
the one hand, as keeping a balance between constitutionally protected
rights of religious freedom, free speech, and expression; and, on the
other hand, maintenance of public order. All religious institutions are
required to register with the Government; however, there is no evidence
that registration has been denied to any group.
Religious Demography
Most citizens are members of Christian churches. The Anglican,
Roman Catholic, Evangelical, Methodist, and Seventh-Day Adventist
denominations are represented. Traditional indigenous religious
believers, consisting primarily of the Kwaio community on the island of
Malaita, account for approximately 5 percent. Other groups, such as the
Baha'i Faith, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, and indigenous churches that have broken off from
traditional Christian churches, account for another 2 percent. There
are believed to be members of additional world religions within the
foreign community who are free to practice their religion, but they are
not known to proselytize or hold public religious ceremonies. According
to the most recent census figures there are only six Muslims in the
country.
In general the Government does not subsidize religion. Several
schools and health services in the country were built by and continue
to be operated by religious organizations. There are schools sponsored
by Roman Catholics, the Church of Melanesia, the United Church
(Methodist), the South Sea Evangelical Church, and Seventh-Day
Adventists. Upon independence the Government recognized that it had
neither the funds nor the personnel to take over these institutions and
agreed to subsidize their operations. The Government also pays the
salaries of most teachers and health staff in the national education
system.
The public school curriculum includes 30 minutes daily of religious
instruction, the content of which is agreed upon by the Christian
churches; students whose parents do not wish them to attend the class
are excused. However, the Government does not subsidize church schools
that do not align their curriculums with governmental criteria. There
is mutual understanding between the Government and the churches but no
formal memorandum of understanding. Although theoretically non-
Christian religions can be taught in the schools, there is no such
instruction at present.
Christianity was brought to the country in the 19th and early 20th
centuries by missionaries representing several Western churches:
Anglican; Roman Catholic; South Seas Evangelical; Seventh-Day
Adventist; and the London Missionary Society (which became the United
Church). Some foreign missionaries continue to work in the country.
However, with the exception of the Roman Catholic Church, whose clergy
is about 50 percent indigenous, the clergy of the other traditional
churches is indigenous. Traditional church missionaries are represented
by religions such as the Seventh-Day Adventists, the United Church
(Methodist), the South Sea Evangelical Church, the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses.
There are no government-sponsored ecumenical activities.
Customarily, government oaths of office are taken on the Bible;
however, religious oaths are forbidden by the Constitution and cannot
be required.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. Although a government
minister threatened in late 1999 to deny the Baha'i Faith future
program access to the national radio, the matter was settled amicably,
and the Baha'i continue to broadcast.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities. Joint religious activities, such as religious
representation at national events, are organized through the Solomon
Islands Christian Association, which is composed of the five
traditional churches of the country. Occasionally individual citizens
object to the activities of nontraditional denominations and suggest
that they be curtailed. However, society in general is tolerant of
different religious beliefs and activities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
During the period covered by this report, the Ambassador and the
Embassy's consular officer talked with a representative of the Solomon
Islands Christian Council, the director of a human rights
nongovernmental organization, and American citizen missionaries
regarding the status of religious freedom.
__________
THAILAND
Freedom of religion is protected by law, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, it does not
register new religious groups that have not been accepted into one of
the existing religious governing bodies on doctrinal or other grounds.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations among the major religious communities were generally
amicable. However, the Government places some limits on foreign
missionaries, and it does not recognize new religious faiths outside of
the seven existing groupings.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Freedom of religion is protected by law, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, it restricts the
activities of some groups. The Constitution requires that the monarch
be a Buddhist. The state religion is in effect Therevada Buddhism;
however, it is not designated as such. When the Constitution was being
drafted in 1997, the Constitutional Drafting Assembly rejected a
proposal to have Therevada Buddhism named the official religion on the
grounds that such an action would create social division and be
``offensive'' to other religious communities in the country.
The Government plays an active role in religious affairs. The
Religious Affairs Department (RAD), which is located in the Ministry of
Education, registers religious organizations. In order to be
registered, a religious organization first must be accepted into an
officially recognized ecclesiastical group. During the reporting
period, there were seven groups including one for the Buddhist
community, one for the Muslim community, one for the Catholic
community, and four for Protestant denominations. Government
registration confers some benefits, including access to state
subsidies, tax-exempt status, and preferential allocation of resident
visas for organization officials. In practice unregistered religious
organizations operate freely.
There were no reports of extortion by local officials.
Under the provisions of the Religious Organizations Act of 1969,
the Department of Religious Affairs recognizes a new religion if a
national census shows that it has at least 5,000 adherents, has a
uniquely recognizable theology, and is not politically active. However,
since 1984 the Government has maintained a policy of not recognizing
any new religious faiths. This has restricted the activities of some
groups that have not been accepted into one of the existing religious
governing bodies on doctrinal or other grounds.
The Constitution requires the Government ``to patronize and protect
Buddhism and other religions.'' The State subsidizes the activities of
the three largest religious communities (Buddhist, Islamic, and
Christian.) During the period covered by this report, the Government
provided approximately the equivalent of $56.3 million to support
religious groups. Included in this amount are funds to support Buddhist
and Muslim institutes of higher education; to fund religious education
programs in public and private schools; to provide daily allowances for
monks and Muslim clerics who hold administrative and senior
ecclesiastical posts; and to subsidize travel and health care for monks
and Muslim clerics. This figure also includes an annual budget for the
renovation and repair of Buddhist temples and Muslim mosques, the
maintenance of historic Buddhist sites, and the daily upkeep of the
Central Mosque in Pattani.
During the period covered by this report, the Government also
provided approximately the equivalent of $75,000 to Christian
organizations to support social welfare projects. Catholic and
Protestant churches can request government support for renovation and
repair work but do not receive a regular budget to maintain church
buildings nor do they receive government assistance to support their
clergy. The Government considers donations made to maintain Buddhist,
Muslim, or Christian buildings to be tax-free income; contributions for
these purposes are also tax-deductible for private donors.
Religious Demography
In a 1997 survey, over 99 percent of the population of 60-million
professed some religious belief or faith. According to government
statistics, 93 percent of the population are Buddhist, and 5 percent
are Muslim. However, recent estimates by academics and religious groups
suggest that approximately 85 to 90 percent of the population are
Therevada Buddhist, and up to 10 percent of the population are Muslim.
Estimates also suggest that Christians constitute about 1 percent of
the population. There are small animist, Hindu, Sikh, Taoist, Jewish,
and Brahman populations. No official statistics exist for atheists or
individuals who do not profess a religious faith or belief, but recent
surveys suggest that they make up less than 1 percent of the
population.
The dominant religion is Therevada Buddhism. The Buddhist clergy or
Sangha consists of two main schools, which are governed by the same
ecclesiastical hierarchy. Monks belonging to the older Mahanikaya
school far outnumber those of the Dhammayuttika School, an order that
grew out of a 19th century reform movement led by King Mongkut (Rama
IV).
Islam is the dominant religion in four of the five southernmost
provinces, which border Malaysia. Minority Muslim populations also live
in 74 of the 76 provinces. The majority of Muslims are ethnic Malay,
but the Muslim population encompasses groups of diverse ethnic and
national origin, including descendants of immigrants from South Asia,
China, Cambodia, and Indonesia. Government agencies did not use
consistent figures to describe the size of the Muslim population during
the period covered by this report, but most estimates suggest that
Muslims constitute as much as 10 percent of the population. There are
approximately 3,200 mosques in 57 provinces, with the largest number
(552) in Pattani province. All but a very small number of these mosques
are associated with the Sunni branch of Islam. The remainder, estimated
by the Religious Affairs Department to be from 1 to 2 percent of the
total, are associated with the Shi'a branch.
According to Government statistics, Christians constituted
approximately 1.6 percent (1,012,871) of the population in January.
Almost half the Christian population lives in Chiang Mai. The rest are
in the Bangkok area and in the northeastern provinces. Approximately 25
percent of the Christian population is Roman Catholic. There are also
several Protestant denominations. Most Protestant churches belong to
one of four umbrella organizations. The oldest of these groupings, the
Church of Christ in Thailand, was formed in the mid-1930's. The largest
is the Evangelical Foundation of Thailand. Baptists and Seventh-Day
Adventists are recognized by government authorities as separate
Protestant denominations and are organized under similar umbrella
groups.
There are six tribal groups (chao khao) recognized by the
Government, with an estimated population of 500,000 to 600,000 persons,
whose members generally are described as animists. Syncretistic
practices drawn from Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and ethnic Tai
spirit worship are common. The Hindu and Sikh communities have an
estimated population of about 19,000 persons. Both are associated with
small immigrant groups that arrived from South Asia during the
twentieth century, although Brahman temples had been established in
Bangkok as early as 1784. The majority of Hindus and Sikhs live in
Chonburi, Bangkok, and Phuket provinces.
The ethnic Chinese minority (Sino-Thai) has retained some popular
religious traditions from China, including adherence to popular Taoist
beliefs. Members of the Mien hill tribe follow a form of Taoism.
Mahayana Buddhism is practiced primarily by small groups of Chinese
and Vietnamese immigrants. There were 8 Chinese temples and 11
Vietnamese temples in 1998.
The Government actively sponsors inter-faith dialog in accordance
with the Constitution, which requires the State to ``promote good
understanding and harmony among followers of all religions.'' The
Government funds regular meetings and public education programs. These
programs included the RAD annual inter-faith meeting for
representatives of all religious groups certified by RAD. The September
meeting in Bangkok drew 200 participants. They also included monthly
meetings of the 17-member Subcommittee on Religious Relations, located
within the Prime Minister's National Identity Promotion Office (The
Subcommittee is composed of one representative from the Buddhist,
Muslim, Roman Catholic, Hindu, and Sikh communities in addition to
civil servants from several government agencies), and a 1-week
education program coorganized by the National Identity Promotion Office
and the National Council on Social Welfare. The latter event is held
each December in celebration of the King's birthday. Representatives
from every religious organization recognized by the RAD are invited to
attend seminars associated with the event. The program also targets the
general public through films and public displays.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government has not recognized the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons).
Two branches of the Government investigated religious groups
alleged to be engaged in cult activities prior to the period covered by
this report. In 1998 the National Security Council and the House
Standing Committee on Religion, Arts, and Cultural Affairs initiated an
investigation into the alleged ``cultish practices'' of the Hope of
Thai People Foundation after complaints were filed at the Religious
Affairs Department by parents claiming that their children had isolated
themselves from friends and family after joining the church. In January
1999, the House Standing Committee moved to consider a petition filed
by a Senator requesting that the foundation's activities be
investigated. In response the foundation filed a law suit against the
committee chairman for defamation in May 1999. The law suit against the
former chairman, now a senator-elect, remains in litigation. No further
committee action was taken.
The Government permitted foreign missionary groups to work freely
throughout the country, although it also maintained policies that
favored proselytizing by its citizens.
The number of foreign missionaries officially registered with the
Government is limited to a quota that originally was established by the
Religious Affairs Department in 1982. The quota is divided along both
religious and denominational lines and is considered sensitive for this
reason. The Government does not publish or release its quotas for
particular religious denominations. In May 2000, there reportedly were
from 1,900 to 2,000 foreign missionaries legally registered, including
422 Roman Catholic, 1,050 Protestant, 150 Mormon, and 10 Muslim
missionaries. In September 1999, the RAD increased the quota for Mormon
missionaries from a quota of 100 to 150.
While official registration conferred some benefits, such as longer
terms for visa stays, it was not a significant barrier to foreign
missionary activity during the period covered by this report. Many
foreign missionaries entered the country using tourist visas and
proselytized or disseminated religious literature without the
acknowledgment of the Religious Affairs Department. There were no
reports that foreign missionaries were deported or harassed for working
without registration, although the activities of Muslim professors and
clerics were subjected disproportionately to scrutiny on national
security grounds because of continued government concern about the
potential resurgence of Muslim separatist activities in the south.
Citizens proselytize freely. Monks working as Buddhist missionaries
(Dhammaduta) have been active since the end of World War II,
particularly in border areas among the country's tribal populations. In
April 2000, there were approximately 3,000 Dhammaduta working in the
country. In addition the Government sponsored the international travel
of another 748 Buddhist monks sent by their temples to disseminate
religious information abroad. Christian and Muslim organizations also
reported having smaller numbers of citizens working as missionaries in
Thailand and abroad.
Religious instruction is required in public schools at both the
primary (grades 1 through 6) and secondary (grades 7 through 12)
education levels. Students at the primary level are required to take 80
hours of instruction per academic year in religious studies classes.
Instruction is limited to Buddhism and Islam. During the period covered
by this report, some parts of the country with large Muslim student
populations did not have Muslim studies courses. Muslim students in
these schools generally were directed to school libraries to
participate in Muslim self-study courses.
The Constitution provides for, and citizens generally enjoy, a
large measure of freedom of speech. However, laws prohibiting speech
likely to insult Buddhism remain in place under the 1997 Constitution.
The police, who have legal authority under the Printing and
Advertisement Act of 1941 to issue written warnings or orders
suspending the publication or distribution of printed materials
considered offensive to public morals, confiscated a book in December,
written by a Phra Dhammakaya temple follower, which attacked a monk who
is one of the chief critics of that temple. In December the police
issued an arrest warrant for the author for defamation of character.
National Identity Cards produced by the Ministry of Interior since
April 12, 1999 include a designation of the religious affiliation of
the holder for the first time. The 1999 change in policy was
implemented in response to the demands of parliamentarians who wanted
easier identification of individuals requiring Muslim burial.
Individuals who fail or choose not to indicate religious affiliation in
their applications can be issued cards without religious information.
Muslim female civil servants are not permitted to wear headscarves
when dressed in civil servant uniforms.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the major religious communities were generally
amicable. As of June, the case of a March 1999 attack in Nonthaburi
province, while still open, has not generated any new actions. Although
police continue to suspect intradenominational conflict, whether the
bombing was due to religious motives is not known.
None of the religious communities led ``ecumenical'' movements.
The Constitution states that discrimination against a person on the
grounds of ``a difference in religious belief'' shall not be permitted.
There was no significant pattern of religious discrimination during the
period covered by this report. Religious groups closely associated with
ethnic minorities, such as Muslims, experience some societal economic
discrimination. The Government maintained longstanding policies
designed to integrate Muslim communities into society through
developmental efforts and expanded educational opportunities, as well
as policies designed to increase the number of appointments to local
and provincial positions where Muslims traditionally have been
underrepresented.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discussed religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
current Ambassador as well as his predecessor, met repeatedly with
government officials to request an increase in the number of visas for
missionaries for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons) and to call for official recognition of the church.
__________
TONGA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
The Constitution states that the ``Sabbath day'' (Sunday) ``be kept
holy'' and that no business can be conducted ``except according to
law.'' Although an exception is made for hotels and resorts that are
part of the tourism industry, the ``Sunday ban'' is enforced strictly.
All religious groups are permitted dutyfree entry of goods intended for
religious purposes, but no religious group is subsidized or granted tax
free status.
Religious Demography
According to the last official census (1996), the membership by
percentage of population of major denominations is: Free Wesleyan
Church of Tonga, 41 percent; Roman Catholic, 16 percent; Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), 14 percent; Free Church of
Tonga, 12 percent; others, 17 percent. However, both Roman Catholics
and the Mormon Church state that from 30 to 40 percent of all citizens
are members of their faiths. Members of the Tokaikolo Church, Seventh-
Day Adventists, Assembly of God, Anglicans, the Baha'i Faith, Islam,
and Hinduism are represented in much smaller numbers.
Western missionaries, particularly members of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints and other Christian denominations,
proselytize freely. There are a number of schools operated by the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and by the Wesleyan Church.
There are no government-sponsored ecumenical activities.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Tonga Broadcasting Commission (TBC) maintains policy guidelines
regarding the broadcast of religious programming on Radio Tonga. The
TBC guidelines state that in view of ``the character of the listening
public'' those who preach on Radio Tonga must confine their preaching
``within the limits of the mainstream Christian tradition.'' Due to
this policy, the TBC does not allow discussions by members of the
Baha'i Faith of its founder, Bahaullah, by name, or of the tenets of
their religions. Similarly, the TBC does not allow the Mormon Church to
discuss its founder, Joseph Smith, and the Book of Mormon by name. This
policy applies to all churches. Mormons utilize Radio Tonga for the
announcement of church activities and functions. The church appears to
be thriving. Members of the Baha'i Faith utilize a privately owned
radio station for program activities and the announcement of functions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations among the religious
communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Officials from the U.S. Embassy in Fiji meet with religious officials
and nongovernmental organizations during visits to the country.
__________
TUVALU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religious communities in society contribute to the free practice
of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for separation of church and state and
imposes no restrictions on freedom of religion, and the Government
respects these provisions in practice.
Religious Demography
Both Protestants (Methodists and Anglicans) and Catholics are
represented in the country, as well as members of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Specific figures on church membership are
not available.
There are a number of active Christian missionary organizations
representing the same religious faiths practiced in the country.
Missionaries practice without special restrictions.
The Government has not taken any specific actions to improve inter-
religious relations.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Inter-faith relations are amicable. There are no ecumenical
movements.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Representatives of the U.S. Embassy in Fiji visit periodically to
discuss religious freedom issues with the Government in the overall
context of the promotion of human rights. They also meet with
representatives of the religious communities and nongovernmental
organizations that have an interest in religious freedom.
The U.S. Embassy actively supports efforts to improve and expand
governmental and societal awareness of and protection for human rights,
including the right to freedom of religion.
__________
VANUATU
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by the report.
Although traditions of communal decisionmaking sometimes conflict
with the introduction of new churches in rural communities, government
officials use modern law and traditional authority to maintain amicable
relations among established and new churches. Both government policy
and the strength of traditional authority figures contribute to the
free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The preamble of the Constitution refers to a commitment to
traditional values and Christian principles; however, the Constitution
also provides for freedom of religion, and the Government respects this
right in practice.
In 1995 in response to concerns expressed by some established
churches about the activities of new missionary groups, such as the
Holiness Fellowship, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Parliament passed the Religious Bodies
Act. However, the President never signed the act, and it never has been
enforced. A few churches registered with the Government voluntarily,
while some church representatives believe that it had a chilling effect
on new missionary activity.
Religious Demography
The great majority of the population belongs to Christian churches,
although many combine their Christian faith with some pre-Christian
cultural practices. Church membership is primarily Presbyterian
(approximately 48 percent), Roman Catholic (15 percent), and Anglican
(12 percent). Another 30 percent are shared by the Church of Christ,
the Apostolic Church, the Assemblies of God, and the Seventh-Day
Adventists. The John Frum Movement is centered on the island of Tanna
and includes less than 5 percent of the population. Muslims, Jehovah's
Witnesses, and Latter-Day Saints reportedly also are active. There are
believed to be members of other religions within the foreign community
who are free to practice their religions, but they are not known to
proselytize or hold public religious ceremonies.
The Government interacts with churches through the Department of
Internal Affairs and the Vanuatu Christian Council. Customarily,
government oaths of office are taken on the Bible. The Government
provides some financial help for the construction of churches for
council members, provides grants to churchoperated schools, and pays
the national teaching staffs. These benefits are not available to non-
Christian religious organizations. Government schools also schedule
time each week for religious education conducted by representatives of
council churches, using materials designed by those churches. Students
whose parents do not wish them to attend the class are excused. Non-
Christian religions are not permitted to teach their religions in the
public schools.
Aside from the activities of the Department of Internal Affairs,
use of government resources to support religious activities is not
condoned (although there is no specific law prohibiting such support).
If a formal request is given to the Government and permission is
granted, governmental resources may be used. The Ombudsman's Office
investigated the Minister of Health for allegedly using his office and
stationery to solicit contributions for the John Frum Movement, a
political party that is an indigenous religious movement on the island
of Tanna.
Missionaries representing several Western churches brought
Christianity to the country in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Some
foreign missionaries continue this work; however, the clergy of the
established churches is now primarily indigenous. Current missionary
activity includes the Summer Institute of Linguistics, which translates
the New Testament into indigenous languages. The Government does not
attempt to control missionary activity, which includes representatives
from the Church of Christ, Presbyterians, Seventh-Day Adventists,
Anglicans, and Roman Catholics.
There are no government-sponsored ecumenical activities.
There was no change in the status for respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities. However, some churches and individuals object to the
missionary activities of nontraditional denominations and continue to
suggest that they be curtailed. There continues to be pressure to
reinstate controls.
Religious representation at national events is organized through
the Vanuatu Christian Council. Ecumenical activities of the council are
limited to the interaction of its members.
In rural areas, traditional Melanesian communal decisionmaking
predominates. If a member of the community wants to start something
new, such as a new church, the chief and the rest of the community must
agree. If a new church is started without community approval, the
community views this action as a gesture of defiance by those who join
the new church and as a threat to community solidarity. However, the
resulting turmoil so far has been resolved through appeals from
traditional leaders to uphold individual rights. For example, during
the period covered by this report, threats that community members in
North Ambrym had made against fellow villagers who supported a new
church in the area were defused by a radio appeal to the villagers from
the national police commissioner. This appeal was couched in terms of
respect for the Constitution and individual rights.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
VIETNAM
Both the Constitution and government decrees provide for freedom of
worship; however, the Government continued to restrict significantly
those organized activities of religious groups that it declared to be
at variance with state laws and policies. The Government generally
allowed persons to practice individual worship in the religion of their
choice, and participation in religious activities throughout the
country continued to grow significantly. However, government
restrictions on the hierarchies and clergy of most religious groups
remained in place, and religious groups faced difficulties in training
and ordaining clergy, publishing religious materials, and conducting
educational and humanitarian activities. The Government requires
religious groups to register and uses this process to control and
monitor church organizations. The Government recognizes six official
religious bodies: One each for Buddhist, Roman Catholic, Protestant,
Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, and Muslim believers.
On balance, conditions for religious freedom remained fundamentally
the same during the period covered by this report compared with the
period from mid-1998 to mid-1999. However, there were improvements in
some areas such as the release of more than 1 dozen ethnic Hmong
Protestants and 3 Catholic priests and growth in worship activities. In
addition, in some parts of the country, there was continued gradual
expansion of the parameters for individual believers of officially
recognized churches, particularly some Buddhists and Catholics, to
practice their faiths publicly without major interference from
government officials. However, most of the serious restrictions imposed
on religious freedom between mid1998 and mid-1999 continued.
The Government used the lack of official recognition of several
groups as a pretext to harass some believers, in particular certain
groups of Buddhists, as well as Protestants, and Hoa Hao, who lack
legal sanction. Police routinely questioned persons who held dissident
religious views and arbitrarily detained persons based on their
religious beliefs and practices. Many Protestant Christians who
worshipped in house churches in ethnic minority areas were subjected to
arbitrary detention by local officials who broke up unsanctioned
religious meetings there. Authorities imprisoned persons for practicing
religion illegally by using provisions of the Penal Code that allow for
jail terms of up to 3 years for ``abusing freedom of speech, press, or
religion.'' There were at least 15 reported Hoa Hao and Protestant
religious detainees held without charge. In addition the Supreme
Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV), Thich Huyen
Quang, continued to be held in Quang Ngai in conditions resembling
administrative detention. An unconfirmed report stated that one Hmong
Christian, Lu Seo Dieu, died in prison in 1999 in Lao Cai province from
mistreatment and lack of medical care in detention. There are
reportedly 13 religious prisoners. In general there are amicable
relations among the various religious communities, and there were some
modest attempts at ecumenical cooperation and dialog in Ho Chi Minh
City.
The U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi
Minh City maintained an active and regular dialog with senior- and
working-level government officials to advocate for greater religious
freedom. The U.S. Ambassador and other embassy officers raised with
cabinet ministers, Communist Party officials, and provincial officials,
concerns of the U.S. government and citizens of other countries about
the detention and arrest of religious figures and other restrictions on
religious freedom. The Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious
Freedom, Robert Seiple, visited the country in July 1999 for
discussions with government officials and leaders of several religious
bodies. In several cases, intervention by the U.S. Government resulted
in improvements such as the release of some prisoners.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Both the Constitution and government decrees provide for freedom of
worship; however, the Government continued to restrict significantly
those organized activities of religious groups that it declared to be
at variance with state laws and policies. The Government generally
allowed persons to practice individual worship in the religion of their
choice, and participation in religious activities throughout the
country continued to grow significantly. However, the Government uses
regulations to control religious hierarchies and organized religious
activities closely, in part because the Communist Party fears that
organized religion may weaken its authority and influence by serving as
a political, social, and spiritual alternative to the authority of the
central Government.
The Government requires religious groups to register and uses this
process to control and monitor church organizations. Under the law,
only those activities and organizations expressly sanctioned by the
Government are deemed to be legal. The granting or withholding of the
official recognition of religious bodies is one of the means by which
the Government actively intervenes to restrict religious activities by
some believers. In order for a group to obtain official recognition, it
must obtain government approval of its leadership and the overall scope
of its activities.
Officially recognized religious organizations are able to operate
openly in most parts of the country, and followers of these religious
bodies are able to worship without government harassment, except in
some isolated provinces. Officially recognized organizations must
consult with the Government about their religious and administrative
operations, although not about their religious tenets of faith. In
general religious organizations are confined to dealing specifically
with spiritual and with organizational matters. There has been a trend
in the past 5 years to accord much greater latitude to followers of
recognized religious organizations, and the majority of followers of
the country's Buddhist and Catholic traditions have benefited from this
development. The Government holds conferences to discuss and publicize
its religion decrees.
Religious organizations must obtain government permission to hold
training seminars, conventions, and celebrations outside the regular
religious calendar; to build or remodel places of worship; to engage in
charitable activities or operate religious schools; and to train,
ordain, promote, or transfer clergy. Many of these restrictive powers
lie principally with provincial or city people's committees, and local
treatment of religious persons varied widely. Because of the lack of
meaningful due process in the legal system, the actions of religious
believers are subject to the discretion of local officials in their
respective jurisdictions.
National laws that prescribe freedom of belief are enforced
unevenly. In some areas, such as parts of Ho Chi Minh City, local
officials allow relatively wide latitude to believers; in others, such
as isolated provinces of the northwest, central highlands, and central
coast, religious believers are subject to significant harassment
because of the lack of effective legal enforcement. Some provincial
leaders, such as those in certain northwestern provinces, have claimed
that there are no religious believers in their provinces since the
religious believers there are not recognized officially.
In general religious groups faced difficulty in obtaining teaching
materials, expanding training facilities, publishing religious
materials, and expanding the number of clergy in religious training in
response to increased demand from congregations.
In particular local officials harass a significant minority of
religious believers because they operate without legal sanction. Since
1981 leaders of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) have
requested repeatedly that their church be granted official recognition,
but their requests continue to be rejected in large part because of the
strong criticism of the Communist Party by UBCV leaders and their call
for democracy and improved conditions of human rights in Vietnam. UBCV
leaders continue to be harassed, and their rights severely restricted
by the Government. In early 2000, leaders of several churches belonging
to the Evangelical Church of Vietnam (ECV) (the Protestant Tin Lanh
churches) in the southern region engaged in quiet discussions with the
Government on official recognition of their congregations. These
discussions, although stalled at mid-year, were expected to lead
eventually to official recognition of the roughly 300 ECV churches
throughout the country. In early 2000, several leaders of the Hoa Hao
community, including several pre-1975 leaders, openly criticized the
Government's 1999 recognition of an official Hoa Hao organization; they
claimed that the official group is subservient to the Government and
demanded official recognition of their own leadership instead. The
Government neither acknowledged the claims of these Hoa Hao believers
nor permitted their independent activities.
In practice there are no effective remedies under the law for
violations of persons' rights to religious freedom due to the
capricious actions of officials. On occasion central authorities have
intervened to curb the worst excesses of local harassment. For example,
after a district official in Binh Phuoc province ordered the
destruction of three Protestant churches in his province, authorities
from Hanoi intervened to prevent further destruction, then forced the
district leader to retire. However, the court system is subservient to
the Communist Party and its political decisions, and in no known case
have the courts acted to interpret laws so as to protect a person's
right to religious freedom.
Religious Demography
The Government officially recognizes Buddhist (approximately 50
percent), Roman Catholic (8 percent), Protestant (0.9 percent), Cao Dai
(1 percent), Hoa Hao (2 percent), and Muslim (0.1 percent) religious
organizations. However, some Buddhist, Protestant, Cao Dai, and Hoa Hao
believers do not recognize or participate in the government-approved
associations. Some organize their own associations, and thus their
organizations are considered illegal by the authorities.
Among the country's religious communities, Buddhism is the dominant
religious belief. Many Buddhists practice an amalgam of Mahayana
Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucian traditions that sometimes is called
Vietnam's ``triple religion.'' Some estimates suggest that more than
half the population of approximately 80 million persons are at least
nominally Buddhist, visit pagodas on festival days, and have a world
view that is shaped in part by Buddhism, although in reality these
beliefs rely on a very expansive definition of the faith. One prominent
Buddhist official has estimated that 30 percent of Buddhists are devout
and practice their faith regularly. The Government's Office of
Religious Affairs uses a much lower estimate of 7 million practicing
Buddhists. Mahayana Buddhists, most of whom are part of the ethnic Kinh
majority, are found throughout the country, especially in the populous
areas of the northern and southern delta regions. There are
proportionately fewer Buddhists in certain highlands and central
lowlands areas, although migration of Kinh to highland areas is
changing the distribution somewhat.
A Khmer minority in the south practices Theravada Buddhism.
Numbering from perhaps 700,000 to 1 million persons, they live almost
exclusively in the Mekong delta.
There are an estimated 6 million Roman Catholics in the country
(about 8 percent of the population). The largest concentrations are in
southern provinces around Ho Chi Minh City, with other large groups in
the northern and central coastal lowlands. In recent years, the
Government has eased its efforts to control the Roman Catholic
hierarchy by relaxing the requirements that all clergy belong to the
government-controlled Catholic Patriotic Association. Few clergy
actually belong to this association, which is a loose affiliation of
clergy that holds conferences and participates in events with the
Communist Party and the Vietnam Fatherland Front.
Authorities allowed the Vatican's ordination of a new archbishop in
Ho Chi Minh City in 1998 as well as the ordination of five bishops in
other dioceses in 1998 and 1999. A high-level Vatican envoy made his
annual visit to the country in May 2000, during which the filling of
other vacant bishoprics was discussed. In June 2000, a bishop was named
for Da Nang province, and in August 2000, a bishop was named for Vinh
Long province. In 1998 a number of bishops traveled to Rome, Italy, for
a synod of Asian bishops. Up to 200,000 Catholics gathered in August
1999 at an annual Marian celebration in La Vang in the central part of
the country and celebrated their faith freely there.
There are approximately 700,000 Protestants in the country (less
than 1 percent of the population), with more than half of these persons
belonging to a large number of unregistered evangelical ``house
churches'' that operate in members' homes or in rural villages, many of
them in ethnic minority areas. Perhaps 150,000 of the followers of
house churches are Pentecostals, who celebrate ``gifts of the spirit''
through charismatic and ecstatic rites of worship.
Reports from believers indicated that Protestant church attendance
grew substantially during the period covered by this report, especially
among the house churches, despite continued government restrictions on
proselytizing activities.
Based on believers' estimates, two-thirds of Protestants are
members of ethnic minorities, including ethnic Hmong (some 120,000
followers) in the northwest provinces and some 200,000 members of
ethnic minority groups of the central highlands (Ede, Jarai, Bahnar,
and Koho, among others). The house churches in ethnic minority areas
have been growing rapidly in recent years, sparked in part by radio
broadcasts in ethnic minority languages from the Philippines.
The Office of Religious Affairs estimates that there are 1.1
million Cao Dai followers (just over 1 percent of the population). Some
nongovernmental organization (NGO) sources estimate that there may be
from 2 to 3 million followers. Cao Dai groups are most active in Tay
Ninh province, where the Cao Dai Holy See is located, and in Ho Chi
Minh City, the Mekong delta, and Hanoi. There are separate groups
within the Cao Dai religion, which is syncretistic, combining elements
of many faiths. Its basic belief system is influenced strongly by
Mahayana Buddhism, although it recognizes a diverse array of persons
who have conveyed divine revelation, including Siddhartha, Jesus, Lao-
Tse, Confucius, and Moses.
Hoa Hao, considered by some of its followers to be a ``reform''
branch of Buddhism, was founded in the southern part of the country in
1939. Hoa Hao is a largely privatistic faith that does not have a
priesthood and rejects many of the ceremonial aspects of mainstream
Buddhism. Hoa Hao followers are concentrated in the Mekong delta,
particularly in provinces such as An Giang, where the Hoa Hao were
dominant as a political and religious force before 1975. According to
the Office of Religious Affairs, there are 1.3 million Hoa Hao
followers; church-affiliated expatriate groups suggest that there may
be 2 million to 3 million. A government-organized group of 160 Hoa Hao
held a congress in May 1999 in An Giang. The congress established an
11-member committee to oversee the administrative affairs of the
religion. Establishment of the committee constituted official
governmental recognition of the religion for the first time in 25
years, although a number of the pre1975 leaders of the Hoa Hao oppose
the official group as subservient to the Government and not faithful to
Hoa Hao traditions.
Mosques serving the country's small Muslim population, estimated at
50,000 persons, operate in western An Giang province, Hanoi, Ho Chi
Minh City, and other provinces in the southern part of the country. The
Muslim community is composed of ethnic Cham in the southern coastal
provinces and western Mekong delta. The Muslim community also includes
some ethnic Vietnamese, and migrants originally from Malaysia,
Indonesia, and India. Most practice Sunni Islam.
The Muslim Association of Vietnam was banned in 1975 but authorized
again in 1992. It is the only official Muslim organization. Association
leaders say that they are able to practice their faith, including daily
prayer, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to
Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Government no longer restricts Muslims from
making the Hajj. Roughly 1 dozen Muslims journey to Mecca for the Hajj
each year.
There are a variety of smaller religious communities. An estimated
8,000 Hindus are concentrated in the south, including some ethnic Chams
on the south central coast who practice Hinduism.
There are estimated to be between from several hundred to 2,000
Baha'i believers, largely concentrated in the south; prior to 1975,
there were an estimated 130,000 believers, according to church
officials.
There are several hundred members of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) who are spread throughout the country but
live primarily in the Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi areas.
The prominent position of Buddhism does not affect adversely
religious freedom for others, including those who wish not to practice
a religion. The secular Government does not favor a particular
religion. The Constitution expressly protects the right of
``nonbelief'' as well as ``belief.'' Of the country's approximately 80
million citizens, 14 million or more reportedly do not practice any
organized religion. Some sources strictly define those considered to be
practicing Buddhists, excluding those whose activities are limited to
visiting pagodas on ceremonial holidays. Using this definition, the
number of nonreligious persons would be much higher, perhaps as high as
50 million persons.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government continued to maintain broad legal and policy
restrictions on religious freedom, although in many areas, Buddhists,
Catholics, and Protestants reported an increase in religious activity
and observance. However, worshipers in several Buddhist, Catholic, and
Cao Dai centers of worship reported that they believed that undercover
government observers attended worship services to monitor the
activities of the congregation and the clergy.
Operational and organizational restrictions on the hierarchies and
clergy of most religious groups remained in place. Religious groups
faced difficulty in obtaining teaching materials, expanding training
facilities, publishing religious materials, and expanding the number of
clergy in religious training in response to increased demand from
congregations. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, faces many
restrictions on the training and ordination of priests, nuns, and
bishops, and this restriction limits pastoral ministry. Likewise, the
Government restricted the number of clergy that the Buddhist, Catholic,
Protestant, and Cao Dai Churches may train. Restrictions remained on
the numbers of Buddhist monks and Catholic seminarians. Protestants
were not allowed to operate a seminary or to ordain new clergy.
The Government requires all Buddhist monks to work under an
officially approved umbrella organization, the Central Buddhist Church
of Vietnam. The Government opposed efforts by the nongovernment-
sanctioned Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) to operate
independently, and tension between the Government and the UBCV
continued. Several prominent UBCV monks, including Thich Huyen Quang
and Thich Quang Do, continued to face government restrictions on their
civil liberties during the period covered by this report.
In April 2000, a local people's committee in Hanoi reportedly
pressured the chief abbot of the historic One-Pillar Pagoda to step
down in favor of an abbot with close ties to the Communist Party but no
links to the pagoda. The chief abbot, whose pagoda is affiliated with
the official Buddhist organization, resisted the effort and protested
that this violated the state-sponsored church's statutes.
The Evangelical Church of Vietnam (ECV), which comprises the
network of Tin Lanh (Good News) churches and originally was founded by
the Christian and Missionary Alliance early in the 20th century,
generally operated with greater freedom than did the house churches.
The roughly 300 Tin Lanh churches in the country are concentrated in
the major cities, including Ho Chi Minh City, Danang, Hanoi, and in
lowland areas. Some 15 ECV churches in the northern provinces are the
only officially recognized Protestant churches. Leaders of several ECV
churches in the south discussed with the Government official
recognition of their congregations, and, although stalled at mid-year,
this process is expected to lead to eventual official recognition of
the ECV churches throughout the country.
One of the pastors of the main ECV church in Hanoi continued to be
pressured by local authorities to step down from the church; government
authorities proposed that he be replaced by a church official from
Haiphong who was supported by local authorities. The pastor received a
letter from local police stating that he had violated the law because
of his past support of unsanctioned religious activities. However, the
pastor and the congregation continued to resist this effort to force
him to step down, as they have for the past year.
The Government restricts Protestant congregations from cooperating
on joint religious observances or other activities, although in some
localities there was greater freedom to do so. There is some ecumenical
networking among Protestants, particularly in Ho Chi Minh City.
The Government banned and actively discouraged participation in
``illegal'' religious groups, including the UBCV, Protestant house
churches, and the unapproved Hoa Hao and Cao Dai groups. Religious and
organizational activities by UBCV monks are illegal, and all UBCV
activities outside private temple worship are proscribed. Protestant
groups in central and southern provinces and some groups of Hoa Hao
believers not affiliated with the group that held the May 2000 congress
petitioned the Government for official recognition. They were
unsuccessful as of mid-2000. Most evangelical house churches do not
attempt to register because they believe that their applications would
be denied, and they want to avoid government control.
Provincial officials in Ha Giang and Lai Chau provinces in the
north pressured Hmong Christians to recant their faith. Local officials
in these areas circulated official provincial documents urging persons
to give up illegal ``foreign'' religion and to practice traditional
animist beliefs and ancestor worship. Regional and police newspapers
printed articles documenting how persons were deceived into following
the house church ``cults.'' There is evidence that some individuals
engaged in deceptive practices under the guise of religious activities.
The local Catholic Church hierarchy remained frustrated by the
Government's restrictions but has learned to accommodate itself to them
for many years. A number of clergy reported a modest easing of
government control over church activities in certain dioceses. In some
areas, the Government relaxed its outright prohibition on the Catholic
Church. The Church is able to participate in religious education and
charitable activities.
The degree of government control of church activities varied
greatly among localities. In some areas, especially in the south,
Catholic churches operated kindergartens and engaged in a variety of
humanitarian projects. Buddhist groups engage in humanitarian acts in
many parts of the country.
Roman Catholic seminaries throughout the country have approximately
500 students enrolled. The Government limits the church to operating
six major seminaries and to recruitment of new seminarians only every 2
years. All students must be approved by the Government both upon
entering the seminary and prior to their ordination as priests. The
Church believes that the number of students being ordained is
insufficient to support the growing Catholic population.
A government-controlled management committee has full powers to
control the affairs of the Cao Dai faith, thereby managing the church's
operations, its hierarchy, and its clergy. Independent church officials
oppose the edicts of this committee as unfaithful to Cao Dai principles
and traditions. Despite the Government's statement in 1997 that it had
recognized the Cao Dai Church legally and encouraged Cao Dai believers
to expand their groups and practice their faith, many senior clerical
positions remain vacant.
The national authorities continue to restrict the distribution of
the sacred scriptures of the Hoa Hao.
In April 1999, the Government issued a decree on religion that
prescribes the rights and responsibilities of religious believers. The
religion decree states that persons formerly detained or imprisoned
must obtain special permission from the authorities before they may
resume religious activities. The decree also states that no religious
organization can reclaim lands or properties taken over by the State
following the end of the 1954 war against French rule and the 1975
Communist victory in the south. Despite this blanket prohibition, the
Government has returned some church properties confiscated since 1975.
The Catholic Church in Ho Chi Minh City has received back two
properties from the People's Committee of the city. On one of the
properties, in Cholon, the Church is constructing an HIV/AIDS hospice
to be operated by the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul.
The other property is now a churchoperated orphanage. One of the vice-
chairmen of the official Buddhist Sangha said that about 30 percent of
Buddhist properties confiscated in Ho Chi Minh City have been returned
since 1975, and from 5 to 10 percent of all Buddhist properties
confiscated in the south were returned. By contrast UBCV leaders stated
that their properties were not returned. Information concerning
prominent Protestant properties, such as the former seminary in Nha
Trang, is not available. Most Cao Dai and Hoa Hao properties have not
been returned, according to church leaders.
The Government does not permit religious instruction in public
schools. The Government restricts persons who belong to dissident and
unofficial religious groups from speaking publicly about their beliefs.
It officially requires all religious publishing to be done by
government-approved publishing houses. Many Buddhist sacred scriptures,
Bibles, and other religious texts and publications are printed by these
organizations and allowed to be distributed.
The Government allows, and in some cases encourages, links with
coreligionists in other countries when the religious groups are
approved by the Government. The Government actively discourages
contacts between the illegal UBCV and its foreign Buddhist supporters,
and between illegal Protestant organizations such as the house churches
and their foreign supporters. Contacts between Vatican authorities and
the domestic Catholic Church are permitted, and the Government
maintains a regular, active dialog with the Vatican on a range of
issues including organizational activities, the prospect of
establishing diplomatic relations, and a possible papal visit. The
Government allows religious travel for some, but not all, religious
persons; Muslims are able to undertake the Hajj, and many Buddhist and
Catholic officials also have been able to travel abroad. Persons who
hold dissident religious opinions generally are not approved for
foreign travel.
The Government does not designate persons' religions on passports,
although citizens' ``family books,'' which are household identification
books, list religious and ethnic affiliation.
The Government prohibits proselytizing by foreign missionary
groups, although some missionaries visited the country despite this
prohibition. The Government deported some foreign persons for
unauthorized proselytizing, sometimes defining proselytizing very
broadly. A U.S. pastor who worked as a missionary prior to 1975 was
questioned by police and pressured to pay a fine, which he refused to
do, after a meeting that he held with Protestant Vietnamese pastors was
raided by police in November 1999. His passport and Bible were
confiscated temporarily; they were returned shortly before his
departure several days later.
Proselytizing by citizens is restricted to regularly scheduled
religious services in recognized places of worship. Immigrants and
noncitizens must comply with the law when practicing their religions.
Catholic and Protestant foreigners exercise leadership in worship
services that are reserved for foreigners.
The Office of Religious Affairs hosts periodic meetings to address
religious matters according to government-approved agendas that bring
together leaders of diverse religious traditions.
Adherence to a religious faith generally does not disadvantage
persons in civil, economic, and secular life, although it likely would
prevent advancement to the highest government and military ranks.
Avowed religious practice is a bar to membership in the Communist
Party, although anecdotal reports indicate that a handful of the 2
million Communist Party members are religious believers.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government restricts and monitors all forms of public assembly,
including assembly for religious activities. On some occasions, large
religious gatherings have been allowed, such as the 1998 and 1999
celebrations at La Vang. Since July 1999, the Hoa Hao also have been
allowed to hold two large public gatherings in An Giang province on Hoa
Hao festival days. However, dissident Hoa Hao have been prevented by
forcible means from organizing their own independent commemorations.
The growth of Protestant house churches in ethnic minority areas
has led to tensions with local officials in some provinces. There have
been crackdowns on leaders of these churches, particularly among the
Hmong in the northwest. The secretive nature of the house churches,
particularly among ethnic minorities, has contributed to greater
repression against these groups. Provincial officials in certain
northwest provinces do not allow churches or pagodas to operate and
have arrested and imprisoned believers for practicing their faith
nonviolently in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
The authorities in the northwest provinces severely restrict the
religious freedom of evangelical Protestants, including ethnic Hmong
and ethnic Tai. Credible reports from multiple sources stated that at
the beginning of 1999 there were more than 25 Hmong Protestants
imprisoned primarily in Lai Chau province for ``teaching religion
illegally'' or ``abusing the rights of a citizen to cause social
unrest.'' Following protests by church leaders and international
attention to the detentions, officials and Protestant church leaders
stated that most of the detainees had been released by the end of 1999.
Among those in Lai Chau who were confirmed as released--several of them
before their sentences were up--were: Ly A Giang, Giang A Ly, Vang Gia
Chua, Giang A To, and Giang A Cat. In addition Hmong leader Vu Gian
Thao was released in the April 2000 amnesty, and the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs (MFA) reported that Wang Gia Chua, Sung Seo Chinh, and
Sinh Phay Pao also had been released. The sentence of Hmong leader Sung
Phai Dia reportedly was to end in March 2000, but there is no
confirmation that he was released from prison.
Among those Hmong Protestant leaders still believed to be
imprisoned are four Hmong Protestant leaders--Sinh Phay Pao, Va Sinh
Giay, Vang Sua Giang, and Phang A Dong--who had been arrested in Ha
Giang province late in 1999. Phang A Dong was charged with illegally
traveling to China without a visa or passport.
The Government's repression of the Hmong is complicated by several
factors that include religious practices. Some Hmong citizens fought
against the Government in the past, and they live in sensitive regions
that border China and Laos; these factors together lead the Government
to question their civic loyalty. Among the Hmong, there are two
distinct religious groups. One group's members follow a traditional
form of Christianity, and another group's beliefs are characterized by
an element that is cultic in nature. The latter group's eschatological
worldview includes a predicted cataclysmic event in 2000. However, the
Government does not differentiate between the two groups; their beliefs
exacerbate the authorities' anxiety about the Hmong.
In December 1999, Nguyen Thi Thuy, a Protestant house church leader
in Phu Tho province, was sentenced to 1 year in prison for
``interfering with an officer doing his duty.'' Thuy was arrested
during a police raid on her home, where she was leading a Bible study
group. In March 2000, in what is believed to be the first case of its
kind, a defense lawyer appealed Thuy's conviction by arguing that her
arrest in her home while practicing her faith violated her
constitutional right to religious freedom. However, a judge dismissed
her appeal, and her 1-year sentence was upheld. She is scheduled to be
released in October 2000. An ethnic Hre church leader, Dinh Troi, was
detained in Quang Ngai province in 1999, and it is believed that he was
still in detention as of mid-2000. Two of his church colleagues, Dinh
Bim and Dinh Hay, were released in July and September 1999,
respectively.
In July 1999, district authorities in Binh Phuoc province
demolished three Protestant churches. Their congregations, composed of
ethnic Mnong and Stieng Christians, protested to the central government
authorities and the international community. Church officials reported
that the central authorities intervened to prevent the further razing
of churches. In December 1999, the district official responsible was
removed from office. Binh Phuoc province Christians reported that they
were able to celebrate Christmas openly and peacefully.
There were reported instances, particularly in isolated provinces
in the northwest and central highlands, in which Protestant house
church followers were punished or fined by local officials for
participation in peaceful religious activities such as worship and
Bible study. Unconfirmed reports from the central highlands suggested
that some local officials extorted cattle and money from Protestants in
those areas. It is unclear whether their religious affiliation or other
factors led to this extortion.
In recent years, the conditions faced by Baha'is have improved in
some localities where Baha'is have been able to practice their faith
quietly with local permission. However, a Baha'i community in Danang
was unable to obtain approval of its recent application for
registration of official religious activities.
In mid-1999, the Government sharply criticized adherents of the
Taiwan-based group Thanh Hai Vo Thuong Su in official media. In July
1999, a local police paper publication criticized the group, stating
that more than 100 followers joined the group in Long An province.
Government media portray the group's leader, an ethnic Taiwanese woman
named Thanh Hai, who founded the group in 1989, as a charlatan.
Credible reports from multiple sources stated that Hmong Protestant
Christians in several northwestern villages were forced by local
officials to recant their faith and to perform traditional Hmong
religious rites such as drinking blood from sacrificed chickens mixed
with rice wine. Similarly, a group of Catholics in Son La province also
reported that they were forced by local officials to recant their faith
publicly in December 1999.
Hmong Protestant Church leaders told a North American church
official that one Hmong Christian, Lu Seo Dieu, died in prison in 1999
in Lao Cai province from mistreatment and lack of medical care. This
report could not be confirmed.
Police authorities routinely question persons who hold dissident
religious or political views. In May 1999, two pastors of the
unsanctioned Assemblies of God, pastors Tran Dinh ``Paul'' Ai and Lo
Van Hen, were detained and questioned by police after a Bible study
session that they were conducting in Hanoi was raided by local police.
Ai was questioned daily for more than 2 weeks regarding his religious
activities, and Lo Van Hen, a member of the Black Tai ethnic minority,
was returned to Dien Bien Phu for further questioning by police. Both
were released before the end of May 1999 and allowed to return home. In
December 1999, Ai was issued a passport and allowed to travel to the
United States with his family on a religious worker visa. Similarly, on
two occasions, UBCV leader Thich Khong Tanh was called in for
questioning by police for what appeared to be purely religious
activities.
Credible reports suggest that police arbitrarily detained persons
based on their religious beliefs and practice. On several occasions,
small groups of Protestant Christians belonging to house churches were
subjected to arbitrary detention after local officials broke up
unsanctioned religious meetings. In September 1999, in Quang Nam
province, 17 Protestant Christians were handcuffed together and forced
to go to a government office for several hours of questioning about
their religious activities. One man who reportedly was beaten by police
required medical treatment. In October 1999, police raided a church
meeting in a hotel in Ha Long Bay town and detained 30 Protestants.
Most were released after questioning, although three were held for
several days.
A 1997 directive on administrative detention gives national and
local security officials broad powers to detain and monitor citizens
and control where they live and work for up to 2 years if they are
believed to be threatening ``national security.'' In their
implementation of administrative detention, authorities held some
persons under conditions resembling house arrest. The authorities use
administrative detention as a means of controlling persons whom they
believe hold dissident opinions.
The Government continued to isolate certain political and religious
dissidents by restricting their movements and by pressuring the
supporters and family members of others. For the past 6 years, Thich
Huyen Quang, the Supreme Patriarch of the UBCV, lived at a pagoda in
Quang Ngai province under conditions resembling administrative
detention. From 1981 until 1994, he was held at another pagoda in that
province. In March 1999, he was visited by senior UBCV leader Thich
Quang Do for the first time in 18 years, but after 3 days of meetings
both were held for questioning by police, and Thich Quang Do was
escorted by police to his pagoda in Ho Chi Minh city. Thich Huyen Quang
confirmed that he must request permission before leaving the pagoda and
is not allowed to lead prayers or participate in worship activities as
a monk. He is able to receive visits from sympathetic monks, sometimes
several per week; UBCV monk Thich Khong Thanh visited in November.
After meeting with him, visitors are questioned by police. Thich Huyen
Quang has called for the Government to recognize and sanction the
operations of the UBCV. In December 1999, he told a Western visitor
that he was receiving adequate medical care. Later that month, because
of heavy flooding in the province, police temporarily evacuated him
from the pagoda, then returned him there 2 days later, after the waters
had receded. Government officials reportedly have proposed to move
Thich Huyen Quang to Hanoi, where medical care for his chronic
conditions would be better, but he has refused.
In September 1999, Thich Duang Do complained that fellow UBCV monk
Thich Khong Tanh, who is head of the church's social affairs board, was
summoned by police for questioning in Ho Chi Minh City. In April 2000,
Thich Khong Tanh similarly complained that he was detained for
questioning by police after visiting fellow monks in central Vietnam.
Thich Quang Do continued to experience close surveillance by police
around his pagoda, Thanh Minh Zen monastery in Ho Chi Minh City, and
police pressured lay Buddhists at the pagoda in an apparent effort to
isolate Thich Quang Do further.
The Government allowed many bishops and priests to travel freely
within their dioceses and allowed greater, but still restricted,
freedom for travel outside these areas, particularly in many ethnic
areas. Local government officials reportedly discourage priests from
entering Son La and Lai Chau provinces. Upon return from international
travel, citizens, including clergy, officially are required to
surrender their passports; this law is enforced unevenly. Some persons
who express dissident opinions on religious or political issues are not
allowed to travel abroad.
Some Cao Dai believers were detained arbitrarily. In October 1998,
the authorities detained two Cao Daists in Kien Giang province, Le Kim
Bien and Pham Cong Hien, who sought to meet with United Nations Special
Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance Abdelfattah Amor. They were
sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment and are scheduled to be released in
October 2000. Three Cao Daists, Lam Thai The, Do Hoang Giam, and Van
Hoa Vui, who were arrested several years ago, reportedly remain
imprisoned in Xuan Loc prison in Dong Nai province. Ly Cong Cuong, a
Cao Daist arrested in 1983 in An Giang province, was released in July
1999.
The Hoa Hao have faced severe restrictions on their religious and
political activities since 1975, in part because of their previous
armed opposition to the Communist forces. Since 1975 all administrative
offices, places of worship, and social and cultural institutions
connected to the faith have been closed, thereby limiting public
religious functions. Believers continue to practice their religion at
home. The lack of access to public gathering places contributed to the
Hoa Hao community's isolation and fragmentation. In July 1999,
following official recognition of a Hoa Hao religious organization, an
estimated 500,000 Hoa Hao believers gathered for a religious festival
in An Giang province in the largest Hoa Hao gathering since 1975. Hoa
Hoa believers stated that a number of church leaders continue to be
detained.
In March 2000, hundreds of Hoa Hao gathered in An Giang province
for a traditional holy day celebration despite reports of police
roadblocks and interception of boats on the river surrounding the
island where the celebration was organized. A group of dissident Hoa
Hao followers, including prominent pre1975 leaders such as Le Quang
Liem, were attempting to organize an unofficial commemoration of the
death of the Hoa Hao founder, but they were blocked by government
authorities. In connection with that event, 13 Hoa Hao supporters were
detained on March 11, 2000, at Thoai Son in An Giang province; 8 of
them were released after being interrogated. Three others--Vo Thanh
Liem, Nguyen Van Dien (Bay Dien), and Vo Van Hai--were tried and
sentenced on May 26 to 30 months, 20 months, and 12 months'
imprisonment, respectively. Two others--Nguyen Van Hoang and Nguyen Van
Nhuom--still were detained in Thoai Son as of mid-2000. On March 28,
2000, eight other Hoa Hao supporters were arrested at Phu My (Hoa Hao)
village, and five of them still were detained in mid-2000 at the Bang
Lang detention facilities in Long Xuyen. These five are: Truong Van
Thuc; Tran Van Be Cao; Tran Nguyen Hon; Nguyen Chau Lan; and Le Van
Mong (Le Thien Hoa). In addition, in protest of government restrictions
on the Hoa Hao, several Hoa Hao believers reportedly have threatened to
immolate themselves.
The Penal Code establishes penalties for offenses that are defined
only vaguely, including ``attempting to undermine national unity'' by
promoting ``division between religious believers and nonbelievers.'' In
some cases, particularly involving Hmong Protestants, authorities
imprisoned persons for practicing religion illegally. They use
provisions of the Penal Code that allow for jail terms of up to 3 years
without trial for ``abusing freedom of speech, press, or religion.''
Some of the provisions of the law used to convict religious prisoners
contradict the right to freedom of religion in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the International Convention on Civil
and Political Rights.
It is difficult to determine the exact number of religious
detainees and religious prisoners. There is little transparency in the
justice system, and it is very difficult to obtain confirmation when
persons are detained, imprisoned, tried, or released. As of mid-2000,
there were at least 13 religious detainees who were held without arrest
or charge; however, the number may be greater since sometimes persons
are detained for questioning and held under administrative detention
regulations without being charged or without their detention being
publicized. These persons include: Le Minh Triet (Tu Triet), a Hoa Hao
leader detained at a Government house in the south; four Hmong
Protestants in Ha Giang province, Sinh Phay Pao, Va Sinh Giay, Vang Sua
Giang, and Phang A Dong; Dinh Troi, an ethnic Hre Protestant detained
in Quang Ngai in 1999; and seven Hoa Hao followers who were detained in
An Giang province in March. These Hoa Hao followers are: Nguyen Van
Hoang; Nguyen Van Nhuom; Truong Van Thuc; Tran Van Be Cao; Tran Nguyen
Huon; Nguyen Chau Lan; and Le Van Mong (Le Thien Hoa). In addition,
others, most prominently Supreme Patriarch Thich Huyen Quang of the
UBCV, are held under conditions that resemble administrative detention.
Thich Huyen Quang is not allowed to leave the pagoda where he lives in
Quang Ngai province without express police permission, and only then
for medical appointments in the isolated town where he stays.
There are at least 16 religious prisoners, although the actual
number may be higher. This figure is difficult to verify because of the
secrecy surrounding the arrest, detention, and release process. In a
positive development, many of the ethnic Hmong Protestants who were
imprisoned in Lai Chau province at the beginning of 1999 are believed
to have been released. Those persons believed to be religious prisoners
as of May include: UBCV monks Thich Thein Minh and Thich Hue Dang;
Catholic priests Pham Minh Tri, Pham Ngoc Lien, and Nguyen Thien Phung;
Protestant house church leader Nguyen Thi Thuy, scheduled to finish her
1-year sentence in October; Hmong Protestant Va Sinh Giay; Hoa Hao lay
persons Le Van Son, Vo Thanh Liem, Nguyen Van Dien (Bay Dien), and Vo
Van Hai; Cao Daists Le Kim Bien and Pham Cong Hien, who are scheduled
to finish their 2year sentences in October; and Cao Daists Lam Thai
The, To Hoang Giam, and Van Hoa Vui, who reportedly remain imprisoned
in Dong Nai province.
Credible reports suggest that three Roman Catholic priests
belonging to the Congregation of the Mother Co-Redemptrix remain
imprisoned. The release in 1999 of one priest, Nguyen Minh Quan, was
confirmed, and another, Mai Duc Chuong (Mai Huu Nghi), was released in
the April 2000 prisoner amnesty. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs said
that another person, Nguyen Van De, also was released in 1999.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
On balance conditions for religious freedom remained fundamentally
the same during the period covered by this report, compared with the
period from mid-1998 to mid-1999. However, there were improvements in
some areas, such as the release of some persons detained or arrested
because of their religious beliefs. In addition, in some parts of the
country, there was continued gradual expansion of the parameters for
individual believers of officially recognized churches to practice
their faiths. Many lay believers who worship in officially recognized
churches, especially Buddhists and Catholics in large cities, are able
to practice their faith publicly without interference from government
officials. This continues a trend of the past few years toward less
official interference in the lives of citizens, such as the diminution
of the block warden system, which is now much less pervasive and
intrusive in monitoring persons. On religious celebration days,
churches and pagodas are filled by worshipers. Most of the country's
Buddhist and Catholic lay persons benefit from this development.
During the period covered by this report, many of the ethnic
minority Protestant prisoners in Lai Chau province were released.
Although severe restrictions on religious life remain in the northwest,
U.S. and international advocacy on behalf of ethnic minority Christians
in those provinces apparently had a positive impact; many of the 25
Hmong church leaders held at the beginning of 1999 were released by
mid-2000.
In addition the April 2000 prisoner amnesty included two religious
prisoners, Catholic priest Mai Duc Chuong (Mai Huu Nghi) and Hmong
Protestant Vu Gian Thao. The MFA said that two other Catholic priests
of the Congregation of the Mother CoRedemptrix, Nguyen Minh Quan and
Nguyen Van De, had been released in 1999.
In some provinces where harassment of religious believers has been
egregious, local officials have lost their positions because of
religious restrictions. Most prominently, the district committee
chairman in Bu Bang district of Binh Phuoc province was not reelected
by the local people's council to his position, and he was forced to
retire in November 1999.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. In Ho Chi Minh City, there are nascent efforts at informal
ecumenical dialog by leaders of disparate religious communities. In
October 1999, four outspoken religious leaders based in Ho Chi Minh
City--UBCV Buddhist leader Thich Quang Do, Redemptorist Catholic priest
Chan Tin, Hoa Hao leader Le Quang Liem, and Cao Dai leader Tran Quang
Chau--signed a public ecumenical petition urging the Communist Party to
respect religious freedom and to establish clear separation of church
and state.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and U.S. Consulate in Ho Chi Minh City
actively and regularly raised U.S. concerns about religious freedom
with a wide variety of government officials including the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, the Office of Religion, the Ministry of Public
Security, and other government offices in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and
provincial capitals. Embassy and consulate officials also meet and talk
with leaders of all of the major religious groups, recognized as well
as unregistered.
The U.S. Ambassador raised religious freedom issues with senior
cabinet ministers including the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister,
senior government and Communist Party advisors, the head of the
Government's Office of Religion, Deputy Ministers of Foreign Affairs
and Public Security, and the chairpersons of Provincial People's
Committees around the country, among others. Other embassy and
consulate officials also raised U.S. concerns on religious freedom with
senior officials of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Public
Security and with provincial officials. The Embassy and Consulate
maintained regular contact with the key government offices responsible
for respect for human rights. Embassy officers informed government
officials that progress on religious issues and human rights have an
impact on the degree of full normalization of bilateral relations. The
Embassy's public affairs officer distributed information about U.S.
concerns about religious freedom to Communist Party and government
officials.
In their representations to the Government, the Ambassador and
other embassy officers urged recognition of a broad spectrum of
religious groups in accordance with international standards of
religious freedom, including members of the UBCV and the Protestant
house churches. In general representations by the Embassy and Consulate
focused on specific restrictions on religious freedom. These abuses
included the detention and arrest of religious figures and restrictions
on church organizational activities such as training religious leaders,
ordination, church building, and foreign travel of religious figures.
Several times the Embassy's and the Consulate's interventions on
problems involving religious freedom resulted in improvements. For
example, the release of several religious prisoners during amnesties in
September 1999 and April 2000 followed long-term and direct advocacy on
their behalf by the Embassy. The releases of some 20 Hmong Protestants
detained in early 1999 by authorities in Lai Chau province followed
demarches by the Embassy. One foreign nongovernmental organization
(NGO) first told the U.S. Embassy that officials in Lai Chau had
complained that, following the visit of Ambassador Pete Peterson to the
province in the spring of 1999, during which he had presented a list of
Hmong religious prisoners, the provincial officials had been told by
national government authorities to ease up on their treatment of Hmong
people.
Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom Robert
Seiple visited in July 1999 for discussions with officials and leaders
of several religious bodies. He urged that the parameters for religious
freedom be expanded, during meetings with officials of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, the government Committee on Religion, and other
government offices.
Representatives of the Embassy and Consulate met on several
occasions with leaders of all the major religious communities,
including Buddhists, Catholics, Protestants, Cao Dai, Hoa Hao, and
Muslims. Embassy officials, including the Ambassador, maintain a
regular dialog with NGO's. An embassy officer visited UBCV Supreme
Patriarch Thich Huyen Quang in Quang Ngai province in December, which
was the first visit by a Westerner to the Supreme Patriarch in 18
years. Following the visit, Thich Huyen Quang was featured on national
television for the first time in years, was moved out of his pagoda
during flooding (unlike the previous year), and received improved
medical care. On several occasions, embassy and consulate officers met
with prominent religious prisoners after their release from prison.
Consulate officers maintained an ongoing dialog with Thich Quang Do and
other UBCV monks and with officially recognized Buddhists, as well as
wide contacts within the Catholic, Protestant, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, and
Muslim communities. A consulate officer attended the first officially
recognized Hoa Hao festival in An Giang in July 1999. Consulate and
embassy officials worked closely with Assemblies of God pastor Tran
Dinh ``Paul'' Ai to obtain a passport from the Government, then a
religious worker's visa to travel to the United States to work in
December, following many months of continuous harassment by local
police in several areas.
The U.S. Department of State in Washington commented publicly on
the status of religious freedom in Vietnam on several occasions. These
comments included statements on the conditions faced by Thich Huyen
Quang; the status of Paul Ai and his eventual travel to the United
States, using a religious worker visa; and gatherings of Hoa Hao
believers in An Giang province.
EUROPE AND CANADA
----------
ALBANIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religions in society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. According to the
1998 Constitution, there is no official religion, and all religions are
equal. However, the predominant religious communities (Muslim,
Orthodox, and Roman Catholic) enjoy de facto recognition by the
authorities that gives them the legal right to hold bank accounts, to
own property and buildings, and to function as juridical persons based
on their historical presence in the country.
Religious movements--with the exception of the three de facto
recognized religions--can acquire the official status of a juridical
person only by registering under the Law on Associations, which
recognizes the status of a nonprofit association irrespective of
whether the organization has a cultural, recreational, religious, or
humanitarian character. The Government does not require registration or
licensing of religious groups; however, the State Committee on Cults
maintains a working knowledge, but not official records of foreign
religious organizations. The chairman of the committee has the status
of a deputy minister.
The State Committee on Cults, which was founded in September 1999
according to a decision of Council Ministers, aims to regulate the
relations between the State and religious communities. The committee
recognizes the equality of religious communities and respects their
independence. The committee works to protect freedom of religion and to
promote interreligious development, cooperation, understanding and
tolerance. The Committee claims that registration facilitates the
granting of residence permits by police to foreign employees of various
religious organizations.
Some foreign religious organizations have complained that obtaining
registration has not made gaining residence permits any less cumbersome
administratively. There is no law or sublegal provision that forces
religious organizations to register with the committee. There is no law
on religious communities, although one is mandated by the new
Constitution. Most religious communities recognize the need for such a
law to clarify their rights and responsibilities and relationship to
the Government. The committee has shown a willingness to act as a
mechanism for creation and passage of such a law.
Religious Demography
The majority of citizens are secular in orientation after decades
of rigidly enforced atheism. Muslims make up the largest traditional
religious group and are divided into two communities: those who adhere
to a moderate form of Sunni Islam and those who adhere to the Bektashi
school (a particularly liberal form of Shi'a Sufism). Albania is the
world center of the Bektashi school, which moved from Turkey to Albania
in 1925 after the revolution of Ataturk. Bektashis are concentrated
mainly in middle and southern Albania and claim that 45 percent of the
country's Muslims belong to their school. The Albanian Orthodox and
Roman Catholic Churches are the other large denominations.
Approximately 70 percent of the population are Muslim, 20 percent are
Albanian Orthodox, and 10 percent are Roman Catholic. The Albanian
Orthodox Church split from the Greek Orthodox Church early in the
century and adherents strongly identify with the Autocephalous National
Church as distinct from the Greek Church. The Albanian Orthodox
Church's 1929 statute states that all its archbishops must be of
Albanian heritage. However, the current archbishop is a Greek citizen,
because there are no Albanian clerics qualified for this position.
The Muslims are concentrated mostly in the middle of the country
and somewhat in the south; Orthodox believers are concentrated mainly
in the south, and Catholics in the north of the country; however, this
division is not strict. The Greek minority, concentrated in the south,
belongs to the Orthodox Church. There are no data available on active
participation in formal religious services, but unofficial sources
state that 30 to 40 percent of the population practice religion.
Foreign clergy, including Muslim clerics, Christian and Baha'i
missionaries, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and many others freely
carry out religious activities.
The State Committee on Cults estimates that there are 12 different
Muslim societies and groups with some 324 representatives in the
country. There are more than 79 Christian societies and groups, with
344 missionaries representing Christian or Baha'i organizations. The
main foreign missionary groups are mostly American, British, Italian,
Greek, and Arab.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
In 1967 the Communists banned all religious practices and
expropriated the property of the established Islamic, Orthodox, and
Catholic Churches. The Government has not yet returned all the
properties and religious objects under its control that were
confiscated under the Communist regime. In cases where religious
buildings were returned, the Government often failed to return the land
that surrounds the buildings, sometimes due to redevelopment claims by
private individuals who began farming it or using it for other
purposes. The Government does not have the resources to compensate
churches adequately for the extensive damage many religious properties
suffered. The Orthodox Church has complained that it has had difficulty
in recovering some religious icons for restoration and safekeeping.
The State recognizes the de facto existence of the Bektashis, but
they did not have the right to their own representative in the former
State Secretariat of Religions. The Secretariat has been replaced by
the State Committee on Cults, which is not composed of representatives
of religious groups. There is no indication of the Bektashis'
activities being placed under the supervision of the Sunni community.
The Albanian Evangelical Alliance, an association of more than 100
Protestant churches throughout the country, has complained that it has
encountered administrative obstacles to building churches, accessing
the media, and receiving exemptions from customs duties. The growing
evangelical community continues to seek official recognition and
participation in the religious affairs section of the Council of
Ministers.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious groups are generally
amicable, and tolerance is widespread. Society is largely secular.
Intermarriage among religious groups is extremely common. There are
amicable relations between the three main religions in the country. At
the beginning of 2000, the Orthodox and the Catholic churches wrote,
for the first time in their history, a joint declaration on the
beginning of the new millennium and the celebration of 2000 years of
Christianity.
The Archbishop of the country's Orthodox Church has noted incidents
in which the Orthodox and their churches or other buildings have been
the targets of vandalism. There were reports that a number of Orthodox
churches in the south were burned. The Albanian Helsinki Committee
issued a report on August 26, 1999, stating that unknown persons
damaged or desecrated more than 10 Orthodox churches and monasteries in
1998 and 1999. In July 1999, a Greek Orthodox church in Ksamil was
desecrated with human feces smeared on icons, then set on fire. Also in
July 1999, a Greek Orthodox church in Metohi was burned down. However,
the Archbishop concluded that the problem in such attacks against the
ethnic Greek minority was the country's general climate of insecurity,
rather than religious repression. Members of the ethnic Greek minority
as well as of the Orthodox Church left the country in large numbers
between 1990 and 1991, with another large exodus between 1997 and 1998
because of the lack of security and poor economic prospects. Ethnic
Greek citizens, among others, continue to leave the country in search
of employment and/or permanent residence elsewhere.
The longstanding concerns among Christians about the growing
support for Islamic fundamentalism were heightened as a result of the
influx of Kosovar refugees into the country. After the war, nearly all
the Kosovar refugees left the country, and there were no indications of
a growth of fundamentalism among the few that remained. The concern
among the Christians regarding this issue remains the same as before
the influx of Kosovars. After the war, the fundamentalist associations,
active in Albania during the war, were later displaced into Kosovo.
The Baha'is are no longer considered a threat by the Sunnis and
Orthodox Christians. They have established a good reputation and the
community is expanding rapidly.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government has numerous initiatives to foster the
development of human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in the
country, which also furthers religious freedom and tolerance. The U.S.
Embassy periodically has urged the Government to return the church
lands to the denominations that lost them under Communist rule. In 1999
and 2000 the U.S. Embassy urged the Government to restore land that was
seized from the Orthodox Church in Gjirokastra and asked the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID) to assist through the Land
Tenure Center Project. The Embassy and USAID also are providing support
together with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE) and the U.N. for the drafting of the law on freedom of religion.
Embassy officers--including the Chief of Mission--meet frequently,
both in formal office calls and at representational events, with the
heads of the major religious communities in the country. The U.S.
Embassy has been active in urging tolerance and moderation on the part
of the Albanian Government's Committee on Cults.
__________
ANDORRA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The Constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Roman
Catholic Church ``in accordance with Andorran tradition'' and
recognizes the ``full legal capacity'' of the bodies of the Catholic
Church, granting them legal status ``in accordance with their own
rules.'' One of the two constitutionally-designated princes of the
country (who serves equally as joint head of state with the President
of France) is Bishop Joan Marti Alanis of the Spanish town of La Seu
d'Urgell.
The Catholic Church receives no direct subsidies from the
Government. However, the Government continues to pay monthly stipends
to each of the seven parishes (administrative units of government,
though the term was originally religiously determined) for the
continuance of their historic work in maintaining vital records, such
as birth and marriage, despite having a fully legal civil registry
system in the country.
There is currently no law that clearly requires legal registration
and approval of religions and religious worship. However, the
Government is considering completing a draft law on associations that
may ultimately govern some aspects of religious activity. Although the
terms of the draft law are not publicly known, the authorities
reportedly are considering how to treat the activity of so-called
``sects'' or other groups whose activities may be considered injurious
to public health, safety, morals, or order. Under a 1993 law,
associations must be registered. This register has documented civic
associations, but to date no religious organization, including the
Roman Catholic Church, has requested registration or been asked by the
Government to register.
Religious Demography
Very few official statistics are available relative to religion;
however, traditionally approximately 90 percent of the population are
Roman Catholic. The population consists largely of immigrants, with
full citizens representing less than 20 percent of the total.
Immigrants, primarily from Spain, Portugal, and France, compose the
bulk of the population and are also largely Roman Catholic. It is
estimated that, of the Catholic population, about half are active
church attendees. Other religions include Islam (predominately
represented among the roughly 2,000 North African immigrants); the New
Apostolic Church; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints;
several Protestant denominations, including the Anglican Church; the
Reunification Church; and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Instruction in the tenets of the Catholic faith is available in
public schools on an optional basis, outside of both regular school
hours and the time frame set aside for elective school activities, such
as civics or ethics. The Catholic Church provides teachers for religion
classes, and the Government pays their salaries. Some parental groups
and Co-Prince Bishop Marti reportedly prefer restoring the optional
religion classes to the time frame set aside for elective activities.
Foreign missionaries are active and operate without restriction.
For example, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and
Jehovah's Witnesses proselytize door to door.
The Government has not taken any official steps to promote inter-
faith understanding, nor has it sponsored any programs or forums to
coordinate inter-faith dialog. On occasion the Government has made
public facilities available to various religious organizations for
religious activities.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such persons to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Societal attitudes between and among differing religious groups in
general appear to be amicable and tolerant. The Catholic Church of la
Massana, for example, lends its sanctuary twice per month to the
Anglican community, so that visiting Anglican clergy can conduct
services for the English speaking community. Although those who
practice religions other than Roman Catholicism tend to be immigrants
and otherwise not integrated fully into the local community, there
appears to be little or no obstacle to their practicing their own
religions.
There are no significant ecumenical movements or activities to
promote greater mutual understanding among adherents of different
religions.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. officials discuss religious freedom issues with the Government
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Both the U.S.
Ambassador, resident in Madrid, and the Consul General, resident in
Barcelona, have met with Bishop Marti, the leader of the Catholic
community. The Consul General met with the Minister of Education to
discuss the issue of religious instruction in public schools in March
2000.
__________
ARMENIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the law
specifies some restrictions on the religious freedom of adherents of
faiths other than the Armenian Apostolic Church, which has formal legal
status as the national church.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Most citizens are free to worship as they please, and there is a
generally amicable relationship among religions in society; however,
societal attitudes toward minority religions are ambivalent, and
antipathy toward Muslims remains a serious problem. Although the law
mandates separation of church and state, most officials are at least
nominally members of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Proselytizing by
other religions is prohibited, and other denominations occasionally
report acts of discrimination, usually by mid-level or lower level
bureaucrats. Jehovah's Witnesses are not recognized as a registered
denomination and face bureaucratic and legal obstacles; however, the
group operates in a fairly open manner, despite periodic harassment.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and its policy of
promoting human rights, the rule of law, and official transparency and
accountability in government functions.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the law
specifies some restrictions on the religious freedom of adherents of
faiths other than the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Constitution also
provides for freedom of conscience, including the right either to
believe or to adhere to atheism.
The 1991 Law on Freedom of Conscience, amended in 1997, establishes
the separation of church and state but grants the Armenian Apostolic
Church official status as the national church.
A presidential decree issued in 1993, later superceded by the 1997
law, supplemented the 1991 law and strengthened the position of the
Armenian Apostolic Church. The decree enjoins the Council on Religious
Affairs to investigate the activities of the representatives of
registered religious organizations and to ban missionaries who engage
in activities contrary to their status. However, the Council largely
has been inactive except for registering religious groups, and no
action was taken against missionaries during the period covered by this
report. A religious organization that has been refused registration may
not publish newspapers or magazines, rent meeting places, broadcast
programs on television or radio, or officially sponsor the visas of
visitors. No previously registered religious group seeking
reregistration under the 1997 law has been denied. However, the Council
still denies registration to Jehovah's Witnesses. Several other
religious groups are unregistered, specifically the Molokhodny, a
branch of the ``old Believers,'' and most Yezidis. According to an
official of the State Council on Religious Affairs, the Yezidis, whose
congregations are small (numbering in the hundreds), have not sought
registration.
Members of faiths other than the Armenian Apostolic Church are
subject to some government restrictions. In particular, the 1991 law
forbids ``proselytizing'' (which is undefined in the law) except by the
Armenian Apostolic Church, and requires all other religious
denominations and organizations to register with the State Council on
Religious Affairs. Petitioning organizations must ``be free from
materialism and of a purely spiritual nature,'' and must subscribe to a
doctrine based on ``historically recognized holy scriptures.'' To
qualify, a religious organization must have at least 200 adult members
(raised in 1997 from the previous figure of 50). The law bans foreign
funding for foreign-based churches. It also mandates that religious
organizations other than the Armenian Apostolic Church must seek prior
permission from the State Council on Religious Affairs to engage in
religious activities in public places, to travel abroad, or to invite
foreign guests to the country. As of mid-2000, 50 religious
organizations, some created by splits in previously registered groups,
were registered with the State Council on Religious Affairs.
As a result of extended negotiations between the Government and the
Armenian Apostolic Church, a memorandum was signed in April 2000 that
provides for the two sides to negotiate a concordat in time for signing
by the 1,700th anniversary celebrations of Armenia's conversion to
Christianity, scheduled to take place in 2001. This document is
expected to regulate relations between the two bodies, settle disputes
over ecclesiastical properties and real estate confiscated during
Soviet times, and define the role of the Armenian Apostolic Church in
such fields as education, morality, and the media.
Religious Demography
Armenia is an ethnically homogenous country, with around 95 percent
of the population classified as ethnic Armenian. Approximately 90
percent of the population nominally belong to the Armenian Apostolic
Church, an eastern Christian denomination whose spiritual center is
located at the cathedral and monastery of Echmiatsin. Religious
observance was discouraged strongly in Soviet times, leading to a sharp
decline in the number of active churches and priests, the closure of
virtually all monasteries, and the nearly total absence of religious
education. As a result, the level of religious practice is relatively
low, although many former atheists now identify themselves with the
national church. For many citizens, Christian identity is an ethnic
marker, with only a loose connection to religious belief. This
identification was accentuated by the combat over Nagorno-Karabakh in
1988-94, when Armenia and Azerbaijan expelled their respective Azeri
Muslim and Armenian Christian minorities, creating huge refugee
populations in both countries.
The death in June 1999, of the Armenian Supreme Catholicos-
Patriarch Garegin I, the head of the Armenian Apostolic Church,
required the election of a new church leader. Catholicos-Patriarch
Garegin II was elected in October 1999 at Echmiatsin with the
participation of Armenian delegates from around the world. The belief
was widespread that his predecessor, although well respected, had been
imposed by former President Levon Ter-Petrossian; however, the election
of his successor took place without visible government interference in
the election process. Some adherents of one of the candidates
complained that government officials were supporting another candidate;
however, President Robert Kocharian announced that they were doing so
as private citizens and that the Government formally took no position
for or against any candidate.
In addition to the Armenian Apostolic Church, there are
comparatively small, but in many cases growing, communities of the
following faiths: Yezidi (a Kurdish religious/ethnic group whose
practices include elements derived from Zoroastrianism, Islam, and
animism), with some 50,000 to 60,000 nominal adherents); Catholic--both
Roman Catholic and Mekhitarist (Armenian Uniate), with approximately
180,000; Pentecostal (approximately 25,000); Armenian Evangelical
Church (approximately 5,000); Greek Orthodox (approximately 6,000);
Baptist (2,000); Jehovah's Witnesses; charismatic Christian; Seventh-
Day Adventist; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
(Mormon); Jewish (500 to 1,000); Muslim; Baha'i; Hare Krishna; and
pagan. Yezidis are concentrated mostly in agricultural areas around
Mount Aragats, northwest of Yerevan. Catholics and Greek Orthodox are
concentrated in the northern region, while most Jews, Mormons, and
Baha'is are located in Yerevan. There is a remnant Muslim Kurdish
community of a few hundred, many of whose members live in the Abovian
region; a small group of Muslims of Azeri descent, mostly along the
eastern or northern borders; and approximately 1,000 Muslims in
Yerevan, including Kurds, Iranians, and temporary residents from the
Middle East.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
During the period covered by this report, most registered religious
groups reported no serious consequences from their activity as a result
of the laws regarding religion. Although religious personnel require
prior government permission to travel abroad, there is in practice no
restriction on travel within the country. Although the law prohibits
proselytizing, no action has been taken against missionaries; however,
the State Council on Religious Affairs allows some less established
groups such as the Mormons to have only a limited number of official
missionaries present in the country. Such groups also avoid high-
profile events.
The ban on foreign funding has not been enforced and is considered
unenforceable by the State Council on Religious Affairs. Members of the
Council report such limited resources that they can accomplish very
little apart from annual reregistration of existing groups. No
registered religious groups have been denied reregistration under the
amended law. All existing denominations have been reregistered annually
except the Hare Krishnas, whose numbers by 1998 had dropped below even
the previous membership threshold of 50.
The State Council on Religious Affairs continued to deny
registration to Jehovah's Witnesses during the period covered by this
report. A regional leader of Jehovah's Witnesses held meetings with the
Council on Religious Affairs in September 1999, which he described as
``encouraging,'' but there was no change in the denial of registration.
The President's Human Rights Commission declined to intervene,
recommending that Jehovah's Witnesses challenge their denial of
registration through the courts, as provided by law. Although Jehovah's
Witnesses officials claimed that they had filed such a legal challenge,
it had not been heard by the courts by mid-2000. An assembly of
Jehovah's Witnesses approved slight changes to their charter to meet
the country's legal requirements (for example, changing a commitment to
``proselytize'' into one to ``witness'') but cautioned that they could
not change fundamental articles of faith, for example, opposition to
military service. Although it had argued previously that the denial was
because the group was opposed to military service, the Council on
Religious Affairs stated when it denied a further application in May
2000 that the group could not be registered because they practice
``illegal proselytism.'' Discussions between Jehovah's Witnesses and
the Council were continuing as of mid-2000.
According to the law, a religious organization that has been
refused registration may not publish newspapers or magazines, rent
meeting places, broadcast programs on television or radio, or
officially sponsor the visas of visitors. Jehovah's Witnesses continue
to experience difficulty renting meeting places and report that private
individuals who are willing to rent them facilities frequently are
visited by police and warned not to do so. Lack of official visa
sponsorship means that Jehovah's Witnesses visitors must pay for a
tourist visa. When shipped in bulk, Jehovah's Witnesses publications
are seized at the border. Although members of the church supposedly are
allowed to bring in small quantities of printed materials for their own
use, Jehovah's Witnesses officials reported that mail from one
congregation to another, which they said was meant for internal
purposes rather than for proselytizing, was still confiscated by
overzealous customs officials. Despite these legal obstacles, Jehovah's
Witnesses continue their missionary work fairly visibly and reported a
gain in membership during 1999.
In July 1998, President Kocharian created a human rights
commission, which has met with many minority organizations. The Law on
Religion states that the State Council on Religious Affairs is to serve
as a mediator in conflicts between religious groups. The Council has
yet to play this role; for example, according to Jehovah's Witnesses
officials, Council representatives have met with them but have refused
to intervene in the group's efforts to win registration.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Police curtailed a Jehovah's Witnesses convention held in September
1999 at a privately owned, rented facility outside Yerevan and
attempted to disperse the meeting nonviolently, citing an alleged
decree by the National Security Council; however, they were unable to
produce such a decree, and an official of the Council on Religious
Affairs stated that it had not authorized dispersal of the meeting and
was not aware of the decree. The police left without dispersing the
meeting, but shortly thereafter electrical power to the building was
interrupted. Jehovah's Witnesses ended their meeting prematurely but
peacefully. No agency admitted responsibility for the power
interruption.
In April 2000, police observed, but did not intervene to halt,
physical assaults on members of Jehovah's Witnesses by local toughs
(see Section II).
There are reports that hazing of new conscripts, a problem
throughout the former Soviet Union, is more severe for Yezidis and
other minorities. Jehovah's Witnesses are subject to even harsher
treatment by military and civilian security officials because their
refusal to serve in the military is seen as a threat to national
survival.
As of April 30, 2000, nine members of Jehovah's Witnesses were in
prison charged with draft evasion or, if forcibly drafted, with
desertion due to refusal to serve, and nine more were free on
probation. One more was in detention pending trial, another had been
released because of illness, and the President had pardoned a third. A
group estimated by an official of Jehovah's Witnesses as numbering
approximately 40 reportedly was in hiding from draft officials.
Alternative nonmilitary service is sometimes available for persons
willing to act as teachers in remote villages, an option not offered to
Jehovah's Witnesses. At least one member of Jehovah's Witnesses
detained for draft evasion during 1999 indicated in writing his
willingness to perform alternative service. A Jehovah's Witnesses
official noted that some forms of alternative service would be
problematic for members of his group, due to it's creed's prohibition
against participation in some government organs.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners, apart
from Jehovah's Witnesses who were conscientious objectors.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The Armenian Apostolic Church is a member of the World Council of
Churches and, despite doctrinal differences, has friendly official
relations with many major Christian denominations, including the
Eastern Orthodox churches, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican
Church, and major Protestant churches. Relations between foreign-based
religious groups and the dominant Armenian Apostolic Church also are
strengthened through cooperation in assistance projects. Various
registered Christian humanitarian organizations are working with the
Armenian Apostolic Church to distribute humanitarian assistance and
educational religious materials. In connection with the 1700th
anniversary of Armenian Christianity in September 2001, the office of
the Catholicos/Patriarch has announced that world religious leaders,
including Pope John Paul II and the Patriarch of Moscow, will be
invited to attend the dedication of a new Cathedral of the Armenian
Apostolic Church in Yerevan.
Although these activities are contributing to mutual understanding,
they take place in an undercurrent of competition. After 70 years of
Soviet rule, the Armenian Apostolic Church has neither the trained
priests nor the material resources available to fill immediately the
spiritual void created by the demise of Communist ideology. Newer
religious organizations are viewed with suspicion, and foreign-based
denominations feel the need to operate cautiously due to fear of being
perceived as a threat by the Armenian Apostolic Church. Upon his
election in October 1999, one of the first actions of Catholicos-
Patriarch Garegin II (formerly Archbishop of Yerevan) was to create a
department for outreach to other Christian denominations.
Societal attitudes toward minority religions are ambivalent. Many
Armenians are not religiously observant, but the link between religion
and Armenian ethnicity is strong. As a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh
conflict with Azerbaijan, most of the Muslim population was forced to
leave the country. Antipathy to Muslims remains a problem, and the few
Muslims who remain in the country keep a low profile, despite generally
amicable relations between the Government and Iran. There is no mosque
that operates formally, although Yerevan's one surviving 18th century
mosque--newly restored with Iranian funding--is open for prayers on a
tenuous legal basis.
There were some instances of societal violence against minority
religious groups during the period covered by this report. Yezidi
children on occasion report hazing by teachers and classmates. In April
2000, Jehovah's Witnesses returning from a religious service in Yerevan
reported being abused verbally and in some cases assaulted physically
by local toughs while police observed but did not intervene. There are
reports of increasingly unfavorable attitudes towards Jehovah's
Witnesses among ordinary citizens, both because they are seen as
``unpatriotic'' for refusing military service and because of a
widespread but unsubstantiated belief that they pay money to persons
who are extremely poor in exchange for their conversions. The press
reported a number of complaints lodged by citizens against Jehovah's
Witnesses for alleged illegal proselytizing. They are the target of
religious tracts and hostile preaching by some Armenian Apostolic
Church clerics.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government is engaged actively in promoting freedom of
religion. The U.S. Ambassador and embassy officials maintain close
contact with the Catholicosate at Echmiatsin and with leaders of other
major religious and ecumenical groups. In September 1999, Embassy
officials met with the military prosecutor to discuss, among other
topics, hazing of minority conscripts and the status of Jehovah's
Witnesses. The Embassy also maintains regular contact with traveling
regional representatives of foreign-based religious groups like the
Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses and raises their concerns with
government officials.
In Washington, State Department officials from the Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights and Labor met with representatives of the
Armenian government to discuss human rights, including religious
freedom.
__________
AUSTRIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
groups. However, there is widespread societal mistrust and
discrimination against members of some nonrecognized religious groups,
particularly those referred to as ``sects.'' The installation of a new
right-of-center coalition government in February 2000 led to increased
concern among members of minority religions that the atmosphere of
tolerance in the country was deteriorating.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
The status of religious organizations is governed by the 1874 Law
on Recognition of Churches and by a January 1998 law that establishes
the status of ``confessional communities.'' Religious organizations may
be divided into three different legal categories (listed in descending
order of status): officially recognized religious societies, religious
confessional communities, and associations.
Religious recognition under the 1874 law has wide ranging
implications, e.g., the authority to participate in the statecollected
religious taxation program, to engage in religious education, and to
import religious workers to act as ministers, missionaries, or
teachers. Under the 1874 law, religious societies have ``public
corporation'' status. This status permits religious societies to engage
in a number of public or quasi-public activities that are denied to
other religious organizations. The Constitution singles out religious
societies for special recognition. State subsidies for religious
teachers (at both public and private schools) constitute one of the
benefits provided to religious societies that is not granted to other
religious organizations.
Previously, some nonrecognized religious groups were able to
organize as legal entities or associations, although this route has not
been available universally. Some groups even have done so while
applying for recognition as religious communities under the 1874 law.
Many such applications for recognition were not handled expeditiously
by the Ministry of Education and Culture; in some cases, years passed
before a decision was made.
Following years of bureaucratic delay and an administrative court
order instructing the Ministry of Education to render a decision, in
1997 the Ministry denied the request for recognition of Jehovah's
Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses appealed this decision to the
Constitutional Court. In a decision issued in March 1998, the
Constitutional Court voided the Education Ministry's decision on
Jehovah's Witnesses based on technical grounds and ordered a new
decision in accordance with the January 1998 law on the Status of
Confessional Communities. In July 1998, Jehovah's Witnesses received
the status of a confessional community. According to the January 1998
law, the group is now subject to a 10-year observation period before
they are eligible for recognition.
When the new law on the status of religious confessional
communities came into effect in January 1998, there were only 12
recognized religious societies. Although the new law allowed these 12
religious societies to retain their status, it imposed new criteria on
other churches that seek to achieve the status, including a 10-year
observation period between the time of the application and the time it
is granted.
The January 1998 law allows nonrecognized religious groups to seek
official status as ``confessional communities'' without the fiscal and
educational privileges available to recognized religions. To apply
groups must have 300 members and submit to the Government their written
statutes describing the goals, rights, and obligations of members;
membership regulations; officials; and financing. Groups also must
submit a written version of their religious doctrine, which must differ
from that of any existing religion recognized under the 1874 law or
registered under the new law, for a determination that their basic
beliefs do not violate public security, public order, health and
morals, or the rights and freedoms of citizens. The new law also sets
out additional criteria for eventual recognition according to the 1874
law, such as a 20-year period of existence (at least 10 of which must
be as a group organized as a confessional community under the new law)
and membership equaling at least two one-thousandths of the country's
population. Many religious groups and independent congregations do not
meet the 300-member threshold for registration under the new law. Only
Jehovah's Witnesses currently meet the higher membership requirement
for recognition under the 1874 law.
Religious confessional communities, once they are recognized
officially as such by the Government, have juridical standing, which
permits them to engage in such activities as purchasing real estate in
their own names, contracting for goods and services, and other
activities. The category of religious confessional community did not
exist prior to the adoption of the 1998 Law on the Status of Religious
Confessional Communities. A religious organization that seeks to obtain
this new status is subject to a 6-month waiting period from the time of
application to the Ministry of Education and Culture. According to the
Ministry, as of April 1999 only 11 organizations had applied for the
status of religious confessional community. Of the 11, 9 were granted
the new status including, for example, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptists,
and Seventh-Day Adventists. The Church of Scientology and the Hindu
Mandir Association withdrew their applications. The Hindu Mandir
Association reapplied under the name Hindu Religious Community. The
Ministry rejected the application of the Sahaja Yoga group.
The nine religious groups that have constituted themselves as
confessional communities according to the 1998 law are: Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Baha'i Faith, the Baptists, the Evangelical Alliance,
the Movement for Religious Renewal, the Pentecostalists, the Seventh-
Day Adventists, the Coptic-Orthodox Church, and the Hindu Religious
Community.
After the Education Ministry granted Jehovah's Witnesses the status
of a confessional community, the group immediately in 1998 requested
that it be recognized as a religious group under the 1874 law. The
Education Ministry denied the application on the basis that, as a
confessional community, Jehovah's Witnesses would need to submit to the
required 10-year observation period. The group has appealed this
decision to the Constitutional Court, arguing that a 10-year
observation period is unconstitutional. A decision is expected in 2000.
Proponents of the law describe it as an opportunity for religious
groups to become registered officially as religious organizations,
providing them with a government ``quality seal.'' However, numerous
religious groups not recognized by the State, as well as some religious
law experts dismiss the purported benefits of obtaining status under
the new law and have complained that the new law's additional criteria
for recognition under the 1874 law obstruct claims to recognition and
formalize a second class status for nonrecognized groups. Some experts
have questioned the new law's constitutionality.
Religious associations that do not qualify for either religious
society or confessional community status may apply to become
associations, under the 1951 Law on Associations. Associations are
corporations under private law and have many of the same rights as
confessional communities, including the right to purchase real estate.
The Government provides subsidies to private schools run by any of
the 12 officially recognized religions.
Religious Demography
According to the Ministry of Education and Culture, as of August
2000, the memberships of the 12 officially recognized religions are as
follows: Roman Catholic Church--78.14 percent; Lutheran Church
(Augsburger and Helvetic Confessions)--5 percent; Islamic community--
2.04 percent; Old Catholic Church--0.24 percent; Jewish community--0.09
percent; Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Greek, Serbian, Romanian,
Bulgarian)--1.5 percent; Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(Mormons)--0.2 percent; New Apostolic Church--0.2 percent; Syrian
Orthodox Church--under 0.1 percent; Armenian-Apostolic Church--under
0.1 percent; Methodist Church of Austria--under 0.1 percent; Buddhist
community--under 0.1 percent. Approximately 2 percent of the population
belong to nonrecognized ``other faiths,'' while 8.64 percent consider
themselves atheists. Four percent did not indicate a religious
affiliation. Only about 17 percent of Roman Catholics actively
participate in formal religious services. According to the Catholic
Church, 44,359 Catholics left the Church in 1999, an increase of 14
percent over the previous year.
The provinces of Carinthia and Burgenland have somewhat higher
percentages of Protestants than the national average, as the Counter-
Reformation was less successful in those areas. The number of Muslims
is higher than the national average in Vienna and the province of
Vorarlberg, due to the higher share of guestworkers from Turkey in
these provinces.
The vast majority of groups termed ``sects'' by the Government are
small organizations, having under 100 members. Among the larger groups
are the Church of Scientology, with between 5,000 and 10,000 members,
and the Unification Church, with approximately 700 adherents throughout
the country. Other groups found in the country include: Brahma Kumaris,
Divine Light Mission, Divine Light Center, Eckankar, Hare Krishna, the
Holosophic community, the Osho movement, Sahaja Yoga, Sai Baba, Sri
Chinmoy, Transcendental Meditation, Landmark Education, the Center for
Experimental Society Formation, Fiat Lux, Universal Life, and the
Family.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government continued its information campaign against religious
sects considered potentially harmful to the interests of individuals
and society. In September 1999, the Ministry for Social Security and
Generations issued a new edition of a controversial brochure that
described numerous nonrecognized religious groups in negative terms,
which many of the groups deemed offensive. This brochure includes
information on Jehovah's Witnesses, despite its status as a
confessional community. On April 6, 2000, the new Minster for Social
Security and Generations, Elisabeth Sickl, a Freedom Party (FPO)
member, announced plans to support the training of ``specialists''
among teachers and youth leaders in order to sensitize them to the
dangers posed by some nonrecognized religious groups to the young. She
also pledged to include representatives from provincial governments in
an interministerial working group to decide on measures to ``protect
citizens from the damaging influence of sects, cults, and esoteric
movements.'' These statements were interpreted in some circles as
evidence that the rightwing Freedom Party's participation in government
may strengthen efforts to curb the role of nonrecognized religious
groups. The Federal Office on Sects continues to collect and distribute
information on organizations considered sects. Under the law, this
office has independent status, but its head is appointed and supervised
by the Minister for Social Security and Generations.
In April 1999, the conservative Austrian People's Party (OeVP)
convention formally accepted a decision made by the party's executive
board in 1997 that party membership is incompatible with membership in
a sect.
With the installation in February 2000 of a new right-of-center
coalition government made up of the OeVP and the FPO, there was
increased concern among members of minority religions that the general
atmosphere of tolerance in the country is deteriorating. The former
head of the Freedom Party, Jorg Haider, repeatedly has made statements
deemed intolerant and anti-Semitic. While he has expressed regret for
any offense caused by his statements, there is a widespread belief that
Haider and the Freedom Party have contributed to a climate of
intolerance.
There were no reports of complaints by members of the Unification
Church of discrimination and harassment by the police and the public
during the period covered by this report.
Although in the past nonrecognized religious groups have had
problems obtaining resident permits for foreign religious workers,
administrative procedures adopted in 1997 have addressed this problem
in part. The Austrian Evangelical Alliance, the umbrella organization
for nonrecognized Christian organizations, has reported no significant
problems in obtaining visas for religious workers. While visas for
religious workers of recognized religions are not subject to a
numerical quota, visas for religious workers who are members of
nonrecognized religions do have a numerical cap; however, this appears
to be sufficient to meet current demand.
In October 1999, the Constitutional Court ruled that denying
prisoners who are members of Jehovah's Witnesses access to pastoral
care because the organization was not a recognized religious society
was a violation of the Constitution's provisions on religious freedom.
The verdict stressed that pastoral care should be available to any
person of any religious belief. Following this verdict, the Justice
Ministry issued a decree on February 28, 2000, in which it instructed
prisons to make pastoral care available to prisoners who are members of
Jehovah's Witnesses.
It remains unclear how the Constitutional Court verdict affects
prisoners of other religious confessions, in particular those who are
members of neither a recognized religious society nor a confessional
community. Access of the clergy of nonrecognized religious societies to
hospitals and the military chaplaincy continue to be an area of
concern.
The Government offers funding for religious instruction in public
schools and churches for children belonging to any of the 12 officially
recognized religions. A minimum of three children is required to form a
class. In some cases, officially recognized religions decide that the
administrative cost of providing religious instruction is too great to
warrant providing such courses in all schools. Unless students age 14
and over (or their parents for children under age 14) formally withdraw
from religious instruction (if offered in their religion) at the
beginning of the academic year, attendance is mandatory.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the 12 officially recognized religious groups are
generally amicable. Fourteen Christian churches, among them the Roman
Catholic Church, various Protestant confessions, and eight Orthodox and
old-oriental churches are engaged in a dialog in the framework of the
so-called ``Ecumenical Council of Austrian Churches.'' The Baptists and
the Salvation Army have observer status in the Council. The
international Catholic organization ``Pro Oriente,'' which promotes a
dialog with the Orthodox churches, also is active in the country.
The Austrian Roman Catholic Church traditionally has been active in
fostering amicable relations and promoting a dialog among the
Christian, Jewish, and Islamic communities. The international Catholic
group ``Pax Christi,'' which pursues efforts toward international
interreligious understanding with projects involving Christianity,
Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism, has an Austrian chapter.
There were no reports of violence or vigilante action against
members of religious minorities. However, there is widespread societal
mistrust and discrimination against members of some nonrecognized
religious groups, particularly those considered to be sects. Austrians
perceive such groups as exploiting the vulnerable for monetary gain,
recruiting and brainwashing youth, promoting anti-democratic
ideologies, and denying the legitimacy of government authority.
Societal discrimination of sects is, at least in part, fostered by the
Government (see Section I).
In June 2000, the pastor of the English-speaking United Methodist
Church of Austria stated that there had been several instances of
discrimination against the Methodist Church because of the inaccurate
belief that it was not a recognized religion, and therefore qualified
as a ``sect.'' Members of the Methodist Church have been denied access
to prisoners in some jails and have had problems reserving hotels for
religious retreats.
A number of recent incidents indicate that sensitivity to
Scientology in the country remains high. In November 1999 and June
2000, a U.S. singer experienced harassment by an anti-Scientology group
at two of his performances. The American previously had supported the
Church of Scientology at events; however since 1998 he no longer
publicly has supported the organization. Police authorities fined the
demonstrators and offered police protection for the singer's next
appearances. In October 1999, Austrian Telekom, the largest telephone
company in the country, transferred a computer specialist from a
sensitive position in an emergency-phone-line coordination office to a
comparable, nonsensitive position. The company became concerned about
the employee's access to sensitive information following media reports
that he was a high-ranking Scientologist.
The head of the Lutheran Church in Burgenland, Gertrude Knoll, who
spoke out against intolerance and xenophobia at a February 19, 2000
political demonstration, was subjected to hate mail and threats against
herself and her family. A petition also was organized, calling for her
removal from office. Some citizens, including members of the Burgenland
Lutheran Church, considered it inappropriate for a church leader to
speak out on political issues. It was widely assumed, but never proven,
that FPO supporters were behind the hate campaign.
The leader of the country's Jewish community reported that persons
within the community who had taken a stand against racism and
xenophobia (including himself) had been subjected to verbal and written
threats. The FPO's repeated remarks concerning National Socialism
reportedly led some members of the Jewish community to consider leaving
the country.
According to the Interior Ministry's 1999 annual report on
rightwing extremism, there was an increase in the number of complaints
about anti-Semitic incidents. Compared with 1998, the number of
complaints increased by 87.5 percent, from 8 to 15.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy follows religious developments and reports on them
regularly. The Embassy monitors the Government's adherence to
commitments to religious tolerance and freedom of expression as part of
its evaluation of the new Government's policies and its efforts to
encourage the Government to adhere to the commitments to diversity and
freedom of expression outlined in the preamble of the new Government's
program.
The U.S. Ambassador regularly meets with religious and political
leaders to reinforce the U.S. Government's commitment to religious
freedom and tolerance. The Ambassador and other members of the Embassy
have met repeatedly with Ariel Muzicant and Gertrude Knoll regarding
the threats against them and their concerns about the new Government.
Following these threats, the Ambassador met with Chancellor Wolfgang
Schuessel to convey the concerns of the U.S. Government. The Ambassador
also raised concerns about Minister Sickl's intentions to enhance the
role of the Office on Sects. The Deputy Chief of Mission and members of
the political section maintain strong contacts with political leaders
and members of the various religious communities. The Embassy's Public
Affairs Office highlights issues involving religious freedom and
tolerance in the majority of its programs. The Embassy consistently
urged the Government to respect its commitments to religious freedom
and discussed the concerns of nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) and
religious communities regarding the Government's policies towards
religion.
The Ambassador regularly hosts events in support of tolerance and
pluralism. In May 2000, the Ambassador participated in the annual
commemoration of the victims of the Holocaust at the Matthausen
concentration camp. In April 2000, the Ambassador hosted an event at
her residence featuring U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos, who is a Holocaust
survivor. This event included members of the Government, religious
leaders, and other opinion makers. It focused on religious and racial
tolerance, including a screening of a documentary on Holocaust
survivors. In February 2000, the Ambassador hosted a benefit conference
to raise money for the renovation of St. Stephen's Cathedral. She
utilized the event to focus on the issues of ecumenical partnerships to
combat intolerance. Following a December 1999 unveiling of a statue
symbolizing tolerance, the Ambassador hosted a reception for government
officials and representatives from NGO's concerned with minorities,
tolerance, and issues of genocide prevention.
__________
AZERBAIJAN
The Constitution provides that persons of all faiths may choose and
practice their religion without restrictions, and the Government
generally respected these rights for most citizens throughout the
period covered by this report; however, until late in 1999, the
Government frequently used clauses in the Law on Religious Freedom and
other laws to restrict religious activity by foreigners and
nontraditional religious groups, particularly in the fall of 1999, when
police and security officials disrupted a number of services, detained
ministers, and ordered foreigners deported. Although the national
Government generally respects legal provisions for religious freedom in
practice, the acting Chairman of the Religious Affairs Department and
some other mid- and lower-level and local government officials
continued to restrict religious activity by some foreign and local
nontraditional groups. There were some reports that indicated that in
Nagorno-Karabakh, a region occupied by Armenian forces and forces of
the self-styled ``Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh'' (which is not
recognized by any government but over which the Azerbaijani central
Government does not exercise control) the Armenian Apostolic Church
enjoys at least quasi-official status and that the practice of some
other religious faiths is discouraged.
There was a marked improvement in the Government's respect for
religious freedom following President Heydar Aliyev's November 1999
public announcement of his commitment to religious freedom. The
national Government subsequently redressed a number of outstanding
grievances and generally respected religious freedom during the
remainder of the period covered by this report. Following President
Aliyev's November 1999 announcement, a number of groups with long-
pending registration applications were registered. However the
Religious Affairs Department, the government office charged with
implementing the country's laws on religion, continued to delay
selectively the registration of a few groups and to intervene
selectively in the importation of religious literature.
Societal attitudes toward religion generally continued to be marked
by tolerance for different religious groups; however, some groups
continued to voice suspicion of non-traditional faiths, and there is
widespread popular hostility towards groups that proselytize (largely
evangelical Christians, but also Muslim missionary groups), and towards
Muslims who convert to other faiths. Ethnic and territorial conflict
between Azerbaijanis and Armenians over the Nagorno-Karabakh region
limits the religious freedom of each in the territory controlled by the
other.
The U.S. Government actively encouraged the authorities to address
violations of religious freedom, particularly after the fall 1999
crackdown. Embassy officials met with several ministerial level
officials in an effort to call the Government's attention to violations
of constitutional standards. A U.S. State Department official from the
Office of International Religious Freedom visited Baku to discuss the
problems with religious groups and government officials. In November
the Ambassador met with President Aliyev to raise the problems and
deliver letters of concern from U.S. Congressmen. President Aliyev
responded by ordering his Government to adhere to constitutional
standards and redress the problems. Following President Aliyev's public
commitment to observe constitutional standards in November 1999, most
of the reported problems were addressed. After November, the Embassy
continued to work with officials to address violations of religious
freedom, particularly those committed by the Religious Affairs
Department.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides that persons of all faiths may choose and
practice their religion without restrictions, and the Government
generally respected these rights for most citizens throughout the
period covered by this report; however, until late in 1999, the
Government frequently used clauses in the Law on Religious Freedom and
other laws to restrict religious activity by foreigners and
nontraditional religious groups, particularly in the fall of 1999, when
police and security officials disrupted a number of services, detained
and imprisoned ministers, and ordered foreigners deported. Although the
national Government generally respects legal provisions for religious
freedom in practice, the acting Chairman of the Religious Affairs
Department and some other mid- and lower-level and local government
officials continued to restrict religious activity by some foreign and
nontraditional groups. Under the Law on Religious Freedom, each person
has the right to choose and change his or her own religious
affiliation, including atheism, to join or form the religious group of
his choice, and to practice his or her religion. The State is expressly
forbidden from interfering in the religious activities of any
individual or group; however there are exceptions, including cases
where the activity of a religious group ``threatens public order and
stability.'' There were some reports that indicated that the Armenian
Apostolic Church enjoys at least quasi-official status in Nagorno-
Karabakh, and that the practice of some other religious faiths is
discouraged.
There are a number of legal provisions that enable the Government
to regulate religious activity, including a requirement in the Law on
Religion that all religious organizations be registered by the
Government in order to function legally. This is in principle done by
obtaining approval from the Department of Religious Affairs, which is
subordinated directly to the Council of Ministers, and then applying
for formal registration with the Ministry of Justice. Registration,
which is regarded by many groups as burdensome, enables a religious
organization to maintain a bank account, legally rent property, and
generally to act as a legal entity. Lack of registration makes it
harder, but not impossible, for a religious group to function.
Unregistered groups continued to operate. Since President Aliyev
expressed his commitment to religious freedom in November 1999, there
has been no repetition of earlier reports that participants in
unregistered groups were subject to arrest, fines, and--in the cases of
foreigners--deportation. In contrast to the previous situation, there
were no reports of allegations during the period covered by this report
that officials responsible for registration took bribes in order to
facilitate registration. Religious groups are permitted to appeal
registration denials to the courts. The Law on Religious Freedom also
subordinates all Islamic religious organizations to the Azerbaijan-
based Spiritual Directorate of Caucasus Muslims.
Press reports indicate that in the breakaway Nagorno-Karabakh
region, a predominantly ethnic Armenian area over which the authorities
of the Republic of Azerbaijan have no effective control, the Armenian
Apostolic Church enjoys a special status. Courses in religion are
mandatory in Karabakh schools and local officials frequently underline
their commitment to supporting the oldest Armenian national
institution. This status also means serious restrictions on the
activities of other confessions, mostly various Christian sects. The
highly charged military atmosphere surrounding the region reportedly
has given rise in particular to hostility toward Jehovah's Witnesses,
whose beliefs prohibit the bearing of arms.
Religious Demography
The population is approximately 90 percent Muslim, 3 percent
Christian, and less than 1 percent Jewish. The rest of the population
adheres to other faiths or consists of nonbelievers. Among the Muslim
majority, religious observance is minimal, and Muslim identity tends to
be more cultural and ethnic than religious. The Muslim population is
approximately 70 percent Shi'a and 30 percent Sunni, but differences do
not appear to be sharply defined, and those Shi'a and Sunni Muslims who
are observant freely intermingle on religious occasions. The vast
majority of the country's Christians are Russian Orthodox, whose
identity, like that of the Muslims, tends to be as much cultural and
ethnic as religious. They are concentrated in the urban areas of Baku
and Sumgait. Most of the country's Jews belong to one of two groups:
``Mountain'' Jews--descendents of Jews given religious asylum in the
northern part of the country more than 2,000 years ago--number about
18,000; and ``European''
Jews--descendents of Jews who migrated to Baku during Azerbaijan's
time as a Russian and Soviet colony--number about 3,000. These four
groups (Shi'a, Sunni, Russian Orthodox, and Jewish) are considered
``traditional'' religious groups. There also have been small
congregations of Evangelical Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Baptists, and
Baha'is in Baku for over 100 years.
In the last 10 years, a number of new religious groups that are
considered ``foreign'' or ``nontraditional'' have begun activity
throughout the country. These include ``Wahhabist'' Muslims,
Pentecostals, evangelical Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Hare
Krishnas. Most observers agree that membership in these groups, while
growing, is still small and currently estimate the total number of
adherents for all these groups at fewer than 5,000.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Despite the general prohibition on state interference in the
religious activities of individuals or groups, there are exceptions.
These include areas such as registration of religious groups and
oversight of the import and production of religious literature. The Law
on Religious Freedom permits the production and dissemination of
religious literature only with the approval of the Department of
Religious Affairs and with the agreement of local government
authorities. Although some mid- and low-level officials express views
about the need to ``protect traditional Azerbaijani values and mores,''
particularly where proselytizing by foreign-based groups is concerned,
these views contradict President Aliyev's commitment to religious
freedom.
In most cases the Government adheres to constitutional provisions
for religious freedom, however, officials of the Religious Affairs
Department, the government office charged with implementing the
country's laws on religion, and local officials acted in some instances
to restrict religious activity by foreign and nontraditional religious
groups. A number of religious groups complained that the Religious
Affairs Department's Acting Chairman, Mustafa Ibrahimov, delayed their
registration and refused to release religious literature they had
imported. After long delays and intervention by the President's office,
several groups, including Jehovah's Witnesses, the Nehemiah, the
Cathedral of Praise, and the Azerbaijani Baptists, were registered.
However, several other groups continued to report that they had not
been registered, despite intervention by the President's office. As of
mid-2000, Living Stones, New Life, and Baptist congregations from the
towns of Aliabad, Sumgait, and Neftchala were not registered. In
addition, a citizen reported that Ibrahimov refused to release
religious videos that she had imported in February 2000. In March 2000,
132 pounds of books were confiscated from a Baptist returning home from
Russia; however, they subsequently were released for entry. Other
groups, including Baha'i and Jewish groups, reported no problems
importing religious literature.
Prior to November 1999, the Department for Religious Affairs used
the provision of the Law on Foreigners and Stateless Persons that
prohibits religious ``propaganda'' (i.e., proselytizing) by foreigners,
to harass foreign missionaries and religious figures. In September
1999, nine foreigners were arrested and sentenced to deportation under
this provision. However, in November 1999, the Supreme Court overturned
these sentences, ruling that they violated constitutional provisions
for religious freedom.
Press reports indicated that three religious groups in Baku were
seeking the return of places of worship seized during the Soviet
period. These were the city's European (Ashkenazi) synagogue, the
Lutheran church and a Baptist church. They report that government
authorities are resisting their return. The Baha'is reportedly are no
longer seeking the return of their center, now used as a kindergarten.
There were instances in early 2000 in which groups were harassed
for disseminating religious materials. Since their registration in
December 1999, Jehovah's Witnesses have been able to hold large
gatherings for the first time in 3 years. However, on April 1, 2000, in
what they regard as an isolated incident, a meeting of Jehovah's
Witnesses was dispersed by police who claimed that they lacked
permission from the mayor's office. The manager of the venue has since
declined to permit them to use it again.
There were no repetitions during the period covered by this report
of earlier instances in which government officials or those allied with
the Government had used veiled anti-Semitic comments against perceived
opponents for politically motivated reasons.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Government officials committed a number of abuses prior to November
1999. In some instances, these abuses appeared to reflect the strong
popular prejudice against ethnic Azerbaijanis who have converted to
Christianity and other religions. For example, an ethnic Azerbaijani
was subjected to administrative fines by local officials in Baku in
July 1999 for possessing Christian literature, and another ethnic
Azerbaijani reported that he was arrested, beaten, and imprisoned in
August 1999 for changing his religious affiliation and becoming a
member of Jehovah's Witnesses. In August and September, police and
security officials disrupted services at Baku Baptist, Lutheran, and
Pentecostal churches on the grounds that these groups (the first two of
whom were registered legally) were engaged in illegal activity. Several
congregants were detained and two Azerbaijani pastors Sari Mirzoyev and
Yahya Mamedov, pastors in the Baku Baptist church, were imprisoned for
2 weeks. Nine foreigners were tried and ordered deported for engaging
in ``religious propaganda.''
In September 1999, at the instigation of a local security official,
management at a state factory near Baku subjected six employees to
public humiliation and then fired them because they had become members
of Jehovah's Witnesses. Following President Aliyev's November
reaffirmation of religious freedom, the employees were reinstated with
back pay and the deportation orders against the foreigners were
overturned. There have been no further reported problems involving
harassment of religious groups by police or security officials.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
President Aliyev's public commitment to religious freedom in
November 1999 led to a significant improvement in the Government's
respect for religious freedom. Outstanding complaints resulting from
police harassment of religious services, legal action against Christian
clerics and foreigners attending religious services, and quasi-
governmental harassment of persons who convert to ``nontraditional''
religions were resolved. There were no further reports of such abuses.
Intervention by the President's office resolved the problems in a
number of instances, and groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses, the
Nehemiah, and the Cathedral of Praise were registered, as was the Love
Baptist Community, whose Pastors Sari Mirzoey and Yahya Mamdeov were
imprisoned earlier. Nevertheless, the Religious Affairs Department
continues to delay registration of some new religious groups.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In recent years, evangelical activity on behalf of religious faiths
new to the country has weakened the country's earlier tradition of
religious tolerance that survived many decades of Communist propaganda
against all religion. This change is particularly apparent in the
popular concern about conversion of ethnic Azerbaijanis that convert to
non-Muslim faiths considered alien to Azerbaijani tradition.
Opposition to proselytizing within the population thus far has been
limited to verbal criticism, which also occasionally is reflected in
the media and the speeches of some political figures. For example,
Islamic Party of Azerbaijan Supreme Council member Muzaffar Jebrailzade
called on the President in January 2000 to ban foreign missionary
proselytizing, and Yusuf Cunaydin, the Deputy Chairman of the
progovernment Motherland Party, on February 16 reportedly said that
various minority religious groups are carrying out ``sabotage against
Azerbaijan,'' and urged that the Government create a special ministry
for national relations and religions. Other speakers at a February 1999
conference on religious confessions joined in this recommendation.
Opposition to proselytizing is focused largely against evangelical
Christian and other ``western'' or nontraditional religious groups,
although there is also hostility toward ``foreign'' (mostly Iranian and
``Wahhabist'') Muslim missionary activity, which in part is viewed as
seeking to spread political Islam and thus a threat to stability and
civil peace. There are regular reports of prejudice against ethnic
Azerbaijanis who convert to Christianity. Such persons routinely face
accusations that they are betraying their ethnic identity.
Popular hostility between Armenians and Azeris, intensified by the
unresolved conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, remains intense. In those
portions of Azerbaijan controlled by ethnic Armenians, all ethnic
Azerbaijanis have fled and those mosques that have not been destroyed
are not functioning. Animosity toward the Armenian population elsewhere
in Azerbaijan forced most Armenians to depart, and all Armenian
churches, many of which were damaged in ethnic riots that took place
over a decade ago, remain closed. As a consequence, the estimated
10,000 to 30,000 Armenians who remain in Azerbaijan are unable to
attend their traditional places of worship.
Prominent members of the Jewish community report that there are no
societal restrictions on their freedom to worship.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government worked closely with the Government to encourage
respect for religious freedom throughout the period covered by this
report. The U.S. Embassy maintained regular contact with a wide variety
of religious groups. Embassy involvement was particularly heavy in the
fall, in response to a crackdown on religious activity by government
officials. When police broke up a Baku Baptist service and detained 60
congregants on September 5, embassy officials were called by local
worshippers to meet with detainees, police, and security officials at
the police station. Throughout the ensuing week, embassy officers
attended court hearings for two Azerbaijani pastors and eight
foreigners arrested during the police raid. Other religious groups
quickly came forward to report similar incidents of harassment, and the
Embassy carefully followed up each report with those groups and with
the Government. Over the ensuing months, the Ambassador met with the
Ministers of Interior, Justice, and National Security, as well as the
Prosecutor General, to express concerns over this pattern of incidents,
characterizing them as violations of Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) standards of religious freedom as well as
of the Constitution.
Throughout fall 1999, the Embassy maintained regular contact with
responsible government officials and local religious groups to monitor
the situation and promote a resolution consistent with the
Constitution's standards of religious freedom. The U.S. State
Department sent an official from the International Office of Religious
Freedom in October to express U.S. concern to the Government and to the
local groups affected. On November 3, 1999, the Ambassador personally
delivered a letter from several congressmen to President Aliyev
expressing concern over the incidents. On November 8, President Aliyev
publicly reiterated his country's full commitment to constitutional and
OSCE standards of religious freedom, and ordered his government to
resolve immediately all reported problems. The problems raised by the
Embassy were addressed fully (see Section I).
The U.S. Government also worked on a regular basis with religious
groups and the President's office to resolve problems caused by the
Religious Affairs Department in the areas of registration of religious
groups and importation of religious literature (see Section I). That
cooperation continued throughout the period covered by this report. In
mid-2000, the Embassy was continuing to work on the delayed
registrations and the problem of imported religious literature (see
Section I).
__________
BELARUS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice. President Alexandr
Lukashenko has pursued a deliberate policy of favoring the Russian
Orthodox Church as the country's main religion and the Government has
increased harassment of some nontraditional or minority religions. Some
of these, including many Protestant denominations, the Belarusian
Orthodox Autocephalous Church (BOAC), and some eastern religions,
repeatedly have been denied registration by the Government. Without
registration, many of these groups find it difficult, if not
impossible, to rent or purchase property to conduct religious services.
Despite continued harassment, minority faiths sometimes have been able
to function if they maintain a low profile.
The status of the freedom of religion continued to worsen during
the period covered by this report. The Government continued to enforce
a 1995 Cabinet of Ministers decree that controls religious workers, in
an attempt to protect orthodoxy and curtail the growth of evangelical
religions. Most notably, in March 2000 the Government arrested Catholic
priest Zbigniew Karoljak, a Polish national who has been ministering in
the country for 10 years, for alleged violations of visa regulations
and ordered him to depart the country by May 20. Karoljak departed the
country in early June, 2000. Some Protestant denominations have been
threatened with judicial action by the Government for allowing
foreigners to preach in their churches.
After over 70 years of Communism, society remains largely secular
in its orientation. There are, for the most part, amicable relations
among registered, so-called traditional, religious communities.
However, societal anti-Semitism persists, and sentiment critical of
minority faiths is rising. The Government has done little to counter
the spread of anti-Semitic literature. In May 2000, the Minsk City
Court refused to hear an appeal brought by Jewish organizations to stop
the publishing and sale of the book ``War According to Mean Laws,''
which, among other anti-Semitic writings, included the ``Protocols of
the Elders of Zion'' and blamed Jews for societal and economic problems
in the country. Articles critical of minority faiths also have appeared
in state-owned newspapers.
The U.S. Government raised problems of religious freedom with the
Government in the context of frequent demarches on the overall poor
human rights situation in the country and in specific cases when
warranted.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice. Although Article 16 of the
1996 amended Constitution, which resulted from an illegal referendum
used by Lukashenko to broaden his powers, reaffirms the equality of
religions and denominations before the law, it also contains
restrictive language that stipulates that cooperation between the State
and religious organizations ``is regulated with regard for their
influence on the formation of spiritual, cultural, and country
traditions of the Belarusian people.''
Since his election as the country's president in July 1994,
Lukashenko has pursued a deliberate policy of favoring the Orthodox
Church as the country's chief religion and harassing other non-Orthodox
religions. The Government and the President encourage a greater role
for the Orthodox Church, largely as part of an overall strategy to
strengthen Slavic unity in the region and promote greater political
unification between Belarus and Russia. The President grants the
Orthodox Church special financial advantages that other denominations
do not enjoy and has declared the preservation and development of
Orthodox Christianity a ``moral necessity.'' On April 30, 2000,
Lukashenko said on state radio that ``nobody will disturb our
Orthodoxy'' and pledged that the State ``will do everything for the
Church to be a pillar of support for our State in the future.'' In
December 1999, Lukashenko said that politicians and the Head of State
bear responsibility for preserving Christian values, for maintaining
religious peace in society, and for harmonious cooperation between the
State and the Church. Lukashenko also said that the Church should be
more active in promoting the unity of Slavic nations because Slavic
integration is in the interests of both the State and the Church. In
1998 Lukashenko pledged state assistance to the Orthodox Church and
stressed that Orthodoxy would remain the ``main religion.''
The Government's State Committee on Religious and National Affairs
(SCRNA), which was established in January 1997, appears to categorize
religions and denominations. Some are viewed as ``traditional,''
including Russian Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Islam (as
practiced by a small community of ethnic Tatars with roots in the
country dating back to the 11th century); some are viewed as
``nontraditional,'' including some Protestant and other faiths; and
some are viewed as ``sects,'' including Eastern religions and other
faiths. The authorities deny permission to register legally at the
national level to some faiths considered to be nontraditional, and to
all considered to be sects. The Government states that it denies some
groups permission to register as religious organizations because their
activities ``run counter to the Constitution.'' Without official
registration, religious faiths have great difficulty renting or
purchasing property in which to establish places of worship, or in
openly training clergy. Some religious groups that have not been able
to register have had services or religious meetings, which were being
conducted peacefully in private homes, disrupted by police.
While all registered religious organizations enjoy tax-exempt
status, any government subsidies appear limited principally to the
Orthodox Church.
Religious Demography
Seven decades of religious repression under the Soviet regime have
resulted in a culture that is secular in orientation. According to one
opinion poll taken during 1998, fewer than half of the population
believe in God. Nonetheless, between 60 and 80 percent identify for
cultural or historical reasons with the Russian Orthodox Church. The
SCRNA indicates that about 80 percent of all believers belong to this
Church.
Belarus was designated an Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church
in 1989, thereby creating the Belarusian Orthodox Church. Patriarchal
Exarch Filaret celebrated his 20th anniversary as head of the Orthodox
community on October 24, 1998. Under Filaret's leadership, the number
of Orthodox parishes scattered throughout the country has grown from
approximately 787 to 1,081 during the last 5 years.
During a religious conference held in Minsk on April 22, 1999,
Filaret stated that the Orthodox Church does not seek the role of
interconfessional leader or to become a state-run church. However, he
stressed that the Orthodox Church would cooperate only with religious
faiths that have ``historical roots'' in the country. Filaret also
remarked that he was against the ``invasion of those foreign religions
that corrupt souls.''
Situated between Poland and Russia, Belarus historically has been
an area of interaction, as well as competition and conflict, between
Russian Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. Between 8 and 20 percent of
the country's population (the second largest religious grouping) are
estimated to be either practicing Roman Catholics or to identify
themselves with the Roman Catholic Church. Cardinal Kazmierz Swiatek,
Archbishop of the Minsk-Mogilev Archdiocese, heads the approximately
400 Roman Catholic parishes.
As a result of its revival during the post-Soviet period, the Roman
Catholic Church has experienced a shortage of qualified native clergy.
The Church reportedly has had difficulty sometimes getting permission
from government authorities to bring in a sufficient number of foreign
religious workers, mostly from Poland, to make up for the shortage.
According to the independent media, the Lukashenko Government has
allowed the Catholic Church to open a seminary and indicated that, in
light of this development, foreign priests no longer would be allowed
to work in the country; however, this change may not be enforced at the
local level, and at least some foreign priests still are allowed to
work in the country. Bishops must receive permission from the SCRNA
before transferring a foreign priest to another parish.
Roman Catholics traditionally have been associated with the
country's ethnic Polish community, which currently numbers at least
400,000 persons. Although Roman Catholic parishes can be found
throughout the country, most Roman Catholics reside in areas located in
the west, near the border with Poland. Sensitive to the dangers of its
being viewed as a ``foreign'' church or some kind of political threat,
Cardinal Swiatek, who himself spent 10 years in a Soviet labor camp,
has tried to keep the Roman Catholic Church out of the country's
internal political problems. Although the Cardinal has prohibited the
display of Polish national symbols in churches and encouraged the use
of Belarusian, rather than Polish, in church services, the Government
claimed that some churches in western Belarus continue to conduct
services in Polish.
It is estimated that approximately 120,000 citizens were considered
as ethnic Jews near the end of the Soviet period in 1989. The current
Jewish population numbers between 60,000 and 80,000. At least half of
the present Jewish population are estimated to live in or near the
capital city of Minsk. A majority of the country's Jews are not
actively religious. Of those who are, most are believed to be either
Reform or Conservative. There is also a small but active Lubavitch-run
Orthodox synagogue in Minsk.
Adherents of Protestant faiths, although representing a relatively
small percentage of the population, are growing in number. Since 1990
the number of Protestant congregations, registered and unregistered,
has increased more than twofold and now totals over 1,000, according to
state and independent sources. Protestant faiths, although historically
small in comparison with Orthodoxy, have been active in the country for
hundreds of years. During the Soviet period, a number of Protestant
faiths were placed forcibly under the administrative roof of a joint
Pentecostal-Baptist organization. Currently, the two largest Protestant
groups fall under separate Pentecostal and Baptist unions. A
significant number of Protestant churches, including charismatic and
Pentecostal groups, remain unregistered.
There are a number of congregations of the Greek Rite Catholic
Church, which was once the majority religion. The Greek Catholic Church
was established in the 16th century and once had a membership of
approximately three-quarters of the population, until it was banned by
the Russian Government in 1839. An attempt following Belarusian
independence to revive the Church, which maintains Orthodox rituals but
recognizes the Pope as its spiritual leader, so far has met with mixed
success. Its emphasis on the use of the Belarusian language, the
promotion of which is associated with the opposition Belarusian Popular
Front, as well as historical tensions between the Greek Catholic and
Orthodox churches, reportedly has caused the Greek Catholic Church to
be viewed with suspicion by the Lukashenko Government.
Other minority religious faiths include, but are not limited to,
the following: Seventh-Day Adventist; Old Believer; Muslim (the Supreme
Administration of Muslims, abolished in 1939, was reestablished in
early 1994); Jehovah's Witnesses; Apostolic Christian; Calvinist; and
Lutheran.
The SCRNA claims that 26 religious confessions are registered
officially. The significance of this figure is uncertain, however. Some
congregations are registered only on a local basis, which entails only
limited rights. Only congregations registered nationally are allowed to
invite foreign religious workers and open new churches.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government denies some minority religious faiths permission to
register officially and treats them as sects. In 1998 SCRNA official
Vyacheslav Savitskiy announced that ``11 destructive religious
organizations, which have been denied registration after expert
examination, illegally function in the country.'' In April 1999, a
conference organized by the Orthodox Church and Lukashenko's National
Assembly discussed the need to introduce legislation to combat
``destructive sects'' that operate illegally in the country. More
recently, the authorities continue to deny repeated attempts by the
BOAC to register. Following a raid by local police on a private house
where a prayer service was being held, Ivan Spasyuk, a BOAC priest,
went on a hunger strike on November 7, 1999 in order to protest the
authorities' refusal to register his parish in the Grodno region. On
November 28, 1999, at the urging of his family and parishioners,
Spasyuk called off the hunger strike. Local courts so far have refused
to hear appeals made by the BOAC to overturn the Government's decision
not to register their churches. Because of ongoing registration
problems, including the inability to register a seminary, the
Belarusian Orthodox Autocephalous Church is unable to train a
sufficient number of priests to meet the growing needs of its
parishioners.
A number of Protestant faiths confront a situation in which they
are refused registration because they do not have a legal address, and
are refused property that could qualify as a legal address because they
are not registered. The Full Gospel Pentecostal churches regularly are
refused registration in this way. Article 272 of the Civil Code, which
states that property may only be used for religious services once it
has been converted from residential use. However, the authorities
decline to permit such conversion to unregistered religions. Religious
groups that can not register often are forced to meet illegally or in
the homes of individual members. Several charismatic and Pentecostal
churches have been evicted from property they were renting because they
were not registered as religious organizations. A number of
nontraditional Protestant and other faiths have not attempted to
register because they do not believe that their applications would be
approved. The publication of religious literature for unregistered
religions likely would be restricted in practice, especially at state-
controlled publishing houses. However, there were no reports of
restrictions on the importation of religious literature. Government
employees are not required to take any kind of religious oath or
practice elements of a particular faith. However, the practice of a
faith not viewed to be traditional, especially one not permitted to
register, could disadvantage possible advancement within the
bureaucracy or state sector.
Citizens are not prohibited from proselytizing; however, the
Government enforces a July 1995 Council of Ministers decree that
controls religious workers in an attempt to protect Orthodoxy and
prevent the growth of evangelical religions. A 1997 Council of
Ministers directive prohibits teaching religion at youth camps. In
February 1999, the Council of Ministers passed Decree No. 280 which
expanded upon these earlier regulations. The decree appears to
stipulate, among other things, that among foreign religious workers,
only male clergy may engage in religious work upon invitation from a
religious organization already officially registered, a provision that
could be invoked to prohibit female religious clergy, such as Catholic
nuns, from engaging in religious activity. However, this provision has
not been tested in the courts.
The Government stepped up its efforts to curb the role of foreign
clergymen during the period covered by this report. In April 2000, the
Council of Ministers introduced changes to its regulations, allowing
internal affairs agencies to expel foreign clergymen from the country
by not extending their registration or by denying them a temporary stay
permit. Under the new regulations, these authorities are allowed to
make decisions on expulsion on their own or based on recommendations
from religious affairs councils, regional executive committees, or from
the Religious Affairs Department of the Minsk City Executive Committee.
Appeals to judicial bodies are not provided for.
As part of the Government's efforts to curb the influence of
foreign clergy, on March 18, 2000, two law enforcement officials
entered the Roman Catholic Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross
in Brest, during a church service, and arrested Catholic priest
Zbigniew Karoljak, a Polish citizen, for allegedly violating visa
regulations and charged that his religious work in the country was
``illegal.'' Regional government officials publicly have criticized
Karoljak for his ``undermining'' views. In addition, a court in Brest
issued warnings to four supporters of Karoljak for staging an
unauthorized demonstration following the priest's arrest. Karoljak
departed the country in early June, following warnings from government
authorities that he would be removed by force if he did not depart the
country.
Foreigners generally are prohibited from preaching or heading
churches, at least with respect to what the Government views as
nontraditional faiths or sects, which include Protestant groups.
Foreign missionaries may not engage in religious activities outside the
institutions that invited them. One-year validity, multiple-entry,
``spiritual activities'' visas, which are required officially of
foreign missionaries, can be difficult to get, even for faiths that
registered with the Government and have a long history in the country.
Foreign clergy or religious workers who do not register with the
authorities or who have tried to preach without government approval or
without an invitation from, and the permission of, a registered
religious organization, have been expelled from the country. Approval
often involves a difficult bureaucratic process. According to
independent media accounts, in February 2000, the Belarusian pastor of
a Pentecostal church was warned by SCRNA authorities that a public
sermon was performed in his church by a citizen of Ukraine, in
violation of the law on religion. The pastor was warned that a future
violation of the law would lead the SCRNA to request that judicial
bodies curtail the activities of that church.
Government officials share societal anti-Semitic attitudes and took
a number of actions that indicated hostility or insensitivity toward
the Jewish community. In March 2000, a Minsk court dismissed a
complaint filed by Jewish organizations against the Orthodox Initiative
for publishing an anti-Semitic book, ``The War According to Mean Laws''
(see Section II). The judge in the case declared that the book
contained ``scientific information'' and, therefore, was not within the
jurisdiction of the court. A higher court subsequently upheld the lower
court ruling. On April 18, 2000, tax inspectors prohibited the central
synagogue of Minsk from distributing matzoh for Passover among members
of the Jewish community. The Tax Police informed the synagogue that, in
order to distribute the matzoh, the synagogue would need to obtain a
special license, register as a taxpayer, and open a store that would
meet certain additional requirements, thereby effectively making
distribution in time for the Passover celebration impossible. In
December 1999, the Supreme Court rejected an appeal by the World
Association of Belarusian Jews (WABJ) against the Ministry of Justice's
refusal to register the association.
The Government does not require religious instruction in public
schools. While individuals may speak freely about their religious
beliefs, the authorities would be likely to prevent, interfere with, or
punish individuals who proselytize on behalf of a unregistered
religion.
Restitution of religious property remained limited during the
period covered by this report. A key obstacle is the lack of a legal
basis for restitution of property that was seized during the Soviet era
and the Nazi occupation. The few returns of property to religious
communities have been on an individual and inconsistent basis, and
local government authorities in general are reluctant to cooperate on
the issue. Over the past several years, the Jewish community has
lobbied the Government successfully to return several properties in
Minsk and other cities. However, most properties have not been
returned. In August 1998, following extensive restoration, the Catholic
community reconsecrated a church in Pruzhany that had been shut down by
Soviet authorities following World War II. The consecration ceremony
was led by the church's former priest who had spent 10 years in prison
in Siberia during the Soviet period. The Orthodox Church appears to
have had the most success on the issue of property restitution.
Officially sanctioned newspaper attacks on minority faiths also are
rising in frequency. For example, on April 19, 2000, the Narodnaya
Gazetta, a state-owned and published newspaper, carried an article with
the headline ``The prospect looms for Belarus to become a Protestant
republic, or we are incessantly being urged to deny the faith of our
ancestors.'' The article stated that Protestant groups engage in
fanatical rituals, including the ritual use of human blood and human
sacrifice. The article claimed that these same Protestant groups
threaten Orthodox priests with physical violence and present a threat
to the country, its psychological health, and its security. The article
also called on the Government to take steps to protect Orthodoxy.
Appeals to the SCRNA by Protestant leaders to halt distribution of the
article were unsuccessful. In a similar article in January 2000, the
Narodnaya Gazetta criticized the leader of the Belarusian Orthodox
Autocephalous Church, Ivan Spasyuk, accusing him of criminal activities
and characterized the church as ``the spiritual followers of Hitler.''
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In November 1999, local police raided a private house where a BOAC
congregation was engaged in a prayer service.
According to eyewitness and media reports, during their March 18,
2000 arrest of Catholic priest Zbigniew Karoljak, a Polish citizen, for
allegedly violating visa regulations, two law enforcement officials
used excessive force. Karoljak's hands were secured behind his back and
he was not allowed to bow before the altar before leaving the church.
Karoljak was detained for several hours after his arrest.
Petro Hushcha, the head of a branch of the Belarusian Orthodox
Autocephalous Church (BOAC), was originally arrested in 1998 on a
criminal charge that some believe to have been politically motivated.
Hushcha has been in hiding since December 1998; his whereabouts are
unknown.
There was a continued deterioration in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report. Restrictive
regulations, passed by the Council of Ministers in February 1999, which
govern the activities of foreign clergy and religious workers, remain
in effect and were implemented routinely.
Except for the detention, for several hours, of Catholic priest
Zbigniew Karoljak, there were no reports of religious detainees or
prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are, for the most part, amicable relations among registered,
so-called traditional, religious communities. However sentiment
critical of minority faiths is rising.
A number of attacks on Protestant groups, including the beating of
a Pentecostal minister in Minsk by a group of skinheads in late winter
of 2000, also have been reported. In August 1999, a mosque in Slonim
was vandalized, a few days prior to the start of a Tatar youth
convention to be held at the mosque. There were no reports of arrests
in the April 1999 arson attack on the synagogue in Minsk or in a number
of cases of desecration of Jewish cemeteries in 1997 and 1998.
There have been some instances of vandalism that appeared related
to societal anti-Semitism. On May 11, 2000, the Minsk city court upheld
the dismissal by an inferior court of a suit filed by Jewish
organizations and individuals against the authors and publishers of the
book ``The War According to Mean Laws.'' The book, published by the
Orthodox Initiative and distributed in Orthodox bookstores, includes
the ``Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' and other anti-Semitic articles
and blames Belarusian Jews for social and economic problems in the
country. A Minsk district court ruled on March 16, 2000 that the book
contained ``scientific information'' and dismissed the suit. The Union
of Belarusian Jewish Associations and Communities and the World
Association of Belarusian Jews, both of which joined in the suit,
consider the book anti-Semitic and punishable under the Criminal Code
for inciting religious and ethnic hatred. There has been a noticeable
lack of government action in redressing instances of anti-Semitic
vandalism in previous years. According to the Anti-Defamation League
and the World Jewish Congress, there are a number of small ultra-
nationalist organizations on the fringes of society, and a number of
newspapers regularly print anti-Semitic material. One of these
newspapers, Slavianskaia Gazeta, although distributed locally,
reportedly was published in Moscow. The State Committee on the Press
issued an official warning in June 1999 to the local newspaper Lichnost
for anti-Semitic articles. Anti-Semitic material from Russia also
circulates widely.
Many persons in the Jewish community remain concerned that the
Lukashenko Government's plans to promote greater unity with Russia may
be accompanied by political appeals to groups in Russia that tolerate
or promote anti-Semitism. Lukashenko's calls for ``Slavic solidarity''
are well received and supported by anti-Semitic, neo-Fascist
organizations in Russia. For example, the organization, Russian
National Unity, has an active local branch. Its literature is
distributed in public places in Minsk. The concept of a ``Greater
Slavic Union,'' the leadership of which Lukashenko seeks, is a source
of concern to the Jewish community given the nature of support that it
engenders.
There are several areas of pressing human rights concerns related
to increasing political repression, and most local human rights
nongovernmental organizations do not focus significant resources on the
issue of religious freedom.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy has raised problems of religious freedom with the
Government in the context of frequent demarches on the overall poor
human rights situation in the country. On April 13, 2000, the
Ambassador sent a letter to the Governor of the Brest Oblast and the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs urging a resolution of the conflict
concerning Catholic priest Karoljak (see Section I), following a
meeting in Brest by the Ambassador with Karoljak's congregation.
Representatives of the U.S. Embassy have had frequent contacts with
leaders and members of religious communities throughout the period
covered by this report, and have worked with OSCE representatives to
promote religious freedom.
In Washington, officials of the Department of State met on a number
of occasions with representatives of the Government of Belarus to raise
issues in support of religious freedom and other human rights concerns.
__________
BELGIUM
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government took action against groups that it considers ``harmful
sects.''
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
communities; however, several religious groups complain of
discrimination, in particular groups considered by the Government to be
sects. In September 1999, police raided offices and homes of members of
the Church of Scientology.
The U.S. Embassy maintains constant contact with the Government in
an effort to address problems of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
The law accords ``recognized'' status to Roman Catholicism,
Protestantism, Judaism, Anglicanism, Islam, and Greek and Russian
Orthodoxy, and these religions receive subsidies from general
government revenues. Taxpayers who object to contributing to religious
subsidies have no recourse. By law, each recognized religion has the
right to provide teachers at government expense for religious
instruction in schools, but not all avail themselves of this right. For
recognized religions, the Government pays the salaries, retirement, and
lodging costs of ministers and also subsidizes the construction and
renovation of church buildings. The ecclesiastical administrations of
recognized religions have legal rights and obligations, and the
municipality where they are located must pay any debts that they incur.
The Government applies the following five criteria in deciding
whether to grant recognition: 1) the religion must have a structure or
hierarchy; 2) the group must have a sufficient number of members; 3)
the religion must have been in existence in Belgium for a long period
of time; 4) the religion must offer a social value to the public; and
5) the group must abide by the laws of the State and respect public
order. The five criteria are not listed in decrees or laws. The law
does not further define ``sufficient,'' ``a long period of time,'' or
``social value.'' However, as early as 1834 the Court of Cassation
ruled that no subjective values should be used in determining what
constitutes a religion. If a religion is not recognized by the Ministry
of Justice, the decision may be appealed to the State Council.
The lack of independent recognized status does not prevent
religious groups from practicing freely.
The Government also supports the freedom to participate in
nonconfessional philosophical organizations (laics). Laics serve as a
seventh recognized ``religious'' group, and their organizing body, the
Central Council of Non-Religious Philosophical Communities of Belgium,
receives funds and benefits similar to the six recognized religions.
According to the Government, the nonconfessional philosophical
organizations have 350,000 members. However, the laics claim 1.5
million members, or 15 percent of the population.
In 1999 the Evangelical Association (a group of evangelical
Christian organizations) claimed discrimination due to the Government's
refusal to grant it recognized status separate from the recognized
Protestant group. Despite the Government's refusal, it is negotiating
with the group in an effort to ensure that the Evangelical Association
enjoys the same benefits as recognized religions. The Ministry of
Justice is assisting in discussions intended to enable the Evangelical
Association to be involved in the leadership of the recognized
Protestant group.
Religious Demography
The population of approximately 10 million is predominantly Roman
Catholic. Approximately 75% of the population belongs to the Catholic
Church. The Muslim population numbers approximately 350,000, 90 percent
of which are Sunni. Protestants number between 90,000 and 100,000.
Greek and Russian Orthodox churches have about 100,000 adherents. The
Jewish population is approximately 40,000, and the Anglican Church has
approximately 21,000 members. In addition to the recognized faiths, the
largest nonrecognized religions are Jehovah's Witnesses, with
approximately 27,000 baptized members, the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), with approximately 3,000 members, and
Buddhists, whose population numbers approximately 2,000. Unofficial
estimates indicate that approximately 10 percent of the population does
not practice any religion.
The most recent statistics available from the Catholic Church
indicate that in 1995, 71 percent of children born in the country were
baptized in the Catholic Church, 52 percent of all marriages took place
in the Catholic Church, and funerals for 78 percent of all registered
deaths were held in the Catholic Church.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
In 1997 a parliamentary commission, established by the Government
to recommend a policy to deal with the potential dangers that sects may
represent to society--especially children--issued its report. It
divided sects into two broadly defined categories. The report
characterized a sect as an organized group of individuals espousing the
same doctrine within a religion. The Commission considers sects in this
sense to be respectable and to reflect the normal exercise of the
freedom of religion and assembly provided for by fundamental rights.
Harmful sectarian organizations, the second category, are defined as
groups having or claiming to have a philosophical or religious purpose
whose organization or practice involves illegal or injurious
activities, harms individuals or society, or impairs human dignity.
When the commission published its report, it attached a list of 189
sectarian organizations that were mentioned during testimony presented
to the commission. The list did not characterize any of the groups as
harmful. Parliament adopted the report's recommendations but did not
adopt the attached list of sects.
To implement one of the report's recommendations, in May 1998
Parliament passed legislation creating a ``Center for Information and
Advice on Harmful Sectarian Organizations.'' Although the Center is not
yet fully operational, it has begun to collect open source information
on a wide range of religious and philosophical groups and to provide
information and advice to the public regarding the legal rights of
freedom of association, freedom of privacy, and freedom of religion.
The Government established a budget for the Center, which was
scheduled to open in 1999, but has not yet published regulations to
govern its operations. The Center is expected to become fully
operational in summer 2000. In April 2000, regulations to govern the
Center's operations were submitted to Parliament for approval. The
Center is authorized to propose policy or legislation on the problem of
sects but is not authorized to provide opinions or assessments of
individual sectarian organizations. Parliament also passed legislation
in October 1998 creating an interagency body that is to work in
conjunction with the Center to coordinate government policy on sects,
and on May 3, 2000, the Minister of Justice signed a decree to
establish the interagency body. The names of the members of this body
are to become public in June 2000. The Minister of Justice is the
principal coordinator of the Administrative Coordination Cell, which is
expected to begin functioning when the Center for Information becomes
fully operational in the summer of 2000. Neither the Government nor
Parliament has yet taken any action to establish a special police unit
on sects, but the Government has designated one national magistrate in
the District Court of First Instance to monitor cases involving sects.
Both measures were recommendations of the 1997 parliamentary report.
The law creating the Center also stipulates that the harmful nature
of a sectarian group is to be evaluated in reference to principles
contained in the Constitution, orders, laws, decrees, and in
international human rights instruments ratified by the Government.
The parliamentary report also recommended that the country's
community governments sponsor information campaigns to educate the
public--especially children--regarding the phenomenon of harmful sects.
In March 1999, the Francophone Community government launched a
prevention campaign called ``Gurus, Beware!'' The campaign was intended
to fulfill the commission's recommendation to educate the country's
youth on the dangers posed by harmful sects. Information for the
campaign was disseminated through pamphlets, brochures, television, and
cinema advertisements. On one page, the brochure discussed 20 of the
groups listed in the 1997 commission report and stated that Belgium
harbors certain ``dangerous sects.'' In April 1999, one of the groups
discussed in the brochure, the Anthroposophic Society (based in
Antwerp), filed suit to halt its distribution. An Antwerp court issued
an order enjoining the Francophone Community government from further
distribution of the brochure until all defamatory language referring to
this group is removed from the text. The Francophone Community agreed
not to publish any additional brochures. Other sectarian organizations
placed on the 1997 parliamentary list continue to complain that the
list is discriminatory.
In December 1998, Parliament enacted legislation formally charging
Belgian State Security with the duty to monitor harmful sectarian
organizations as potential threats to the internal security of the
country. This legislation uses the same language as the Parliamentary
commission's report and defines ``harmful sectarian organizations'' as
any religious or philosophical group that, through its organization or
practices, engages in activities that are illegal, injurious, or
harmful to individuals or society.
Several religious groups complain of incidents of religious
discrimination. For example, leaders of the Muslim Executive Council
report that women and girls wearing traditional dress or headscarves in
some cases face discrimination in employment and school admissions.
Some courts in Flanders have stipulated, in the context of child
custody proceedings and as a condition of granting visitation rights,
that a noncustodial parent who is a member of Jehovah's Witnesses may
not expose his or her children to the teachings or lifestyle of that
religious group during visits. These courts have claimed that such
exposure would be harmful to the child. However, other courts have not
imposed this restriction.
The Government permits religious instruction in public schools but
does not require students to attend religion classes. Public school
religion teachers are nominated by a committee from their religious
group and appointed by the Minister of Education. All public schools
have a teacher for each of the six recognized religions. The Catholic
Church also maintains a network of private schools at the primary and
secondary levels. Catholic schools receive government subsidies for
working expenses and teacher salaries. Children and their parents may
choose the religious course in which they wish to be enrolled. A
seventh choice, a nonconfessional course, is available if the child
does not wish a religious course.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
On September 30, 1999, a 110-officer police force raided offices
and homes of members of the Church of Scientology. No arrests or
convictions resulted from this raid. The Government is unwilling to
provide further statements, as the matter is still under investigation.
Church members stated that the Government's seizure and retention of
church computers, materials, and files impede the ability of the Church
to practice freely. The Church also filed a complaint that the
Prosecutor's Office provided a statement to the press in violation of
secrecy laws; the complaint is pending and no action was taken by mid-
2000.
The Church of Scientology expressed frustration with a lack of
access and communication with the Government, both before and after the
September 1999 raids of church property and followers' homes.
In April 2000, the Belgian Consulate in Los Angeles refused
missionaries for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons) visas to enter Belgium for missionary work. Similar visas had
been processed for decades without problems. In May 2000, the Ministry
of Interior instituted temporary procedures to ensure the issuance of
visas to Mormon missionaries and undertook to establish permanent
procedures by October 2000.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. At the national level, there is an annual general assembly
of the National Ecumenical Commission to discuss various religious
themes. The Catholic Church sponsors working groups at the national
level to maintain dialog and promote tolerance among all religious
groups. At the local level, every Catholic diocese has established
commissions for inter-faith dialog.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains constant contact with the Government in
an effort to address problems of religious freedom.
At the October 1999 Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe (OSCE) meeting, Belgium was criticized by the U.S. delegate for
religious discrimination/intolerance and failure to meet OSCE
commitments on protecting religious freedom. The U.S. delegate asked
what steps Belgium would take to ensure that the Government's ``anti-
sect'' organizations do not become vehicles for promoting prejudice and
stereotypes. In response, the Government stated that it had an open
dialog with sects, and that this dialog takes place both in public and
behind closed doors.
U.S. Embassy representatives discussed the issue of religious
freedom throughout the period covered by this report with officials
from the Ministries of Justice, Foreign Affairs, and Interior, as well
as with Members of Parliament. There is an ongoing dialog between the
Embassy and the Ministry of Justice at the cabinet level regarding the
implementation of recommendations of the 1997 parliamentary report on
sectarian organizations. During the period covered by this report,
embassy officials also met with representatives of all recognized
religions (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, Anglicanism,
Islam, and Greek and Russian Orthodoxy), as well as with groups such as
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses,
and the Church of Scientology.
The U.S. Embassy and the Government worked in international human
rights forums to criticize religious rights abuses in other countries.
Embassy officials met with high-level government officials and actively
assisted in resolving outstanding complaints of religious
discrimination.
In response to a U.S. request, the Government has addressed the
problem of visas for Mormon missionaries (see Section I.)
__________
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and in general
individuals enjoy this right in predominately mixed and religious-
majority areas. However, the efforts of individuals to worship in areas
in which they are an ethnic/religious minority were restricted,
sometimes by societal violence.
There was a slight improvement in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report. Decreasing
support for nationalist parties among the electorate and increasing
refugee returns are moderating ethnic/religious discrimination in many
areas, although serious problems remain.
Religious intolerance in the country is a reflection of ethnic
intolerance because the identification of ethnicity with religious
background is so close as to be virtually indistinguishable. As ethnic
tensions in the country ease, religious tensions ease as well. However,
incidents of religiously motivated violence continued.
The U.S. Government has sought to engage leaders from all three
major religious communities to play a more supportive role in promoting
a multiethnic society that is conducive to religious freedom. U.S.
support for full implementation of the Dayton Accords and refugee
returns is helping to improve tolerance.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and in general,
individuals enjoy this right in predominately mixed and religious-
majority areas. However, the efforts of individuals to worship in areas
in which they are an ethnic and religious minority were restricted by
government and institutional harassment and sometimes by societal
violence.
The Constitutions of the State and of both entities provide for
religious freedom. While the majority of the population of the
Federation consists of Bosniaks and Croats, neither Islam nor Roman
Catholicism enjoys special status under the Federation Constitution. In
the Republika Srpska (RS), although the Constitution provides for
religious freedom, it also states that ``the Serbian Orthodox Church
shall be the church of the Serb people and other people of Orthodox
religion.'' The Constitution also directs the State to ``materially
support the Orthodox Church.'' However, these provisions are being
contested before the Constitutional Court in a case that claims that
special status for any ethnic group is contrary to the European
Convention on Human Rights, which is incorporated in the Constitution.
Religious Demography
Because of the close identification of ethnicity with religious
heritage, it is difficult to distinguish clearly between religious
freedom and freedom from ethnic discrimination. The three largest
ethnic groups are identified with three distinct religions, or at least
religious ancestries. These groups include Bosniaks, who are Muslim or
of Muslim descent, Croats, who are Roman Catholic or of Roman Catholic
descent, and Serbs, who are Serbian Orthodox or of Orthodox descent.
Many individuals are of mixed descent. Many also came of age under
Tito's socialism when religion was suppressed and identification as
``Yugoslav'' was encouraged. While no census has been taken in the
country since 1991, a credible estimate of the ethnic breakdown is that
46 percent of the population would be considered Bosniak, 14 percent
Croat, and 31 percent Serb. The remainder of the population includes
those of Romani, Jewish, and other origin.
As a legacy of the Communist period of 1945 to 1991 when religion
was discouraged, the practice of religion is low among all groups.
However, religious practice reportedly is increasing among the young.
Religious practice is reportedly highest among Croats in the
Herzegovina region.
Government Abuses of Religious Freedom
All three major religious groups and the Jewish community have
claims to property confiscated from them during World War II, the
Communist period, or the 1992-95 war. Neither the State nor the entity
governments have enacted laws clarifying the legal status or ownership
rights of religious organizations. However, the leaders of the Muslim,
Roman Catholic, Serbian Orthodox, and Jewish communities are working on
a law setting out the status of religious organizations, including
property rights and tax status (see Section II). Municipal and cantonal
authorities have broad discretion regarding disposition of this
property. Many use this as a tool of political patronage. This renders
religious leaders dependent on the whims of nationalist politicians to
regain lost property. Some international observers believe that a legal
framework providing equal religious status for all religious
communities throughout the country would decrease the dependence of
religious leaders on nationalist politicians from their respective
communities.
Prior to mid-1998, car license plates identified vehicles as being
registered in predominantly Bosniak, Serb, or Croat areas. This
constituted a major obstacle to freedom of minorities to safely visit
cemeteries and other religious sites in areas of the country with a
majority population of a different group. The introduction in June 1998
of universal license plates significantly improved the ability of
religious minorities to visit such sites.
An estimated 1.2 million citizens remained internally displaced
persons (IDP's) or refugees abroad as a result of the 1992-95 war.
Virtually all had fled areas where their ethnic/religious community had
been in the minority or had ended up in the minority as a result of the
war.
In certain instances, local officials have blocked the return of
minority religious leaders by using administrative obstacles.
Numerous buildings belonging to the Islamic, Serbian Orthodox, and
Roman Catholic communities were damaged or destroyed during the 1992-
1995 war, usually in deliberate attempts at ethnic intimidation.
Administrative and financial obstacles to rebuilding religious
structures impeded the return of minorities in many areas. RS
authorities have blocked the reconstruction of any of the mosques or
other Islamic community-owned buildings in Banja Luka and other areas
destroyed during the war. In June 1999, the Muslim community won a case
against RS authorities filed with the Human Rights Chamber, a legal
institution established by the Dayton Accords. The RS Government has
allowed the Muslim community to block off the sites, but has not yet
allowed reconstruction to begin on one site near Zvornik. Local
authorities in the RS also have obstructed attempts to rebuild mosques,
particularly the symbolically important Ferhadija Central Mosque in
Banja Luka.
In August 1998, the municipal government of Prnjavor, in the RS,
ordered a Bosniak to move his deceased wife's remains from the Muslim
cemetery to a ``new'' Muslim cemetery. The municipal authorities
claimed that the Muslim cemetery in which the deceased had been buried
was closed. At a February 1999 Human Rights Chamber hearing concerning
the case, evidence indicated that there was in fact no ``new'' Muslim
cemetery in the area and that no reasonable grounds had existed for
closing the old Muslim cemetery (nearby Catholic and Orthodox
cemeteries remained open). In February 2000, the Human Rights Chamber
determined that the municipal government of Prnjavor had discriminated
against the Islamic community by closing the cemetery. Prnjavor
municipal authorities were ordered to allow burials within a month. As
of mid-2000, Prnjavor authorities had not complied.
Public schools offer religious education classes. In theory, these
classes are optional. However, in some areas, children who do not
choose religion classes are subject to pressure and discrimination from
peers and teachers. Schools generally do not hire teachers to offer
religious education classes to students of minority religions. In
Sarajevo canton schools, except for non-Bosniak schools, only offer
Islamic religion classes. In Croat-majority West Mostar minority
students theoretically have the right to take classes in non-Catholic
religions; however, this option reportedly does not exist in practice.
Orthodox symbols are present in public schools throughout the RS. For a
variety of reasons, minority families with children have been slow to
return to the RS. Consequently, municipalities have not yet been
compelled to deal with the issue of minority religious education. On
May 10, 2000, the Education Ministers of both entities and the Deputy
Federation Education Minister agreed on a standard curriculum, which
requires all schools to teach the shared cultural heritage of all three
communities.
Parties dominated by a single ethnic group remain powerful in the
country, particularly in Serb and Croat-dominated areas. All these
parties have identified themselves closely with the religion associated
with their predominant ethnic group. Many leaders of these parties are
former Communists who have adopted the characteristics of ethnicity,
including religion, to strengthen their credibility with voters.
However, the nationalist lock on power appears to be weakening
somewhat. The defeat of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in
Croatia's January 2000 general elections and February 2000 presidential
elections is expected to weaken eventually the HDZ hard-liners in
Herzegovina. In the Federation, the Bosniak-dominated Party of
Democratic Action (SDA) and the HDZ continue to dominate the Federation
Government, but a number of municipalities came under the control of
the multiethnic Social Democratic Party (SDP) as a result of municipal
elections held on April 8, 2000. The Serb Democratic Party (SDS)
remained ideologically committed to Serb cultural and religious
authority in the territory of the RS. The Serb Radical Party (SRS) was
banned from participation in the April 2000 elections, but retains an
even more hard-line Serb nationalist philosophy. However, more
moderate, pro-Dayton parties in the RS significantly improved their
showing in the municipal elections. The RS Government and the RS
National Assembly (RSNA) continued to promote the Serbian Orthodox
Church through the official endorsement of Orthodox symbols in schools
and government buildings, and prayers led by Serbian Orthodox clergy at
the opening of RSNA sessions. The religious background of minorities
generally is ignored.
Bosniak deputies in the RS Assembly, the entity parliament that
meets in Banja Luka, have been subjected to harsh rhetoric, and on one
occasion to physical violence, from Serb colleagues at Assembly
sessions. At the beginning of every Assembly session, an Orthodox
priest recites a prayer, which leads Bosniak members to feel obliged to
excuse themselves. Orthodox priests also deliver a sectarian blessing
every time a new Assembly is sworn in.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor US. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned
to the United States.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
There was a slight improvement in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report. In April
2000, RS Prime Minister Milorad Dodik shared the stage in the RS
Government's headquarters in Banja Luka with the newly appointed mufti
of Banja Luka and three other Muslim clerics. In Mostar religious
leaders representing all groups except Catholics attended celebrations
for Muslim, Jewish, and Orthodox holidays. Also in Mostar, the Bosniak
mayor has committed to providing $10,000 (20,000 deutsche marks) to
rebuild the home of the resident Orthodox priest, which was destroyed
in the war. The priest currently lives in Trebinje in the RS. In
Zvornik, for the first time since the war, the RS Government has
allowed the Muslim community to begin reconstruction of a destroyed
mosque. A significant number of citizens remained IDP's or refugees
abroad as a result of the 1992-95 war. Virtually all had fled areas
where their ethnic/religious community had been in the minority or had
ended up in the minority as a result of the war. Both organized and
spontaneous returns significantly increased during the period covered
by this report.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Until the 19th century, most Bosnians identified themselves by
religious affiliation. With the rise of Balkan nationalism in the 19th
century, Bosnians came to identify themselves in ethnic, as well as
religious terms. This tendency increased during the Communist era when
the regime discouraged religious affiliation. Under the Communists,
most Bosnians identified themselves by ethnic group, or simply as
``Yugoslavs.'' Since the country's independence, there have continued
to be Bosnians who decline to accept either ethnic or religious
identification and consider themselves simply as ``Bosnians.''
The 1992-1995 war resulted in over 270,000 deaths. While the war
was not a religious conflict per se, due to the close association of
ethnicity and religion in the country, bitterness over the war has
contributed to mutual suspicion among members of all three major
religious groups.
Despite the constitutional provisions for religious freedom, a
degree of discrimination against minorities occurs in virtually all
parts of the country. Discrimination is significantly worse in the RS
than in the Federation. Sarajevo, the Bosniak-majority capital of the
country, has preserved in part its traditional role as a multiethnic
city. However, instances of discrimination exist in Sarajevo,
especially in the areas of housing and support for the return of
minority refugees and displaced persons.
Throughout the country, religious minorities felt pressure and were
intimidated by the ethnic/religious majority. In 1999 violent incidents
continued to hinder worship and cause damage to religious edifices and
cemeteries. In the first half of 2000, there reportedly were incidents
of vandalism.
There were instances of mob violence in the RS aimed at preventing
Catholics from worshiping. In December 1999, a group of young men
attacked a group of Catholic priests that was led by Archbishop Vinko
Cardinal Puljic and was on its way to celebrate Mass in Derventa in the
western RS. One member of Puljic's party was injured, but the service
took place as planned. There was no known RS Government involvement in
the attack. In Bosniak-dominated Zenica, the Catholic school closed
temporarily in March 2000 after school officials received a bomb
threat. Though local authorities later discovered that the threat was a
hoax, Zenica's few remaining Catholics are concerned for their safety.
On June 25, 2000, an explosive device destroyed a Catholic chapel in
Zivinice.
In Croat-dominated areas of Herzegovina, Muslims felt pressure not
to practice their religion in public and have been the subject of
violent attacks. In the Croat-dominated western Bosnian town of Glamoc,
a building housing all local Muslim organizations and the apartment of
a Muslim cleric was bombed and seriously damaged in April 2000.
Leaders of the Muslim, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Jewish
communities have committed themselves publicly to building a durable
peace and national reconciliation. The leaders of these four
communities are members of the Interreligious Affairs Council of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, which operates with the active involvement of the
World Conference on Religion and Peace, a U.S.-based nongovernmental
organization. During the period covered by this report, the council was
more active than in the previous year. In November 1999, it published,
without international assistance, a glossary of religious terms
designed to promote mutual understanding of other religious traditions.
The council members made several joint appearances together, including
one in Brcko in October 1999. The council is drafting a law to set out
the rights and status of religious organizations in regard to the
Bosnian Government (see Section I). The council members plan to work
together for the law's passage. The Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe and the Office of the High Representative
facilitated many inter-faith meetings at the local level as well.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
In addition to its broad and active efforts to foster return,
democracy, and human rights throughout Bosnia, the U.S. Government has
sought to engage leaders from all major religious communities to play a
more supportive role in promoting a multiethnic society that is
conducive to religious freedom. The U.S. Government has provided
financial support to the Human Rights Chamber, which has heard cases on
religious discrimination (see Section II). The Ambassador has met with
the principal religious leaders, individually and collectively, to urge
them to work toward moderation and multiethnicity. The U.S. Agency for
International Development has funded training for lawyers and judges
concerning the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides for
religious freedom, and to which the parties to the Dayton Accords
agreed to adhere.
__________
BULGARIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice for some non-Orthodox
religious groups. This restriction is manifested primarily in a
registration process that is selective, slow, and nontransparent. The
Government prohibits the public practice of religion by groups that are
not registered.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Public opinion and periodic media articles continued to suggest a
somewhat hostile and alarmist attitude toward nontraditional religious
groups, although less frequently than in earlier years. Periodic
episodes of government harassment of nontraditional religious groups
continue to occur on an occasional basis, especially at the local and
regional levels. The legislature considered several versions of a draft
law on religion that caused concern among some religious and human
rights groups, because of its potential to give the Government an
intrusive and controlling role in the affairs of religious
denominations. The final bill has not been voted on yet.
The U.S. Government has raised the issue of religious freedom
repeatedly in contacts with government officials and Members of
Parliament. The Ambassador and other embassy officers periodically have
urged the Government to expedite registration of church groups, and on
numerous occasions have pointed out problems with several aspects of
the proposed law on religion under discussion in the Parliament.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government restricts this right in practice for some non-Orthodox
religious groups. This restriction is manifested primarily in a
registration process that is selective, slow, and nontransparent. The
Government prohibits the public practice of religion by groups that are
not registered.
The legal requirement that groups whose activities have a religious
element register with the Council of Ministers remained an obstacle to
the activity of some religious groups, such as the Unification Church
and the Church of the Nazarene (which has tried repeatedly to register
for over 5 years), prior to or in the absence of registration.
Furthermore several municipal governments established local
registration requirements for religious groups, despite the lack of
clear legal authority to do so. In some cases, local authorities used
the lack of registration as a pretext for interference against some
groups and employed arbitrary harassment tactics against others. During
the period covered by this report, the ability of a few religious
groups to conduct services or to spread their religious message freely
came under occasional attack, both as a result of action by local
government authorities and because of public intolerance. Although
fewer instances were reported than in earlier years, sporadic reports
of this nature persist.
The Constitution designates Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the
``traditional'' religion. The Government provides financial support for
the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as several other religious
communities perceived as holding historic places in society, such as
the Muslim, Roman Catholic, and Jewish faiths. These groups generally
benefit from a relatively high degree of governmental and societal
tolerance.
Religious Demography
Official census statistics indicate that approximately 86 percent
of citizens are Orthodox, 13 percent are Muslim, 1 percent is Catholic,
and most of the remainder belong to a variety of Protestant religions.
The country's Jewish community, with only a few thousand persons,
constitutes less than 1 percent of the population and generally is well
accepted and integrated into society. Some observers believe that this
census gives disproportionate strength to the Orthodox Church, in part
because reportedly many essentially nonreligious or anti-religious
persons were listed as Orthodox by default. Muslim leaders claim that
their adherents constitute as much as 20 percent of the population.
Some religious minorities are concentrated geographically. The
Rhodope Mountains (along the country's southern border with Greece) are
home to many Muslims, including ethnic Turks, Roma, and Pomaks (Slavic
Bulgarians who converted to Islam centuries ago under Ottoman rule). At
the western extreme of the Rhodopes, there are greater numbers of
Pomaks, and on the eastern end, more ethnic Turks. Muslim ethnic Turks
and Roma also live in large numbers in the northeast of the country,
primarily in and around the cities of Shumen and Razgrad, as well as
along the Black Sea coast. There are comparatively large numbers of
Roman Catholics in Plovdiv, Assenovgrad, and in cities along the Danube
River, as well as eastern rite Catholic communities in Sofia and
Smolyan. Many members of the country's small Jewish community live in
Sofia, Ruse, and along the Black Sea coast. However, Protestant groups
are dispersed more widely throughout the country.
Although no exact data are available on attendance levels, most
observers agree that evangelical Protestants tend to participate in
religious services more frequently than other religious groups. Members
of the country's Catholic community also are regarded as more likely
than members of other faiths to regularly attend religious services.
For most registered religious groups there were no restrictions on
attendance at religious services or on private religious instruction. A
school for imams, a Muslim cultural center, university theological
faculties, and religious primary schools operated freely. Bibles and
other religious materials in the Bulgarian language were imported
freely and printed on most occasions, and Muslim, Catholic, and Jewish
publications were published regularly.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
There were several incidents of harassment of Mormons and Jehovah's
Witnesses by police and local authorities. For example, in July 1999,
police in Stara Zagora interrupted a Mormon church service, demanded
that worshippers produce their identity documents, and recorded the
names and identification numbers of everyone present. They also
required that church leaders present registration papers and a contract
for the use of the building, which the church representatives did not
have with them. The police alleged that the Mormon church was not
registered properly with the city authorities.
On July 15, 1999, a member of Jehovah's Witnesses was required to
pay approximately $250 (500 leva) because of his participation in a
June 1998 Bible study meeting in Plovdiv, which was deemed unlawful
because Jehovah's Witnesses was an unregistered denomination. Jehovah's
Witnesses alleges that the accused man and his lawyer were not present
for the hearing at which the fine was imposed because the venue was
changed without notice, and they therefore arrived 5 minutes late for
the proceedings. Two other members of Jehovah's Witnesses who have been
ordered to pay approximately $250 (500 leva) fines for similar offenses
still await a final determination on their cases.
In December 1999, police in Pernik interrupted a meeting of
Jehovah's Witnesses. The police examined and recorded the identity
documents of those present, and warned that such meetings should not be
held in the future. The group was cited for violation of a city
ordinance.
In April 2000, several Mormon missionaries in Plovdiv were
challenged by police while distributing literature and were required to
go to the police station. They were charged with distributing brochures
without a license.
In April 2000, a member of Jehovah's Witnesses was refused entry
into the country by border police, reportedly on the grounds that she
had been deported from the country in 1997 for practicing her then-
unregistered faith.
A number of religious groups have complained that foreign-national
missionaries and religious leaders experience difficulties in obtaining
and renewing residence visas in the country; the issuance of residence
visas appears to be subject to the whim of individual authorities.
The Ministry of Education initiated a course on religion in the
high school curriculum beginning with the 1998/1999 school year. The
original plan called for a world religion course that avoided endorsing
any particular faith; however, members of other religions, especially
ethnic Turkish Muslims, maintain that the Bulgarian Orthodox Church
receives privileged coverage in the textbooks. The religion course is
optional and is not available at all schools. The Ministry of Education
has cooperated with the chief mufti to initiate a pilot program of
optional Islamic education classes in primary schools. If the pilot
program is successful, the program purportedly would be made more
broadly available in the school system.
At the Department of Theology of Sofia University all students are
required to present an Orthodox Church baptismal certificate, and
married students must present an Orthodox marriage certificate, in
order to enroll in the Department's classes. These requirements make it
impossible for non-Orthodox students to enroll in the Department.
The Government has committed to eliminating its military
construction and transportation battalions, and has begun the phaseout
process, which is expected to take 2 more years. Turkish and Roma
minorities, who predominantly are Muslim, traditionally have been
conscripted into these special work battalions, rather than being
assigned to regular military units, to fulfill their mandatory military
service requirements. Despite the phaseout of these units, the
underlying discrimination issue remains unresolved. Ethnic and
religious minorities continue to be conscripted into forced labor in
military work units, while simultaneously remaining essentially barred
from the professional military officer corps.
In March 1999, a schoolteacher in Gabrovo who is a member of a
Pentecostal church resigned from her job. She claimed that she was
intimidated into resigning as a result of her religious beliefs. She
has filed two lawsuits, one for violation of contract and a second for
libel. She received a favorable ruling on the first case, and the
second remains pending.
There were no indications that the Government discriminated against
members of any religious group in making restitution to previous owners
of properties that were nationalized during the Communist regime. The
Government has supported in principle the need for restitution,
although actual progress apparently has stalled on two lucrative
commercial properties believed to belong rightfully to the Jewish
community. The Orthodox Church and the Muslim community each claim
significant numbers of properties currently held by the Government,
although the validity of some of these claims may be open to dispute.
The Government refused to recognize an alternative Patriarch
elected by supporters in 1996, and the schism that opened in the
Orthodox Church in 1992 continued, despite the death of this
alternative Patriarch in April 1999. The Government nevertheless
encouraged the feuding factions to heal their prolonged rift. To date,
these efforts have not been successful.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In March 2000, two members of Jehovah's Witnesses in Turgovishte
were detained briefly by police and charged with disruption of public
order under a city ordinance because of their public proselytizing.
The National Assembly passed a law on alternatives to military
service in October 1998, which entered into force on January 1, 1999.
Under this new law, alternative service is now 2 years, more than twice
as long as military service. (Conscripted military service has been
reduced to 9 months for most recruits, while university graduates are
to serve just 6 months.) Reportedly, several individuals currently are
serving in an alternative civilian capacity in lieu of military
service, although human rights observers complain that procedures for
invoking this alternative as a conscientious objector are unclear.
Among those already performing alternate service is Krassimir Savov, a
member of Jehovah's Witnesses previously imprisoned for refusing
mandatory military service, who was released from prison by
presidential pardon in March 1999. There were no new reports of
incarcerations on religious grounds during the period covered by this
report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. The Government generally has
encouraged greater religious tolerance since early 1998 by generally
seeking to promote greater understanding among different faiths.
However, while the observance of religious freedom has improved for
some nontraditional groups, other groups have faced official disfavor
and been disadvantaged by the Government's persistent refusal to grant
registration. Other church groups have obtained registration from the
national Government, but continue to face some discrimination and
antipathy from many local governments. The national Government has not
sought to dissuade local governments from abiding by these municipal
government decisions, which appear to fall into a gray area of the law.
Burgas, Plovdiv, and Stara Zagora are among the municipalities that
have prompted the greatest number of complaints of harassment of
nontraditional religious groups. Some observers note with concern a
tendency by certain municipalities to enact regulations that may be
used to limit religious freedom if a perceived need arises. For
example, a regulation passed by Sofia municipality in February 1999
forbids references to miracles and healing during religious services, a
provision that many fear may be employed as a pretext to ban or
interrupt services by charismatic evangelical groups. The regulation
cites a Communist-era law dating from 1949, which is technically still
in effect, and which forbids foreigners from proselytizing and
administering religious services in the country. Other municipalities
have enacted similar regulations. The 1949 law also has been criticized
in its own right as an outmoded potential impediment to free religious
activity. However, despite the law's continued technical validity,
foreign missionaries can and do receive permission to proselytize in
the country.
A new law on religion currently is being developed in Parliament.
Several variations have been introduced and are under discussion by
parliamentarians. As written, the bills that have been put forward
contain a number of provisions that potentially could infringe on
religious freedom, and tend to grant the central Government a
controlling role in overseeing religious groups. However, there are
indications that some of these problems may be mitigated through the
consultation process during which the final draft language is prepared
(see Section III).
Forced Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between religious communities generally were good;
however, discrimination, harassment, and general public intolerance of
nontraditional religious minorities (primarily newer evangelical
Protestant groups) remained an intermittent problem. Strongly held
suspicion of evangelical denominations among the Orthodox populace is
widespread and pervasive across the political spectrum and has resulted
in discrimination. Often cloaked in a veneer of ``patriotism,''
intolerance of the religious beliefs of others is extremely common.
Such mainstream public pressure for the containment of ``foreign
religious sects'' inevitably influences policymakers. Nevertheless,
human rights observers agreed that such discrimination has lessened
somewhat over the last 2 years as society has appeared to become more
accepting of a least some previously unfamiliar religions.
Certain religions, including both groups denied registration and
those officially registered, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, faced
discriminatory practices prior to registration in late 1998, as did
other groups, which, despite full compliance with the law, were greeted
with hostility by the press, segments of the public, and certain
government officials. However, this problem continued during the period
covered by this report, and is more pervasive, affecting more than just
one group.
In August 1999, the Mormon Church in Burgas suffered vandalism when
stones were thrown through two of the church windows. In October 1999,
in Kotel a group of youths who claimed to be activists of the Internal
Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) political party chased a
representative of the Lutheran Church and his family from the home in
which there were staying. In December 1999, the Zion Christian Church
in Stara Zagora was vandalized with hate graffiti.
Non-Orthodox religious groups continued to be affected adversely by
periodic negative media coverage. A variety of media outlets drew lurid
and inaccurate pictures of the activities of NonOrthodox religious
groups. For example, the Open Bible Fellowship church was accused of
being financed by drug and gun smuggling profits. Members of the press
commonly accuse nontraditional religious groups of promoting suicide,
drug use, and the breakup of families.
In May 2000, in Maritsa volunteer workers representing the
Christian Unity Foundation were beaten, one severely, when they
attempted to conduct a scheduled screening of a documentarystyle film
on the life of Jesus Christ. The film itself was stolen from their car.
The attack was carried out by six to eight youths, under the apparent
direction of a local Bulgarian Orthodox priest.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy regularly monitors religious freedom in ongoing
contacts with government officials, clergy, lay leaders of minority
communities, and nongovernmental organizations (NGO's). Embassy
officers have met with Orthodox clergy from both sides of the schism,
with the chief mufti of the Muslim community, with religious and lay
leaders of the Jewish community, as well as with the leaders of
numerous Protestant denominations. During the period covered by this
report, the Embassy was particularly active in engaging the Government
on its proposed new law on religion, which remains pending in the
Parliament (see Section I). The Ambassador, embassy officers, and a
visiting State Department official from the Office of International
Religious Freedom met with a diverse cross-section of relevant
government officials and Members of Parliament to advocate a liberal
approach to religious freedom under the new law. Embassy officers have
maintained close contact with human rights and religious groups to
remain attuned to their concerns about the proposed law. The U.S.
Ambassador to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE) also raised the issue of a liberal approach to religious freedom
under the new law with Bulgaria's OSCE ambassador.
__________
CANADA
The Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the religions in society contribute to the free practice of
religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice.
Religious groups do not have to register with the Government.
Religious Demography
There is no state or dominant religion; however, 82.1 percent of
the population belong to Christian denominations, with Roman Catholics
(45.2 percent) forming the largest single group. Other Catholic groups
include Eastern Orthodox (1.4 percent) and Ukrainian Catholics (0.5
percent). Protestants constitute 36.4 percent of the population,
consisting of the United Church (11.5 percent), Anglicans (8.1
percent), Presbyterians (2.4 percent), Lutherans (2.4 percent),
Baptists (2.5 percent), Pentecostals (1.6 percent), and other
Protestant denominations (7.9 percent). Members of other religions
include Jews (1.2 percent), Muslims (0.9 percent), Buddhists (0.6
percent), Hindus (0.6 percent), Sikhs (0.5 percent), groups such as
Scientology, Kabalarianism, and Rastafarianism (0.1 percent), and other
religions (0.1 percent). Those professing no religion constitute 12.5
percent of the population.
A wide range of religious faiths practice missionary activity
throughout the country without special legal restrictions.
The Constitution and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms protect the
rights or privileges possessed by denominational schools at the time of
national union in 1867. In practice this protection has meant that some
provinces have funded and continue to fund Catholic school education,
and some provinces (such as Quebec) have funded some Protestant
education. In March 1999, the government-mandated Proulx task force
submitted its report to Quebec's National Assembly. Its 14
recommendations include abolishing Catholic and Protestant status for
public schools and creating secular public schools instead, with
religions studied from a cultural perspective. School boards are
scheduled to respond to the Quebec government by July 1, 2001.
In July 1999, a one-person Board of Inquiry ruled that it was
discriminatory to require recitation of the Lord's Prayer in Saskatoon
public schools. Saskatchewan joined Canada under the terms of the
Saskatchewan Act, which forms part of the provincial constitution,
permitting prayer and Bible readings. As a result of the ruling, the
Lord's Prayer is not recited in Saskatoon public schools. The Saskatoon
school board began public hearings on the issue in the fall of 1999,
and is attempting to find alternatives to satisfy both sides.
There is no official government council for inter-faith dialog, but
the Government provides funding for individual ecumenical projects on a
case-by-case basis.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general amicable relations exist between the various religious
communities.
The B'nai Brith Canada League for Human Rights received 267 reports
of anti-Semitic incidents in 1999. This represented an increase of 11
percent from the 240 incidents reported in 1998. At mid-2000, the Human
Rights Tribunal, a government entity, was examining whether a specific
web site exposed Jews to hatred or contempt on the basis of their race,
religion, or ethnic origin. The Tribunal is expected to hear the case
in October 2000.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
CROATIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of conscience and religion
and free public profession of religious conviction, and the Government
respects these rights in practice.
The overall situation for religious freedom improved somewhat
during the period covered by this report, with representatives of
various religious communities pointing to the election of a democratic
coalition government in January 2000 as the first positive step towards
a fuller respect for religious freedom. Officials of the new Government
expressed a commitment to eliminating discrimination and to improving
respect for human rights; however, the Government's approach thus far
has been ad hoc, addressing problems as they arise and resolving issues
with individual religious communities rather than setting uniform non-
discriminatory standards and practices for all communities.
Notions of religion and ethnicity are closely intertwined in
society. During the past 10 years religious institutions of all faiths
have been targets of violence, reflecting the conflicts underway. Such
incidents still occur, particularly in the Danubian region (eastern
Slavonia), where there were persistent reports of vandalism directed
against Serb Orthodox buildings and cemeteries.
The U.S. Government continues to encourage the Government to
respect religious freedom in practice. The Secretary of State met with
Catholic Archbishop Bozanic in February 2000. Embassy officials
frequently meet with representatives of religious and ethnic minority
communities and with government officials to promote respect for
religious freedom and protection of human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of conscience and religion
and free public profession of religious conviction, and the Government
respects these rights in practice.
While there is no official state religion, the Roman Catholic
Church receives state financing to support pensions for priests and
nuns through the government-managed pension and health funds. Other
religious communities still do not have such an agreement with the
State, nor is there a law that regulates these issues. (Orthodox
priests and imams have been paying their contributions to the health
and pension funds from their own resources, in order to be covered by a
pension plan.) In the past, the dividing line between the Catholic
Church and the State often was blurred, as the then-ruling HDZ party
periodically attempted to identify itself more closely with the
Catholic Church. However, parliamentary elections in January 2000
brought to power a democratic Government committed to respect human
rights and to improve cooperation with all religious communities. Since
Archbishop Josip Bozanic took office in 1997, the Catholic Church has
sought an independent role for itself and was at times openly critical
of the previous government. In November 1999, the Croatian Catholic
Bishops' Conference refused to endorse the HDZ party in the January
2000 elections, calling on the faithful to vote freely and to overcome
the ``old, intolerant one-party mentality.''
Representatives of several religious communities state that the
overall situation has improved somewhat during the reporting period.
The election of a democratic government in January 2000 is a positive
step toward greater respect for religious freedom. While the new
Government has expressed interest in eliminating religious
discrimination, its approach is ad hoc, treating problems as they arise
and addressing specific issues (for example, the validity of religious
marriage ceremonies) with individual religious communities rather than
setting uniform non-discriminatory standards and practices. No law on
religious communities has been adopted as yet by the new Government to
set general and uniform standards for all religious communities,
although several religious leaders expressed hope that one would be
passed soon.
Religious Demography
The religious breakdown of the country is approximately: Roman
Catholic, 85 percent; Orthodox Christian, 6 percent; Muslim, 1 percent;
Jewish, less than 1 percent; other, 4 percent; atheist, 2 percent.
(These numbers are approximate because no national census has been
conducted since 1991, before the recent conflict and its associated
population shifts.) These statistics correlate closely with the
country's ethnic makeup. The Orthodox can be found in Serb areas,
notably cities and the war-affected regions, and other minority
religions can be found mostly in urban areas. Most immigrants are Roman
Catholic ethnic Croats. Protestants from a number of denominations and
foreign clergy and missionaries actively practice and proselytize.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
No formal restrictions are imposed on religious groups, and all
religious communities are free to conduct public services and to open
and run social and charitable institutions.
Facilitating the return of refugees is a challenge for the new
Government, which has made progress in a number of areas relating to
returns. However, many ethnic Serbs who wish to return to Croatia,
including Serbian Orthodox clergy, continued to encounter difficulties
in obtaining citizenship and travel documents. There were no reports of
specific discrimination against Orthodox clergy beyond that faced by
other ethnic Serb citizen refugees. However, religion and ethnicity are
so closely intertwined in the country that it is difficult to
distinguish between ethnic discrimination and religious discrimination
against Serbs, who are Orthodox Christians, and against Muslims. A
pattern of often open and severe discrimination continues against
ethnic Serbs, and, at times, other minorities in a wide number of
areas, including the administration of justice, employment, housing,
and freedom of movement. The then-HDZ party government often maintained
a double standard of treatment based on ethnicity. Although in recent
years the Government had discriminated against a particular group of
Muslims in the issuance of citizenship documents, the Government began
recognizing their citizenship in autumn 1999. In the area of Topusko,
most cases have been resolved of the approximately 2,500 Muslims who
for several years were unable to obtain citizenship because their
period of residency was interrupted by the military conflict.
Protestants and foreign clergy actively practice and proselytize,
as do representatives of Eastern religions. Missionaries from a number
of different groups are present in the country, including the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses,
Greek-Catholics, Pentecostals, Hare Krishnas, and a wide range of
evangelical Protestant Christians (including Baptists, Seventh-Day
Adventists, Church of Christ, and various nondenominational
organizations, such as the Campus Crusades for Christ).
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints reported
difficulties in obtaining missionary visas. It reported receiving only
about 30 visas of a requested 50, resulting in several of its
missionaries being obliged to work on a series of 90-day tourist visas.
However, Baptist missionaries reported that their longstanding
difficulties in obtaining missionary visas were resolved, in part due
to pressure from the international community on the previous
government, and they obtained the visas in fall 1999.
The Government requires that religious training be provided in
schools, although attendance is optional. Schools filling the necessary
quota of seven minority students per class offered separate religion
classes for these students. In classes not meeting this quota, minority
students could fulfill the religion requirement by bringing a
certificate that they had received classes from their religious
community. Generally, the lack of resources, minority students, and
qualified teachers impeded catechism in minority faiths, and the
Catholic catechism was the one predominantly offered. Although
religious training is not obligatory, in the past some students
reportedly felt pressured to participate. Jewish officials noted that
basic information provided to students about Judaism was inaccurate,
and their offers to improve the material continued to go unheeded.
Missionaries do not operate registered schools, but the Mormon
community provides free English lessons, which normally are followed by
some sort of religious class. The Muslim community has a secondary
school in Zagreb; however, the Ministry of Education continued to
refuse to recognize the diploma conferred upon graduation; a lawsuit to
resolve the matter has not been decided. Approximately 20 students per
year graduate from the school. In a positive development, in September
1999, the Government directed public schools that reached the minimum
quota of Muslim students to sign work contracts with Muslim
instructors. In the past, Muslim catechism instructors were not paid by
the Government, whereas Roman Catholic catechism teachers were.
The Ministry of Defense employs 19 Catholic priests to minister to
Catholics in the military. However, neither Orthodox nor Muslim clerics
were given this opportunity. A Catholic priest is present and gives a
blessing at the oath-giving ceremony upon entering the army, but other
clerics have not been invited to participate.
The Catholic Church operates the country's only private national
radio station, Catholic Radio, which is financed by private
contributions. The Jewish community reports no restrictions on
religious broadcasting. Jewish topics are covered periodically on
weekly religious programming of state broadcaster Croatian State Radio
and Television (HRT), for example, at times of Jewish holidays. The
Muslim community has 4.5 minutes of radio broadcast time per month, as
well as 4.5 minutes per month on Radio Zagreb. In addition, the Bairam
ceremony from the Zagreb mosque is broadcast annually on television.
Muslims have the right to observe their religious holidays. They
are granted a paid holiday for one Bairam and have the right to observe
the other as well (although they are not paid for the day).
There is no government-sponsored ecumenical activity, nor is there
funding for such efforts. Ecumenical activity is initiated by the
religious leaders themselves (see Section II).
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Religion and ethnicity are closely intertwined in society, and many
incidents of discrimination appear motivated by ethnicity rather than
religion or religious doctrine.
The previous HDZ Government implemented property restitution in a
discriminatory manner: the Government signed a concordat with the
Vatican in 1998 that provided for the return of all Catholic Church
property confiscated by the Communist regime after 1945. This agreement
stipulates that the Government would return seized properties or
compensate the Church where return is impossible. Some progress has
been made with some returnable properties being restituted, but there
has been no compensation to date for nonreturnable properties. Three
other agreements with the Vatican regulate Catholic marriages, public
school catechism, and military chaplains.
There have been no such agreements between the Government and other
religious groups. The Orthodox community has filed several requests for
the return of seized properties, and some cases have been resolved
successfully, particularly cases involving buildings in urban centers.
However, several buildings in downtown Zagreb have not been returned,
nor have properties that belonged to monasteries, such as arable land
and forest. This uneven progress may be the result of a slow judicial
system rather than a systematic effort to deny restitution of Orthodox
properties. In December 1999, the Government returned to the Jewish
community a site in downtown Zagreb where the main synagogue was
located until its destruction in World War II. However other Jewish
properties, including some Zagreb buildings, have not been returned.
The Jewish community identifies property return as one of its top
priorities.
Catholic marriages are recognized by the State, eliminating the
need to register them in the civil registry office. The Muslim and
Jewish communities, seeking similar status, have raised this issue
repeatedly with the Government, but there has been no resolution to
date.
Dinko Sakic, commander of Croatia's Jasenovac concentration camp in
1944, was convicted in October 1999 of crimes against humanity and
sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment, the maximum possible sentence.
Sakic was extradited from Argentina in 1998. The Jasenovac camp, site
of a memorial and museum, was badly damaged during the recent conflict
and renovation is ongoing. In April 2000, a government delegation, led
by the Minister of Culture, attended a commemoration ceremony there
that also was attended by several leaders of ethnic and religious
minority communities.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
Constitutional amendments passed in May 2000 added Bosnian Muslims
and Albanians to the list of officially recognized minorities. Muslims
were removed from this list by the previous government in 1998, despite
being the second largest minority in the country after Serbs.
In April 2000, the new Government established a Commission for
Religious Minorities under the authority of Deputy Prime Minister Goran
Granic. This Commission replaced a similar, ineffective one under the
previous regime. The new commission held its first session in April
2000 with representatives from several religious communities and
government bodies, soliciting suggestions from the religious
communities and presenting plans to draw up a law on religious
minorities. However, only ``traditional'' denominations were invited to
the first meeting, and smaller groups such as the Mormons and Hindus,
were excluded. The Commission has not achieved concrete results to
date.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Notions of religion and ethnicity are closely intertwined in
society, and religion often was used to identify non-Croats and to
single them out for discriminatory practices. This caused religious
institutions to be targets of violence. In the past 10 years, religious
institutions of all faiths have been targets of violence. Such
incidents still occur, particularly in the tense Danubian region
(eastern Slavonia), where there were persistent reports of vandalism
directed against Serb Orthodox buildings and cemeteries. Of 14
incidents recorded by international observers during the period covered
by this report, at least 11 were directed against Serbs or Serb
Orthodox structures, including the October 1999 assault on a 69-year
old Orthodox priest who was beaten at a Vukovar bus stop by a Croat
youth. The youth was arrested quickly and in November 1999 was
convicted of ``disturbing public order'' and fined approximately $80.
Also, in December 1999, an Orthodox cemetery was vandalized in Vukovar;
in January 2000, two crucifixes were damaged on the property of the
local Orthodox priest in Tenja, and windows were broken at an Orthodox
church in Borovo. No arrests were made in any of these incidents.
Two incidents of vandalism directed against Jewish structures were
reported throughout the country, including the August 1999 damage to 15
headstones at a Jewish cemetery in Koprivnica and an April 2000
incident in which swastikas were painted on the wall of the Jewish
center in Zagreb. No arrests were made in these cases.
Since Catholic Archbishop Bozanic took office in 1997, the Catholic
Church has sought a more proactive role in advocating reconciliation.
Catholic Radio includes a monthly program on ecumenism, inviting
speakers from other religious communities. The Catholic Church has
initiated several meetings with Orthodox clergy from Serbia, including
a February 18, 2000, bishops' meeting at Novi Sad, Serbia. Bozanic has
been active in publicly promoting the return of (mostly Serb Orthodox)
refugees and in ecumenical reconciliation efforts.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Government actions have been aimed at encouraging the
Government to respect religious freedom in practice and at supporting
the efforts of the Catholic Church to foster a constructive environment
in post-conflict society. The Secretary of State met with Archbishop
Bozanic on February 18, 2000 and noted the positive role played by the
Catholic Church during the period of transition to a new government.
Embassy officials have frequent meetings at all levels with
representatives of the ethnic Serb (Orthodox) community as well as the
Jewish and Muslim communities and are engaged in the promotion of human
rights, including the religious rights, of these groups. Embassy
officials meet and hold frequent discussions at all levels with
government officials about respect for religious freedom and issues of
discrimination against religious communities. The Embassy is a leader
of the ``article 11 commission,'' a group of 21 international missions
in the country that deals directly with issues of ethnic and religious
reconciliation and human rights.
__________
CYPRUS
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice.
The basic law in the Turkish Cypriot community also provides for
freedom of religion, and the authorities respect this right in
practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both official policy and the generally amicable relationship among
religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion;
however, there were a few instances of vandalism on unused religious
sites, and one of arson on a mosque in the south.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
authorities in the context of its overall dialog and policy of
promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus provides for freedom of
religion, and the Government respects this right in practice. The basic
law in the Turkish Cypriot community also provides for freedom of
religion and the authorities respect this right in practice. Turkish
Cypriots residing in the south and Greek Cypriots living in the north
are allowed to practice their religions.
Prior to 1974, Cyprus experienced a long period of intercommunal
strife between its Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities. In response,
the United Nations Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) began peacekeeping
operations in March 1964. The island has been divided since the Turkish
military intervention of 1974, following a coup d'etat directed from
Greece. Since 1974 the southern part of the island has been under the
control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus. The northern part
is ruled by a Turkish Cypriot administration. In 1983 that
administration proclaimed itself the ``Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus'' (``TRNC''), which is recognized only by Turkey.
The 1960 Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus specifies that the
Greek Orthodox Church (which is autocephalous and not under the
authority of the mainland Greek Orthodox Church) has the exclusive
right to regulate and administer its internal affairs and property in
accordance with its holy canons and charter. Similarly, the
Constitution states that the Turkish Cypriot religious trust, the Vakf
(the Muslim institution that regulates religious activity for Turkish
Cypriots), has the exclusive right to regulate and administer its
internal affairs and property in accordance with Vakf laws and
principles. No legislative, executive, or other act can contravene or
interfere in the Orthodox Church or the Vakf. Accordingly, both the
Greek Orthodox Church and the Vakf are tax-exempt with regard to
religious activity. According to law, they are required to pay taxes
only on strictly commercial activity.
Three other religious groups are recognized in the Constitution:
Armenian Orthodox; Maronite Christians; and Latins (Roman Catholics).
They are exempt from taxes and are eligible, along with the Orthodox
Church and the Vakf, for government subsidies to their religious
institutions. No other religious group is recognized in the
Constitution.
Religions other than the five recognized religions are not required
to register with government authorities; however, if they desire to
engage in financial transactions, such as maintaining a bank account,
they must register as a nonprofit company, and most do so. The
registration process involves submission through an attorney of an
application that states the purpose of the nonprofit organization and
provides the names of the organization's directors. Registration is
granted promptly and many religious groups are recognized. Annual
reports of the organization's activities are required. Such nonprofit
organizations are tax-exempt.
In the northern part of the island, the Turkish Cypriot basic law
refers specifically to a ``secular republic,'' and provides for
religious freedom; no specific religion is recognized in the basic law.
However, based on the 1960 Constitution, the Turkish Cypriot religious
trust (Vakf), which pays the costs of Muslim religious activities and
the salaries of Muslim religious leaders, is tax-exempt in regard to
its religious activities (the Vakf pays taxes on its commercial and
real estate operations) and receives official subsidies. No other
religious organization is tax-exempt or receives subsidies.
Religious organizations are not required to register unless they
wish to engage in commercial activity or apply for tax-exempt status.
There are no legal restrictions on missionary activity; however, such
activity is rare and is monitored closely by Turkish Cypriot
authorities.
Religious Demography
Approximately 96 percent of the population in the government-
controlled area are Greek Orthodox. Approximately 0.5 percent are
Maronite or Latin, slightly under 0.5 percent are Armenian Orthodox,
and 3 percent belong to other groups; the latter category includes
small groups of Cypriot Protestants and foreigners of all religious
beliefs.
A January 1998 opinion poll indicated that about 48 percent of
Greek Cypriots attend church services regularly, while 49 percent
attend only for major religious holidays and ceremonies such as
weddings and funerals. The remainder does not attend religious services
at all. Approximately 10 percent of the population in the north attend
religious services regularly.
Ninety-nine percent of the Turkish Cypriot population are at least
nominally Muslim. There is a small Turkish Cypriot Baha'i community.
Approximately 650 Greek Cypriots and Maronites live in the north. They
have freedom of worship, although there are complaints of vandalism of
unused Orthodox churches and disagreements related to the assignment of
Orthodox priests to work in the north. There are no longer restrictions
on the right of Greek Cypriots resident in the north to visit Apostolos
Andreas monastery. However, an application to replace a retiring priest
has been pending for more than 3 years. Most other non-Muslims in the
north are foreigners from Western Europe who are frequently members of
the Roman Catholic or Anglican Church.
There are no prohibitions against missionary activity or
proselytizing in the government-controlled area, and there is some
Western Protestant missionary activity in this area. Although
missionaries have the legal right to proselytize in both communities,
missionary activities are monitored closely by the Greek Cypriot
Orthodox Church and by both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot
authorities. The Orthodox Church is suspicious of any attempts to
proselytize among Greek Cypriots. On occasion the Greek Cypriot media
has given extensive coverage to the activities of foreign missionaries,
creating a chilling effect on those activities. The police may initiate
investigations of religious activity based on a citizen's complaint
under laws that make it illegal for a missionary to use ``physical or
moral compulsion'' in an attempt to make religious conversions, or when
missionaries may be involved in illegal activities that threaten the
security of the republic, constitutional or public order, or public
health and morals. There are occasional apprehensions under these laws
resulting in publicity but no arrests. Foreign missionaries, like all
other foreigners, must obtain and periodically renew residence permits
in order to live in the country; normally renewal requests are not
denied.
The Greek Orthodox religion is taught in all public primary and
secondary schools in classes held twice per week in the government-
controlled area. Parents can request that their children be excused
from such instruction.
There is instruction in religion, ethics, and comparative religions
in two grades of the primary school system in the Turkish Cypriot
community. There is no formal Islamic religious instruction in public
schools and no state-supported religious schools.
There is no government-sponsored inter-faith activity.
There is no inter-faith activity sponsored by the Turkish Cypriot
authorities.
Both the Government of Cyprus and the Turkish Cypriot
administration have constitutional or legal bars against
discrimination. The basic agreement covering treatment of Greek
Cypriots and Maronites living in the north and Turkish Cypriots living
in the south remains the 1975 Vienna III Agreement. Among other things,
this agreement provides for facilities for religious worship.
In May 2000, the Turkish Cypriot authorities eliminated the system
of fees imposed in 1998 for crossing the buffer zone, although a 1
British pound processing fee remains in effect. Reciprocal visits to
religious sites continue, with several thousand Greek Cypriots visiting
the Apostolos Andreas monastery in the north on designated Christian
religious holidays, and several thousand Turkish Cypriots visiting the
Hala Sultan mosque in the south on certain Muslim religious holidays.
In January 2000, both sides agreed to initiate a project to restore
these two religious sites (see Section III).
In both the government-controlled areas and the Turkish Cypriot
community there was no change in the status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report.
In both the government-controlled areas and the Turkish Cypriot
community there were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
In both the government-controlled areas and the Turkish Cypriot
community there were no reports of the forced religious conversion of
minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the authorities' refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are polite relations between the Greek Cypriot Orthodox
Church and the other religious communities in the south. In the north
there are few non-Muslims, but there is no friction between them and
the nominally Muslim population. However, there are complaints of
vandalism of unused Orthodox churches (see Section I.) Turkish Cypriots
complain that unused mosques in the south have been treated similarly.
A previously unknown Greek Cypriot nationalist organization claimed
responsibility for an arson attack on a mosque in the south in August
1999. Damage was light, and the authorities pledged to repair the
damage and increase protection of Muslim sites. No one has been
arrested for the attack. There has been little effort at ecumenical
activity. In recent years, an international conference on understanding
among religions has been sponsored annually by a private foundation in
the government-controlled areas; otherwise, there has been little
interest in such activities either in the government-controlled areas
or in the Turkish Cypriot community.
Religion is a significantly more prominent component of Greek
Cypriot society than of Turkish Cypriot society, with correspondingly
greater cultural and political influence. One example of the
relationship between church and state among Greek Cypriots is the fact
that the leader of the Greek Cypriot campaign for independence in the
1950s was the head of the Greek Orthodox Church, Archbishop Makarios
III, who became President from independence in 1960 until his death in
1977.
As the largest owner of real estate in the south and the operator
of several large business enterprises, the Greek Orthodox Church is a
significant economic factor. Similarly, the Vakf is the largest
landowner in the north.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy played a key role, working closely with the United
Nations, in obtaining agreement from both sides in January 2000 to
initiate a project to restore the island's two most significant
religious sites, the Apostolos Andreas monastery and the Hala Sultan
mosque. This agreement was announced by U.N. Secretary General Annan
and welcomed immediately thereafter by Secretary Albright. Construction
work is expected to begin in early 2001.
The U.S. Ambassador and other embassy officers have requested
Turkish Cypriot authorities to facilitate the assignment of an
additional Orthodox priest to the Greek Cypriot population living in
the north. The Ambassador and other embassy officers also have met
periodically with religious authorities as part of their regular
responsibilities.
__________
CZECH REPUBLIC
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Religious affairs are the responsibility of the Department of
Churches at the Ministry of Culture. All religions officially
registered with the Ministry of Culture are eligible to receive
subsidies from the State, although some religions decline state
financial support as a matter of principle and as an expression of
their independence. There are 21 state-recognized religions, 2 of which
have been registered since 1991; no groups currently are seeking to
register. One group, the Unification Church (UC), was denied
registration in January 1999 when the Department of Churches determined
that it had obtained the required proof of membership by fraud; the UC
is contesting the decision in court. To register a church must have at
least 10,000 adult members permanently residing in the country. For any
churches which the World Council of Churches has already recognized
only 500 adult members permanently residing in the country are
necessary. These churches receive the same legal and financial benefits
from the Government as do other churches. Churches registered prior to
1991, such as the small Jewish community, are not required to meet
these conditions. Unregistered religious groups, such as the small
Muslim minority, may not own community property legally, but often form
civic-interest associations for the purpose of managing their property
and other holdings until they are able to meet the qualifications for
registration. The Government does not interfere with or prevent this
type of interim solution. Unregistered religious groups are otherwise
free to assemble and worship in the manner of their choice.
Churches receive approximately $88.2 million (3 billion Czech
crowns) annually from the Government. Funds are divided proportionately
among the 21 registered religions according to membership and taking
administrative costs into account. Of this sum, approximately $1.5
million (539 million Czech crowns) is used to pay salaries to
clergymen. The rest of the funding goes to state grants for church
medical, charity, and educational activities, as well as for the
maintenance of church memorials and buildings.
Religious Demography
The country has a largely homogenous population with a dominant
Christian historical tradition. However, largely as a result of 40
years of Communist rule between 1948 and 1989, the vast majority of the
citizens do not identify themselves as members of any organized
religion. In a February 1999 opinion poll, only 35 percent claimed to
believe in a higher spiritual power, and 64 percent identified
themselves as atheists. There was a revival of interest in religion
after the ``Velvet Revolution'' in 1989, but the number of those
professing religious beliefs or participating in organized religion has
fallen steadily since then in almost every region of the country.
An estimated 4.5 percent of the population of 10,286,621 (according
to the 1998 Office of Statistics) attend Catholic services weekly. Most
of these churchgoers live in the southern Moravian dioceses of Olomouc
and Brno. The number of practicing Protestants is even lower
(approximately 1 percent). Leaders of the local Muslim community
estimate that there are 20,000 to 30,000 Muslims, although Islam has
not been registered as an officially recognized religion since the
communist takeover. Registration of Islam has been discussed with the
Department of Churches, but there has been no formal application. The
first mosque in the country was completed in Brno in July 1998. There
is a second mosque in Prague. The Jewish community, which numbers only
a few thousand, is an officially registered religion, since it was
recognized by the State before 1989.
Missionaries for various religious groups, including the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses, are present
and generally proselytize without hindrance. To work in the country,
missionaries must obtain a long-term residence and work permit if they
intend to remain longer than 30 days. Although permits are granted
routinely, some religions increasingly have raised concerns about
delays in processing visas and permits for visiting missionaries and
clergy. There is no special visa category for religious workers, so
foreign missionaries and clergy are required to meet the relatively
stringent conditions for a standard work permit even if their activity
is strictly ecclesiastical or voluntary in nature.
Religion is not taught in public schools, although a few private
religious schools exist. Religious broadcasters are free to operate
without hindrance from the Government or other parties, and no
difficulties or problems in this area have been reported.
Members of unregistered religious groups can issue publications
without interference.
There was no government-sponsored inter-faith activity.
In March 2000, in his last act before leaving office, Interior
Minister Vaclav Grulich officially disbanded and canceled the
registration of the National Alliance, an extreme right-wing, neo-Nazi
organization whose leaders consistently have propagated anti-Semitic
sentiment and publicly questioned the occurrence of the Holocaust.
During the period covered by this report, the two church-state
commissions founded by the Government in March and May 1999 continued
to meet regularly and work on outstanding issues including state
funding for churches and property restitution, among other things. (One
is a ``political'' commission with the presence of all parties
currently in parliament, and the second is a ``specialist'' commission
composed of experts including lawyers, economists, and church
representatives. The commissions advise the Government on church-state
relations, the status of churches and methods of their financing, and
church-related property questions.) Members of the commission also have
advised the Ministry of Culture on the Law on the Registration of
Churches and Religious Groups, which the cabinet was expected to
approve in July 2000.
Issues of religious-based communal and personal property
restitution are still being resolved. Jewish claims date to the period
of the Nazi occupation, while Catholic authorities are pressing claims
to properties that were seized under the former Communist regime.
Although after 1989 the Government and Prague city officials returned
most synagogues and other buildings previously belonging to religious
orders, many claims to properties in the hands of other municipal
authorities have not yet been resolved satisfactorily. Restitution or
compensation of several categories of Jewish personal property is in
progress. In addition the Catholic Church claims vast tracts of woods
and farmlands.
The 1991 Law on Restitution applied only to property seized after
the communists took power in 1948. In 1994 the Parliament amended the
law to provide restitution of, or compensation for, property wrongfully
seized between 1938 and 1945. This amendment provided for the inclusion
of Jewish private properties, primarily buildings, seized by the Nazi
regime. In the late 1990's, the Federation of Jewish Communities
identified 202 communal properties as its highest priorities for
restitution, although it had unresolved claims for over 1,000
properties. By decree the Government returned most of the properties in
its possession, as did the city of Prague; however, despite a
government appeal, other cities have not been as responsive. As of mid-
2000, 68 of the 202 properties have been returned. In November 1998,
the Government established a commission to document the status of
former Jewish communal property and, to a limited extent, personal
property, and to make recommendations to the Government. In June 2000,
Parliament approved the commission's proposed legislation. The
President was expected to sign the bill into law. This law would
authorize the return of 200 communal Jewish properties in state hands.
The same law also would authorize the Government to return more than 60
works of art in the National Gallery to the Jewish community and an
estimated 2,500 works of art in the State's possession to individual
Czech Jews and their descendants. A fourth provision of the law would
authorize the return of certain agricultural property in the
Government's possession to its original owners. In the spring of 1999,
the commission's chairman, Deputy Prime Minister Pavel Rychetsky
proposed a fund from which compensation would be paid for those
properties that cannot be restituted physically; the Cabinet authorized
approximately $7.5 million (285 million crowns) for this fund. It is
expected to be in operation by the end of 2000 and is to provide
partial compensation in those cases where the Government needs to
retain the property or is no longer in possession of it. Approximately
two-thirds are to be dedicated to communal property and one-third to
individual claims.
Certain property of religious orders, including 175 monasteries and
other institutions, was restituted under laws passed in 1990 and 1991,
but the return generally did not include income-generating properties.
When the Social Democratic government came to power in August 1998, it
halted further restitution of non-Jewish religious communal property,
including a decision of the previous government to return 432,250 acres
of land and some 700 buildings to the Catholic Church. The Government
has not foreclosed the possibility of further return of additional
Catholic and Protestant properties but has emphasized that it must be
done through legislation enacted by Parliament rather than by executive
decree. The Government has yet to prepare the necessary legislation.
Discussions are continuing in the two church-state commissions on the
form of an overall settlement of all outstanding issues to include
restitution.
In March 2000, following three months of intense negotiations with
representatives of the local Jewish community, representatives of
international Jewish groups, and the Czech Insurance Company; the
Government reached a framework agreement on the protection and
preservation of the remnants of a medieval Jewish cemetery (believed to
be the oldest in the country) uncovered in 1997 at a commercial
construction site in downtown Prague. Remains of the cemetery, which
was closed and razed in the 15th century, were uncovered by the
insurance company on the site of its new headquarters. The Cabinet
decided on March 29 to declare a block of soil on the site containing
intact graves a cultural monument, to pay the insurance company
compensation of approximately $1 million (45 million Czech crowns) and
to authorize as soon as possible the reburial on the site of the 120
sets of remains removed by archaeologists in 1999. Twenty-five other
small parcels nearby, believed to contain intact graves from the same
cemetery, also were designated a national cultural monument. However,
some of the details implementing the agreement had not been resolved
between the insurance company and the local Jewish community by the end
of June. Meanwhile, construction resumed on the portion of the site
exempt from the cultural monument decree at the beginning of June. The
company intends to stabilize the preserved cemetery area by September
2000, so that remains previously removed can be reburied there.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations are generally amicable between the various religious
communities.
The immigrant population is still relatively small. In 1998 over
970 persons from other countries were naturalized as citizens, the
majority from Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Iraq, and the former Yugoslavia.
Immigrants have not reported any difficulties in practicing their
respective faiths.
The Islamic Foundation estimates that 2,000 persons have attended
``open door'' days since the country's first mosque was completed in
Brno in July 1998. Local Muslims and police agreed that there have not
been any incidents of religious intolerance toward their community.
Several isolated anti-Semitic incidents occurred during the period
covered by this report. In December 1999, in a display case in front of
the extremist rightwing Republican Party headquarters in Decin,
photographs of President Vaclav Havel, Prime Minister Milos Zeman,
Parliamentary Speaker Vaclav Klaus, and other government officials,
were labeled ``Jewish Free Masons and Murderers of the Czech nation.''
The exhibit also presented a list of ``Jews and Jewish half-breeds''
active in politics that included the names of Havel, Zeman, Klaus, and
others. The display was removed a few days later after a state
prosecutor warned the party it could face criminal charges in
connection with the incident. Also, at a rally in April 2000, members
of the extreme National Alliance and Patriotic Front organizations
threatened to deface or remove explanatory plaques installed in March
on the historic Charles Bridge in Prague at the urging of the North
American Board of Rabbis. The plaques, which are in Czech, English, and
Hebrew, describe the origin of a medieval sculpture of Christ on the
cross--one of many sculptures on the bridge--that has a Hebrew
inscription on it that is offensive to Jews. (The Government canceled
the registration of the National Alliance in March 2000--see Section
I.)
In February 1999, police in Plzen arrested 12 leaders, producers,
and distributors of racist, Fascist, and anti-Semitic materials. The
raid also netted piles of Fascist and racist materials, including
membership lists, indicating that the group was part of a large, well-
organized movement with ties to groups in several other European
countries. Those arrested were charged with supporting and propagating
a movement dedicated to the suppression of the rights and liberties of
citizens, an offense with a maximum penalty of 8 years in prison.
Owners of firms that are found to have produced the Fascist and anti-
Semitic materials seized in the raid could lose their operating
licenses; however, legal action by the Government against these firms
remains pending.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. efforts on religious issues have focused largely on
encouraging the Government to resolve religious property restitution
claims.
During 1999 the U.S. Government and embassy officials emphasized on
numerous occasions to the Government the importance of returning
property wrongfully taken from Holocaust victims, the Jewish community,
and churches, or of fair and adequate compensation when return is no
longer possible. Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Stuart E. Eizenstat
testified about these issues before Congress in September 1999. The
need for the Czech Republic to act was also the subject of remarks by
U.S. delegates in Vienna at the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe in the fall of 1999. Under Secretary of State for
Political Affairs Thomas Pickering raised the issue of compensation for
Holocaust victims in meetings during his visit to Prague in February
2000. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright also voiced concern about
compensation in a meeting with Foreign Minister Jan Kavan during her
visit to the Czech Republic in March 2000. The Ambassador has been in
close contact in particular with Deputy Prime Minister Rychetsky, who
has championed the creation of a fund for Czech Holocaust victims.
Embassy staff also met with members of Parliament and senators from the
Christian Democratic Union, which is the most active party on issues of
religious, particularly Catholic, communal property. A visit to Prague
in January 2000 by the Executive Director and Deputy Director of the
Presidential Advisory Commission on Holocaust Assets served to
highlight U.S. activities and boosted bilateral cooperation.
Beginning in late December 1999, the Embassy, the Department of
State, and the U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's
Heritage Abroad devoted considerable effort to facilitate a mutually
acceptable settlement of the longstanding dispute over a medieval
Jewish cemetery recovered in 1997 at a commercial construction site in
Prague (see Section I). The Embassy maintained close contact on this
matter with the Office of the President, the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, the Ministry of Culture, the Federation of Jewish Communities
in the Czech Republic, and the Prague Jewish community. The Embassy met
on occasion with the Czech Bishops' Conference as well as the Culture
Ministry's Department of Churches. Embassy officials also responded to
individual requests for assistance from Czech-American Holocaust
victims seeking compensation. In addition, embassy staff worked closely
with the staff of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum to deepen existing
relationships with relevant Czech Archives and Czech Holocaust
Education Program offices.
__________
DENMARK
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government works together with the Danish Government to
promote religious freedom throughout the world as part of a global
effort to support human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
There is an official state religion. The Constitution stipulates
that the Evangelical Lutheran Church is the national church, and it is
subsidized by the Government. However, no individual can be compelled
to pay tax or provide financial support to the national church or any
other religious organization. By 1969 11 other religious organizations
had official recognition by royal decree (essentially the State's
permission for a religious organization to perform religious
ceremonies, for example, weddings, which have civil validity).
Since the implementation of the 1969 Marriage Act, the Ministry of
Ecclesiastical Affairs has granted permission to clergy of 60
additional, nonrecognized religious organizations to perform marriages.
The Marriage Act permits weddings to be performed ``within other
religious organizations,'' provided that one of the parties to the
marriage belongs to the organization and the organization has clergy
that have been granted permission to perform marriage by the Ministry
of Ecclesiastical Affairs. Thus, religious organizations no longer need
to obtain ``recognition'' as ``approval'' is given when the Ministry
grants permission to perform weddings to specific religious
organizations. Both recognized and approved religions enjoy certain tax
exemptions. The approval process is not complicated or protracted.
In February 1998, the Government appointed an independent four-
member council to prepare guidelines and principles for official
approval of religious organizations. The government statement
accompanying the action noted that the step was taken due to the
growing number of applications in recent years for official approval as
a religious organization.
In March 1999, the Council published guidelines for future approval
of religious organizations that are linked to the 1969 Marriage Act.
The guidelines established clear requirements that religious
organizations must fulfill, including providing a written text of the
religion's central traditions; descriptions of its most important
rituals; an organizational structure accessible for public control and
approval; and constitutionally elected representatives who can be held
responsible by authorities. Additionally, the organization must ``not
teach or perform actions inconsistent with public morality or order.''
Scientologists continue to seek official approval as a religious
organization. Their first application for approval was made in the
early 1980's and rejected; the second application was made in mid-1997
and withdrawn in early 1998. The second application was resubmitted in
1999 and withdrawn again in early 2000, shortly before a decision by
the Government was expected. In withdrawing the application, the Church
of Scientology asked the Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs for
additional time to respond to reports about Scientology that had
appeared in the Danish media. The Church of Scientology's application
has been resubmitted, but, as of mid-2000, there was no information
available about when the case would next be heard.
Religious Demography
Over 86 percent of the population adheres to the Evangelical
Lutheran Church; it is the only church that receives government funds.
Other religious organizations represent approximately 5 percent of the
population, with Muslims, the next largest group, accounting for 2
percent of the population. The remaining 9 percent of the citizens are
without a religion.
There are missionaries operating within the country, including
representatives of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and
Jehovah's Witnesses; however, there is no detailed information
available on missionary activity. There are no restrictions on
proselytizing so long as proselytizers obey the law and do not act
inconsistently with public morality or order. All schools, including
religious schools, receive government financial support. While the
Evangelical Lutheran faith is taught in the public schools, a student
may withdraw from religious classes with parental consent.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Denmark has a long history of welcoming religious minorities and
affording them equal treatment. There are generally amicable relations
between religious groups, although the recent influx of a substantial
Muslim population has resulted in some tension with the majority
population of adherents of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Minority
group unemployment tends to be higher, and allegations of
discrimination on the basis of religion sometimes are raised. However,
it is difficult to separate religious differences from differences in
language and ethnicity, and the latter may be at least as important in
explaining unequal access to well-paying jobs and social advancement.
There are no significant ecumenical movements that promote greater
mutual understanding and religious tolerance.
Scientology officials complain of unfair treatment by the press,
particularly in its extensive coverage of the church in the months
preceding the anticipated court decision of the Scientologists's
application for recognition as a religious organization (see Section
I).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy worked together with the Government to promote
religious freedom throughout the world as part of a global effort to
support human rights.
__________
ESTONIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
To date the single controversy is the internal division in the Orthodox
faith. The Interior Ministry, which provides support to registered
faiths through its Religious Affairs Department, has been seeking a
solution to this ongoing debate.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The 1993 Law on Churches and Religious Organizations requires all
religious organizations to have at least 12 members and to be
registered with the Interior Ministry and the Board of Religion.
Leaders of religious organizations must be citizens with at least 5
years' residence in Estonia. A new draft law on churches and
congregations was introduced early in 1999, but the bill has yet to
pass a first reading in the new Parliament elected in March 1999.
Readings are expected to occur in fall 2000, with enactment expected in
January 2001. The proposed legislation reflects a general reform trend
in the law to simplify and clarify existing procedures. The draft law
places responsibility for registry of religious organizations on the
courts rather than the Interior Ministry. Upon passage of this law, all
registries in the country would then fall under the auspices of the
courts. Although some U.S. missionaries had expressed concerns in 1999
that a previous version of the legislation gave preferential treatment
to the larger, established religious communities in the country,
examination of the proposed legislation indicates that it does not
provide preferential treatment to any church or group of churches.
Many groups have sent foreign missionaries into Estonia; the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) being the largest.
During the period covered by this report, no church or missionary group
reported problems in obtaining the necessary residence permits.
A program of basic ecumenical religious instruction is available to
public schools. However, public school participation presently exists
in only 55 schools, with approximately 2,600 students participating.
Those students in the 55 schools offering this ecumenical instruction
who do not wish to participate have the option to take alternative
courses. Private schools are allowed to provide religious instruction
as well.
There is a process whereby religious and lay property is restored
to its pre-Soviet occupation owners. In some cases properties are
claimed by more than one group, complicating restitution efforts. The
procedure for reclaiming property is generally considered fair but
often is slow and bureaucratic.
Religious Demography
The majority of citizens are nominally Lutheran, and there is a
large Orthodox community. A broad range of other creeds and beliefs
make up a small but growing segment of the religious community.
However, 40 years of communism diminished the role of religion in
society. Many new neighborhoods built since the war do not have
religious centers, and many of the surviving churches require extensive
renovations. Church attendance, which had seen a surge coinciding with
the independence movement in the early 1990s, now has plunged.
Anecdotal evidence, garnered from local churches, indicates a 65
percent decrease in registered confirmations, for example.
In 1998 there were an estimated 165 congregations of the Estonian
Evangelical Lutheran Church and over 80 Orthodox congregations, with 39
belonging to the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (EAOC), 30 to the
Russian Orthodox Church in Estonia, and 11 to the Union of Estonian Old
Believer congregations. Lutherans and Orthodox believers account for
the majority of believers. Nonetheless, there are smaller communities
of Baptist, Methodist, Roman Catholic, and other Christian
denominations. There is an active, if small, Jewish community. There
are also communities of Muslims, Buddhists, and many other
denominations and faiths. However, each of these minority faiths has
less than 6,000 adherents. The 2000 census, once completed and
published, would, for the first time, attempt to account for all
religious groups, as well as atheists.
Persons of varying ethnic backgrounds profess Orthodoxy, including
communities of Russian Old Believers who found refuge in Estonia in the
17th century. The Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (EAOC),
independent since 1919, subordinate to Constantinople since 1923, and
exiled under the Soviet occupation, reregistered under its 1935 statute
in August 1993. Since then, a group of ethnic Russian and Estonian
parishes preferring to remain under the authority of the Russian
Orthodox Church structure imposed during the Soviet occupation has
insisted that it should have claim to the EAOC name but has been unable
to register under the same name. Representatives of the Moscow and
Constantinople Patriarchates remain in contention on this issue.
Interior Ministry attempts to broker an agreement have not been
successful, and the Orthodox Church wing affiliated with the Moscow
Patriarchate in Estonia remains unregistered with the State. The
unregistered status of the Church makes negotiation and settlement of
the issue problematic. However, throughout the dispute, free worship
has occurred in practice. This dispute over whether the Orthodox Church
should be subject to Moscow or Constantinople has taken on political
overtones, as sensitivities remain from the 40-year Soviet occupation.
The country's small Jewish community was decimated during the Nazi
occupation. It now numbers over 3,000 members and in January 2000 was
granted land by the Government on which to build a synagogue. The
community has recovered the Jewish school building and leaders say that
property restitution is not an issue, as most pre-war religious
buildings were rented, not owned.
Government officials have voiced concerns about extremist religious
groups establishing themselves in Estonia. The Director of the
Religious Affairs Department under the Ministry of Interior Affairs
expressed his concern about Satanists planning to register their sect
with the Government in accordance with the Law on Churches and
Religious Organizations.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. Although the majority of citizens are nominally Lutheran,
ecumenical services during national days, Christian holidays, or at
public events are common. Tensions between the ethnic Estonian and
ethnic Russian populations occasionally do spill over into religious
matters. Most of the country's Russian-speaking people profess
Orthodoxy, while the Estonian majority is predominantly Lutheran.
Citizens are generally tolerant of new religions and foreign
missionaries but are wary of those they regard as cults. Although such
groups seem to cause some discomfort among citizens, there have been no
problems noted. Government officials regard developments such as the
Satanist group's recent announcement of its intention to register with
the Religious Affairs Department as an indication of the group's
intention to abide with the laws and government guidelines.
There is a deep-seated tradition of tolerance of other
denominations and religions.
In 1998 there was an incident in which youths vandalized a Jewish
cemetery. The police investigated and arrested the perpetrators. The
Rabbi of Estonia attributed the incident to drunken hooliganism. During
the period covered by this report, two instances of theft involving 40
religious icons occurred. There were no reports of vandalism. In the
former case, the Interior Ministry provided funding to equip the
parishes affected with alarm systems.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy meets regularly with a wide range of figures in
Estonian religious circles. Embassy officials monitored the dispute
over property issues involving the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church
and the Russian Orthodox Church and met with representatives of both
sides.
Embassy officials regularly visit religious sites in Tallinn and
elsewhere in the country and are monitoring the reformulation in
parliamentary committee of the new Law on Churches and Congregations.
__________
FINLAND
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. There are two state
churches, the Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Orthodox Church. All
citizens who belong to one of these state churches pay a church tax as
part of their income tax. These church taxes are used to defray the
costs of running the state churches. State churches also handle
services such as recording births, deaths, and marriages, which
normally would be handled by municipalities and counties. Those who do
not want to pay the tax must inform the applicable state church that
they are leaving that church. All religions are eligible for some tax
relief (e.g., they may receive tax-free donations), provided they are
registered with the Government as religious communities.
The Ministry of Education has outlined requirements for recognition
of religious communities. Religious groups should have at least 20
members. The purpose of the group should be the public practice of
religion, and the activities of the community should be guided by a set
of rules. Forty-five of these communities currently are recognized as
churches.
The Government's procedures for recognizing religious communities
are still under review. The current Law on Freedom of Religion, which
has been described as technically unclear, dates from 1923, and
proposed amendments aim to clarify the requirements for recognizing and
registering religious communities, and to increase opportunities to
practice one's faith and to belong to several religious groups
simultaneously. The government commission working on the amendments
submitted an interim report to the Ministry of Education in October
1999. The amended law would--for the first time--define what it means
to ``profess'' and ``practice'' a religion. The registration, as
churches, of religious groups would be facilitated and their
independence would be enhanced. The interim law also proposes that a
separate law on funerals be passed. Under present practices, those not
belonging to an established church often are subject to excessive
burial expenses.
The proposed amendments also could benefit Scientology, which has
failed to gain recognition as a religion. In December 1998, the
Education Ministry turned down the application of the Finnish
Association of Scientologists to be registered as a religious
community. This was the first time in the country's history that an
applicant had been denied church status. The Scientologists'
application had been pending for nearly 3 years while the Government
awaited additional information that it had requested from the
Association. (The Association acknowledged that it had not followed up
on the Government's request.) The Education Ministry's decision can be
appealed to the Supreme Administrative Court. The Scientologists have
not yet done so but have indicated that they intend to begin the
process anew and reapply for recognition as a church.
Religious Demography
The majority of the population belongs to one of the two state
churches. Eighty-six percent are members of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church and 1 percent belong to the Orthodox Church. Twelve percent of
the population do not belong to any religious denomination.
Nontraditional religious groups freely profess and propagate their
beliefs. Such groups as Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) have been active in the country
for decades. Other groups include the Catholic, Muslim, and Jewish
communities. However, the number of persons belonging to non-state
religions totals only 1 percent of the population.
The proposed amendments to the Law on Religion also could change
religious instruction in public schools. Currently, instruction in the
tenets of the state religions is incorporated into the curriculum of
all public schools. However, students who are not members of the state
churches may substitute general classes on religion and philosophy. The
new amendments would allow parents or guardians belonging to other
faiths/denominations to decide in what religion their children should
be instructed.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of forced religious conversion of minor U.S.
citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Active members of the state Lutheran Church attend services
regularly, participate in small church group activities, and vote in
parish elections. However, the majority of church members are only
nominal members of the state church and do not participate actively.
Their participation occurs mainly during occasions such as holidays,
weddings, and funerals. The Lutheran Church's Information Center
reports that in 1998 2 percent of members attended church services
weekly, and 10 percent attended monthly. The average number of visits
to church by church members was 1.7 during 1998.
Some citizens are not very receptive to proselytizing by adherents
of nontraditional faiths, in part due to the tendency to regard
religion as a private matter.
Nontraditional religious groups practice their religions freely.
They are generally free from discrimination despite intolerant
attitudes from some members of society.
There is an extremely small but growing immigrant population, whose
members tend to practice different faiths than those of most citizens.
Many immigrants are Muslims from Somalia. Immigrants do not encounter
difficulties in practicing their faiths; however, they sometimes
encounter random discrimination and xenophobia.
Various government programs available through the Ministry of
Education and the Ministry of Labor focus on ongoing discrimination,
including discrimination based on religion. Studies and research,
integration programs, and recommendations for further incorporation of
immigrants into society have been the focal points of these programs.
Religion has not been highlighted, in particular, but remains a part of
the Government's overall attempts to combat discrimination.
The state churches often speak out in support of the Finnish/Nordic
welfare state model, couching social welfare state values in religious
or moral terms.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy representatives periodically meet with representatives of the
various religious communities (both mainstream and nontraditional) to
discuss religious freedom issues.
__________
FRANCE
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government--including the legislative branch--took some actions during
the period covered by this report that affected religious minorities
that it considers to be ``sects.'' The 1905 law on separation of church
and state--the foundation of current legislation on religious freedom--
makes it illegal to discriminate on the basis of faith.
There was no change in the general status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report.
Relations among the various religions are generally amicable;
however, there were instances of threats and violence against members
of religious minorities.
The U.S. Embassy maintained active contact with government
officials on the issue of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government--including the legislative branch--took some actions during
the period covered by this report that affected religious minorities
that it considers to be ``sects.'' (A ``cult'' or ``culte'' is
generally considered to be a ``religion.'' Cults are considered to be
positive elements in society, while ``sects'' or ``sectes'' are defined
as ``persons who profess the same doctrine,'' often with a negative
connotation.) The 1905 law on separation of church and state--the
foundation of current legislation on religious freedom--makes it
illegal to discriminate on the basis of faith.
The Government uses many categories to describe associations. Two
of these categories apply to religious groups: ``associations
cultuelles'' (associations of worship, which are exempt from taxes) and
``associations culturelles'' (cultural associations, which are not
exempt from taxes). Associations in these two categories are subject to
certain management and financial disclosure requirements. An
association of worship can organize only religious activities, which
are defined as liturgical services and practices. It may not operate a
school or employ a board president. A cultural association, on the
other hand, is a type of association whose goal is to promote the
culture of a certain group, including a religious group. Although a
cultural association is not exempt from taxes, it may receive
government subsidies for its cultural and educational operations (such
as schools). Religious groups normally use both of these categories;
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, for example, runs
strictly religious activities through its association of worship and
operates a school under its cultural association.
Religious groups must apply with the local prefecture to be
recognized as an association of worship and, therefore, receive tax-
exempt status for their religious activities under the 1905 statute.
The prefecture, upon reviewing the documentation supplied regarding the
association's purpose for existence, can then grant that status. In
order to qualify, the purpose of the group must be solely the practice
of some form of religious ritual. Printing publications, employing a
board president, or running a school can disqualify a group from
receiving tax-exempt status.
According to the 1905 law, associations of worship are not taxed on
the donations that they receive. However, the prefecture can decide to
review a group's status if the association receives a large donation or
legacy that comes to the attention of the tax authorities. If the
prefecture determines that the association is not in fact in conformity
with the 1905 law, its status can be changed, and it can be required to
pay a 60 percent tax rate on present and past donations.
According to statistics published by the Ministry of the Interior,
109 of 1,138 Protestant associations, 15 of 147 Jewish associations,
and 2 of 1,050 Muslim associations currently have tax-free status.
Roughly 100 Catholic associations are tax exempt; a representative of
the Ministry of the Interior reports that the total number of non-tax-
exempt Catholic associations is too numerous to estimate accurately.
For historical reasons, contrary to practice in the rest of the
country, the Jewish, Lutheran, Reformed (Protestant), and Roman
Catholic groups in three departments of Alsace-Lorraine enjoy special
legal status in terms of taxation of individuals donating to these
religious groups. Adherents of these four religions may choose to have
a portion of their income tax allocated to their church in a system
administered by the central government.
The State subsidizes private schools, including those that are
affiliated with churches.
Central or local governments own and maintain religious buildings
constructed before 1905, the date of the law separating church and
state. In Alsace and Moselle, special laws allow the local government
to provide support for the building of religious edifices. For example,
in April 2000, the mayor of Strasbourg proposed granting a tract of
land and subsidizing construction costs for a new mosque. The decision
provoked controversy in the Muslim community, part of which supported a
different project. In May 2000, the city council decided to support
both projects.
Religious Demography
The Government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation.
The vast majority of the population is nominally Roman Catholic,
although many Catholics do not practice their faith actively. According
to one member of the Catholic hierarchy, only 8 percent of the
population are actually practicing Catholics. Muslims constitute the
second largest religious group in number; Islam has approximately 4
million adherents in France. According to the Ministry of the Interior,
there are 1,536 mosques or prayer rooms in metropolitan France.
According to various estimates, about 6 percent of the country's
citizens are unaffiliated; Protestants account for 2 percent; and the
Jewish and Buddhist populations each account for 1 percent. Jehovah's
Witnesses claim that 250,000 persons attend their services either
regularly or periodically. According to various estimates, Orthodox
Christians number between 80,000 and 100,000; the vast majority of
these persons are associated with the Greek or Russian Orthodox
Churches. The Jewish community numbers between 600,000 and 700,000
persons and is divided among Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox groups.
According to press reports, up to 60 percent of the Jewish community
celebrates at most only the high holy days such as Yom Kippur and Rosh
Hashanah. One Jewish community leader has reported that of the
practicing Jews in the country, the largest number are Orthodox.
Religion is not taught in public schools. Parents may home school
children for religious reasons, but all schooling must conform to the
standards established for public schools. Public schools make an effort
to supply special meals for students with religious dietary
restrictions.
The Government has made efforts to promote inter-faith
understanding. The Government also has strict anti-defamation laws
prohibiting racially or religiously motivated attacks. For example, the
Government has programs to combat racism and anti-Semitism through
public awareness campaigns, and by encouraging dialog between local
officials, police, and citizen groups.
The Minister of the Interior has met periodically with various
representatives of the Muslim community to encourage the creation of a
Muslim council to discuss that community's religious concerns; however,
internal divisions have prevented Muslim leaders from responding
positively.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government's response to some minority groups that it views as
``sects'' has been to encourage public caution. In 1995 the National
Assembly formed a parliamentary commission, known as the Gest or the
Guyard Commission (after the names of its chairman and rapporteur
respectively), to study so-called ``sects.'' In 1996 the Commission
issued a report that defined sects as groups that place inordinate
importance on finances; cause a rupture between adherents and their
families; are responsible for physical as well as psychological attacks
on members; recruit children; profess ``anti-social'' ideas; disturb
public order; have ``judiciary problems;'' and/or attempt to infiltrate
organs of the State. Government officials have stated that ``sects''
are ``associations whose structure is ideological and totalitarian and
whose behavior seriously oppresses fundamental liberties as well as
social equilibrium.'' (These attributes are in addition to specific
criminal behavior prohibited by law.)
The Commission's report identified 173 groups as sects, including
Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Scientology. The report was
prepared without the benefit of full and complete hearings regarding
the groups identified on the list. Groups were not told why they were
placed on the list, and, because the document exists as a commission
report to the National Assembly, there is no mechanism for changing or
amending the list short of a new National Assembly Commission inquiry
and report.
The ensuing publicity contributed to an atmosphere of intolerance
and bias against minority religions. Some religious groups reported
that their members suffered increased intolerance after having been
identified on the list. The Commission's findings also led to calls for
legislative action to restrict the activities of sects, which the
Government rejected on grounds of religious freedom. Instead, the
Justice Ministry issued a directive to all government entities to be
vigilant against possible abuses by sects and to monitor potentially
abusive sect activities.
In 1996 the Government created an interministerial working group on
sects (known as the Observatory on Sects) to analyze the phenomenon of
sects and to develop proposals for dealing with them. The working
group's final report in 1996 made several proposals, including granting
legal standing to organizations that oppose sects, thereby allowing
them to initiate civil actions against sects; a modification of the law
requiring associations to divulge information regarding the sources and
management of their finances related to their effort to obtain tax-
exempt status; a limit on the allocation of public campaign funds in
order to limit public financial support for small fringe groups; the
creation of a representative in each prefecture to provide information
on sects to local officials; the creation of a permanent commission at
the European Union level to reinforce international cooperation in
controlling sect activities; and measures to restrict group members'
entry into professional training programs.
In October 1998, the Government issued a new decree disbanding the
Observatory on Sects and creating an ``Interministerial Mission to
Battle Against Sects'' (mission interministerielle de lutte contre les
sectes, or MILS). Although the decree instructs the MILS to ``analyze
the phenomenon of sects,'' it does not define what is meant by the term
``sect,'' or how sects differ from religions. The MILS also is charged
with serving as a coordinator of periodic interministerial meetings, at
which government officials are to exchange information and coordinate
their actions against sects.
On February 7, 2000, the Interministerial Mission for the Fight
Against Sects submitted its first annual report to the Prime Minister,
which addressed the perceived problem of ``sects.'' Publication of the
report had been delayed; according to press reports, the delay was due
to government reservations about the content of the report, which
reportedly advocated new legislation aimed at abolishing a number of
so-called ``dangerous sects.'' The Prime Minister's office, as well as
some prominent government figures, publicly opposed such measures,
citing concerns about the constitutional protection of ``freedom of
conscience.'' The report specifically raised the possibility of the
dissolution of movements which, being ``in essence and in action
totalitarian'' are dangerous to their members and to democracy in
general. The report urged government action to deal with sects or cults
according to their degree of dangerousness, such as groups that limit
personal freedoms of members, ``new age'' groups, and ``absolutist''
groups that are totalitarian in nature. However, the report did not
advocate new legislation to abolish groups considered to be dangerous.
The report presented two options: The use of criminal cases against
individuals for violating existing laws, which rarely is done, and the
use of existing administrative and political means--a 1936 decree
against ``factious leagues''--which would require action by the Council
of Ministers and the assent of the President. The report specifically
cited concerns regarding the Church of Scientology and the ``Solar
Temple'' group.
In December 1998, a deputy introduced a private bill in the
National Assembly that would allow anti-sect groups, classified as
having ``state-approved'' (``utilites publiques'') status, to become
parties to court actions involving sects. Its main provisions, with
some modifications, were integrated into a separate bill on legal
reform aimed at strengthening the presumption of innocence and victims'
rights. That bill, which became law in June 2000, allows associations
that defend or aid an individual or a collective entity against a
person or organization that is characterized as having the goal or the
effect of creating or exploiting a psychological or physical dependence
to have standing in judicial proceedings. Still further modifications
of this law, which would limit this standing to associations classified
as ``utilites publiques,'' are contained in pending legislation on
``sects.''
In December 1998, the National Assembly created a new parliamentary
commission to study the way that sects are financed. In June 1999, the
National Assembly released its second report on ``sects,'' which
addressed the finances of the groups. The report was based on
questionnaires sent to groups listed as ``sects'' in the 1995
parliamentary report, requesting detailed information about the
finances of these groups, including donations, investments, financial
activities, and other sources of income. The report focused on
multinational groups, especially Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of
Scientology. The stated basis of concern was that these groups may use
excessive or dishonest means to obtain donations, which then are
transferred out of the country and beyond the reach of French tax
authorities. The report also raised questions about volunteers, who
should be compensated under the law for having provided uncompensated
labor to ``for-profit'' organizations.
In March 2000, a Paris Correctional Court fined National Assembly
Deputy Jacques Guyard, the president of the 1999 Parliamentary
Commission of Inquiries Against Sects and a drafter of the 1996
National Assembly report on so-called ``sects,'' approximately $16,500
(90,000 francs) in damages to three groups that were named in the June
1999 parliamentary report. These three groups--the Federation of
Steiner Schools, the New Brotherly Economy, and ``le Mercure Federal''
(an anthroposophical medical association)--had charged Guyard with
slander for labeling the groups as ``sects'' in a June 1999 television
interview. The court found that Guyard had made accusations against
these groups when existing evidence did not warrant even a serious
inquiry into their activities. The court noted that the National
Assembly report resulted from written declarations from persons
claiming to be victims of anthroposophy, but that the Commission had
not heard any of the claims in person, and that there was no supporting
documentation for accusations that the groups had used mental
manipulation, pressure to give money, or practical medicine that
endangered lives. The court rejected Guyard's later attempts to qualify
his statements, and also rejected a request from Guyard's lawyer for
parliamentary immunity, stating that Guyard's high position as head of
the Commission would cause his remarks to have substantial influence on
the public.
In June 2000, the National Assembly passed on its first reading a
private bill that would tighten restrictions on religious and other
organizations. This bill--which amended an earlier version that had
originated in and had been passed by the Senate in December 1999--
included the following clauses: (1) criteria for the dissolution of so-
called ``sects,'' (2) the prohibition of sect publicity in
``vulnerable'' areas (i.e., near schools and hospitals), (3)
prohibition of the reconstitution of dissolved ``sects'' under a
different name, and (4) establishment of the new crime of ``mental
manipulation.'' This bill was sent back to the Senate, where it may
receive a second reading as early as late October 2000. However,
various sources indicate that this proposed legislation, in its current
form, is unlikely to become law prior to early 2001, if at all. The
Justice Minister, who attended the National Assembly vote, noted that
certain provisions of the bill would help ``victims'' of ``sects,'' but
warned that other provisions might threaten fundamental liberties, such
as freedom of association and belief. She questioned whether certain
clauses were in conformity with the European Convention on Human Rights
and called for a ``parallel reflection'' on these points to be
organized by human rights groups when the Senate reconsidered the bill
in the fall.
The Government has not outlawed any of the groups on the list;
however, several groups have reported that they have experienced
discrimination since the publication of the 1996 parliamentary
commission report. For example, leaders of l'Institut Theologique de
Nimes (ITN), a private Bible college founded in 1989, claim that the
institute and its members began experiencing discrimination in 1996,
after the group was named on the 1995 list. The founder and leader,
Louis Demeo, is head pastor at an associated church (Eglise Evangelique
de la Grace), which also runs a private high school and a private
primary school. However, the church itself was not named on the list.
The Church of Scientology claims that its members have been targets of
discriminatory behavior.
Local authorities often determine the treatment of religious
minorities. For example, in April 1999, an official of a district of
Paris refused in writing a request to stage an art exhibition on city
property because of the applicant's affiliation with the Church of
Scientology. The Association of the Triumphant Vajra also has been
involved in a dispute with local officials over the building of a
statue and a temple. Alleging unfair treatment on religious grounds,
the association mounted a public campaign, which included an appeal to
the European Court of Human Rights, to prevent application of a Court
of Cassation ruling upholding a lower court order to tear down a statue
that allegedly had been erected without a permit.
Some observers are concerned about the scrutiny with which tax
authorities have examined the financial records of some religious
groups. According to the 1905 law separating church and state,
religious associations are not taxed on voluntary donations that they
receive, although all churches pay taxes on certain activities.
Religious groups must differentiate between activities carried out as
an association of worship (``cultuelle''), which are not taxed, and
activities carried out as a cultural association, which are subject to
tax. The Government currently does not recognize the Church of
Scientology or some branches of Jehovah's Witnesses as qualifying
religious associations, and therefore subjects them to a 60 percent tax
on all funds that they receive.
In January 1996, the tax authorities began an audit of the French
Association of Jehovah's Witnesses, and in May 1998, formally assessed
the 60 percent tax against all donations received by Jehovah's
Witnesses from September 1992 through August 1996. In June 1998, tax
authorities began proceedings to collect the assessed tax, including
steps to place a lien on the property of the National Consistory of
Jehovah's Witnesses. The total amount claimed--including taxes,
penalties, and interest--is over $42 million (300 million francs).
However, in June 2000, the Conseil d'Etat, the highest administrative
court in the country, decided that two of the branches of Jehovah's
Witnesses could be recognized as religious associations according to
the 1905 law, and thus be exonerated from certain tax obligations.
Separately, in July 2000, a Nanterre court decided against the French
Association of Jehovah's Witnesses, confirming the necessity to pay the
approximately $42 million (300 million francs) in back-taxes to the
fiscal authorities. The case was sent to an appeals court, and the tax
proceeding continued throughout 2000.
Authorities also have taken action against the Church of
Scientology. Tax claims asserted in 1994-95 against several Scientology
churches forced them into bankruptcy. In the case of the Paris church,
the Ministry of Finance refused to grant the church authorization to
import funds to pay the claimed taxes even though the church offered to
pay the total amount of all taxes assessed. In December 1997, the
Government filed legal action for the claimed amount against former
officers of the Paris church and against the Church of Scientology
International (a California nonprofit organization). The hearing in
this legal action was deferred pending a decision regarding an
administrative claim by the Paris church that the Minister of Finance
acted improperly in refusing to allow the church to import funds to pay
the assessed taxes. In January 1999, the Conseil d'Etat requested the
advice of the European Court of Justice, and on March 14, 2000, the
Court ruled that French law was incompatible with European Union laws
regulating the free flow of capital. However, the Court ruled that such
regulations could be allowed if required on the grounds of a threat to
public security or public policy. The Conseil d'Etat overturned the tax
assessment. However, the judgment's practical effect was limited
because the affected churches had dissolved themselves and been
reconstituted in the intervening period under different names.
A number of court cases have been initiated against the Church of
Scientology. These cases generally involved former members who have
sued the Church for fraud and sometimes for the practice of medicine
without a license. According to representatives from the Church of
Scientology, there also have been cases under the data privacy act
brought against the group by former members who have continued to
receive mailings from the parent church in the United States. A 1999
case in the Marseille Correctional Court received wide media attention
after judicial officials admitted that 3.5 tons of documents pertaining
to the case had been destroyed by mistake. In November 1999, the
Marseille court in that case found a former local leader of the Church
of Scientology and four other church employees guilty of fraud for
swindling money from former members. The court sentenced the local
leader to 2 years in prison, of which 18 months were suspended and the
remaining 6 months served prior to sentencing, and a fine of
approximately $16,700 (100,000 francs). The other four members received
suspended sentences; charges against two other persons were dropped.
Problems experienced by Muslims appear to be based on cultural
rather than on religious differences. Debate continues over whether
denying some Muslim girls the right to wear headscarves in public
schools constitutes a violation of the right to practice their
religion. In 1989 the Conseil d'Etat ruled that the ``ostentatious''
wearing of these headscarves violated a law prohibiting proselytizing
in schools. After much unfavorable media attention to the wearing of
such headscarves, the Ministry of Education issued a directive in 1994
that prohibits the wearing of ``ostentatious political and religious
symbols'' in schools. The directive does not specify the ``symbols'' in
question, leaving school administrators considerable authority to do
so. The Conseil d'Etat in 1995 affirmed that simply wearing a headscarf
does not provide grounds for exclusion from school and subsequently
struck down some decisions to expel girls for wearing headscarves. The
decision about whether or not headscarves or other religious articles
are ``ostentatious'' rests with the director of each school. Various
reports indicate that, while some school directors permit the wearing
of headscarves, others do not. Students are free to pursue their right
to wear religious articles of clothing through the court system, and
the courts have ruled upon a number of cases regarding headscarves. The
outcome of these cases varies, and no national decision has yet been
taken to rule definitively on whether or not the wearing of headscarves
should be allowed.
Foreign missionaries must obtain a 3-month tourist visa before
leaving their own country. Upon arrival missionaries must apply with
the local prefecture for a carte de sejour (a document that allows a
foreigner to remain in the country for a given period of time), and
then must give the prefecture a letter from their sponsoring religious
organization.
On October 21, 1999, the Court of Cassation upheld a Bordeaux
court's 1998 conviction of Maurice Papon for his actions as secretary
general of the prefecture of Gironde from 1942 to 1944. Papon was found
guilty of complicity in committing crimes against humanity for his role
in the deportation of hundreds of Jews to Nazi concentration camps
during the World War II German occupation. The Bordeaux court had
sentenced Papon to 10 years' imprisonment; however, he remained on bail
pending the outcome of his appeal to the Court of Cassation. Just
before that court's ruling, Papon fled to Switzerland. His failure to
appear resulted in an automatic rejection of his appeal. On October 22,
he was arrested in Switzerland and returned to France, where he remains
in prison. According to press reports, his lawyer intends to take the
case to the European Court of Human Rights.
There was no change in the general status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Inter-faith relations at a popular level are amicable.
The annual National Consultative Commission on Human Rights (NCCHR)
report on racism and xenophobia, released in March 2000, noted an
increase in the number of attacks against Jews after a steady downward
trend since 1992, although the number of anti-Semitic threats continued
to decline. In 1999 there were 9 reported attacks and 52 reported
threats, compared with 1 and 73 respectively in 1998. The attacks
recorded in 1999 occurred throughout the country and included three
assaults, three acts of vandalism, and three attempts to set fire to
synagogues. There were also occasional attacks on members of the large
Arab/Muslim community.
The Conseil des Eglises Chretiens en France (CECEF), formed in 1987
and made up of three Protestant members, three Catholics, and three
Orthodox Christians, serves as a forum for dialog among the major
Christian churches. There is also an organized inter-faith dialog among
the Christian, Buddhist, Muslim, and Jewish communities, which discuss
and issue statements on various national and international issues. The
Ministry of Interior has urged the creation of a Muslim council to
discuss that community's religious concerns, but internal divisions
have prevented Muslim leaders from responding positively.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintained active contact with government
officials on the issue of religious freedom. Representatives from the
Embassy have met several times with government officials and members of
the Parliament. Embassy representatives also meet regularly with a
variety of private citizens and nongovernmental organizations involved
in the issue. Several other visiting officials, including Ambassador-
at-Large for Religious Freedom Robert Seiple, also discussed religious
freedom issues with senior French officials.
__________
GEORGIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, local
police and security officials at times harassed foreign and local
missionaries and their congregations.
Overall, in the period covered by this report there was a slight
improvement in the status of religious freedom in some areas. Some
lower courts sought to render more objective decisions in cases
involving religious issues by remitting cases to expert panels.
The Government and the public generally do not interfere with
traditional religions; however, there continued to be incidents in
which politicians and local authorities either participated in or did
not prevent harassment of nontraditional religious groups.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government and the Government has been cooperative, particularly in
dealing with issues related to Jehovah's Witnesses.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, local
police and security officials at times harassed foreign and local
missionaries and their congregations. The Constitution recognizes the
special role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the country's history,
but also stipulates the independence of the Church from the State.
Throughout the country's history, the Georgian Orthodox Church has
been a key rallying point for patriotic sentiment. The Church has
lobbied Parliament and the Government for laws that would grant it
special status and restrict the activities of missionaries from
``nontraditional'' (mostly Protestant evangelical) religions that might
draw Orthodox believers, especially ethnic Georgians, away from it. The
Georgian Orthodox Church enjoys a tax-exempt status not available to
other religions. Various draft laws, some modeled on the Russian law on
religion, have been introduced but thus far have not been adopted by
Parliament. Currently, a concordat between the State and the Church,
which would delineate the Church's rights and responsibilities, is also
under consideration. A number of nongovernmental organizations (NGO's)
have criticized the proposed concordat. They argue that the concordat
would grant the Church the status of a government ministry without the
necessary accompanying oversight and that such a concordat would grant
the Church too many powers in procurement, licensing, and property
ownership. The Church also wants to have religious education in
schools. Some NGO's have argued that the Government has supported the
Georgian Orthodox Church through the state budget by financing poverty
programs and reconstruction of churches.
There are no laws that require the registration of religious
groups. However, religious groups that perform humanitarian works, the
Salvation Army among them, must be registered as charitable
organizations.
There are no statutes or regulations related specifically to
religious freedom. Currently, there is a debate as to whether a legal
regime is needed to complement the constitutional protections of
freedom of religion and if so, what form it should take, for example,
whether there should be concordats individually with each religion and
group or a law applied universally.
Religious Demography
Most ethnic Georgians (approximately 70 percent of the population
of 5 million, according to the 1989 census) nominally associate
themselves with the Georgian Orthodox Church. Orthodox churches serving
other non-Georgian ethnic groups, such as Russians and Greeks, are
subordinate to the Georgian Orthodox Church but generally use the
language of their communicants. In addition, there are a small number
of (mostly ethnic Russian) believers from three dissident Orthodox
schools: the Malakani; Storoveriy (Old Believers); and Dukhoboriy, the
majority of whom have left the country. The period of Soviet rule saw a
sharp decline in the number of active churches and priests, as well as
a near-total absence of religious education. As a result, the level of
religious practice is relatively low. Membership in the Georgian
Orthodox Church has continued to increase since independence in 1991.
It maintains 4 theological seminaries, 2 academies, several schools,
and 27 church dioceses. According to the Church, it has 700 priests,
250 monks, and 150 nuns. The Church is headed by a Catholicos
Patriarch, Ilya II, whose See is in Tbilisi.
Women and older persons predominate at the Church's services, and
worshippers often only remain long enough to genuflect and light a
candle. Financial restrictions limit the church's ability to train its
clergy fully or perform any pastoral functions beyond the liturgy.
Like many other religious institutions during the Soviet era, the
Georgian Orthodox Church largely was suppressed; many churches were
destroyed or turned into museums, concert halls, and other secular
establishments. As a result of the new policies of the Soviet
Government toward religion in the late 1980's, the present Patriarch
began reconsecrating churches formerly closed throughout the country.
The Church remains very active in the restoration of these religious
facilities and is lobbying the Government for the return of properties
that were held by the Church before the Bolshevik Revolution. (Church
authorities have claimed that 20 to 30 percent of the land at one time
belonged to the Church.)
Several religions, including the Armenian Apostolic Church,
traditionally have coexisted with Georgian Orthodoxy. A large number of
Armenians live in the southern Javakheti region, where they constitute
a majority of the population. Islam is prevalent among Azerbaijani and
north Caucasus ethnic communities in the eastern part of the country
and also may be found in the regions of Ajara and Abkhazia. Some 5
percent of the population are nominally Muslim. Judaism, which has been
present since ancient times, is practiced in a number of communities
throughout the country, especially in the largest cities of Tbilisi and
Kutaisi. Approximately 8,000 Jews remain, following two large waves of
emigration, the first in the early 1970's and the second in the period
of perestroika during the late 1980's. Before that, Jewish officials
estimate, there were as many as 100,000 Jews in the country. There are
also small numbers of Roman Catholic and Lutheran worshipers among
communities that settled in the country in the 17th to 19th centuries.
A small number of Kurdish Yezidis have lived in Georgia for centuries.
Since the demise of the Soviet Union, Protestant denominations have
become more prominent, including Baptists (composed of Russian,
Georgian, Armenian, Ossetian, and Kurdish groups); Seventh-Day
Adventists; Pentecostals (both Georgian and Russian); Jehovah's
Witnesses (local representatives say that the group has been in the
country since 1953 and has about 40,000 adherents); the New Apostolic
Church; and the Assemblies of God. There are also a few Baha'is, and
Hare Krishnas. There are no available membership numbers for these
groups, but combined, their membership probably totals about 100,000
persons.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Some nationalist politicians continue to use the views and the
institution of the Georgian Orthodox Church as their platform, and
criticized some Protestant groups, especially evangelical groups, as
subversive. Jehovah's Witnesses in particular are the subject of
attacks from such politicians.
In April 1999, a nationalist parliamentarian opened a court case
against Jehovah's Witnesses, seeking to ban the group on the grounds
that it presents a threat to the State and the Georgian Orthodox
Church. Lawyers for Jehovah's Witnesses argued that the suit violates
the Constitution and appealed to a higher court to have the case thrown
out. The Supreme Court dismissed the challenge in June 1999, and the
case was heard. On February 29, 2000, the IsaniSamgori district court
dismissed the lawsuit based on the opinion of an expert academic panel.
The case was appealed to the Tbilisi district appeals court and on June
23, 2000, the court ruled in favor of the plaintiff. Jehovah's
Witnesses planned to appeal.
Many of the problems among traditional religious groups stem from
arguments over property. The Roman Catholic and Armenian Apostolic
Churches have been unable to secure the return of their churches and
other facilities closed during the Soviet period, many of which later
were given to the Georgian Orthodox Church by the State. A prominent
Armenian church in Tbilisi remains closed and the Roman Catholic Church
and the Armenian Apostolic Church, as is the case with Protestant
denominations, have had difficulty obtaining permission to construct
new churches, reportedly in part as a result of pressure from the
Georgian Orthodox Church. Georgian Orthodox Church authorities have
accused Armenian believers of purposely altering some existing Georgian
churches so that they would be mistaken for Armenian churches. At
present, these groups are taking such arguments to court. The Catholic
Church did complete successfully the construction of a new church in
Tbilisi in 1999 and one in Batumi in June 2000.
The Jewish community also experienced delays in the return of
property confiscated during Soviet rule. A former synagogue, rented
from the Government by a theater group, was ordered by the courts to be
returned to the Jewish community in 1997. The theater group refused to
comply and started a publicity campaign with anti-Semitic overtones to
justify its continued occupation of the building. In December 1998,
President Shevardnadze promised Jewish leaders that the synagogue would
be returned before the 2,600-year celebration of Jewish settlement.
However, the President's order was not enforced, and the building
remains in the hands of the theater group. The theater group has
brought suit, claiming that the building was never a synagogue. The
court remitted the issue to a panel of experts for evaluation. In May
2000, the panel informed the court that it had come to a split decision
on whether the building had been a synagogue. The court reconvened on
June 29, 2000 but had not rendered a ruling by the end of the period
covered by this report.
Pressure from the Georgian Orthodox Church on the Ministry of
Education prevented the use of school textbooks to which the Church
objected (see Section II). By law all school textbooks must be approved
by the Ministry of Education, in consultation with various ministries
and the office of the Patriarch. Two textbooks were refused licenses
due to the disapproval of the Georgian Orthodox Church. In one case,
the office of the Patriarch vetoed the textbook, and the Ministry of
Education therefore refused to grant the license. In the other, the
Ministry of Education granted the license, but a committee of concerned
Orthodox parents, which the office of the Patriarch publicly
acknowledged was its creation, successfully sued the Ministry of
Education to rescind the license.
Governmental Abuses of Freedom of Religion
Members of a number of Protestant--particularly evangelical--
organizations continued to be detained or otherwise harassed by local
police. These groups also reported some incidents of harassment outside
Tbilisi by Georgian Orthodox priests and their supporters. They also
complain of instances when either the local police failed to intervene
in a mob situation or the Procuracy failed to move court cases forward
(see Section II). Many observers believe that the local police have the
sanction, or think that they have the sanction, of the central
Government for their actions. Although Jehovah's Witnesses note a
decrease in harassment by local police, they argue that local officials
have changed their strategy and now employ new tactics, attempting to
provoke verbally Jehovah's Witnesses rather than initiating the
harassment themselves.
On October 17, 1999, a worship service of 120 parishioners in the
Gldani district of Tbilisi was attacked violently by members of a
renegade Georgian Orthodox group. (The leader of this group was
excommunicated from the Church due to his radical and often
confrontational stance.) The Gldani police refused to intervene.
Sixteen persons were injured in the attack. On December 25, 1999, the
case was forwarded to the Gldani prosecutor's office for criminal
charges. Despite the advocacy by the National Security Advisor for
human rights on Jehovah's Witnesses behalf, in January 2000, the Gldani
regional prosecutor's office returned the case to the city prosecutor's
office, stating that no violation had occurred. The group continues to
press for prosecution of the police's behavior in this and similar
subsequent incidents. Instead the official in charge of the
investigation decided in June 2000 to charge one of the plaintiffs with
hooliganism (see Section II).
Several members of another evangelical group, the Assemblies of
God, were beaten and abused verbally by police officials while
conducting outdoor services in the Gldani region of Tbilisi in May
1999. The officials sought to obtain the names of the church members.
The group asserts that it continues to be under local police
surveillance. A number of members of the congregation were hesitant to
return to their apartments and cars for a few days. In September 1999
the group brought suit against the police and lost. The group alleged
that the leader of a radical Orthodox group exerted pressure on the
court. The appeal was pending in the Supreme Court as of June 30, 2000.
In August 1999, public services by four evangelical Protestant
congregations in Tbilisi were brought to a halt as a result of
hostility from the police and radical Orthodox activists. The churches
were able to resume public services only after the October 1999
parliamentary elections, because the police confiscated the
documentation they needed to rent appropriate premises, although in the
intervening period they continued to hold small-scale services in
private apartments. The police raided three Tbilisi meeting places in
late August 1999, halting services then in progress at two of them.
President Eduard Shevardnadze publicly condemned these acts but as of
mid-2000 there were no reports of any investigation of the police
involved. As of mid-2000 there were no reports that any Protestant
congregations in Tbilisi were unable to worship publicly.
In December 1999, Jehovah's Witnesses requested permission from the
city of Tbilisi to use its sports palace in July 2000 for a convention.
In April 2000, the city denied permission. In conversations with group
leaders, city officials indicated concern for the safety of the
attendees. Jehovah's Witnesses appealed this decision. The group
speculates that the city denied permission due to fear of pressure from
the Orthodox Church.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners in the
area of the country under the control of the Government.
Regular and reliable information about the ``Republic of
Abkhazia,'' which is not recognized by any country and over which the
Government of Georgia does not exercise control, is difficult to
obtain. The Abkhaz ``President,'' Vladislav Ardzimba, issued a decree
in 1995 that banned Jehovah's Witnesses in Abkhazia. It remains in
effect. A number of members of Jehovah's Witnesses have been detained
subsequently. Five persons who were detained in April 1999 for
violating the decree were released in early May 2000 after their
counsel argued that their detention violated a freedom of conscience
clause in the Abkhaz Constitution. According to a representative of
Jehovah's Witnesses, none were detained at the end of the period
covered by this report.
Overall, in the period covered by this report there was a slight
improvement in the status of religious freedom in some areas. Some
lower courts sought to render more objective decisions in cases
involving religious issues by remitting cases to expert panels. The
National Security Council representative for human rights as well as
the parliamentary Committee for Human Rights were effective advocates
for religious freedom and intervened successfully on a number of
occasions. During the period covered by this report, religious
organizations and NGO's noted that such efforts by elements within the
judiciary to improve the overall protection of religious freedom,
although the Procuracy remains unresponsive unless pressure is exerted.
There was still harassment of Protestant evangelical groups by local
officials, especially police, in certain areas. In some cases, the
officials apparently were influenced by the Georgian Orthodox Church.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There are no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The Georgian Orthodox Church withdrew its membership from the World
Council of Churches in 1997 in order to appease clerics strongly
opposed to some of the Council's requirements and methods of operation
and thereby avert a schism within the Church. Some senior church
leaders remain highly exclusionary and emphasize theirs as the ``one
true faith.'' Some Protestant groups--especially evangelical groups--
have been criticized by church officials and nationalist politicians as
subversive. Eleven leaders of the Georgian Orthodox Church have argued
that Christian missionaries should confine their activities to non-
Christian areas. Orthodox priests and their supporters, other religious
groups, local police, and security officials at times reportedly
harassed missionaries in rural areas and small towns, as well as
Tbilisi (see Section I).
According to some local human rights groups, as a result of
pressure from the Georgian Orthodox Church the Ministry of Education
prevented the use of two school textbooks on the history of religion
because they did not give absolute precedence to Orthodox Christianity
(see Section I).
The public's attitude towards religion is ambivalent. Even though
many residents are not particularly observant, the link between
Georgian Orthodoxy and Georgian ethnic and national identity is strong.
One local NGO believes that the public's tolerance of evangelical
groups is decreasing, which is being exploited by nationalistic
politicians. However, a number of members of the liberal intelligentsia
regard the Church as a bastion of conservative chauvinism. Some NGO's
advocate removing the clause in the Constitution concerning the
Church's special role, claiming that it contradicts the Constitution's
provisions regarding religious freedom.
The Islamic and Jewish communities report that they have
encountered few societal problems. There is no pattern of anti-
Semitism. Jewish leaders attribute isolated acts of anti-Semitism,
including the publication of anti-Semitic newspaper articles and the
destruction of Jewish communal property, to the country's general
instability and disorder. In the past, President Shevardnadze has made
statements criticizing anti-Semitic acts. There has been little
evidence of Islamic fundamentalist activity.
Pope John Paul II visited Tbilisi in November 1999 and was received
warmly. The Armenian Catholicos also visited the country in May 2000.
The occasional instances of religious intolerance are a reflection
of prejudice by church officials and ignorance of or disregard for the
law by certain local police and political authorities.
In May and June 1999, nationalist groups (i.e., supporters of
former President Zviad Gamsakhurdia) protested plans to send an
exhibition of artifacts and religious relics to the United States. The
Patriarchate also publicly objected to the exhibit. In the period prior
to the October 1999 parliamentary elections, opponents increased the
pressure with hunger strikes and public protests. The President decided
to cancel the exhibition.
In August 1999, hostility from police and radical Orthodox
activists halted services by four evangelical Protestant congregations
(see Section I).
In the winter and spring of 2000, followers of Jehovah's Witnesses
were attacked four times in the Gldani district of Tbilisi by radical
Orthodox activists. On April 19, 2000, in four different places in the
western part of the country, members of Jehovah's Witnesses were
attacked and the police failed to intervene.
Nationalistic politicians have manipulated the activities of
Jehovah's Witnesses in particular to excite public hostility. In April
2000, one politician inaccurately publicized the case of a hospitalized
member of Jehovah's Witnesses who refused certain forms of medical
treatment. The event was covered widely in the press and sparked a
brief public debate over religious beliefs and medical ethics.
On May 18, 2000, a radical religious group, called the Basilists
after their leader, Father Basilia, held a rally in front of Parliament
to protest the activities of nontraditional religious groups and NGO's.
Religious groups and observers believe that the media's coverage of
religious issues improved, to varying degrees; however, most agree that
the media often is biased in favor of the Georgian Orthodox Church and
uneducated on the issues being discussed.
In June 2000, ethnic Armenians blocked persons, including the
Patriarch, from entering a Georgian Orthodox Church in Ninotsminda, a
predominately ethnic Armenian city in the south. Both the Patriarch's
office and government representatives from the area believe that the
incident was socially, and not politically or religiously motivated.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy has sought to encourage the resolution of
complaints from religious groups that allege harassment by local
authorities, pointing out the importance of religious freedom. The
Embassy attended some court sessions of the Jehovah's Witnesses court
case. In addition, the Embassy promotes local awareness of religious
freedom by meeting regularly with officials from local and
international NGO's working on the issue. During the period covered by
this report, the Embassy discussed religious freedom issues with
representatives of the Georgian Orthodox Church, and of the Jewish,
Islamic, and Protestant faiths. In addition, the Embassy was in contact
on these issues with local and international human rights
organizations, as well as with government officials from the
legislative and executive branches who are concerned with religious and
human rights issues.
__________
GERMANY
The Basic Law (Constitution) provides for religious freedom, and
the Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
The Government does not recognize Scientology as a religion and views
it as an economic enterprise. Concerns that Scientology's ideology is
opposed to a democratic state have led to the screening of firms and
individuals in some sectors of business and employment.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The status of Scientology was the subject of many discussions.
The U.S. Government has maintained consistently that the determination
that any organization is religious is for the organization itself. The
U.S. Government has expressed concerns over infringement of individual
rights because of religious affiliation and over the potential for
discrimination in international trade posed by the screening of foreign
firms for possible affiliation with Scientology.
Many religions and denominations have been granted public
corporation status. Among them are the Lutheran and Catholic Churches
and Judaism, as well as the Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists,
Mennonites, Baptists, Methodists, Christian Scientists, and the
Salvation Army. The Berlin state government has denied Jehovah's
Witnesses public corporation status.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Basic Law (Constitution) provides for religious freedom, and
the Government generally respects this right in practice.
Religious organizations need not be registered. Most religious
organizations are registered and treated as nonprofit associations and,
therefore, enjoy tax-exempt status. State level authorities review
these submissions and routinely grant this status. Organizations must
register at a local or municipal court and provide evidence (through
their own statutes) that they are a religion and thus contribute
socially, spiritually, or materially to society. Local tax offices
occasionally conduct reviews of tax-exempt status.
Church and state are separate, although historically a special
partnership exists between the State and those religious communities
that have the status of a ``corporation under public law.'' If they
fulfill certain requirements, including assurance of permanency, size
of the organization, and an indispensable loyalty to the State,
organizations may request that they be granted ``public corporation''
status, which, among other things, entitles them to levy taxes on their
members that are collected for them by the State. Organizations pay a
fee to the Government for this service. Not all public corporations
avail themselves of this privilege. The decision to grant public
corporation status is made at the state level. State governments also
subsidize various institutions affiliated with public corporations,
such as church-run schools and hospitals.
State subsidies also are provided to some religious organizations
for historical and cultural reasons. Some Jewish synagogues have been
built with state financial assistance because of the State's role in
the destruction of synagogues in 1938 and throughout the Nazi period.
Repairs to and restoration of some Christian churches and monasteries
are undertaken with state financial support because of the
expropriation by the State of church lands in 1803 during the
Napoleonic period. Having taken from the churches the means with which
they earned money to repair their buildings, the State recognized an
obligation to cover the cost of those repairs. Subsidies are paid only
to those buildings affected by the 1803 reforms. Newer buildings do not
receive subsidies for upkeep.
Religious Demography
No census that could provide official statistics on religions and
creeds has been conducted since 1987. However, unofficial estimates and
figures provided by the organizations give an approximate breakdown of
the current membership of the country's denominations. The Evangelical
Church, which includes Lutheran, Uniate, and Reformed Protestant
Churches, has 27.4 million members, who constitute 33.4 percent of the
population. Statistical offices in the Church estimate that 1.1 million
church members (or 4 percent) attend weekly religious services. The
Catholic Church has a membership of 27.4 million or 33.4 percent of the
population. According to the Church's statistics, 4.8 million Catholics
(or 17.5 percent) actively participate in weekly services. Muslims make
up approximately 3.7 percent of the population, or about 3 million
persons.
Orthodox churches have approximately 1.1 million members, or 1.3
percent of the population. The Greek Orthodox Church is the largest,
with approximately 450,000 members. The Romanian Orthodox Church has
300,000 members. The Serbian Orthodox Church has 200,000 members. The
Russian Orthodox Church, Moscow Patriarchate has 50,000 members, while
the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad has approximately 28,000 members.
The Syrian Orthodox Church has 37,000 members, and the Armenian
Apostolic Orthodox Church has 35,000 members.
Other Christian churches have approximately 1 million members, or
1.2 percent of the population. These include Adventists with 35,000
members, the Apostolate of Jesus Christ with 18,000 members, the
Apostolate of Judah with 2,800 members, the Apostolic Community with
8,000 members, Baptists with 87,000 members, the Christian Congregation
with 12,000 members, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons) with 39,000 members, the Evangelical Brotherhood in Germany
with 7,200 members, Jehovah's Witnesses with 165,000 members, Menonites
with 6,500 members, Methodists with 66,000 members, the New Apostolic
Church with 430,000 members, Old Catholics with 25,000 members, the
Salvation Army with 2,000 members, Seventh-Day Adventists with 53,000
members, the Union of Free Evangelical Churches with 30,500 members,
the Union of Free Pentecostal Communities with 16,000 members, the
Temple Society with 250 members, and the Quakers with 335 members.
Jewish congregations have approximately 75,000 members and make up
0.1 percent of the population. According to press reports, the
country's Jewish population is growing rapidly, and more than 100,000
Jews from the former Soviet Union have joined the country's 30,000 Jews
since 1990. Authorities in the Cologne-based Federal Administrative
Office note that the pace of Jewish emigration from Russia has
increased in recent months.
The Unification Church has 850 members; the Church of Scientology
has 8,000 members; the Hare Krishna society has 5,000 members; the
Johannish Church has 3,500 members; the International Grail Movement
has 2,300 members; Ananda Marga has 3,000 members; and Sri Chinmoy has
300 members.
Approximately 21.8 million persons, or 26.6 percent of the
population either have no religious affiliation or belong to smaller
religious organizations.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Federal and state governments do not restrict the right to worship.
Difficulties sometimes arise between churches and state over tax
matters.
Jehovah's Witnesses are appealing to the Constitutional Court an
April 1993 decision of the Berlin state government that denied the
church public corporation status. In 1997 the Federal Administrative
Court in Berlin upheld the Berlin state government's decision. The
court concluded that the group did not offer the ``indispensable
loyalty'' toward the democratic state ``essential for lasting
cooperation'' because, for example, it forbade its members from
participating in public elections. The group does enjoy the basic tax-
exempt status afforded to most religious organizations.
In March 2000, the Stuttgart administrative court dismissed a suit
filed by a Muslim woman who was denied a teaching position in Baden-
Wuerttemberg because she insisted on wearing a traditional headscarf in
the classroom. The Baden-Wuerttemberg Minister of Education took the
position that the scarf was a political symbol of female submission
rather than a religious practice prescribed by Islam, and that the
political act of donning a headscarf was unacceptable for a teacher as
a role model. The minister permitted the woman to conduct the practice
teaching required for her degree, but argued that allowing a teacher to
wear a headscarf on the job would violate the religious and political
neutrality legally required of all civil servants, including teachers.
The court's decision emphasized the need for teachers to maintain
religious neutrality and viewed the woman's insistence on wearing the
headscarf as an indication that she was unsuited for teaching in
BadenWuerttemberg public schools. The woman appealed the ruling; she is
now a teacher at a public school for Muslims in Berlin, where she is
allowed to wear a headscarf. In September 1999, the Lower Saxony
Ministry of Education barred a teacher in Lower Saxony from wearing a
headscarf in the classroom. She filed suit against the ruling. The case
continued at mid-2000. Nonetheless, Muslim students are free to wear
headscarves to school.
Several states have published pamphlets detailing the ideology and
practices of nonmainstream religions. States defend the practice by
noting their responsibility to respond to citizens' requests for
information about these groups. While many of the pamphlets are factual
and relatively unbiased, others may harm the reputations of some groups
through innuendo and inclusion in a report covering known dangerous
cults or movements. Scientology is the focus of many such pamphlets,
some of which warn of alleged dangers posed by Scientology to the
political and economic system, and to the mental and financial well
being of individuals. For example, the Hamburg Office for the
Protection of the Constitution published ``The Intelligence Service of
the Scientology Organization,'' which outlines its claim that
Scientology tried to infiltrate governments, offices, and companies,
and that the church spies on its opponents, defames them, and
``destroys'' them.
The Church of Scientology remained under scrutiny by both federal
and state officials who contend that its ideology is opposed to
democracy. Since 1997 Scientology has been under observation by the
federal and state Offices for the Protection of the Constitution (OPC),
``watchdog'' agencies tasked with monitoring groups whose ideologies
are deemed to be counter to the democratic order. (One state,
Schleswig-Holstein, did not implement observation, since its
constitution does not permit such activity.) In observing an
organization, OPC officials seek to collect information, mostly from
written materials and firsthand accounts, to assess whether a
``threat'' exists. More intrusive methods would be subject to legal
checks and would require evidence of involvement in treasonous or
terrorist activity. Federal OPC authorities stated that no requests had
been made to employ more intrustive methods, nor were any such requests
envisioned. Observation is not an investigation into criminal
wrongdoing, and no criminal charges have been brought against
Scientology by the Government.
In April 1998, an OPC agent was arrested by Swiss police after
interviewing a contact in Basel while gathering information on
Scientologists living in Baden-Wuerttemberg. The Government apologized,
and in November 1999, he was convicted and sentenced to a 30-day
suspended jail sentence for carrying out ``illegal business of a
foreign state.''
In November 1998, the federal OPC concluded that although there was
no imminent danger for the political system or the economy of
infiltration by Scientology, there were nevertheless indications of
tendencies within Scientology, supported by its ideology and
programmatic goals, which could be seen as directed against the
country's free and democratic order. The June 1998 report to Parliament
of the commission established in 1996 to investigate ``so-called sects
and psycho-groups,'' including Scientology, concluded that the
Government should inform the public about dangers to health and
property posed by psychocults and groups. The report did not classify
Scientology as a religion, but as a profit-oriented psycho-group with
totalitarian internal structures and undemocratic goals and recommended
that observation of Scientology continue.
The interministerial group of mid-level federal and state officials
that exchanges information on Scientology-related issues continued its
periodic meetings. The group published no report or policy compendium
during the period covered by this report and remains purely
consultative in purpose.
In April 2000, the federal OPC concluded in its 250-page annual
report for 1999 that the reasons for initiating observation of
Scientology in 1997 were still valid. The six pages covering
Scientology described the organization's political ideology that is
deemed to be anti-democratic. Employing quotes from the writings of
Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard and Scientology pamphlets and books
to justify its conclusions, the OPC asserted that Scientology's goal
was the establishment of a civilization where basic rights would be
granted only to ``non-aberrant'' individuals (those who are ``cleared''
by means of Scientology's technologies). Only ``non-aberrant'' persons
would be allowed to marry and bring children into the world. In the
Scientology social system, there would be no human or basic rights that
could be used as a defense against the State, nor would there be an
independent judiciary. An intelligence organization, not bound by law,
would conduct inquiries and take preventive and repressive measures.
Government authorities contend that Scientology is not a religion
but an economic enterprise and, therefore, sometimes have sought to
deregister Scientology organizations previously registered as nonprofit
associations and require them to register as commercial enterprises. In
December 1999, the Stuttgart administrative court ruled that the state
of Baden-Wuerttemberg could not deregister the Church of Scientology as
an ideological nonprofit organization, stating that Scientology's
economic activities could not be classified as commercial if such
activities were used to accomplish the organization's ideological
purposes. The state appealed the decision. In August 1999, the city of
Munich revoked the nonprofit status of the local Scientology
organization. In June 1999, the Munich administrative court rejected an
appeal by Scientology and upheld the November 1995 decision by the city
of Munich to deprive the Scientology-affiliated Celebrity Center Munich
of its status as a nonprofit organization. With the exception of the
Church of Scientology in Baden-Wuerttemberg, no Scientology
organization in Germany has tax-exempt status.
Scientologists continued to report discrimination because of their
beliefs. A number of state and local offices share information on
individuals known to be Scientologists. Some local, state, and federal
agencies, businesses (including major international corporations), and
other organizations require job applicants and bidders on contracts to
sign a declaration, commonly referred to as a ``sect-filter,'' stating
that they are not affiliated with the teachings of L. Ron Hubbard or
used the technologies of L. Ron Hubbard. (However, the term ``sect
filter'' is misleading because the declarations are Scientology
specific and in practice do not refer to any other group; they could
more accurately be described as ``Scientology filters.'') The
Government imposed the use of such declarations on companies bidding on
contracts to provide training courses. In April 2000, the Hamburg
administrative court dismissed the suit of two Scientology members
against the city-state of Hamburg for its use of ``sect filters.'' Some
state governments also screen companies bidding contracts relating to
training and the handling and processing of personal data. The private
sector has followed the example set by the federal government and on
occasion has required foreign firms that wish to do business in the
country to declare any affiliation that they or their employees may
have with Scientology. The Federal Property Office has barred the sale
of some real estate to Scientologists, noting that the federal Finance
Ministry has urged that such sales be avoided, if possible.
Scientologists reported employment difficulties, and, in the state of
Bavaria, applicants for state civil service positions must complete
questionnaires detailing any relationship that they may have with
Scientology. Bavaria identified some state employees as Scientologists
and has required them to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire
specifically states that the failure to complete the form will result
in the employment application not being considered. Some of these
employees have refused, and at least one has filed suit in the local
administrative court. The case is pending. However, according to
Bavarian and federal officials, no state employees in Bavaria lost a
job or was denied employment solely because of association with
Scientology; Scientology officials confirm this statement.
In a well-publicized court case, a higher social court in
Rheinland-Pfalz ruled in January 1999 that a Scientologist was allowed
to run her au pair agency, for which the state labor ministry had
refused to renew her license in 1994, solely based on her Scientology
membership. The judge ruled that the question of a person's reliability
hinges on the person and not on membership in the Church of
Scientology. The ruling is under appeal by the state labor office. No
damages had been awarded as of June 30, 2000.
Scientologists have taken grievances to the courts. Legal rulings
have been mixed. Some individuals who had been fired because they are
Scientologists sued their employers for ``unfair dismissal.'' Several
have reached out of court settlements with employers.
In 1998 the Church of Scientology filed a suit in Berlin to enjoin
the Berlin interior ministry from the alleged practice of bribing
members of Scientology to ``spy'' on other members. The case is
pending.
At the end of 1999 and continuing into early 2000, Hamburg's Sect
Commissioner expressed public concern about Microsoft's Windows 2000,
because one of its software functions was developed by a firm whose
chief executive officer is a Scientologist. Although the federal Office
for Security in Information Technology (BSI) has not yet made an
investigation of the software, some Federal government offices are
procuring Windows 2000.
Scientology held exhibitions in a number of cities to explain the
church to citizens and encountered serious difficulties. In Frankfurt
in February 2000, a Scientology exhibit in the cafe of a well-known,
city-owned museum sparked significant criticism, with city officials
speaking out against Scientology and the exhibit. However,
Scientology's recently-established information office in Frankfurt has
generated little or no public controversy. In March 2000, a Scientology
exhibit at the Leipzig book fair provoked complaints about what some
visitors considered aggressive marketing tactics in the hall, and
Leipzig authorities are reviewing whether to allow the exhibitors to
return next year. In April 2000, Scientology was able to rent the
public congress center in Hannover for a 2-day exhibition, after a
hotel withdrew its reservation upon learning it was a booking for a
Scientology event.
The Federal Press and Information Office's Visitor's Bureau
intervened in April 2000 with a Berlin hotel, forcing the hotel to
cancel Scientology's reservations for rooms for an exhibit titled
``What is Scientology?'' The hotel claimed that the Visitor's Bureau
threatened to cancel several hundred thousand dollars worth of
reservations if Scientology were allowed to exhibit in the hotel.
Most major political parties continued to exclude Scientologists
from membership, arguing that Scientology is not a religion but a for-
profit organization whose goals and principles are anti-democratic and
thus incompatible with those of the political parties. However, there
has been only one known instance of enforcement of this ban. A Bonn
state court upheld the practice in 1997, ruling that a political party
had the right to exclude from its organization those persons who do not
identify themselves with the party's basic goals.
The right to provide religious chaplaincies in the military,
hospitals, and prisons is not dependent on the public corporation
status of a religious community. The Ministry of Defense currently is
reviewing the possibility of Islamic clergymen providing religious
services in the military, although none of the many Islamic communities
has the status of a corporation under public law.
The right to provide religious instruction at public schools also
is no longer confined to religious communities with public corporation
status. In November 1998, the Berlin Higher Regional Court ruled that
the Islamic Federation had to be given the opportunity to provide
religious instruction in the Berlin public schools even though it was
not a corporation under public law. The decision drew criticism from
the many Islamic organizations not represented by the Islamic
Federation. The state of Berlin appealed the ruling on the grounds that
the Islamic Federation is not a religious organization. The state has
expressed its concerns about the Islamic Federation's alleged links to
Milli Gorus, a radical Turkish organization classified as an extremist
organization by the Office for the Protection of the Constitution. The
court ruled against Berlin in February 2000. Berlin authorities are now
reviewing applications submitted by the Islamic Federation to begin
classes for Islamic religious education in Berlin public schools.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Germany is becoming an increasingly secular state. Regular
attendance at religious services is decreasing. After over four decades
of Communist rule, Eastern Germans had become far more secular than
their Western cousins. Church representatives note that only 5 to 10
percent of Eastern Germans belong to a religious organization.
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
Several major political parties generally hold ecumenical religious
services prior to beginning their national conventions. Religious
organizations and political and educational foundations hold seminars
and discussion panels to promote interreligious understanding.
Religious broadcasters have access to the media. For example,
television carries many programs produced by mainstream and minority
religious groups.
Anti-Semitic acts decreased 28 percent, with 433 incidents reported
in the first 9 months of 1999, compared with 522 during the same period
in 1998. These incidents included, in part, 314 cases involving
distribution of anti-Semitic materials or the display of symbols of
banned organizations, 27 cases of desecration of cemeteries, and 12
cases of bodily injury.
Holocaust Memorial Day wreaths to commemorate Holocaust victims in
Leipzig were burned shortly before midnight on January 27, 2000. (Five
wreaths and several flower bouquets had been placed in a ceremony
presided over by Leipzig's lord mayor and attended by a number of local
officials.) Two days later, approximately 150 demonstrators peaceably
gathered to express their outrage over what happened. Local authorities
criticized the burning but have not determined who ignited the fire. In
April 2000, a young man affiliated with a radical rightwing political
party was arrested for throwing a Molotov cocktail at the synagogue in
Erfurt the week before. No one was injured and the damage was minor.
The overwhelming majority of the perpetrators of anti-Semitic acts were
frustrated, largely apolitical youths and a small core of rightwing
extremists.
There was no progress as of mid-2000 in the investigation of the
1998 bombing of the grave of Heinz Galinski, chairman of the Jewish
Community of Berlin until his death in 1992.
Scientologists continued to report instances of societal
discrimination (see Section I). In Stuttgart in March 2000, the efforts
of Scientology members to promote an exhibit in the city's pedestrian
shopping zone led to complaints from individual citizens who were
offended by the Scientologists' efforts to talk to them.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The status of Scientology was the subject of many discussions.
The U.S. Government has expressed its concerns over of infringement of
individual rights because of religious affiliation and over the
potential for discrimination in international trade posed by the
screening of foreign firms for possible Scientology affiliation. U.S.
Government officials have discussed with state and federal authorities
U.S. concerns about the violation of individual rights posed by the use
of declarations of Scientology affiliation. U.S. officials frequently
have made the point that the use of such ``filters'' to prevent persons
from practicing their professions, solely based on their beliefs, is an
abuse of their rights, as well as a discriminatory business practice.
__________
GREECE
The Constitution establishes the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ
(Greek Orthodoxy) as the prevailing religion, but also provides for the
right of all citizens to practice the religion of their choice;
however, while the Government generally respects this right, non-
Orthodox groups sometimes face administrative obstacles or encounter
legal restrictions on religious practice. The Constitution prohibits
proselytizing and stipulates that non-Orthodox rites of worship may not
disturb public order or offend moral principles.
Overall, leaders of minority religions noted a general improvement
in government tolerance during the period covered by this report,
citing fewer detentions for proselytizing, the conscientious objector
law, and an effective, well-run Ombudsman's office, which successfully
handled an increasing number of cases related to religious freedom.
Greeks tend to link religious affiliation very closely to
ethnicity. In the minds of many Greeks, an ethnic Greek is also
Orthodox Christian. Non-Orthodox citizens have complained of being
treated with suspicion or told that they were not truly Greek when they
revealed their religious affiliation. The Government's decision in the
summer of 2000 to remove a notation of religious affiliation on
national identity cards sparked a national debate on the role of the
Church in Greek society.
The U.S. Embassy has worked consistently to promote religious
freedom. Embassy officers meet regularly with workinglevel officials
responsible for religious affairs in the Ministries of Foreign Affairs
and Education and Religious Affairs. Officers from the Embassy and the
Consulate General in Thessaloniki also meet regularly with
representatives of various religious groups, including the Greek
Orthodox Church, and the Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic
communities.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution establishes the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ
(Greek Orthodoxy) as the prevailing religion, but also provides for the
right of all citizens to practice the religion of their choice;
however, while the Government generally respects this right, non-
Orthodox groups sometimes face administrative obstacles or encounter
legal restrictions on religious practice. The Constitution prohibits
proselytizing and stipulates that non-Orthodox rites of worship may not
disturb public order or offend moral principles.
The Orthodox Church wields significant political and economic
influence. The Government, under the direction of the Ministry of
Education and Religion, provides some financial support by, for
example, paying the salaries of clergy, subsidizing their religious
training, and financing the construction and maintenance of Orthodox
Church buildings.
The Orthodox Church is the only religion considered by law to be a
``legal person of public law.'' Other religions are considered ``legal
persons of private law.'' In practice a primary distinction is that
establishment of other religions' ``houses of prayer'' is regulated by
the general provisions of the Civil Code regarding corporations. For
example, non-Orthodox churches cannot, as religious entities, own
property; the property must belong to a specifically created legal
entity rather than to the church itself. In practice this places an
additional legal and administrative burden on non-Orthodox religious
community organizations, although in most cases this process has been
handled routinely. In July 1999, the Parliament passed a law extending
legal recognition to Catholic churches and related entities established
prior to 1946.
Two laws from the 1930s require recognized or ``known'' religious
groups to obtain house of prayer permits from the Ministry of Education
and Religion in order to open houses of worship. By law the Ministry
may base its decision to issue permits on the opinion of the local
Orthodox bishop. No formal mechanism exists to gain recognition as a
known religion, but Ministry officials state that they no longer obtain
the opinion of the local Orthodox bishop when considering ``house of
prayer'' permit applications. According to the Ministry officials,
applications for additional houses of prayer are numerous and are
approved routinely. The only pending application for recognition as a
known religion at the Ministry is one submitted in February 2000 by the
Scientologists of Greece. Although the deadline mandated by law for
processing the applications is 3 months, as of the end of June 2000,
the Ministry had not yet determined whether it would recognize the
Scientologist community as an ``official'' religion.
A tax bill passed in 1997 created, among other things, 3 new taxes
on all churches and other nonprofit organizations. Leaders of some non-
Orthodox religious groups claimed that all taxes on religious
organizations were discriminatory, even those that the Orthodox Church
has to pay, since the Government subsidizes the Orthodox Church, while
other groups are self-supporting.
Religious Demography
Approximately 94 to 97 percent of the country's 10.6 million
citizens adhere at least nominally to the Greek Orthodox faith. With
the exception of the Muslim community (some of whose rights and
privileges as well as related government obligations are covered by the
1923 Treaty of Lausanne), the Government does not keep statistics on
the size of religious groups. Ethnic Greeks account for a sizeable
percentage of most non-Orthodox religions. The balance of the
population is composed of Muslims (officially estimated at 98,000,
though some Muslims claim up to 110,000 countrywide); accurate figures
for other religious groups are not available. Protestants, including
evangelicals, are estimated at 30,000; Jehovah's Witnesses at 50,000;
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) at 300;
Catholics at 50,000; Jews at 5,000. Scientologists claim 12,000
members. Approximately 250 members of the Baha'i Faith are scattered
throughout the country, the majority of which are Greek citizens of
non-Greek ethnicity. There are also Anglicans, Baptists, and
nondenominational Christians. The old Calendarists separated from the
Orthodox Church in 1924 and continued to follow the Julian calendar.
There are no convincing estimates of their numbers. There is no
official or unofficial estimate of atheists.
The majority of noncitizen residents practice religions other than
Greek Orthodoxy. The largest of these groups is the Albanians
(approximately 600,000 including legal and illegal residents). An
estimated two-thirds of these persons nominally adhere to Islam.
Greek Catholics reside particularly in Athens and on the islands of
Syros, Tinos, Naxos, and Corfu, as well as in the cities of
Thessaloniki and Patras. Immigrants from the Philippines and Poland
also practice Catholicism. The Bishop of Athens heads the Roman
Catholic Holy Synod.
Protestant groups constitute the second largest religious group
after the Greek Orthodox Church. Some groups, such as the evangelicals
and Jehovah's Witnesses, consist almost entirely of ethnic Greeks.
Other groups, such as the Latter-Day Saints and Anglicans, consist of
an approximately equal number of ethnic Greeks and non-Greeks.
The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which is still in force, gives Muslims
in western Thrace the right to maintain social and charitable
organizations (``wakfs'') and provides for muftis (Islamic judges and
religious leaders with limited civic responsibilities) to render
religious judicial services.
The Muslim population, concentrated in western Thrace with small
communities in Rhodes, Kos, and Athens, is composed mainly of ethnic
Turks but also includes Pomacks and Roma. The approximately 10,000
member Muslim community in Athens (composed primarily of economic
migrants from Thrace) is without its own mosque and a state-appointed
cleric to officiate at various religious functions, including funerals.
Members of the Muslim community often transport their deceased back to
Thrace for religious burials to take place. In June 2000, the
Parliament approved a bill allowing construction of the first Islamic
cultural center and mosque in the Athens area. Mosques operate freely
in western Thrace and on the islands of Rhodes and Kos. Construction of
a long-delayed mosque in Kimmeria, Thrace was completed in 1998, though
its minaret remained unfinished. The issue is one of local
sensitivities rather than religious motivation, and the religious
operation of the mosque has not been affected.
Scientologists, most of whom are located in the Athens area,
practice their faith through the Center for Applied Psychology (KEFE),
a registered nonprofit philosophical organization.
The Jewish community numbers approximately 5,000 adherents; the
majority is of Greek ethnicity and lives in the Athens and Thessaloniki
regions. In October 1999, a rededication of a synagogue in Hania, Crete
as a house of prayer and a cultural center was marred by public
criticism of the event by the regional governor. The Minister of
National Education and Religion, and other government and Greek
Orthodox officials lent their support to the rededication.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Several religious denominations reported difficulties in dealing
with the authorities on a variety of administrative matters. Privileges
and legal prerogatives granted to the Greek Orthodox Church are not
extended routinely to other recognized religions. The non-Greek
Orthodox churches must make separate and lengthy applications to
government authorities on such matters as gaining permission to move
places of worship to larger facilities. In contrast, Greek Orthodox
officials have an institutionalized link between the church hierarchy
and the Ministry of Education and Religion to handle administrative
matters.
The Missionaries of Charity (Mother Teresa's order of nuns)
together with other organizations offering charitable services,
reported difficulty in renewing their visas because the Government does
not have a distinct religious workers' visa category. The Government,
by virtue of the Orthodox Church's status as the prevailing religion,
recognizes de facto its canon law. Similarly, the Catholic Church in
1999 unsuccessfully sought government recognition of its canon law (the
official ``constitution'' of the Church).
As part of new obligations under the Schengen Treaty and the Treaty
of Amsterdam, all non-European Union citizens face a more restrictive
visa and residence regime than they did in the past. Due to the absence
of a religious worker visa category, nonGreek citizen clergy reported
difficulty renewing their visas during the period covered by this
report. As of the end of June 00, no progress was made on issuing visas
for foreign clergy to perform their religious work in Greece.
Differences remain within the Muslim community and between segments
of the community and the Government over the means of selection of
muftis. Under a 1991 law, the Government appointed two muftis and one
assistant mufti, all resident in Thrace. The appointments to 10-year
terms were based on the recommendations of a committee of Muslim
notables selected by the Government. The Government argued that it must
appoint the muftis, because in addition to religious duties, they
perform judicial functions in many civil and domestic matters under
Muslim religious law, for which the State pays them.
Some Muslims accept the authority of the two officially appointed
muftis; other Muslims, backed by Turkey, have ``elected'' two muftis to
serve their communities (although there is no established procedure or
practice for ``election''). The Government has convicted one of the
elected muftis 11 times over 4 years for usurping the authority of the
official mufti. All of the sentences remain suspended pending appeal.
The other elected mufti, who was convicted in 1991 of usurping the
authority of the official mufti, appealed to the European Court of
Human Rights. In December 1999, the court ruled that the conviction
violated his freedom of religion and self-expression, but it avoided
the question of his legal status as mufti.
Controversy between the Muslim community and the Government also
continues over the management and self-government of the wakfs (Muslim
charitable organizations) regarding the appointment of officials as
well as the degree and type of administrative control. A 1980 law
placed the administration of the wakfs in the hands of the appointed
muftis and their representatives. In response to objections from some
Muslims that this arrangement weakened the financial autonomy of the
wakfs and violated the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, a 1996
presidential decree put the wakfs under the administration of a
committee for 3 years as an interim measure pending resolution of
outstanding problems. The interim period was extended in 1999.
Muslim activists complained that the Government regularly assesses
taxes against the property of the wakfs. Under a national land and
property registry law that came into full effect in January 1999, the
wakfs, as with all property holders, must register all their property
with the Government. The law permits the Government to seize any
property that the owners are not able to document; there are built-in
reporting and appeals procedures. The wakfs were established in 1560;
however, due to the destruction of files during the two world wars, the
wakfs are unable to document ownership of much of their property. They
have not registered the property, so they cannot pay assessed taxes. To
date the Government has not sought to enforce either the assessments or
the registration requirement.
In January 1998, a law providing an alternative form of mandatory
national service for conscientious objectors (for religious and
ideological reasons) took effect. It provides that conscientious
objectors may work in state hospitals or municipal services for 36
months. Conscientious objector groups generally characterized the
legislation as a ``positive first step'' but criticized the 36-month
alternative service term, which is double the regular 18-month period
of military service. Since January 1998, all members of Jehovah's
Witnesses (both clergy and laymen) who wished to submit applications
for alternative nonmilitary service have been permitted to do so. Still
pending resolution are 18 religiously based conscientious objector
cases of those individuals who were in the process of contesting a
prison term for refusing to serve in the military and whose cases were
not covered by the 1998 law. In April 2000, the European Court of Human
Rights ruled in favor of a conscientious objector who, after serving a
prison sentence in lieu of military service, was later barred from
employment because of his record.
Jehovah's Witnesses also noted one case during the period covered
by this report in which custody of two children was awarded to a Greek
Orthodox parent, in part due to the fact that the other parent was a
member of Jehovah's Witnesses. The Jehovah's Witness parent was also
denied visitation rights.
Evangelical parishes are located throughout the country. Members of
missionary faiths report difficulties due to anti-proselytizing laws.
Church officials express concern that anti-proselytizing laws remain on
the books, although such laws no longer hinder their ministering to the
poor and to children. In December 1999, the Government, applying
legislation covering radio and television broadcasts, shut down an
evangelical radio station over a technical issue on transmission
frequency; however, it legally resumed operation a few months later
once the case was adjudicated.
According to the president of the KEFE, the Scientologists chose to
register as a philosophical organization because legal counsel advised
that the Government would not recognize Scientology as a religion. In a
step toward gaining recognition as a religion, Scientologists applied
for a house of prayer permit in late February 2000. The application is
still pending at the Ministry of Education and Religion.
In 1999, a defrocked former Greek Orthodox priest, after exhausting
appeals stemming from a 1994 case for usurpation of religious
authority, paid a fine in lieu of jail time.
A human rights group reported that in Thessaloniki and in some
villages, the municipality has refused to record the conversion of
former Orthodox believers to another religion.
Religious instruction in Orthodoxy in public primary and secondary
schools is mandatory for all Greek Orthodox students. Non-Orthodox
students are exempt from this requirement. However, Jehovah's Witnesses
have reported some instances of discrimination related to attendance at
religious education classes or other celebrations of religious or
nationalistic character. Members of the Muslim community in Athens are
lobbying for Islamic religious instruction for their children. The
neighborhood schools offer no alternative supervision for the children
during the period when religious issues are taught. The community has
complained that this forces the parents to have their children attend
Orthodox religious instruction by default.
The Government decided in the summer of 2000 to remove a notation
of religious affiliation on national identity cards. This sparked a
national debate on the role of the Church in Greek society. For
example, the issue led Archbishop Christodoulos to organize religious
protest rallies in Thessaloniki and Athens in June 2000. Both
demonstrations drew over 100,000 supporters. Archbishop Christodoulos
vociferously criticized the Government and planned to collect
signatures to petition the Government to allow religious affiliation as
an option on national identity cards.
Governmental Abuses of Freedom of Religion
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints state has about 80
missionaries in the country each year, for approximately 2-year terms.
Church leaders report that their permanent members (nonmissionaries) do
not encounter discriminatory treatment. However, police occasionally
detained Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses (on average every 2 weeks)
after receiving complaints that the individuals were engaged in
proselytizing. In most cases, these individuals were held for several
hours at a police station and then released with no charges filed. Many
reported that they were not allowed to call their lawyers and that they
were abused verbally by police officers for their religious beliefs.
There were no proselytizing-related court cases during the period
covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners apart
from the problems of temporary police detention experienced by Mormons
and Jehovah's Witnesses.
In Thessaloniki, in late 1999, the Government Tax Office refused to
recognize the Jehovah Witnesses as a nonprofit association and imposed
an inheritance tax for property willed to them. The individuals
appealed the decision in 2000, and as of mid-2000, the case still was
pending.
Unlike in the past, there were no reports of assertions by Muslim
leaders that the Government routinely withheld permission from Muslims
seeking to change their legal residence, which determines where they
vote, from rural to urban communities within western Thrace or from
elsewhere in Greece to Thrace.
Improvements in Freedom of Religion
Overall, leaders of minority religions noted a general improvement
in government tolerance during the period covered by this report,
citing fewer detentions for proselytizing, the conscientious objector
law, and an effective, well-run ombudsman's office, which successfully
handled an increasing number of cases related to religious freedom.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Greeks tend to link religious affiliation very closely to
ethnicity. Many attribute the preservation of Greek national identity
to the actions of the Greek Orthodox Church during approximately 400
years of Ottoman rule and the subsequent nation building period. The
Church wields significant social, political, and economic influence; it
owns a considerable, although undetermined, amount of property.
In the minds of many Greeks, an ethnic Greek is also an Orthodox
Christian. Non-Orthodox citizens have complained of being treated with
suspicion or told that they were not truly Greek when they revealed
their religious affiliation. Non-Orthodox citizens have claimed that
they face career limits within the military, police, and fire-fighting
forces, and the civil service, due to their religions. In the military,
generally only members of the Greek Orthodox faith become officers,
leading some members of other faiths to declare themselves Orthodox.
Few Muslim officers have advanced to the rank of reserve officer and
there are reports of pressure exerted on Greek Orthodox military
personnel not to marry in the religious ceremony of their non-Orthodox
partner, lest they be passed over for promotion.
Members of minority faiths have reported incidents of societal
discrimination, such as local bishops warning parishioners not to visit
clergy or members of minority faiths and neighbors, requesting that the
police arrest missionaries for proselytizing. However, with the
exception of the Muslim minority of western Thrace, most members of
minority faiths consider themselves satisfactorily integrated into
society. Organized interaction between religious communities is
infrequent.
Some non-Orthodox religious communities believe that they have been
unable to communicate with officials of the Orthodox Church and claim
that the attitude of the Orthodox Church toward their faiths has
increased social intolerance towards their religions. The Orthodox
Church has issued a list of practices and religious groups, including
Jehovah's Witnesses, Evangelical Protestants, Scientologists, Mormons,
Baha'is, and others, which it believes to be sacrilegious. In 1999
there was an incident in which local Orthodox clergy and local
government officials mobilized to demolish a government-approved house
of prayer in the process of construction by Jehovah's Witnesses in
Halkidiki in northern Greece. The incident was resolved swiftly through
the intervention of police forces. Officials of the Orthodox Church
have acknowledged that they refuse to enter into dialog with religious
groups considered harmful to Greek Orthodox worshipers; church leaders
instruct Orthodox Greeks to shun members of these faiths.
Economically, the Muslim minority in Thrace lags behind the rest of
Greece. During the period covered by this report, there were no claims
of discriminatory denial of Muslim applications for business licenses,
tractor ownership, or property construction. The development of basic
public services (electricity, telephones, paved roads) in Muslim
neighborhoods and villages continues in many cases to be significantly
slower than the development of such services in non-Muslim areas.
The percentage of Muslims employed in the public sector and in
state-owned industries and corporations is disproportionately lower
than the percentage of Muslims in the population. In Xanthi and
Komotini, while Muslims hold seats on the prefectural and town
councils, there are no Muslims among regular employees of the
prefecture. Muslims in western Thrace claim that they are hired only
for lower level, part-time work. According to the Government, lack of
fluency in written and spoken Greek and the need for university degrees
for high-level positions limit the number of Muslims eligible for
government jobs.
The Treaty of Lausanne provides that the Muslim minority has the
right to Turkish-language education, with a reciprocal entitlement for
the Greek minority in Istanbul (now reduced to about 3,000). Western
Thrace has both Koranic and secular Turkish-language schools. In the
past, Government disputes with Turkey over teachers and textbooks had
caused these secular schools serious problems in obtaining faculty and
teaching materials in sufficient number and quality; however, this is
no longer a problem. In January 2000, 19 new Turkishlanguage textbooks
approved jointly by the Governments of Greece and Turkey were
distributed in the schools, the first such distribution since 1974.
There were no complaints during the period covered by this report that
the Government tried to prevent Turkish teachers (who serve under a
1952 reciprocal educational protocol) from performing their duties.
Approximately 8,000 Muslim children attended Turkish-language public
schools and an additional 150 attended two bilingual middle schools
with a religious curriculum. Approximately 600 attended Turkish-
language secondary schools, and approximately 1,600 Muslim students
attended Greek-language secondary schools. Many Muslims reportedly
attended high school in Turkey, due to the limited number of places in
the Turkish language secondary schools, which are assigned by lottery.
In 1999 the Government instituted a European Union-funded program for
teaching Greek as a second language to Muslim children, primarily in
the Greek-language schools, to improve their academic performance and
chance of obtaining postsecondary education in the country.
Government incentives encourage Muslim and Christian educators to
reside and teach in isolated villages. However, in August 1999, the
Ministry of Education reformed the hiring system for teachers, which
previously was based on seniority and prior service as a temporary
teacher. As a result, Christian educators lost the incentive to reside
and teach temporarily in isolated and border villages, which in the
past secured priority in hiring. However, teachers and civil servants
in border areas continue to receive a special allowance and pay lower
taxes.
The law permits the Minister of Education to give special
consideration to Muslims for admission to universities and technical
institutes. The law requires universities and technical institutes to
set aside places for Muslim students each year; 376 spaces were
available in 1999. Under this law, 123 Muslim students entered Greek
universities and technical institutes in 1999. Approximately 1,700
other Muslim students entered via the national examination process open
to all citizens who attend universities and technical schools.
Vandals desecrated the Holocaust monument and a synagogue in
Thessaloniki in April 2000, and defaced gravestones in the Jewish
cemetery and Holocaust memorial in Athens with anti-Semitic symbols and
slogans in May 2000.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy has worked consistently to promote religious
freedom. Embassy officers meet regularly with workinglevel officials
responsible for religious affairs in the Ministries of Foreign Affairs
and Education and Religious Affairs. Officers from the Embassy and the
Consulate General in Thessaloniki also meet regularly with
representatives of various religious groups, including the Greek
Orthodox Church, and the Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic
communities. Throughout 1999 and the first half of 2000, the Embassy
brought leaders of diverse religious groups to the Embassy and to
embassy-related functions to discuss with visiting members of Congress
and other U.S. Government officials the situation facing their faiths
both in the country and abroad.
Employees of the Embassy's consular section have helped Bible
Baptist clergy get permission to visit all prisoners, not only those of
the Baptist faith.
The Ambassador and embassy staff accompanied visiting members of
Congress to the newly located Jewish museum in Athens, and helped to
arrange meetings between representatives of various religious groups
and U.S. Government officials in Greece and the United States.
In October 1999, during President Clinton's visit to Greece,
religious leaders of all faiths, including Archbishop Demetrios, head
of the Orthodox Church in North America, were invited to official
embassy events.
The Ambassador has been an open supporter of the Jewish Museum and
the Jewish community in general.
The Ambassador and embassy officials regularly visit religious
sites throughout the country, invite representatives of all faiths to
social events, and meet with individuals of all faiths.
__________
HUNGARY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There are 100 churches that have been registered by the courts and
the Church Relations Secretariat of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage.
The Government budget for 1999 included subsidies for 59 of these
churches, and the 2000 budget provides subsidies for 76. A total of 300
religious organizations, including monastic orders, regional church
centers, and other such groups, are registered with the Government. A
church can be established with 100 supporters; there are no other
requirements. The Ministry of Cultural Heritage, which oversees
relations with churches, proposes restrictions for establishing
churches with the purpose of excluding violent groups and business
enterprises falsely operating as religious organizations to evade tax
laws. During 1999 and continuing into 2000, various potential changes
to this process were discussed within the Ministry of Cultural Affairs;
the most extreme was a proposal that suggested that for a religious
congregation to be registered as a church, the group would have to be
able to show that it had either 10,000 members or 100 years of history
in the country. This proposal was dropped before going to Parliament,
and replaced with a new proposal, which was scheduled for debate in
Parliament in fall 2000. The new proposal calls for centralizing the
registration process by designating one court in Budapest (with a
special panel of judges), which would render all decisions on church
registration. Using a legal definition, the judges would decide whether
the nature of the applicant group was in fact religious or spiritual,
rather than political, economic, or social. Scientologists and other
churches without a lengthy historical precedence in the country worry
that the proposal, although wellintentioned and sound, may leave
loopholes for persecution or open a debate in Parliament that may lead
to a more restrictive environment.
The State grants financial support to religious denominations for
religious practice, educational work, and maintenance of public
collections. To promote the support of religious institutions, the
Government has signed separate agreements with the country's four
largest ``historic'' denominations: the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and
Calvinist Churches and the Jewish community. Prime Minister Viktor
Orban defended the agreements, stating that ``under the given
circumstances, we succeeded in removing all financial, administrative,
political, and legal hurdles from the path of our historic churches.''
The Government provides funds each year for revitaling churches
based on annual negotiations between the Ministry of Cultural Heritage
and the Ministry of Finance. In 1999 government support for the four
historic denominations, including the money generated from the 1
percent tax donation, totaled $28.96 million (7.24 billion Huf) for the
Roman Catholic Church, $12.64 million (3.16 billion Huf) for the
Calvinist Church, $504 million (1.35 billion Huf) for the Lutheran
Church, and $3.56 million (890 million Huf) for the Jewish community.
Funding for 2000 is still under discussion. In 1999 the Ministry of
Cultural Heritage provided $11.24 million (2.81 billion Huf) for the
reconstruction of church properties and monuments and for other
investments. This money is part of the overall 1999 total, and was
distributed as follows: $6.84 million (1.71 billion Huf) for the Roman
Catholic Church; $2.44 million (610 million Huf) for the Calvinist
Church; $0.84 million (210 million Huf) for the Lutheran Church; and
$0.48 million (120 million Huf) for the Jewish community.
Religious Demography
Dissemination of statistics pertaining to religion is banned by the
Data Protection Law of 1992. Under its provisions, individuals cannot
be asked about their ethnicity or religious affiliation. The Government
estimates that the country has 4,500 churches and chapels. There are
between 2,200 and 2,500 Catholic, between 1,500 and 1,700 Calvinist,
and 200 Lutheran churches, as well as 106 synagogues. Several
synagogues have been built since World War II, generally replacing
older demolished synagogues. The first completely new synagogue built
since the war was constructed during 1998 at a Jewish summer camp in
Szarvas. According to estimates from the World Jewish Restitution
Organization, there are currently between 70,000 and 110,000 Jews
residing in the country. There also are 9 Buddhist and 7 Orthodox
denominations, along with an Islamic community of 800 and an additional
400 to 500 Muslims in the country's refugee camps.
The population is not particularly devout. A 1996 law permits
citizens to donate 1 percent of their income tax to the church of their
choice and an additional 1 percent to the nonprofit agency of their
choice. More citizens chose to designate civil organizations than
churches, although many do both or neither.
The Government provides the same financial support for church
education as for state institutions.
In June 1999, Members of Parliament began investigating ties
between the Congregation of Faith and the former ruling party, the
Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), which may have granted economic and
political benefits to this religious group. According to press reports,
the Faith and Morality Cultural Foundation of Northern Hungary,
reportedly tied to the Congregation of Faith, has been accused of fraud
and other crimes. However, the Congregation of Faith denies any
connection to the Foundation. The congregation, which has been in
existence for 20 years, is the fastest growing religious group in the
country. Leaders of the congregation also claim that it is the fourth
largest religious group in the country, a fact that appears to be
substantiated by the number of individuals who designate the
congregation as the beneficiary of their 1 percent tax donation. It is
a charismatic evangelical church and its fundamentalism, zeal, and
appeal to youth have engendered distrust among the country's older,
more traditional population.
The traditional practice of going to church and participating in a
religious service before taking the oath of office is not compulsory,
but it is practiced by some political figures, including Prime Minister
Orban in 1998.
Between 1999 and 2011, the State must decide more than 1,600
pending cases of real property to be restituted to churches. In 1991
Parliament passed the Law on Compensation for Previously Church Owned
Properties. This law enables the churches to apply for compensation for
real estate that was nationalized without any compensation after
January 1, 1946. Real estate cases have involved 12 religious groups:
Catholic; Calvinist; Lutheran; Unitarian; Baptist; Hungarian Romanian
Orthodox; Hungarian Orthodox; Budai Serb Orthodox; Hungarian Methodist;
Seventh-Day Adventist; the Salvation Army, and the Confederation of
Hungarian Jewish Communities (MAZSIHISZ).
Overall, 7,220 claims were made by churches for property
restitution under the 1991 compensation law: 1,600 cases were rejected
as inapplicable under the law; the Government decided to return the
property in 1,129 cases, and gave cash payments in another 1,770 cases;
approximately 1,000 cases were resolved directly between former and
present owners without government intervention; and the remainder
(approximately 1,660 cases) must be decided by 2001. Religious orders
and schools have regained some property confiscated by the Communist
regime.
Between 1997 and 1998, the Government signed agreements on
compensation with seven churches: the four historic churches (Catholic,
Jewish, Lutheran, and Calvinist) and three smaller ones (Hungarian
Unitarian, Hungarian Baptist, and Budai Serb Orthodox). These
agreements are subsumed under the 1991 compensation law and reimburse
the churches for properties confiscated by the Government after January
1, 1946. The first and most significant agreement, between the
Government and the Vatican, gives the Catholic Church $9.8 million (2.3
billion Huf) in support and calls for the return of church property
confiscated by the Communist regime. The agreement with the Jewish
community was signed in October 1998 and gives it $2.6 million (608
million Huf). The Government's payment was made in exchange for the
community's agreement to waive its claim on 152 properties. According
to MAZSIHISZ, the Jewish community received 4 or 5 buildings as real
property restitution and is negotiating with the Government on an
additional 10 to 15 properties on the basis of the 1947 Paris Treaty on
World War II suffering. The Calvinist and Lutheran Churches, in
agreements signed in December 1998, receive $4.3 million (1 billion
Huf) each. The agreements give the Budai Serb Orthodox Church $190,000
(45 million Huf) and the Hungarian Baptist Church $85,000 (20 million
Huf).
In 1998 the Government paid churches $19 million (4.4 billion Huf)
as compensation for the assets confiscated during the Communist regime.
In 1999 the amount is to be raised to $21 million (5 billion Huf). By
2011 the State is to pay an estimated total of $179 million (42 billion
Huf) to the churches for buildings not returned.
In 1992 Parliament passed a compensation law that provides for
restitution to families of persons who were sentenced in court under
the Communist and Nazi regimes. The Constitutional Court in 1996
decreed that the law was drawn too narrowly. In 1997 Parliament passed
modifications to this law and extended compensation for the period 1939
to 1989 to ``victims of political autocracy.'' This category includes
victims of political, religious, and racist persecution during World
War II, forced laborers in Soviet camps, and victims of the 1956
revolution. The 1997 modifications also established the Jewish Heritage
Foundation to provide restitution in the form of life pensions to
17,800 Holocaust survivors born before May 9, 1945. An additional 2,040
labor camp survivors are to receive pensions automatically when they
reach 60 years of age.
MAZSIHISZ and international Jewish organizations criticized as
unfair a 1998 decision by the Government to provide $128 (30,000 Huf)
to the heirs of the Holocaust victims. In 1997 the previous government
decided upon $12 million (3 billion Huf) as the total compensation
figure to be distributed among all Holocaust victims. Previous awards
to the heirs of victims executed by the Communist regime were $4,255 (1
million Huf). The Orban Government provided the 30,000 Huf figure as a
line item in the Fiscal Year 1999 budget, stating this amount was all
that could be paid without budget imbalances. Opposition parties are
seeking to hold a special parliamentary session on this and other
issues, but the Government is opposed to resolving the issue in this
manner. In March 2000, Deputy State Secretary Zsolt Semjen, who is in
charge of religious affairs at the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, was
appointed unofficial mediator for Jewish affairs by the Prime Minister
and reported that he is negotiating with the Jewish community on this
issue.
In 1998 the Ministry for Cultural Heritage initiated an inventory
of museum holdings to identify works of art eligible for restitution or
compensation for Holocaust victims.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between religious groups are amicable.
Under Communism the Government maintained ties with the four
historic denominations (Roman Catholic, Calvinist, Lutheran, and
Jewish) through the Government Office of Church Affairs. After the fall
of Communism, smaller churches also became established, resulting in a
more diverse religious community.
In 1997 changes to the Penal Code made it easier to enforce and
stiffen penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the
victim's ethnicity, race, or nationality. A case against Ehrem Kemal, a
skinhead group leader, arising from two inflammatory anti-Semitic
speeches he made in 1997, ended in October 1999 when Kemal was given a
sentence that effectively put him on probation for 2 years.
In May 2000, 34 graves in the Lutheran cemetery of Oroshaza were
defaced. Budapest police believe that a youth gang was responsible and
that the act was one of vandalism rather than religious intolerance.
The case was still open as of mid-2000.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy actively monitors religious activities,
particularly relating to issues of compensation and property
restitution for Holocaust victims. The Embassy works closely with
MAZSIHISZ the Hungarian Jewish Public Foundation and other local and
international Jewish organizations as well as the members of the
Parliamentary Committee on Human Rights, Minority, and Church Affairs
to promote fair compensation and access to Holocaust-era archives.
Embassy officers have facilitated discussions between U.S. and
Hungarian authorities concerning the valuables confiscated from
Hungarian Jews by the Nazis (the so-called ``gold train.'') Embassy
officers have met with representatives of the Office of Religious
Affairs in the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, and the Embassy maintains
a dialog on restitution issues that arise from several of the
Government's agreements with smaller churches. Embassy officers
routinely meet with officials from the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints and the Church of Scientology to monitor government
support for groups that experience problems outside of the country.
__________
ICELAND
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice; however, the State
financially supports and promotes an official religion, Lutheranism.
The Parliament passed a law in December 1999 that sets down
specific conditions and procedures that a religious organization must
follow in order to become officially recognized by the State. Such
recognition is necessary in order for a religious organization to be
eligible for a per capita share of the mandatory church tax that all
citizens 16 years of age and above must pay. Otherwise, there was no
change in the status of respect for religious freedom during the period
covered by this report.
Both Government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discuses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy or promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The official state
religion is Lutheranism.
The salaries of the 146 ministers in the state church are paid
directly by the State, and these ministers are considered to be public
servants under the Ministry of Judicial and Ecclesiastical Affairs.
Except for those who specifically opt out, all citizens 16 years of age
and above must pay a church tax of approximately $7 (ISK $479.21) per
month, which goes to support the operation of the state church.
Individuals who choose to opt out of the state church may direct their
monthly payment to another religious denomination or organization,
provided that denomination or organization has been recognized and
registered as such by the State. In cases where the individual has not
indicated a religious affiliation, or belongs to an organization that
is not recognized officially and registered by the State, the church
fee is directed to a secular institution--the University of Iceland.
A new law passed by Parliament in December 1999 (Law No. 108) sets
specific conditions and procedures that religious organizations must
follow in order to be recognized officially and registered by the
State. Such recognition is necessary in order for religious
organizations other than the state church to receive a per capita share
of church tax funds. The 1999 law is narrower in scope than the 1975
law it replaced and applies only to religious organizations that are
seeking to be, or are already, officially recognized and registered. No
restrictions or requirements are placed on unregistered religious
organizations, which have the same rights as other groups in society.
The law is considered necessary to deal with frequent attempts by
individuals to obtain recognition of religious organizations simply to
receive the tax income benefits. The Ministry of Justice and
Ecclesiastical Affairs handles applications for recognition and
registration of religious organizations. The 1999 law provides for a
three-member panel consisting of a theologian, a lawyer, and a social
scientist from the University of Iceland to determine the bona fides of
the applications. In order to be recognized officially and registered,
a religious organization must, among other things, be well established
within the country and have a core group of members who regularly
practice the religion in compliance with its teachings. All registered
religious organizations are required to submit an annual report to the
Ministry of Judicial and Ecclesiastical Affairs describing the
organization's operations over the past year. The new law also
specifies that the leader of a religious organization must be at least
25 years of age and pay taxes in Iceland. However, the previous
requirement that the leader had to be Icelandic was eliminated.
Religious Demography
According to the National Statistical Bureau, there were 209,902
Icelanders 16 years of age and over as of December 1, 1999. Of that
total, some l65,560, or about 86 percent, were members of the state
Lutheran church. Another 8,601 (4 percent) were members of one of three
Lutheran Free Churches: Reykjavik Free Church--4,017; Reykjavik
Independent Church--1,666; and Hafnafjordur Free Church--2,378. Some
7,277 (3 percent) were members of 19 other recognized and registered
religious organizations: Roman Catholic Church--2,813; Seventh-Day
Adventists--563; Pentecostal Assembly--1,081; Sjonarhaed Congregation--
35; Jehovah's Witnesses--456; Baha'i Faith--307; Ash Faith Society--
327; The Cross--357; Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints--107;
The Way, Free Church--463; The Rock, Christian Community--61; Buddhist
Association of Iceland--332; Kefas, Christian Community--44; First
Baptist Church--5; Muslim Association--90; The Icelandic Christ-
Church--108; The Church of Evangelism--42; The Believers' Fellowship--
30; Zen in Iceland/Night Pasture 1--33. In addition, there were 3,978
citizens who belonged to unregistered or unspecified religious
organizations and 5,026 who were not part of any religious
organization.
A large proportion of citizens who belong to the State Lutheran
Church do not practice their faith actively. However, the majority of
citizens use traditional Lutheran rituals to mark events such as
baptisms, confirmations, weddings and funerals. Of Christians who
practice their faith actively, the majority are members of other
Christian churches or organizations. There are also religions, such as
Judaism, which have been practiced in the country for years but have
never requested official recognition. (In official statistics these
religions are listed as 'other and non-specified.')
Law no. 108 also confirms that parents control the religious
affiliation of their children until the children reach the age of 16.
However, parents are required by the law, in accordance with the
Children's Act, to ``consult'' their children about any changes in the
children's affiliation after the age of 12. In the absence of specific
instructions to the contrary, children at birth are assumed to have the
same religious affiliation as their mother and are registered as such.
According to statistics provided by the immigration authorities,
the number of foreigners receiving a residence permit has increased
significantly during the past several years. In direct relation to the
increased number of foreigners (itinerant workers, immigrants, and
refugees), the number of religious organizations has increased since
such foreigners often practice faiths different than those of citizens
born in the country.
The Government is passive rather than proactive in promoting inter-
faith understanding. The Government does not sponsor programs or
official church-Government councils to coordinate inter-faith dialog.
The Government requires instruction in religion and ethics based on
Christianity in public elementary schools, according to the Law on
Elementary Schools No. 66 of 1995. Although there had been a debate
whether this instruction should be ``Christian'' or ``religious''
instruction, the traditionalist view prevailed. Virtually all schools
are public schools, with a few exceptions such as the only Roman
Catholic parochial school, which is located in Reykjavik where the vast
majority of the country's small Roman Catholic community reside. All
schools are subject to Law No. 66 with respect to the compulsory
curriculum. However, the precise content of this instruction can vary;
religious instruction at the Catholic school follows Catholic rather
than Lutheran teachings.
Students can be exempted from Christianity classes. According to
Law No. 66, the Minister of Education has the formal authority to
exempt pupils from instruction in compulsory subjects such as
Christianity. In practice, individual school authorities issue
exemptions informally. There is no obligation for school authorities to
offer other religious or secular instruction in place of Christianity
classes.
Educational material on different religions is part of the
compulsory syllabus in secondary school. In addition, since religion is
a component of culture, pupils learn about religions other than
Christianity in history and social science classes as well. The
curriculum is not rigid and teachers often are given wide latitude in
the classroom. Some place greater emphasis on ethical and philosophical
issues rather than on religious instruction per se.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by the report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between religious groups generally are amicable. If
members of religious minorities face discrimination, it is more
indirect in nature, taking the form of prejudice and lack of inter-
faith or intercultural understanding. Iceland is a small, close-knit,
homogenous society that closely guards its culture and is not
accustomed to accommodating outsiders. Even though most citizens are
not active members of the state church, it is still an important part
of the country's cultural identity.
During the last decade there has been increased awareness of other
religious groups. Informal inter-faith meetings have occurred. Two
local human rights organizations were established recently. Diversity
Enriches was established on December 10, 1998. Its board members
include government officials, journalists and academics; it aims at
assisting ``new residents'' of the country. The Human Rights
Association of Immigrants and their Families was founded on June 12,
1999. These organizations are a reflection of the increased attention
being given to the status of new immigrants and their religious
beliefs.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
IRELAND
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Constitution
forbids promotion of one religion over another and discrimination on
the grounds of religion or belief, and the Government does not hamper
the teaching or practice of any faith. There is no state religion, and
there is no discrimination against nontraditional religious groups.
There is no requirement in Irish law that religious groups or
organizations register with the Government, nor is there any formal
mechanism for Government recognition of a religion or religious group.
Religious Demography
The country is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic. According to official
government statistics collected during the 1991 census (the most recent
figures available), the religious affiliation of the population is 91.6
percent Roman Catholic, 2.5 percent Church of Ireland (Anglican), 0.4
percent Presbyterian, 0.1 percent Methodist, and less than 0.1 percent
Jewish. Approximately 3 percent of the population are members of
another religion or have no specific religious belief. While no
statistics are yet available, Muslim and Orthodox Christian communities
are growing, especially in Dublin, as a result of immigration.
Although almost 92 percent of the population are classified as
Roman Catholic, this is a ``nominal'' figure. Only 60 percent of Irish
Catholics are estimated to be active church members. There are also
numerous and varied small religious groups.
Immigrants and non-citizens encounter few difficulties in
practicing their faiths. In the case of non-Catholics, there are some
difficulties associated with the availability of facilities and
personnel outside of Dublin.
Adherence to Roman Catholicism can be politically advantageous
because of the country's history and tradition as a predominantly
Catholic country and society. Members of the major political parties
(Fianna Fail and Fine Gael) tend to be practicing Catholics.
The Government does not require but does permit religious
instruction in public schools. Most primary and secondary schools are
denominational, and their boards of management are controlled partially
by the Catholic Church.
Under the terms of the Constitution, the Department of Education
must and does provide equal funding to schools of different religious
denominations (such as an Islamic school in Dublin). Although religious
instruction is an integral part of the curriculum, parents may exempt
their children from such instruction.
In October 1999, the Employment Equality Act was implemented, which
outlaws discrimination in relation to employment on the basis of nine
discriminatory grounds, including religion. The Act established an
Equality Authority (replacing the old Employment Equality Agency) to
assure continued work toward the elimination of discrimination and the
promotion of equality in employment. In April 2000, the President
signed into law the Equal Status 2000 Act, which prohibits
discrimination outside of the employment context (such as in education
or provision of goods) based on the same grounds used in the Employment
Equality Act. The Equal Status 2000 Act is to be implemented before the
end of 2000.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between various religious communities are amicable and
friction is rare. Various religions, nongovernmental organizations
(NGO's), and academic institutions have established activities or
projects designed to promote greater mutual understanding and tolerance
among adherents of different religions.
Irish society is largely homogenous; as a result, religious
differences are not tied to ethnic or political differences. However,
some citizens have political attitudes toward the conflict in Northern
Ireland that are driven by their religious identities and loyalties.
For example, some Catholics support Nationalist and Republican parties
or ideals in the north on the basis of their religious loyalty.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains regular contact with all communities,
including religious groups and NGO's that deal with issues of religious
freedom on a regular basis. The U.S. Embassy discusses religious
freedom issues with the Government in the overall context of the
promotion of human rights.
__________
ITALY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
Issues relating to religion that arise stem from formal state
recognition (to facilitate access by ministers of religion to public
hospitals and prisons, or to link religious ceremonies to civil
registration of marriages), state financial support for religion, and
state involvement with the teaching of religion in the public schools.
The Catholic Church's historic and continuing predominant role in
society leads to controversy when church teaching is perceived as
instruction to Catholic legislators on matters of public policy.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The 1947 Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
Prior to the Constitution's adoption, Italy's relations with the
Catholic Church were governed by a 1929 Concordat, which established
Catholicism as the country's state religion. A 1984 revision of the
Concordat formalized the principle of a secular state but maintained
the principle of state support for religion--support that also could be
extended, if requested, to non-Catholic confessions. A special law
(``intesa'') enacted in 1984 granted specific benefits to the
Waldensian Church. Similar laws (which involve lengthy procedures to
obtain) extended similar benefits to the Adventists and Assembly of God
(1988), to Jews (1989), and to Baptists and Lutherans (1995). In March
2000, the Government agreed to legislation that would establish two new
intesas--with the Buddhist Union and Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) filed a request for an
intesa in 1998; an organization formed in 2000 that represents a
coalition of Muslim organizations announced in April that it would seek
an intesa. An intesa grants ministers of religion automatic access to
state hospitals, prisons, and military barracks, allows for civil
registry of religious marriages, facilitates special religious
practices regarding funerals, and exempts students from school
attendance on religious holidays. If the religious community so
requests, an intesa can provide for a state subsidy through tax revenue
collection--a privilege that some religious communities initially
declined but later requested.
Religious Demography
An estimated 85 percent of native-born citizens are nominally Roman
Catholic. Jehovah's Witnesses form the second largest denomination
among such citizens, numbering some 400,000. However, immigration--both
legal and clandestine--continues to add large groups of non-Christian
residents, mainly Muslims from North Africa, South Asia, Albania, and
the Middle East, who now number an estimated 1 million. Buddhists
include some 40,000 Europeans and 20,000 Asians. There are
approximately 80,000 Scientologists. There are approximately 30,000
Waldensians, and 20,000 Mormons, largely concentrated in Rome and
northern cities. A declining Jewish community of about 30,000 maintains
synagogues in 21 cities.
Missionaries or religious workers do not encounter problems but
must apply for appropriate visas prior to arriving in Italy.
The revised Concordat of 1984 accorded the Catholic Church certain
privileges. For example, the Church may select Catholicreligion
teachers in the public schools, whose salaries are paid by the State.
The ``hour of religion'' class that public schools teach is optional,
and students not interested in this course are free to study other
subjects or, in certain cases, to leave school early. Whereas Catholic
priests once taught catechism, churchselected religion teachers may be
either lay or religious, and their instruction may include material
relevant to non-Catholic faiths. However, problems may arise in small
communities where information about other faiths and numbers of non-
Catholic communicants are limited.
While Roman Catholicism is no longer the state religion, its role
as the dominant one occasionally gives rise to problemssome overt,
others subtly societal. Declining enrollment in Catholic schools led
church officials to seek government aid, despite the 1947
Constitution's prohibition against State support for private schools. A
1999 legislative formula that provided means-tested support for
students from poorer families (enrolled either at private or state
schools) nonetheless drew papal criticism for being ``inadequate.'' The
Church criticized municipal and national authorities who granted
permission for a gay ``pride week'' to be held in Rome (in Jubilee Year
2000) and demanded that the event, which the Church considers offensive
to its teaching on homosexuality, be postponed. Following a March 2000
European Parliament vote in favor of granting homosexual couples the
same legal rights as married ones, the Vatican Pontifical Council for
the Family called on Italian legislators ``and particularly Catholic
members of Parliament'' to oppose such legislation. The continuing
presence of Catholic symbols, such as crucifixes, which may be found
hanging on courtroom or government office walls, has drawn criticism
and has been the object of lawsuits. In April 2000, the Court of
Cassation ruled in favor of a school teacher who asserted that
crucifixes should not be present at voting sites maintained by a
secular state.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II: Societal Attitudes
The overall tone for interconfessional relations is set by
religious and government officials who, by word and practice, encourage
mutual respect for differences. In view of the negative aspects of the
nation's Fascist past, government leaders acknowledge and pay tribute
to Jews victimized by the country's 1938 racial laws.
Section III: U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
KAZAKHSTAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the various
denominations worship largely without government interference; however,
government officials sometimes harass Islamic and Christian groups
whose members are regarded as religious extremists.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The country is multiethnic, with a long tradition of tolerance and
secularism. Relations among the various religious communities are
generally amicable. There were reports that law enforcement,
prosecutorial, and intelligence officials in some jurisdictions
routinely review the activities of religious organizations. Government
scrutiny of religious groups is often tied to the requirement that
groups register with the government in order to conduct legal
transactions such as renting property or hiring employees. Increasing
activities of extremist, selfdescribed religious groups in the Central
Asian region led to calls for greater control of religious groups in
the country. In July 1999, government forces raided a religious meeting
near Taraz detained 70 persons and reportedly beat several of them.
Ultimately, one of the meeting's organizers was convicted of
promoting the activities of an unregistered organization and jailed. He
was released in a general amnesty a few weeks later.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its dialog about regional security threats and as
part of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Polices on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the various
denominations worship largely without government interference; however,
government officials sometimes harass Islamic and Christian groups
whose members are regarded as religious extremists. The Constitution
defines the country as a secular state. It also requires foreign
religious associations to carry out their activities, including the
appointment of the heads of religious associations ``in coordination
with appropriate state institutions.'' There were credible allegations
that the Government played a significant role in the appointment in
June 2000 of the new Mufti, the head of the National Muslim
Organization. He denied these allegations. In general, the Government
does not interfere with the appointment of religious leaders or the
activities of foreign religious associations.
Religious organizations, including churches, must register with the
Ministry of Justice in order to receive legal status. Without
registration religious organizations cannot buy or rent real property,
hire employees, obtain visas for foreign missionaries, or engage in any
other legal transactions. Although religious organizations, unlike
other nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), are entitled by law to
carry out their work without government registration, in practice many
local officials insist that they register. Registration requires an
application submitted by at least 10 persons and is usually a quick and
simple process. Some religious groups out of favor with the authorities
in some jurisdictions encounter difficulties registering in those
jurisdictions. There were no reports that the Government prohibited the
activities of any religious group whose registration application it
turned down.
Religious organizations receive no tax privileges other than
exemptions from taxes on church collections and income from certain
religious activities. The Government has donated buildings and provided
other assistance for the construction of new mosques and Eastern
Orthodox churches.
Religious Demography
Society is ethnically diverse, and many religions are represented.
However, due to the country's nomadic and Soviet past many residents
reject religious labels or describe themselves as nonbelievers (see
Section II). Ethnic Kazakhs, who constitute approximately one half of
the national population, historically are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi
School. In a 1998 government survey, 80 percent of ethnic Kazakhs
described themselves as Muslims, although government and independent
experts believe that a large number of these are nonobservant. Other
traditionally Sunni Muslim groups, which constitute approximately 5 to
l0 percent of the population, include Tatars, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Turks,
and Chechens. Slavs, principally Russians and Ukrainians, are by
tradition Eastern Orthodox and constitute about one-third of the
population. The 1998 government survey found that 60 percent of ethnic
Slavs identify themselves as Orthodox. An independent expert estimates
that two-thirds of Slavic citizens would say that they belong to no
religion or are indifferent to religion. Ethnic Germans, largely
Lutheran and Catholic, constituted approximately 5 percent of the
population when the country became independent in 1991, but the
majority of these are thought to have emigrated to Germany. A small
Jewish community is estimated at well below 1 percent of the
population. Two new synagogues, in Astana and Pavlodar, opened.
President Nazarbayev personally presented historical records on Rabbi
Shnerson's father, who was exiled to the country during the Soviet
period, to the Lubavitcher community in a December 1999 visit to New
York.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Government officials frequently express concerns about the
potential spread of religious extremism. They point especially to the
risk of political Islam spreading north from Afghanistan and other
states. Their longstanding concerns intensified following a series of
bombings in the capital of neighboring Uzbekistan in February 1999, and
incursions by armed militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
from Tajikistan into neighboring Kyrgyzstan during the summer and fall
of 1999. In September 1999, the National Security Council, which is
chaired by the President, created a commission to develop policies to
combat religious extremism.
Religious groups out of favor with the authorities encounter
difficulties registering. These groups include Jehovah's Witnesses,
many Protestant groups, Muslim groups independent of the national
Muslim organization headed by the Mufti of Kazakhstan, and Orthodox
Christian groups independent of the Orthodox Archbishop.
Despite leaders' concerns about regional security threats from
groups claiming a religious basis, the Government refrained from
imposing new legal restrictions on religious freedom. Draft restrictive
amendments to the Law on Religion, withdrawn by the Government in March
1999, were not reintroduced. However, the country's highest law
enforcement officials called for toughening the Religion Law. The
Procurator General of the Republic and the Interior Minister both
called for prohibiting the activities of unregistered religious
organizations. In February 2000, the Interior Minister publicly
expressed his dissatisfaction with the presence of conservative Muslims
in the country and criticized a local official for attending a stadium
meeting of the Jehovah's Witnesses. The Committee for National Security
(KNB, the successor to the Soviet-era KGB) on several occasions has
characterized the fight against ``religious extremism'' as a top
priority of the internal intelligence service. The official Russian-
language newspaper, Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, and the official television
station, Khabar, presented as news reports allegations that
unregistered religious groups present a threat to national security and
social cohesion.
On June 26, 2000, the Third Congress of Muslims in Kazakhstan voted
to appoint Absattar Derbisaliyev as the new Mufti (spiritual chief) of
the National Muslim Organization. Senior government officials,
including reportedly the Chief of the Presidential Administration and
the Minister of Culture, Information, and Public Accord, took part in
the Congress. Some Muslims alleged that the government officials
engineered Derbisaliyev's appointment and the resignation of his
predecessor. Derbisaliyev publicly denied that government officials
present at the Congress influenced the votes of congress participants,
indicating that they were not there when the voting was conducted.
Some local officials continued to assert, contrary to law, that
unregistered religious organizations could not conduct religious
activities. In March 2000, the city prosecutor's office in Astana, the
national capital, issued a written warning to a group of Schismatic
Baptists for not being registered. Earlier in the month, the head of
the Ministry of Culture, Information and Public Accord visited the
leader of the Schismatic Baptists to recommend that they alter their
charter prohibition against seeking government registration and apply
for registration. Law enforcement authorities in Akmola oblast, the
province that includes Astana, conduct regular inspections of religious
organizations in order, they assert, to prevent the development of
religious extremism and to ensure that religious groups are paying
taxes.
Representatives of Jehovah's Witnesses alleged incidents of
harassment by a number of local governments. They claimed that city
officials in Astana, Almaty, and Shymkent sometimes blocked the group
from renting stadiums or other large public or private sites for
religious meetings. In other cities, officials allowed the church to
rent facilities for such gatherings. Church representatives alleged
that the director of one facility in Almaty told them that city
officials had given instructions not to rent space to Jehovah's
Witnesses. A city official denied the allegation. Church
representatives also alleged that the prosecutor's office in Kostenai
requested information from the church about its clergymen,
organizational structure, and schools, and in April 2000 inspected
documents of Jehovah's Witnesses congregations in Taraz and Abay. The
church faced difficulties registering communities of church members in
Petropavlovsk, where registration has been denied several times, and
Aktau, though it ultimately was registered in Aktau.
Foreign missionary activity is authorized under law, but only when
missionaries are accredited by the State. In practice many missionaries
operate without accreditation. Although legally entitled to register
religious organizations, foreign missionaries generally find that they
must list a majority of local citizens among the 10 founders of the
religious organization.
A 1999 law on education forbids the activities of educational
institutions, including religious schools, which have not been
registered by the Ministry of Education. Although no religious schools
are known to be registered, the Government apparently took no action
against religious schools over registration pending full implementation
of the law.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
On July 14, 1999, a group of more than 100 armed special forces and
police raided a camp outside Taraz where a Muslim group was holding a
private religious study retreat. The authorities detained 70 group
members, including, reportedly, a 6-year-old and 11 other minors. Group
members alleged that the authorities beat all 70 detainees in jail. One
minor reportedly suffered a broken nose; another detainee reportedly
suffered broken ribs. Although the Interior Minister publicly alleged
that the group was terrorist, not religious, in nature, the authorities
later publicly announced that they uncovered no weapons or politically
subversive literature at the camp. All 70 detainees were freed by
September 1999. Only one group leader was charged with a crime
(promoting the activities of an unregistered organization), but he was
released under a general amnesty law passed in August 1999.
In September 1999, police closed an Islamic school in Karasu
village, near Almaty. The authorities alleged that a Pakistani teacher
at the school was promoting religious extremism and that students were
being kept forcibly at the school. The school was allowed to reopen,
but it closed again in October 1999.
In June 2000, immigration officials at Almaty airport refused to
admit an American missionary into the country. The missionary, who held
a valid visa, alleged that airport authorities did not give an
explanation for his exclusion, saying only that the reasons were
secret. The missionary suggested that his exclusion might have been
related to problems that he had 6 months earlier with customs officials
in Russia, where he had performed religious work. He subsequently was
denied a visa to return to Russia. Government officials subsequently
confirmed the refusal to grant entry to the missionary and indicated
that his name matched one on an immigration lookout list that had been
circulated to members of the Confederation of Independent States.
Other foreign missionaries, unwelcome to some Muslim and Orthodox
citizens, have complained of occasional harassment by low-level
government officials. In particular evangelical Protestants working in
schools, hospitals, and other social service institutions have alleged
government hostility toward their efforts to proselytize.
On June 7, 2000, local KNB and interior ministry officers,
accompanied by local government officials, raided a prayer house
belonging to a registered community of Jehovah's Witnesses in the
village of Derbesek (South Kazakhstan oblast). The officers confiscated
religious literature and church correspondence. Church representatives
complained to district and oblast KNB officials that the raid was
illegal because the officers did not have a prosecutor's warrant. In
response, the director of the KNB department for South Kazakhstan
oblast wrote a letter confirming that no evidence of ``illegal
missionary activity'' was discovered and that the local KNB officers
who participated in the raid had been ordered to return the seized
literature and correspondence.
The Government often invites the national leaders of the two
largest religions, Islam and Russian Orthodoxy, to participate jointly
in state events. Leaders of other religions were invited to appearances
by the Islamic Mufti and the Orthodox Archbishop, often in the presence
of the President, which are intended to promote religious and ethnic
harmony. Many government officials attended the founding session of the
All Kazakhstan Jewish Congress in December 1999. Some members of other
faiths, including Muslims not affiliated with the national Muslim
organization headed by the Mufti, criticize the Government's inclusion
of the Mufti and Archbishop in state events as official favoritism and
a violation of the constitutional separation of church and state. Many
also believe that the distinction government officials sometimes make
between ``traditional'' and ``nontraditional'' religions violates the
fundamental standard of equality among religions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Other than the 70 persons detained near Taraz, in July 1999, there
were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country is multiethnic, with a long tradition of tolerance and
secularism. Relations among the various religious communities are
generally amicable. Since independence the number of mosques has
increased greatly.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
In a series of private meetings with senior officials about threats
to regional security in Central Asia, the U.S. Ambassador and visiting
officials from Washington urged the Government not to increase state
control of religion because regional extremist groups call themselves
religious. The Ambassador addressed the inaugural meeting of the Jewish
Congress of Kazakhstan in December 1999. To publicize the release of
the first annual report on International Religious Freedom in September
1999, the Ambassador hosted a gathering for a wide range of religious
figures, human rights activists, government officials, and foreign
diplomats. The Embassy human rights officer met often with
representatives of a wide array of religious groups, including groups
that alleged harassment by government authorities. The officer also met
with human rights activists about religious freedom and attended a
December 1999 conference on religious freedom in Kazakhstan organized
by the Almaty Helsinki Commission, the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe, and the European Commission.
After immigration officials refused to allow an American missionary
to enter the country in June 2000, the Embassy formally requested an
explanation from the Government.
__________
KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
The Constitution and the law provide for freedom of religion, and
the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government occasionally infringes on this right. The Constitution
provides for a secular state and the separation of church and state,
and the Government does not support any one religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations among the faiths generally are amicable. The Government
considers radical Islam to be a threat to the country's stability.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its dialog about threats to regional security and as
part of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Polices on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution and the law provide for freedom of religion, and
the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government occasionally infringes on this right. The Constitution
provides for a secular state and the separation of church and state,
and the Government does not support any one religion.
In 1996 the Government created the State Commission on Religious
Affairs (SCRA), officially to promote religious tolerance, protect
freedom of conscience, and oversee laws on religion. The Commission
quickly became active and oversaw the registration of over 300
religious institutions of which 210 are Christian denominations.
According to a 1997 presidential decree, all religious organizations
must be registered by the SCRA, which must recognize the registrant as
a religious organization; each congregation must register separately.
Subsequently, a religious organization must register with the Ministry
of Justice to obtain status as a legal entity--necessary to own
property, open bank accounts, and otherwise engage in contractual
activities. However, if a religious organization engages in commercial
activity, it is required to pay taxes in accordance with the tax code.
In practice the Ministry has never registered a religious organization
without prior registration by the SCRA. The Ministry's registration
process sometimes is cumbersome, taking a month on average, but no
religious organization has been denied registration after properly
completing all formalities. No application for registration of a
religious organization was being delayed as of mid-2000. The
Reunification Church, which is registered as a social, rather than a
religious organization, has ``semi-official'' status.
Religious Demography
Islam is the single most widely practiced faith. Official sources
estimate that up to 80 percent of the inhabitants are Muslims. There
are approximately 120 mosques, each with its own madrassa for initial
religious training. There also are two institutes for higher Islamic
teaching. Approximately 17 percent of the population are Russian
Orthodox. There are 40 Russian Orthodox churches and well over 200
churches and houses of prayer for other Christian denominations. For
example, the Seventh-Day Adventist Church operates six churches in
Bishkek, as well as several elsewhere in the country. Jews, Buddhists,
and Catholics account for approximately 3 percent of the population,
and their adherents practice their religions openly in churches,
temples, and synagogues. A Roman Catholic Church in Bishkek functions
unhindered. A small Jewish congregation meets in Bishkek. The group
organizes informal cultural studies and humanitarian services, chiefly
food assistance for its elderly. There also are examples of
syncretistic religious practices. Most notably, there is a Baptist
church in the Naryn region whose followers are predominantly ethnic
Kyrgyz. While they worship as Christians, they have adapted Muslim
modes of prayer into their Christian rituals. There is no official
estimate of the number of atheists in the population.
Islam is practiced widely throughout the country, in both the urban
and rural areas. Russian Orthodoxy typically is concentrated in the
cities where a larger ethnic Russian population exists. The other
faiths also are practiced more commonly in the cities where their
smaller communities tend to be concentrated. There is a correlation
between ethnicity and religion, with ethnic Kyrgyz tending more toward
Islam and ethnic Russians favoring either the Russian Orthodox Church
or one of the other Western denominations. Exact statistics are not
available, but while the majority of the population claims to follow
Islam, a significant number of these adherents appear to be only
nominal believers and identify with the faith out of historical or
ethnic allegiance. A significant number of the followers of the Russian
Orthodox Church also appear be only nominal believers.
A number of missionary groups operate in the country, including
groups from the United States, Germany, and Korea, as well as
missionaries from Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. They represent a
variety of religious organizations including Islam, Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Unified Church of Christ of Evangelists, and Korean
Presbyterians. These organizations operate freely, although they are
required to register with the Government.
The Government recognizes three Muslim holidays (Noorus, Kurban
Ait, and Orozo Ait) and one Russian Orthodox holiday (Christmas, which
is observed on January 7 in accordance with the Russian Orthodox
calendar) as national holidays. The President and the Government send
greetings to the followers of these faiths on their major religious
holidays, and these messages are printed in the mass media.
To encourage religious tolerance, the Government works through the
SCRA to promote inter-faith dialog. The SCRA hosts meetings of
religious groups to bring the faiths together in open forums. The SCRA
assists various faiths to work together on programs for the protection
of the poor and the elderly.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Government authorities indicated that they would monitor the
activities of the Unification Church, which is led by Reverend Moon.
The Unification Church currently is not active in the country, but it
has a presence through the charity organization of Reverend Moon's
wife. There were no reports of interference in its activities during
the period covered by this report.
Religious leaders note with concern that the SCRA frequently uses
the term ``national security'' in its statements. For example, the
Commission has expressed some concern about the destabilizing presence
of the Unification Church. The Ministry of Internal Affairs often plays
a leading role on various religious questions.
The Government expressly forbids the teaching of religion (or
atheism) in public schools.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Muslim leaders complain that the SCRA makes decisions about
religious events without consulting them. However, the Government is
concerned about the threat of political extremism in the guise of
conservative Islam. The Government considers radical Islam, whose
followers it labels ``Wahhabis,'' a threat to the country's stability.
The Government fears that Wahhabis seek to overthrow the secular
government and establish an Islamic theocracy. During the period
covered by this report, the Government continued to express public
concern about extremists with either radical religious or political
agendas. The sentencing in May 2000 of three Uighur Islamic militants
who were charged with the 1998 bombings in Osh added to the
Government's concern about the ``Wahhabist'' elements operating in the
country. An armed incursion of Islamic extremists into southern
Kyrgyzstan in August-October 1999 also increased the Government's
apprehension about radical Islam and the actions of its followers.
According to an Amnesty International report of June 21, 2000, Jelil
Turdai, an ethnic Uighur Chinese national was arrested in Bishkek for
not having the necessary residence permit. After a police search of his
apartment turned up religious material that was deemed fundamentalist,
he was taken into custody for possessing ``Wahhabist'' materials, and
after being interrogated by Chinese and Kyrgyz security agents he was
deported back to china where his fate is unknown.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the faiths generally are amicable. Members of the
two major religions, Islam and the Russian Orthodox Church, respect
each other's major holidays and exchange holiday greetings.
There is no evidence of widespread societal discrimination or
violence against members of different religious groups. However, there
is anecdotal evidence of periodic tension between followers of
conservative Islam and foreign missionaries in rural areas. There were
no reports of these tensions escalating to serious levels; the parties
involved appear to have resolved their problems peacefully over time.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Six
representatives from Kyrgyzstan participated in the U.S. Government
sponsored program, ``Religious Freedom and Tolerance in the United
States: Focus on Islam,'' in March-April 2000. The representatives
learned about how Islam is perceived and practiced in the U.S.
__________
LATVIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however,
bureaucratic problems for minority religions persist.
There was no change in the status of religious freedom during the
period covered by this report.
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however,
bureaucratic problems for minority religions persist. There is no state
religion; however, the Government distinguishes between ``traditional''
(Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Old Believers, Baptists, and
Jewish) and ``new'' religions.
Although the Government does not require the registration of
religious groups, the 1995 Law on Religious Organizations accords
religious organizations certain rights and privileges when they
register, such as status as a separate legal entity for owning property
or other financial transactions, as well as tax benefits for donors.
Registration also eases the rules for public gatherings.
According to the Law on Religious Organizations, any 10 citizens or
permanent residents over the age of 18 may apply to register a church.
Asylum seekers, foreign embassy staff, and those in the country
temporarily in a special status cannot register a religious
organization. Congregations functioning in the country for the first
time that do not belong to a church association already registered must
reregister each year for 10 years. Ten or more congregations of the
same denomination and with permanent registration status may form a
religious association. Only churches with religious association status
may establish theological schools or monasteries. A decision to
register a church is made by the Minister of Justice.
According to Ministry of Justice officials, most registration
applications are approved eventually once proper documents are
submitted. Problems arise and registration is denied because the Law on
Religious Organizations does not permit simultaneous registration of
more than one religious union (church) in a single confession. Because
of this provision, the Government can not register any splinter groups,
including an independent Jewish congregation, the Latvian Free Orthodox
Church, and a separate Old Believers group. The Christian Scientists
have been refused registration due to opposition from the Doctors
Association.
Shortly after the renewal of independence in 1991, the Vatican,
with the support of the Latvian Catholic community, requested
negotiations for a reestablishment of the 1922 Concordat, which had
existed between Latvia and the Vatican during Latvia's period of
independence between World War I and World War II. In 1996, the Prime
Minister established a working group to negotiate a new agreement. This
agreement reportedly would grant the Roman Catholic Church privileged
status. The negotiations have led to some concern among members of
other religions. If approved, it is expected that adherents of other
faiths would seek similar recognition and benefits for their own
religious community.
Religious Demography
The three largest faiths are Catholicism, Lutheranism, and
Orthodoxy. No precise denomination membership statistics are available.
Sizeable religious minorities include Baptists, Pentecostals, and
various evangelical Protestant groups. The once large Jewish community
was virtually destroyed in the Holocaust during the 1941-44 German
occupation of Latvia and now totals only 6,000 persons.
As of February 2000, the Justice Ministry had registered over 1,000
congregations. This total includes: Lutheran (302), Roman Catholic
(243), Orthodox (112), Baptist (85), Old Believer Orthodox (65),
Seventh-Day Adventist (44), Jehovah's Witnesses (11), Methodists (10),
Jewish (7), Buddhist (3), Muslim (6), Hare Krishnas (8), Mormons (1),
and over 100 others.
Interest in religion has increased markedly since independence.
However, a large percentage of these adherents do not practice their
faith regularly. Churches have provided the following estimates of
church membership to the Justice Ministry: Lutheran (400,000), Roman
Catholic (500,000), Orthodox (190,000), Baptist (6,000), Old Believer
Orthodox (70,000), Seventh-Day Adventist (4,000), Jehovah's Witnesses
(2,000), Methodists (500), Jewish (6,000), Buddhist (100), Muslim
(300), Hare Krishnas (500), and Mormons (200). There are significant
numbers of atheists, perhaps a majority of the population. The
Orthodox, many of them Russian-speaking, noncitizen permanent
residents, are concentrated in the major cities, while many Catholics
live in the east.
There is a New Religions Consultative Council whose membership
consists of doctors, academics, and the independent human rights
ombudsman. The council, which meets on an ``ad hoc'' basis, can
research and write opinions on specific issues, but has no decision-
making authority. There also is a Traditional Religion Council, which
meets monthly. This body reportedly aims at facilitating greater
ecumenical communication, discussing matters of common concern and
improving dialog between the traditional faiths and the State.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Latvian visa regulations effective since July 1999 require
religious workers to present either an ordination certificate or
evidence of religious education that corresponds to a Latvian
bachelor's degree in theology. The visa application process still is
cumbersome. Nonetheless, the Government cooperated to resolve several
difficult visa cases in favor of missionary workers. Difficulties in
this area diminished and Citizenship and Migration Department officials
have worked to ease the situation.
Foreign evangelists and missionaries, including from the United
States, are permitted to hold meetings and to proselytize, but the law
stipulates that only domestic religious organizations may invite them
to conduct such activities. Foreign religious denominations have
criticized this provision.
The Law on Religious Organizations stipulates that religion may be
taught to students in public schools on a voluntary basis only by
representatives of Evangelical Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Old
Believer, Baptist, and Jewish religions. The State provides funds for
this education. Students at state-supported national minority schools
also may receive education on the religion ``characteristic of the
national minority'' on a voluntary basis. Other denominations may
provide religious education in private schools only.
The Latvian Lutheran Church established its own clergy education
center, the Luther Academy in Riga, in 1998. The Roman Catholic Church
also has its own seminary but wants to establish its own separate
faculty of theology at the University of Latvia or, alternatively, join
forces with a Catholic university elsewhere in Europe that would issue
degrees. The University of Latvia's theological faculty is now
nondenominational.
Citizen's passports currently indicate the ethnicity of the bearer.
Jews are considered an ethnic group and are listed as such rather than
Latvian, Russian, etc. This practice may be phased out shortly.
Jewish community leaders have regained a number of major properties
around the country, and they report that the legal framework for
restitution of religious property is adequate. While restitution of a
few Jewish properties proceeds, the process is slow, complex, and often
delayed by legal wrangling and bureaucratic obstacles.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable. Ecumenism still is a new concept in the country and
traditional religions have adopted a distinctly reserved attitude
towards the concept. Although government officials are encouraging a
broader understanding of and acceptance of newer religions, lingering
suspicions remain towards newer nontraditional faiths.
There was no progress reported in apprehending the perpetrators of
the 1995 bombing of the central synagogue in Riga, or the second
bombing in 1998 of the same synagogue. In June 1998, two youths were
arrested for painting anti-Semitic slogans on a wall opposite the
synagogue. The Riga center district police opened an investigation for
hooliganism. The case was sent forward to the Prosecutor's office for
indictment but was returned for additional investigation. The youths
were released shortly after being apprehended.
There were scattered incidents in Liepaja and other places during
1998 in which Jewish monuments were defaced. In April 1999, a bomb
exploded at a Jewish Holocaust memorial just outside the city. Police
have not yet identified the culprits responsible for these incidents.
The Latvian Historical Commission, under the auspices of former
President Guntis Ulmanis and current President Vaira Vike-Freiberga,
held two international meetings, in July 1999 and in March 2000,
attended by scholars from a broad range of countries, including the
United States and Israel. Under the direction of its executive
director, the Historical Commission also sponsored international
conferences on topics such as ``Jews in a Changing World'' in October
1999, held consultations in the United States with Jewish-American
organizations, and launched major Holocaust education projects,
including a workshop with the teachers of the Latvian history
association, and sponsored Latvian teachers' travels to the Yad Vashem
(a Holocaust memorial) in Israel for education courses. Two well-known
books on the Holocaust, William Styron's ``Sophie's Choice'' and Simon
Wiesenthal's ``Sunflower'' were published in Latvian. President Vike-
Freiberga in April 2000 dedicated a plaque to the family of Zanis
Lipke, a blue-collar worker who saved the lives of more than 50 Jews
during the Holocaust. She has supported firmly government efforts to
bring war criminals, including those who participated in Nazi war
crimes, to justice. In addition the University of Latvia Judaic Studies
center was renovated and expanded. In July 2000, President Vike
Freiberga presented the country's highest ``Three Star'' award to four
citizens whose actions during World War II are credited with saving the
lives of more than 400 Latvian Jews.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
During the period covered by this report, the U.S. Embassy worked
to support the principle of religious freedom by engaging actively in
the Jewish property restitution process. The Embassy maintains regular
contact with the Jewish community on this matter. The Embassy also
takes an active role in supporting the work of the Historical
Commission and assisted with funding of the translation of ``Sophie's
Choice''.
Embassy officials meet regularly with visiting missionary groups
from the U.S. Embassy officials discussed problems that members of
certain minority religions experienced at the Citizenship and Migration
Department when seeking visas and residency permits.
Two representatives from the Ministry of Justice participated in a
summer 1999 U.S. Government-funded international visitor travel/study
program in the United States focused on freedom of religion and
religious tolerance issues.
__________
LIECHTENSTEIN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The finances of the Roman Catholic Church are integrated directly
into the budgets of the national and local governments; approximately
$196,000 (CHF 300,000) was budgeted for 1999, plus additional sums from
the 11 communes. Normally, church funding comes from the general
budget, as decided by Parliament, and is not a direct ``tithe'' paid by
the citizen. However, the relationship between the State and the Roman
Catholic Church currently is being redefined. As an interim solution,
the State's financial contributions for 1999, 2000, and 2001 are paid
into a special account. When a new agreement is reached (no later than
2002), the agreed amount will be released to the Catholic Church. The
Government gives money not only to the Catholic Church but also to
other denominations. The budget is allocated proportionately according
to membership numbers. All religious groups enjoy tax-exempt status.
Religious Demography
Of a total population of 32,015 (as of December 31, 1998, according
to the Office of the National Economy) there are 24,993 Roman
Catholics; 2,276 Protestants; 1,139 Muslims; 225 Eastern Orthodox; 2
Buddhists; 3 Jehovah's Witnesses; 17 Anglicans; 15 Jews; 12 Baha'is; 11
New Apostolics; 7 members of other religions; and 3,029 persons
undecided.
There are no significant foreign missionary groups. In order to
receive a religious worker visa, an applicant must demonstrate that the
host organization is important for the entire country. An applicant
must have completed theological studies and be accredited to an
acknowledged order. Visa requests normally are not denied and are
processed in the same manner as requests from other individuals or
workers.
Roman Catholic or Protestant religious education is compulsory in
all schools, but the authorities routinely grant exemptions for
children whose parents so request. Both religions typically are taught
separately but simultaneously in primary and secondary schools,
normally 2 hours per week.
The Government collaborates with religious institutions by
supporting inter-faith dialogs and providing adult education courses in
religion as well as other subjects.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the religious communities.
Catholics, Protestants, and members of other faiths work well together
on an ecumenical basis. Differences among religious faiths are not a
significant source of tension in society.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
LITHUANIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
communities, although members of religious minorities occasionally are
subject to acts of intolerance. A certain level of anti-Semitic
sentiment persists in the country. Nontraditional religious groups face
some restrictions. In mid-1999 some U.S. missionary groups had problems
with new government procedures for temporary residence permits.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. The U.S. Embassy intervened to assist in the resolution
of the residency permit problems of U.S. missionaries.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The Government at
all levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate
its abuse either by governmental or private actors. There is no state
religion.
The Law on Religious Communities and Associations was passed in
1995. It grants religious communities, associations, and centers
property rights to prayer houses, homes, and other buildings and
permits construction necessary for their activities. Article 5 of this
law mentions nine religious communities that have been declared
``traditional'' by the law and therefore are eligible for governmental
assistance: Latin Rite Catholics; Greek Rite Catholics; Evangelical
Lutherans; Evangelical Reformers; Orthodox; Old Believers; Jews; Sunni
Muslims; and Karaites. These traditional associations and communities
receive annual financial support from the State. Other religious
communities are not eligible for financial assistance from the
Government, but there are no restrictions on their activities or
property rights.
In May 1999, the Seimas (Parliament) amended the Law on Religious
Communities and Associations. The amendment provides funding from the
national budget for educational institutions of traditional religious
organizations. The Government Department of European Law has warned
publicly that this amendment discriminates in favor of traditional
religious communities versus nontraditional; the law is expected to
come in to effect in 2001.
Relations between the Government and the officially registered
Jewish community are good. In May 1999, the Minister of Justice
recognized the Hasidic Chabad Lubavich community as a traditional
religious organization. The Ministry of Justice previously had argued
that the Chabad Lubavich was not a part of the country's historical,
spiritual, or social heritage and therefore could not be registered as
traditional. The lack of recognition did not have a direct impact on
Chabad Lubavich activities but was a sore point in relations with the
Government and with other religious groups.
Traditional religious associations and communities are not required
to register their bylaws with the Ministry in order to receive legal
status. However, nontraditional religious communities have to present
an application, a founding statement signed by no less than 15 members,
and a description of religious teaching and its aims. The Ministry has
to review the documents within 6 months.
Since these laws were enacted, the Ministry of Justice turned down
two applications, those of the Osho Ojas Meditation Center and the
Lithuanian Pagans Community.
Based on the Law on Procedures for the Restoration of the Rights of
Religious Communities to Existing Real Property, all religious
communities had enjoyed equal opportunity in regaining control over
former property used for conducting religious services. However,
although the law provides for the restitution of private property to
citizens, the deadline for filing claims has passed. A number of
successful claims have been made, and others still are pending. Lack of
funds for compensation and protracted bureaucratic obstacles are the
primary problems preventing the return of private property. The
Government has taken no action on the problem of (community) property
without heirs and has no plans to do so.
Religious Demography
The Catholic Church is predominant. In general, the Orthodox are
concentrated in the east along the border with Belarus. Lutherans are
more concentrated to the southwest, towards Russia's Kaliningrad region
and Lithuania's Baltic Sea coast. Other faiths are distributed more
evenly throughout the country.
The Chabad Lubavich operates a school (kindergarten through 12th
grade), a social center, and a kosher kitchen in the capital of
Vilnius.
Karaites, while not unique to Lithuania, exist in few other
locations in the world. They are considered by some to be a branch of
Judaism; their religion is based exclusively on the Old Testament. Two
houses of worship (known singularly as ``kenesa''), in Vilnius and
Trakai, serve the Karaite religious community of approximately 250
members. The Karaites have been in the country since 1397. Considered
as well to constitute a distinct ethnic group--Karaites speak a Turkic-
based language and use the Hebrew alphabet--their community president
is also their only religious leader.
In total there were 921 traditional and 165 nontraditional
religious associations and communities registered in the country
according to the Ministry of Justice.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Foreign missionary groups, including Baptists, Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Jehovah's Witnesses, operate
in the country, and their activities are not restricted. However,
several U.S. religious missionary groups complained in mid-1999 to the
U.S. Embassy over a change in temporary residency requirements. These
groups were having problems with the Government's new procedures
(enacted by law in 1999) requiring residency permits for religious
workers.
On April 14, 2000, the Government decided to establish an
intergovernmental commission to investigate whether the activities of
religious, esoteric, or spiritual groups comply with the law. It
includes representatives of the Ministries of Justice, Interior,
Education, Health, Foreign Affairs, the General Prosecutor's Office,
and State Security. The Minister of Justice appoints the chairman of
the commission. The commission was established as a response to
parliamentarians' calls for increased control of ``sects'' following
negative coverage of some religious groups in the media. The Government
defended the move, stating that it had established the commission on
the recommendations (No. 1412 and No. 1178) of the Council of Europe.
According to the Constitution, state and local teaching and
education establishments are secular. At the request of parents,
schools can offer classes in religious instruction. In practice,
parents can choose classes in religious instruction or classes in
ethics for nonreligious education.
The Law on Religious Communities and Associations provides that
only religious instruction of traditional and other staterecognized
religious communities may be taught in state educational institutions.
However, nontraditional religious communities have the right to
establish and have general education schools of their own.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations among the various religious
communities, although members of religious minorities occasionally are
subject to acts of intolerance, such as insults.
Ten percent of the population before World War II were Jewish. Over
200,000 Jews (about 95 percent of that population) were killed in the
Holocaust. The country still is reconciling itself with its past and
working to understand it better. President Valdas Adamkus established a
historical commission in August 1998 to investigate both the crimes of
the Holocaust and the subsequent Soviet occupation. Two annual
conferences were held and one commission report has been filed on the
prewar period after the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pacts. Other
grants have been issued for research on the war and post-war periods.
However, a certain level of anti-Semitic sentiment persists in the
country.
In 1998 Jewish community leaders expressed their concern regarding
desecration at the cemetery in Kaunas and at a monument marking a
former cemetery site in Vilnius. Although authorities responded
promptly in both cases, no witnesses were found and no charges were
brought.
In 1999 there was increased concern by the country's Jewish
communities with regard to anti-Semitic comments made by some
politicians. In April 2000, a politician known for making anti-Semitic
and derogatory comments towards Jews and foreigners was elected mayor
of the country's second largest city, Kaunas.
In April 2000, the Lithuanian Catholic Church apologized for
indifference and crimes committed by the Lithuanian people during the
Holocaust. The statement included the first recognition by the
Lithuanian Church that some Lithuanians participated in the killing and
mass murder of Jews during the Holocaust.
A number of ecumenical organizations operate in the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains a close and regular dialog on religious
issues with senior officials in the Government, Members of Parliament,
and presidential advisors, as well as continual contact with religious
leaders. Religious groups use the Embassy as a vehicle to voice their
complaints and the Embassy encourages religious leaders to keep the
Embassy informed of their views on the status of religious freedom and
any complaints.
The Embassy maintains regular contact with U.S. missionary groups.
In late 1999, the Embassy intervened to assist in the resolution of
their complaints regarding residency permit procedures.
During the period covered by this report, the Embassy's democracy
commission funded a number of projects with the goal of promoting
greater religious tolerance, particularly those related to building
broader understanding of the Holocaust.
__________
LUXEMBOURG
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There is no state religion nor does the State register religions or
religious groups. However, based on the Concordat of 1801, when the
country was under Napoleonic rule, some churches receive financial
support from the State. The Constitution specifically provides for
state payment of the salaries of clergy. Currently, after negotiated
agreements with the Government, the following churches receive such
support: Roman Catholic; Greek and Russian Orthodox; Jewish; and some
Protestant denominations. The conventions were signed October 31, 1997,
by the Minister of Religion and the church representatives and adopted
into law on July 10, 1998. Applications for financial support from the
Anglican Church and the Muslim community have been under consideration
for over 3 years without resolution. No such application for financial
support ever has been refused. Several local governments maintain
sectarian religious facilities.
Religious Demography
The country is historically Roman Catholic, and Catholicism remains
the predominant faith. According to a 1979 law, the Government may not
collect or maintain statistics on religious affiliation, but over 90
percent of the population are estimated to be Catholic. The Lutheran
and Calvinist churches are the largest Protestant denominations. There
is a considerable range of other creeds represented in small numbers;
the number of professed atheists is believed to be very small. The
largest group of foreigners is from Portugal (61,647 in a total
population of 452,450); most Portuguese are Roman Catholic.
There are no significant foreign missionary groups. Many religious
groups described as ``sects'' have representations in the country
(largely for financial reasons). They are expected to obey the law, but
their activities have not become significant political or social
issues.
There is a long tradition of religious education in public schools.
A convention signed on October 31, 1997, by the Minister of National
Education and the Roman Catholic Archbishop governs religious
instruction. In accordance with this convention, religious instruction
is a local matter, coordinated at the communal level between
representatives of the Church and communal authorities. Government-paid
lay teachers provide instruction (totaling 2 school hours) at the
primary school level. Parents and pupils may choose between instruction
in Roman Catholicism or an ethics course; requests for exemption from
religious instruction are addressed on an individual basis. The Roman
Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist Churches have an agreement for the
provision of instruction in the Protestant religions within the overall
framework of religious instruction in the school system. There are oral
agreements between Catholics and Protestants at the local level to
provide religious instruction to Protestant students, as required,
during school hours. Protestant instruction is available on demand, and
provision of instruction in other faiths may develop in response to
demand.
The State subsidizes private religious schools. All private,
religious, and nonsectarian schools are eligible for and receive
government subsidies. The State also subsidizes a Catholic seminary.
There are no government-sponsored inter-faith activities.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the religious
communities. The Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish faiths work
well together on an inter-faith basis. Differences among religious
faiths are not a significant source of tension in society.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the various religious communities contribute to the free practice
of religion. However, the religious communities often reflect an ethnic
identity as well, and societal tensions along those ethnic lines exist.
The law places some limits on religious practice, for example, by
restricting the establishments of places of worship and restricting
where contributions may be made.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. However, the law
places some limits on religious practices including the establishment
of places of worship and the collection of contributions. Despite the
specific mention of the Macedonian Orthodox Church in the Constitution,
that Church does not have official status.
The constitutional provision for religious freedom is refined
further in the 1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups.
This law designates the Macedonian Orthodox Church, the Islamic
community, and the Roman Catholic Church as religious communities, and
all other religions as religious groups. However, there is no legal
differentiation between religious communities and groups. In early
1999, the Constitutional Court struck down several provisions of the
1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups, and in practice
the remaining provisions of the law are not enforced consistently.
The Government requires that religious groups be registered. The
1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups contained a
number of specific requirements for the registration of religious
groups that were struck down by the Constitutional Court in early 1999.
Consequently, there was considerable confusion over which procedures
still applied, and several foreign religious bodies experienced delays
in their efforts to register. During the period covered by this report,
the Government acted to make the remaining requirements more
transparent, but the process remained slow and cumbersome. In practice,
religious groups need to register to obtain permits to build churches,
and to request visas for foreigners and other permits from the
Government. A committee has been formed to draft a new law. During 1999
at least one international Protestant church was granted legal
registration, and several others are at some stage of the process. One
Islamic group withdrew its 1998 application for registration but
continues to operate openly without taking further steps toward legal
registration. The Government has not taken any enforcement actions
against the group. In 1998 the Government rejected the application for
registration of another Islamic group headquartered in a third country.
The group lodged a judicial appeal that is now under review in the
court system. An Islamic Roma group applied for registration in 1998,
and the Government rejected its application on technical grounds. The
group resubmitted its application, and the Government granted the group
legal registration. The Law on Religious Communities and Religious
Groups also requires that foreign nationals carrying out religious work
and religious rites be registered with the Government's Commission on
Relations with the Religious Communities. The Government does not
actively monitor new groups or advise the public on them.
Religious Demography
The country has three major religions. Nominally, about 66 percent
of the population of 2 million are Macedonian Orthodox, about 30
percent are Muslim, about 1 percent are Roman Catholic, and about 3
percent are of other faiths. The other faiths are largely various
Protestant denominations. No reliable estimate is available for the
number of atheists. The Islamic faith is prevalent among ethnic
Albanians, who primarily live in the western part of the country and in
the capital, Skopje. The Roman Catholic community is concentrated in
Skopje.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups places some
restrictions on the establishment of places of worship. It provides
that religious rites and religious activities ``shall take place at
churches, mosques, and other temples, and in gardens that are parts of
those facilities, at cemeteries, and at other facilities of the
religious group.'' Provision is made for holding services in other
places, provided a permit is obtained at least 15 days in advance. No
permit or permission is required to perform religious rites in a
private home. The law also states that religious activities ``shall not
violate the public peace and order, and shall not disrespect the
religious feelings and other freedoms and rights'' of persons who are
not members of that particular religion. The Government does not
actively enforce most of these provisions of the law but acts upon
complaints when they are received.
Several registered Protestant groups were unable to obtain building
permits for new church facilities during 1998 due to normal
bureaucratic complications that affect all new construction. Several
churches and mosques are currently under construction despite the lack
of appropriate building permits.
The Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups also places
some limitations on the collection of contributions by restricting them
only to places where religious rites and activities are conducted.
Children below the age of 10 years may not receive religious
instruction without the permission of their parents or guardians.
Numerous foreign missionaries are active and represent a very wide
range of faiths, mostly Protestant. Many of these missionaries enter
the country in connection with other work, often charitable or medical.
The 1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups specifically
allows for foreign citizens to carry out religious activities, but only
at the request of a registered religious body. Because many evangelical
Christian missionaries wish to conduct religious activities that are
aimed at the creation of new groups of believers, rather than at
operating through existing churches, some foreign missionaries have
chosen to disregard this portion of the law. This approach has on
occasion led to difficulties for those missionaries, as the authorities
have questioned their actual reasons for entering the country, usually
on tourist visas. On one occasion in 1998, the immigration officers
successfully pressed for the voluntary departure of a group of American
missionaries who had intended to live in the country and conduct
religious activities while holding only tourist visas.
There were no reports that the Government refused Serbian Orthodox
priests permission to enter the country as it had in previous years;
however, as of mid-2000, no Serbian priests had applied to enter the
country.
The issue of restitution of previously state-owned religious
properties has not been resolved fully. Many churches and mosques had
extensive grounds or other properties that were expropriated by the
Communist regime. Virtually all churches and mosques have been returned
to the ownership of the appropriate religious community, but that is
not the case for many of the other properties. Often the claims are
complicated by the fact that the seized properties have changed hands
many times or have been developed. In view of the country's very
limited financial resources, it is unlikely that religious communities
can expect to regain much from the expropriated properties.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations between the various
religious communities. However, the religious communities often reflect
an ethnic identity as well, and societal tensions along those ethnic
lines exist. Specifically, most Muslims are ethnic Albanians, while
virtually all Macedonian Orthodox believers are ethnic Macedonians.
Societal discrimination is more likely to be based upon ethnic bias
than upon religious prejudice.
The leaders of the long-established Orthodox, Muslim, and Roman
Catholic communities have better connections within the Government than
do the leaders of new churches, and there were some indications of an
effort by the established religions to use that influence to shut out
newcomers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
During the period covered by this report, the U.S. Embassy
initiated an extensive dialog with the Government's Commission on
Relations with the Religious Communities, the office charged with the
implementation of the Law on Religious Communities and Religious
Groups. This contact was sought after several American missionaries
advised the Embassy that they were having difficulties in their efforts
to register their organizations or workers.
The Embassy also intervened successfully in 1999 on behalf of two
American students who wished to renew their residence permits. They
were having difficulties that they believed were due to unconfirmed
government suspicions that they were conducting unregistered religious
activities.
The leaders of the various religious communities in the country, as
well as the head of the Commission on Religious Communities and
Religious Groups, met with the Ambassador on several occasions during
the period covered by this report. In addition to including these
leaders in invitations to general embassy functions, the Ambassador
hosted them at a small private dinner in June 1999. The focus of that
working dinner was the advancement of an ecumenical process in the
country. During the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
implementation review meeting in Warsaw in November 1998, the U.S.
delegation raised its concerns in public interventions and private
meetings about the Government's registration requirements for religious
organizations.
__________
MALTA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Constitution establishes Roman Catholicism as the state
religion, and declares that the authorities of the Catholic Church have
``the authority to teach which principles are right and which are
wrong.'' The Government and the Catholic Church participate in a
foundation that finances Catholic schools. The Church transferred
nonpastoral land to this foundation as part of the 1991 Ecclesiastical
Entitles Act. There is one Muslim private school. Some governmental
policies, such as a ban on divorce, reflect the teachings of the
Catholic Church.
Since 1991 churches of all kinds (not just the Roman Catholic
Church) have had similar legal rights: religious organizations can own
property such as buildings, and their ministers can perform marriages
and other functions.
While religious instruction in Catholicism is compulsory in all
state schools, the Constitution establishes the right not to receive
this instruction if the student (or guardian, in the case of a minor)
objects.
The state-owned University of Malta hosts the UNESCO ``Future
Generations Programme'' and in January 2000 conducted a program for the
Mediterranean region entitled ``An Interreligious Educational Agenda.''
Cabinet ministers and regional Muslim, Jewish, and Christian clergy
discussed how to include religion in education and how to teach respect
for various religious faiths.
Religious Demography
The overwhelming majority of citizens (approximately 95 percent)
are Roman Catholic, and approximately 65 percent attend services
regularly. While some political leaders diverge from Catholicism, most
of the country's political leaders also are Roman Catholic.
Most congregants at the local Protestant churches are not Maltese;
many British retirees live on Malta, and vacationers from many other
nations compose the remainder of such congregations. Recently an
indigenous Christian fundamentalist movement has begun to develop; it
remains small and consists of a group of about 400 citizens, but it is
growing rapidly. Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints also have an active missionary presence. The island
has one Muslim mosque and one Jewish congregation. Zen Buddhism and the
Baha'i Faith also have centers on the island. Of the 2,500 Muslims,
2,000 are foreigners, 400 are naturalized Maltese, and 100 are native-
born Maltese.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The Roman Catholic Church makes its presence and its influence felt
in everyday life. However, converts from Catholicism do not face legal
or societal discrimination, and relations between the Catholic Church
and other Christian denominations generally are characterized by
respect and cooperation.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. Whenever possible, the Embassy advocates continued
observance of basic human rights such as freedom of expression and
freedom of religion. Both the Embassy's private discussions with
government officials and its informational programs for the public
consistently emphasize these points.
__________
MOLDOVA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the law
includes restrictions that at times inhibited the activities of some
religious groups.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
In general there are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. The law forbids ``abusive proselytizing;'' however, the
authorities have not taken legal action against individuals for
proselytizing.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, a 1992
law on religion that codifies religious freedoms contains restrictions
that could--and in some instances did--inhibit the activities of some
religious groups. The law provides for freedom of religious practice,
including each person's right to profess his religion in any form. It
also protects the confidentiality of the confessional, allows
denominations to establish associations and foundations, and states
that the Government may not interfere in the religious activities of
denominations. However, the law prohibits ``abusive proselytizing'' and
requires that religious groups register with the Government.
The procedures for registering a religious organization are the
same for all groups. The Government has recognized 19 religious
organizations. Three additional religious organizations have pending
applications for registration: the General Assembly of the Evangelist
Union, the Church of the True Orthodox-Moldova (a branch of the Russian
Overseas Orthodox Church), and the Mitropolia Basarabiei. The
Bessarabian Orthodox Church was denied registration by the Government
and is involved in ongoing litigation over this issue.
The Government denied recognition to the Bessarabian Orthodox
Church in October 1992, March 1996, August 1996, and March 1997. The
Bessarabian Orthodox Church was formed in 1992 when a number of priests
broke away from the Moldovan Orthodox Church, which is subordinate to
the Moscow Patriarchate. The Bessarabian Orthodox Church, which sees
itself as the legal and canonical successor to the pre-World War II
Romanian Orthodox Church in Bessarabia (the part of Moldova between the
Nistru and Prut Rivers), subordinated itself to the Bucharest
Patriarchate of the Romanian Orthodox Church. The Government
consistently has refused to register the Bessarabian Church, citing
unresolved property claims and stating that the Bessarabian Church is a
``schismatic movement.'' The issue has political as well as religious
overtones, as it raises the question as to whether the Orthodox Church
should be united and oriented toward Moscow, or divided with a branch
oriented toward Bucharest. (Leaders of the Moldovan Orthodox Church
appear more interested in independence than in links to Moscow.) In
1997 the Supreme Court overturned an appellate court decision affirming
the right of the Bessarabian Church to register with the Government.
However, the Supreme Court's decision was based on a procedural issue
rather than on the merits of the case. The Bessarabian Church appealed
the case to the European Court of Human Rights in June 1998. The
Government submitted its response in February 2000, arguing that
registering the Bessarabian Church would interfere with an internal
matter of the Moldovan Orthodox Church. There was no decision by mid-
2000.
Religious Demography
The Moldovan Orthodox Church is the predominant religion and
sometimes is favored over other religious groups. The most visible area
of favoritism is the restitution of property expropriated during the
successive Nazi and Soviet regimes. The Church had little difficulty in
recovering its property and, in cases where property was destroyed, the
Government offered alternative compensation. High ranking church
officials also reportedly have diplomatic passports issued by the
Government.
Over 90 percent of the population nominally belong to the Orthodox
Church (with the Moldovan Church claiming over 1,000 parishes and the
Bessarabian Church claiming close to 100). Followers of the Old Russian
Orthodox Church (Old Believers) make up approximately 3.6 percent of
the population. Other registered groups include: Roman Catholics;
Baptists; Pentecostals; Seventh-Day Adventists; Jehovah's Witnesses;
Baha'is; and Hare Krishnas. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints has one congregation. The Jewish community has approximately
60,000 members, with about 45,000 living in Chisinau. There are 9
synagogues in Chisinau, Balti, Tiraspol, and Bender; about 5,000
persons celebrate Rosh Hashanah.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The law on religion as amended to legalize proselytizing--in
principle bringing the legislation in line with the European Convention
on Human Rights--went into effect in June 1999. However, the law
explicitly forbids ``abusive proselytizing,'' which is defined as ``an
attempt to influence someone's religious faith through violence or
abuse of authority.'' Thus far authorities have not taken legal action
against individuals for proselytizing.
Foreign missionaries are allowed to enter the country and represent
many faiths and denominations. They experience the same difficulties in
getting residence permits and customs clearances as other foreign
workers.
In the 1999-2000 school year, the history of religion was studied
as an optional course. Approximately 1,200 students in two districts
enrolled during the school year. During the 2000-2001 school year, in
conformity with a February 25, 2000 decree by Parliament, religious
instruction will be obligatory for primary-school students and optional
for secondary and university students. There are two public schools and
a kindergarten open only to Jewish students. These schools receive the
same funding as the state schools, and are supplemented by financial
support from the community. Jewish students are not restricted to these
schools. There are no comparable schools for Moldovan Orthodox
believers and no reports of such schools for other religious faiths.
Agudath Israel has operated a private boys' yeshiva, licensed by the
Ministry of Education, since 1991, and opened a girls' yeshiva in
November 1999. There are a number of theological institutes,
seminaries, and other places of religious education throughout the
country.
The law provides for restitution to politically repressed or exiled
persons whose property was confiscated. This regulation has been
extended in effect to religious communities. The Moldovan Orthodox
Church has received restitution or compensation for nearly all of its
prewar property that was expropriated. The Church has recovered
churches, schools, hospitals, orphanages, and administrative
properties. Property disputes between the Moldovan and Bessarabian
Churches have not been resolved. The Jewish community has had mixed
results in recovering its property. The Baptist Church has only one
remaining property restitution claim.
In January 1998, authorities in Transnistria (a separatist region
not under the control of the Government) canceled the registration of
Jehovah's Witnesses. Repeated attempts by Jehovah's Witnesses to
reregister have been denied or delayed. Transnistrian officials
regularly confiscate religious tracts from Jehovah's witnesses, most
recently in January 2000, because the group is not registered properly.
According to local leaders of Jehovah's Witnesses, two preachers were
arrested and detained for several days in April 1999. The Church of the
Living God has been denied registration in five towns in Transnistria.
Baptist leaders have complained that they are not allowed to distribute
religious literature or organize public meetings in Transnistria. Non-
Orthodox groups complain that they generally are not allowed to rent
property and often are harassed during religious services.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general there are amicable relations between the various
religious communities. The dispute between the Moldovan and Bessarabian
Orthodox Churches is ongoing, but the members generally worship freely.
No significant ecumenical movements or activities were reported.
In May 1999, a group of about 500 Orthodox Christians and between 4
and 6 priests attacked a small group of Baptists in the village of
Mingir, injuring 3 and partially destroying a Baptist church that was
under construction. The Ministry of Internal Affairs is investigating
the case, but no charges had been filed by mid-2000. The village mayor
who was implicated in the incident lost his bid for reelection. The
Baptist church was allowed to register locally and has continued the
construction project.
The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Moldova hosted several
roundtable discussions on freedom of religion. These discussions
followed the Helsinki Committee's publication, in February 1999, of a
book, Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion in the Republic of
Moldova, containing the major international and national declarations,
laws, and cases concerning religious freedom.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officers also have met with Baptist leaders and government
officials to discuss the restitution of Baptist property in Chisinau.
The U.S. Ambassador met with the leaders of the major religious
organizations at various times during the period covered by this
report. He and other embassy officers also attended the opening
ceremonies for the Agudath Israel girls' yeshiva. Embassy employees met
with leaders and members of most of the major religious groups,
including the Bessarabian Orthodox Church. Embassy employees maintain
official or social contact with most of the resident American
missionaries. The Embassy has supported religious (and secular) groups
that provide humanitarian assistance to the country.
The Embassy's human rights officer maintains regular contact with
religious leaders throughout the country, including in the separatist
Transnistria region. In May 2000, the Embassy nominated a group of
young parliamentarians--including a counselor for the Bessarabian
Orthodox Church and a Baptist minister--to visit the United States as
part of the Department of State's international visitor program.
__________
MONACO
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations among the various religious communities are amicable;
however, proselytizing is strongly discouraged.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
Roman Catholicism is the state religion. Most citizens adhere to
Roman Catholicism. The Constitution provides the nearly 25,000
noncitizens who live in the principality with the same religious
freedom as the approximately 6,000 citizens.
Religious Demography
There are five Catholic churches in the principality and a
cathedral presided over by an archbishop. The Catholic Mass generally
plays an important role in state festivities, such as the annual
national day celebration. Protestantism is the next most practiced
religion, with two churches in the principality. Most noncitizens also
adhere to either Catholicism or Protestantism, although there are some
residents who adhere to Judaism, Islam, or other world religions. There
are no mosques or synagogues in the principality.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
No missionaries operate in the principality; proselytizing is
strongly discouraged. There is no law against proselytizing; however,
any group or association that wants to be active must, under the Civil
Code, obtain permission to operate from the Government, and religious
``sects'' routinely are denied such permission.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities present in the
principality are amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Consulate in Marseille, France discusses religious freedom
issues with the Government in the overall context of the promotion of
human rights.
__________
THE NETHERLANDS
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Constitution permits
the Government to place restrictions on the exercise of religion only
on limited grounds, such as health hazards, traffic safety, and risk of
public disorder.
The Calvinist Reformist Church enjoyed a privileged status until
1795. It received Government subsidies and only church members could
hold public office. Church and state have been separate since 1798.
However, the Government provides state subsidies to religious
organizations that maintain educational facilities. The Government
provides funding to public as well as to religious schools, other
religious educational institutions, and religious health care
facilities, irrespective of their religious affiliation. In order to
qualify for funding, institutions must meet strict nonreligious based
criteria for curriculum standards, minimum size, and health care.
Religious Demography
Approximately 30 percent of the population consider themselves
Roman Catholic, 15 percent Dutch Reformed, 7 percent Calvinist
Reformist, 8 percent non-Christian (Islamic, Hindu, Jewish or
Buddhist), and 40 percent atheist or agnostic.
Dutch society has become increasingly secular. According to the
Government's Social Cultural Planning Bureau, church membership has
declined steadily from 76 percent in 1958 to 41 percent in 1995 and
still is decreasing, although at a slower pace. The breakdown within
this 41 percent is 20 percent Roman Catholic, 9 percent Dutch Reformed,
6 percent Calvinist Reformist, 2 percent Muslim, and 4 percent other.
Membership is decreasing among all denominations, except Islam, which
is expected to become the second largest religion in the country within
the next decade.
About 24 percent of citizens are active within their religious
communities. One in three Roman Catholics goes to church at least once
a month. About one in two Dutch Reformed members and two of three
Calvinist Reformists do the same. Those who leave a church rarely
return.
Nonetheless, significant numbers of those who have left their
churches still consider themselves to be members of a religious group.
About 60 percent of citizens claim adherence to a religion. However,
the beliefs and practices of many of these adherents have developed
into what some describe as a selective approach to religion: accepting
the positive but not the negative aspects of a particular religion.
About 20 percent of citizens, primarily among those who have left the
``traditional'' churches, describe themselves as ``seekers of spiritual
or philosophical truths.'' These persons tend to gravitate toward
(though not necessarily join) newer or non-Orthodox religious
movements, such as Pentecostal groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, Hare
Krishna, Transcendental Meditation, Scientology, Theosophy or
Anthroposophy.
In the wake of secularization since the 1960's, many Roman
Catholics left the Church. Among those remaining, many express
alienation from their religious hierarchy and doctrine. For example,
most Dutch Catholics express no objections to female or married priests
and differ with church thinking on a number of sensitive doctrinal
issues.
Dutch Protestantism is quite heterogeneous. Among the Protestant
churches, the Dutch Reformed Church remains the largest, although it is
also the one that has suffered the greatest losses to secularization.
Church membership in this denomination has declined by two-thirds in
the past 50 years. The second largest Protestant group, the Calvinist
Reformist Church, has been less affected by membership losses and even
has succeeded in attracting former members of the Dutch Reformed
Church. Other Protestant denominations include Baptists, Lutherans, and
Remonstrants.
The country has a long tradition of providing shelter to non-
Christian religions. Jews have been in the Netherlands since the late
16th century. By the beginning of World War II, the Netherlands counted
125,000 Jews, half of whom lived in Amsterdam. About 110,000 were
killed by the Nazi regime. Following the war, more than 10,000 citizens
emigrated to Israel. The current Jewish community includes fewer than
20,000 members but is thriving and operates its own schools.
Only 49 Muslims lived in the country in 1879. After 1960 the number
of Muslims began to rise due to the arrival of migrant workers,
primarily from Morocco and Turkey. Family unification increased their
numbers to 234,000 Moroccans and 279,000 Turks by 1998 (out of a total
population of 16 million). Additional Muslims came from the former
Dutch colony of Suriname. In the past decade, Muslim numbers further
increased due to the large numbers of asylum seekers from countries
such as Iran, Iraq, Somalia and Bosnia. By 1998 about 700,000 persons,
or 4.4 percent of the population, were Muslim--the majority Sunni.
Islam is growing quickly. There is a network of mosques and
cultural centers. Mosques and centers are organized to conform to the
country's system of subsidies, which underwrites cultural activities
geared to social orientation and promotion of equal opportunities. The
number of mosques has grown to over 300. The increased influence of
Islam also is reflected in the founding of over 30 Islamic schools,
which is facilitated by legislation that recognizes and provides equal
funding to schools representing different religious or philosophical
backgrounds.
The law provides for minority views to be heard on radio and
television. Thus, broadcasting time has been allotted to the Islamic
Broadcasting Foundation, an alliance of all Muslim groups in the
country.
The Government of Turkey exercises influence within the Dutch-
Turkish Islamic community through its religious affairs directorate,
the Diyanet, which is permitted to appoint imams for the 140 Turkish
mosques in the country. There is no such arrangement with the Moroccan
Government that allows it to appoint religious officials to Moroccan
mosques. The Moroccan Government tries to exercise influence over the
approximately 100 Moroccan mosques through a federation of Moroccan
friendship societies. Dutch authorities have not been pleased with
Turkish and Moroccan interference with religious and political affairs
because it appears to run counter to government efforts to encourage
integration of Muslims into Dutch society. For example, government
authorities insist on strict observance of mandatory school attendance
up to the age of 16. They disapprove of appeals by foreign imams to
keep sexually mature girls under the age of 16 at home. To counter such
influence the authorities have proposed training imams in the
Netherlands itself, a measure that is opposed within the Islamic
communities.
A sizable community of about 90,000 Hindus has arrived from the
former Dutch colony of Suriname. The country also hosts smaller groups
of Hindus who came from India and Uganda, as well as such movements
based on Hindu teachings as Ramakrishna, Hare Krishna, Sai Baba, and
Osho. The Buddhist community is quite small, with about 17,000 members.
There were no reports of foreign missionary groups operating in the
country.
Disputes have arisen when the exercise of the rights to freedom of
religion and speech clashed with the strictly enforced ban on
discrimination. Such disputes are addressed either in the courts or by
anti-discrimination boards. In November 1999, a clergyman of the
Pentecostal church in the town of Hengelo was acquitted in court on
charges of discriminating against homosexuals. In a public letter he
called homophilia, pedophilia, and polygamy ``filthy sins.'' In its
verdict the court reaffirmed longstanding jurisprudence that such a
statement made on religious grounds did not constitute a criminal
offense if the intention to offend or discriminate against homosexuals
was deemed absent.
The Equal Opportunities Committee in July 1999 ruled that an
educational institute in The Hague acted incorrectly by denying two
young women training as shop workers because they were wearing
headscarves on religious grounds. The institute rejected them because
it believed that they would not be able to find employment after
training if they continued to wear headscarves. With this ruling the
Equal Opportunities Committee reaffirmed its opinion that the wearing
of headscarves may be banned only on serious grounds, such as security
considerations.
In other areas, employers have been rebuked publicly for failure to
allow non-Christians leave on their religious holidays, for objecting
to Sikhs wearing turbans or Muslim women wearing headscarves, or to
observance of food requirements on religious grounds. The Equal
Opportunities Committee in July 1999 ruled against a company that had
denied employment to a Turkish applicant because he intended to attend
Friday service at a mosque. This was considered a violation of freedom
of religion. According to the Committee, Friday service for Muslims is
the same as Sunday service for Christians. It ruled that employers are
obliged to take account of reasonable religious demands from their
employees, except in exceptional circumstances.
The Calvinist Reformist Social Union (RMU) charged that the 1996
law on working hours contributed to discrimination. This law permits
work on Sunday under certain circumstances. Based on a survey among
2,000 companies, the RMU reported that job applicants increasingly are
turned down if they refuse for religious reasons to work on Sunday. The
larger labor federations reacted by calling for agreements between
labor and management on the practice of religion during working hours.
This matter usually does not lead to problems; however, if problems
arise the federations made clear their intention to call upon offending
employers to observe this fundamental right. The legislature is working
on an amendment to the laws on working hours and business hours to
permit employees to claim time off for the practice of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who have been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal attitudes
Religious communities live alongside each other in harmony. The
main Christian denominations participate in the National Council of
Churches and have adopted an ecumenical approach to inter-faith
relations. The Council regularly presents common positions of the
churches on matters of faith, church, and society. Protestant
denominations in particular are significant promoters of Israel and the
Jewish cause. The Protestant churches also reach out to the Islamic
community. Incidents of anti-Semitism are rare; however, there were a
number of complaints about anti-Semitism on Internet sites set up by
Dutch citizens. The Discrimination on the Internet Registration Center
recorded 181 complaints in 1999 about discriminatory statements, racial
discrimination, or anti-Semitism on the Internet. Most statements were
removed voluntarily by the authors at the Center's request. Two
complaints were passed to the Public Prosecutor when the authors
refused to remove the controversial texts from the Internet. Decisions
on the two cases are still pending.
Ethnic minorities are occasional victims of incidents of
discrimination. Non-Europeans, such as Turks, Moroccans or refugees
from Iran and Iraq are occasional victims of discrimination, but
primarily on racial or ethnic grounds and not because they are Muslims.
Examples of religious discrimination incidents are primarily of an
anti-Semitic nature and involve use of swastikas, distributing neo-Nazi
propaganda, and making the Hitler salute. The labor federations have
been working to include in collective bargaining agreements
stipulations that permit non-Christian employees to take leave on non-
Christian religious holidays. Such stipulations have now been included
in most agreements.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Promoting religious freedom around the world is a high priority goal of
Dutch foreign policy. The U.S. Embassy works very closely with the
Government to promote religious freedom.
In March 2000, Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom Robert
Seiple and David Saperstein, Chairman of the Commission on Religious
Freedom, met with government officials to discuss U.S. and Dutch
initiatives to advance understanding of the issue. The Government has
supported efforts to monitor religious persecution more closely and has
instituted additional reporting requirements for its own embassies.
__________
NORWAY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway is the state church. It
is supported financially by the State, and there is a constitutional
requirement that the King and one-half of the Cabinet belong to this
church. The relationship between the church and the state regularly
generates discussion. Church officials have spoken in favor of a
greater separation in the state-church relationship. However, there
have been no significant developments in this debate during the period
covered by this report.
A religious community is required to register with the Government
only if it desires state support, which is provided to all registered
denominations on a proportional basis in accordance with membership.
Religious Demography
Citizens are considered members of the state church unless they
explicitly associate themselves with another denomination; 93 percent
of the population nominally belong to the state church. However, actual
church attendance is considered to be rather low. Other denominations
operate freely.
In 1999 there were a total of 238,354 persons registered in
religious communities outside the Evangelical Lutheran Church of
Norway, of a total population of approximately 4.5 million. An
additional 29,353 persons belong to unregistered religious communities
while 68,253 were members of the nonreligious Norwegian Humanist
Association.
The major registered religions and religious groups are:
Pentecostal congregations (44,094 members); Islam (45,145 members);
Roman Catholic Church (40,203 members); Evangelical Lutheran Free
Church of Norway (20,899 members); Jehovah's Witnesses (15,083
members); Methodist Church of Norway (13,204 members); Norwegian
Baptist Union (10,404 members); Church of Norway Mission Covenants
(8,182 members); and the Buddhist Federation (6,779 members). Other
groups include Orthodox Jews, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Anglican
Church, and Hindus. In addition, there is one main organization for the
nonreligious or atheists--the Norwegian Humanist Association. The
Association has 61,000 registered adult members and 10 to 12,000
children as associate members. Persons cannot register as full members
until they reach early adulthood.
Members of registered religious communities outside the state
church are concentrated in the Oslo region and the west coast region of
the country. The Hordaland, Rogaland, and Vest Agder districts have the
highest number of members of religious communities outside the state
church. The majority of European and American immigrants are either
Christians or nonreligious, the exception being Muslim refugees from
Bosnia and Kosovo. Most non-European immigrants practice Islam,
Buddhism, or Hinduism.
Foreign missionaries and other religious workers operate freely in
the country. Foreign religious workers from countries whose citizens
Norway requires visas need to obtain such visas before entering the
country. In addition, all foreign religious workers from countries
outside the European Union or European Economic Area must apply for
work permits. There is no government registration of foreign religious
workers beyond the regularly established database of issued work
permits.
The Government promotes inter-faith understanding by providing
funding to the Cooperation Council for Faith and Secular Society (see
Section II). The Government also pledged to provide additional funds
for the operation of the Office of the United Nations Special
Rapporteur on Intolerance. As Chair-in-Office of the Organization for
Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) during 1999, the Government
promoted activities to improve religious tolerance through the OSCE.
In October 1995, the Storting (Parliament) passed a law introducing
the subject ``Religious Knowledge and Education in Ethics'' in the
school system. The legality of imposing compulsory teaching of
Christianity and Christian ethics in public schools has been contested
in court by both the Norwegian Humanist Association and the Moslem
Council. Both lost their initial cases in Oslo city court and have
appealed to a higher regional court. The appeals are scheduled to take
place in the fall of 2000. Currently, the law has been implemented in
all public schools. On special grounds students may be exempted from
participating in or performing specific religious acts such as church
services or prayer, but may not forgo instruction in the subject as a
whole. Students and workers who belong to minority denominations are
allowed leave for the celebration of their religious holidays.
In July 1998, the Government suspended two priests in the Church of
Norway and asked the courts for approval legally to terminate their
priesthood due to insubordination and disloyalty. The conservative
priests, serving in a rural community, openly had refused to accept
religious and spiritual guidance from their liberal bishop based in the
provincial capital. The parties were in disagreement on a number of
social issues (such as gay rights). In January 2000, the Alta county
court ruled that the two local priests could not be fired due to
insubordination and disloyalty. The Minister of Church Affairs has
appealed the decision to the Haalogaland district court.
The Workers' Protection and Working Environment Act permits
prospective employers to ask job applicants for positions in private or
religious schools, or in day care centers, whether they respect
Christian beliefs and principles.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In August 1998, the Cooperation Council for Faith and Secular
Society organized a conference on religious freedom with financial
support from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The conference urged
greater international dedication to the principles of freedom of
religion and issued the Oslo Declaration on Freedom of Religion and
Belief. The Cooperation Council was established in 1996 and consists of
the state church and other religious communities, including the Jewish,
Muslim, Buddhist, and secular humanist communities. At the 1998
conference, the Oslo Coalition for Freedom of Religious Beliefs was
formed in order to facilitate closer coordination and international
cooperation.
The Ecumenical Council of Christian Communities has promoted
actively cooperation within the Christian community. There also has
been cooperation between the various religious communities on human
rights issues in recent years. Bilateral dialog between the state
church and the Muslim and Jewish communities has generated statements
in support of minority rights and human rights.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses worldwide religious freedom issues with
government officials, particularly during the annual meeting of the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Requests to the Embassy from
official and nonofficial Norwegians for materials on religious freedom
issues increased during the period covered by this report, a sign of
growing interest in such issues as religious persecution, the church-
state relationship, and the balance between freedom of religion and
freedom of expression.
__________
POLAND
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion;
however, sporadic incidents of harassment and violence against Jews,
and occasional desecration of Jewish and Catholic cemeteries continued,
mostly generated by skinheads and other marginal elements of society.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights. U.S. Embassy and Consulate General Krakow representatives
actively monitor threats to religious freedom and seek to further
resolution of unsettled legacies of the Holocaust and the Communist
era.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There are 15 religious groups in the country whose relationship
with the State is governed by specific legislation and 140 other
religious communities. The legislation outlines the internal structure
of the religious groups, their activities, and procedures for property
restitution.
Religious communities may register with the Government, but they
are not required to do so and may function freely without registration.
According to new regulations effective as of June 1998, registration
requires that the group have submitted the names of 100 members as well
as information regarding the group itself. This information on
membership (i.e., signatures) must be confirmed by a notary public
(previously only 15 names were required), although the registration
itself often appears to be a formality. Four new religious communities
registered during the period covered by this report. All churches and
recognized religious groups share the same privileges (duty-free
importation of office equipment, reduced taxes, etc.).
In mid-2000, the Government announced plans to establish by
September 2000 a department within the Ministry of Interior to monitor
the activities of ``new religious groups'' and cults. As of the end of
June 2000 the new department had not yet been formed.
Religious Demography
More than 95 percent of citizens are Roman Catholic, but Eastern
Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and much smaller Protestant, Jewish, and
Muslim congregations meet freely.
According to the Annual Statistical Gazette of Poland, the
following figures represent the formal membership of the listed
religious groups, but not the number of actual members (e.g., the
actual number of Jews in the country is estimated at between 10,000 and
30,000). There are 35,033,087 Roman Catholics in the country; 554,860
Orthodox Church members; 122,982 Jehovah's Witnesses; 110,380 Uniates;
87,291 Lutherans (Augsburg); 25,904 Old Catholic Mariavits; 23,969
members of the Polish-Catholic Church; 17,966 Pentecostals; 6,720
Seventh-Day Adventists; 5,894 Baptists; 5,438 members of the New
Apostolic Church; 5,123 members of the Muslim Religious Union; 5,043
Hare Krishnas; 4,349 Methodists; 4,100 members of the Church of Christ;
3,980 Lutherans (Reformed); 3,011 Catholic Mariavits; 1,222 members of
the Union of Jewish Communities; 950 members of the Eastern Old
Ceremonial Church; and 180 members of the Karaims Religious Union. All
of these churches have a relationship with the State governed by either
legislation or treaty, with the exception of Jehovah's Witnesses, the
Uniate Church, the New Apostolic Church, Hare Krishnas, and the Church
of Christ.
According to a 2000 poll, some 68 percent of citizens actively
participate in religious ceremonies; a 1999 poll found that 8 percent
declared that they have no contact with the Catholic Church. The 1999
survey found women to be more religious than men, with 63 percent of
the former attending church regularly compared with 51 percent of the
latter. Farmers are the most religious group: 70 percent are regular
churchgoers, while only 2 percent do not go to church at all. No
figures are available on the number of atheists in the country,
although one recent poll found that 4 percent of respondents said that
they did not believe in God.
Citizens enjoy the freedom to practice any faith they choose.
Religious groups may organize, select, and train personnel, solicit and
receive contributions, publish, and engage in consultations without
government interference. There are no government restrictions on
establishing and maintaining places of worship.
Foreign missionary groups operate freely in the country and are
subject only to the standard rules applicable to foreigners temporarily
in the country.
Although the Constitution provides for the separation of church and
state, a crucifix hangs in both the upper and lower houses of
Parliament, as well as in many government offices. In June 1998, a
provincial court decided that a crucifix hung in the meeting room of
the Lodz city council in 1990 could remain, denying the complaint of a
city resident. An atheist complained that the crucifix threatened
religious freedom and discriminated against him.
State-run radio broadcasts Catholic Mass on Sundays, and the
Catholic Church is authorized to relicense radio and television
stations to operate on frequencies assigned to the Church, the only
body outside the National Radio and Television Broadcasting Council
allowed to do so.
Although the Constitution gives parents the right to bring up their
children in compliance with their own religious and philosophical
beliefs, religious education classes continue to be taught in the
public schools at public expense. While children are supposed to have
the choice between religious instruction and ethics, the Ombudsman's
office states that in most schools ethics courses are not offered due
to financial constraints. Although Catholic Church representatives
teach the vast majority of religious classes in the schools, parents
can request religious classes in any of the religions legally
registered, including Protestant, Orthodox, and Jewish religious
instruction. Such non-Catholic religious instruction exists in
practice, although it is not common, and the Ministry of Education pays
the instructors. Priests and other instructors receive salaries from
the state budget for teaching religion in public schools, and Catholic
Church representatives are included on a commission that determines
whether books qualify for school use.
In January 1998, the Parliament ratified the Concordat, a treaty
regulating relations between the Government and the Vatican, which was
signed in 1993. The vote came after years of bitter disputes between
Concordat supporters and opponents over whether the treaty simply
ensures the Catholic Church's rights or blurs the line between church
and state. Subsequently signed by the President, the Concordat took
effect in April 1998.
The Government continues to work with both local and international
religious groups to address property claims and other sensitive issues
stemming from Nazi- and Communist-era confiscations and persecutions.
The Government enjoys good relations with international Jewish groups.
The Government cooperates effectively with a variety of international
organizations, both governmental and nongovernmental, including the
U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad,
which identifies and encourages the preservation of historic sites
associated with the heritage of American citizens from eastern and
central Europe, to include cemeteries and houses of worship.
Progress continues in implementing the laws that permit local
religious communities to submit claims for property owned prior to
World War II that subsequently was nationalized. In 1997 a law was
passed permitting the local Jewish community to submit claims for such
property, which mirrored legislation benefiting other religious
communities. The laws allow for the return of churches and synagogues,
cemeteries, and community headquarters, as well as buildings that were
used for other religious, educational, or charitable activities. The
laws included time limits for filing claims; in several cases the
deadlines have expired and no additional claims may be filed. However,
restitution commissions (composed of representatives of the Government
and the religious community) are continuing adjudication of previously
filed claims.
The time limit for applications by the Catholic Church expired in
December 1991. As of the summer of 2000, 2,413 of the 3,041 claims
filed by the Church had been concluded, with 1,123 claims settled by
agreement between the Church and the party in possession of the
property (usually the national or a local government), 844 properties
were returned through decision of the Commission on Property
Restitution, which rules on disputed claims, 434 claims were rejected,
and 12 cases were likely to go to court. Claims by the local Jewish
community (whose deadline for filing claims under the 1997 law expires
in 2002) are being filed slowly. Of the thousands of potential claims,
only 458 had been filed by the summer of 2000, mainly because the
country's Jewish community lacks the information and financial
resources to prepare claims more quickly. Of those 458 claims, the
Commission on Property Restitution considered and closed 98 cases; 53
of the 98 cases were closed by an agreement between the parties. As of
early 2000, Lutheran claims for 1,200 properties had resulted in 392
cases being closed with the return of the properties in question (the
deadline for filing such claims was July 1996).
However, the laws on religious communal property do not address the
private property of any group. In September 1999, the Government's
Council of Ministers approved a draft reprivatization law. The bill was
amended in committee in a way that would have made it impossible to
address the claims of former Polish citizens living abroad. The
Government opposed the amendment and the committee has since changed
the draft to allow once again for claims by persons who were citizens
at the time the property was seized, as well as by their heirs. The
bill remains in committee and could see additional changes.
The laws on communal property restitution also do not address the
issue of communal properties to which third parties now have title,
leaving several controversial and complicated cases unresolved. In a
number of cases over the years, buildings and residences were built on
land that included Jewish cemeteries that were destroyed during or
after World War II. For example, a school for disabled children now
stands on the site of a completely destroyed Jewish cemetery in Kalisz.
The existence of the school complicated the issue of returning the
cemetery to the Jewish community. Efforts continued in 1999-2000 to
reach a resolution acceptable to all concerned.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Current law places Protestant, Catholic, Orthodox, and Jewish
communities on the same legal footing, and the Government attempts to
address the problems that minority religious groups face. Relations
between the various religious communities are generally amicable,
although the erection by radical nationalist anti-Semites of some 300
crosses near the former Auschwitz concentration camp caused tensions in
Catholic-Jewish relations in 1998-99.
Anti-Semitic feelings persist among certain sectors of the
population, occasionally manifesting themselves in acts of vandalism
and physical or verbal abuse. However, surveys in recent years show a
continuing decline in anti-Semitic sentiment and avowedly anti-Semitic
candidates fare very poorly in elections.
In March 1998, a controversy arose over the ``Pope's Cross,''
located on the grounds of a former Carmelite convent in Oswiecim
adjacent to the Auschwitz concentration camp museum. The Cross
originally adorned the altar at a mass conducted by Pope John Paul II
near Birkenau in 1979 and was erected at the site of the Carmelite
mission in 1989. The Cross is clearly visible from the former camp's
block 11 and marks the site where Polish political prisoners (possibly
including Catholic priests) and later Jewish prisoners were murdered by
the Nazis. In August 1998, radical nationalist anti-Semites erected
dozens of additional crosses outside Auschwitz in protest of plans to
remove the Pope's Cross, despite the opposition of the country's
bishops. In May 1999, the Parliament passed a government-sponsored law
to protect the sites of all the former camps in the country. The
Government consulted with international Jewish groups in preparing the
law, which gave the Government the power it needed to resolve the issue
of the ``new crosses.'' In late May 1999, the leader of the Defenders
of the Pope's Cross, Kazimierz Switon announced that he had laid
explosives under the site where the crosses were erected, and that he
would detonate them if the Government attempted to remove him or the
crosses. Police officers quickly arrested Switon for possessing
explosives and making public threats. After Switon's arrest, local
authorities removed the crosses to a nearby Franciscan monastery, under
the supervision of the local bishop, and sealed off the site to prevent
the erection of additional crosses. The Pope's Cross is not to be
removed from the site for the time being.
Sporadic and isolated incidents of harassment and violence against
Jews continue to occur in the country, often generated by skinheads and
other marginal societal groups. Occasional cases of cemetery
desecration, including both Jewish and Catholic shrines, also occurred
during 1999 and the first half of 2000. Government authorities
consistently criticized such actions and pledged to prevent similar
acts in the future, for example by increased police patrols around
Jewish sites.
In July 1999, unknown vandals sprayed swastikas and anti-Semitic
graffiti on the Jewish community headquarters in Bielsko-Biala.
According to the mayor of Bielsko-Biala, city police officers were
ordered to guard the building after the attack and an investigation was
opened into the case; however, there were no results by mid-2000. Anti-
Semitic graffiti were painted on several monuments in the Tarnow Jewish
cemetery in August 1999; the incident was criticized by the local
bishop. In September 1999, vandals attacked several tombs in the Warsaw
Jewish cemetery, leaving satanic graffiti and damaging a number of
monuments. The chief of the Prime Minister's chancery immediately
criticized the vandalism.
In February 2000, near Katowice, some 60 graves were desecrated in
what apparently was an attempt to steal and sell the stones from the
local Catholic cemetery. Later in the month, two other Catholic
cemeteries were desecrated with Satanist graffiti, one near Zamosc and
one near Wroclaw. In March 2000, teenage hooligans vandalized a
monument to martyred priest Jerzy Popielusko.
Also in March 2000, the citizens of Lodz took action of their own
accord to clean up anti-Semitic (and other) graffiti in the town. The
same evening as the clean-up, vandals spray-painted anti-Semitic and
anti-Roma graffiti on the home of Marek Edelman, the last surviving
commander of the 1943 Warsaw ghetto uprising. The attack was criticized
strongly by both the President and the Prime Minister.
In April 2000, anti-Semitic and anti-Roma graffiti were painted on
the wall of the Jewish cemetery at Oswiecim (Auschwitz). The town paid
to have the graffiti removed. Also in April, on two successive nights,
vandals in Krakow painted swastikas and anti-Semitic graffiti on the
walls of a local museum, whose site once had housed a pharmacy operated
by the only non-Jewish Pole to live in the Krakow ghetto. Local police
promised to step up patrols in the area. The same month, Satanist
graffiti defaced some 20 gravestones in a Catholic cemetery in a
village near Poznan.
Investigations continued into the May 1998 desecration of graves in
the Warsaw Jewish cemetery and the July 1998 vandalism of a plaque
commemorating Jewish Holocaust victims in Rzeszow. No charges have been
filed to date, and the Rzeszow case is still under investigation. In
the case of the 1997 beating of a 14-year-old Jewish boy in Gdansk, the
defendant received a 4-year suspended sentence. The attack may have
been linked to a sermon by controversial Gdansk priest Henryk Jankowski
warning against the presence of Jews in the Government.
The March 1999 publication of a booklet by Opole University
professor Dariusz Ratajczak denying the Holocaust triggered severe
public criticism in March and April of the year. The booklet was self-
published (a total of 230 copies), and as soon as it became aware of
the publication, the university banned its distribution on school
property, criticized its contents, and suspended the professor pending
further disciplinary action. Ratajczak's trial began in November 1999
on charges of violating the law on the preservation of national memory,
which took effect on January 1, 1999 for ``disseminating the Auschwitz
lie.'' In December 1999, the Opole district court acquitted him and
ruled that the ``social threat'' posed by the book was low, given the
low number of copies published, and that in the book's second edition
and in Ratajczak's public appearances he criticized the revisionist
views of historians who deny the Holocaust. The university, which is
state run, fired him in April 2000 for violating ethical standards, and
he was banned from teaching at other universities for 3 years.
The Parliament (Sejm) is currently considering a law whose
provisions could allow for the restoration of citizenship to Jews who
were forced to emigrate during a Communist anti-Semitic campaign in
1968.
In May 2000, during the 12th March of the Living from Auschwitz to
Birkenau to honor victims of the Holocaust, several hundred Poles
joined the presidents of Israel and Poland as well as some 6,000
marchers from Israel and other countries. This was the largest
participation of Polish citizens in the event to date. Government
officials participating in the march included Members of Parliament,
the province's governor, and Oswiecim's mayor and city council
chairman. Schoolchildren, boy scouts, the Polish-Israeli Friendship
Society, and the Jewish Students Association in Poland also
participated in the march.
The Jewish community faced a continuing battle, which began in
April 1999, between Gdansk's local Jewish community and the leadership
of the Union of Jewish Communities in Poland (ZGZ), involving
accusations of mismanagement of community funds.
There is some public concern about the growth of groups perceived
to be ``sects'' and the influence of nonmainstream religious groups,
especially in the wake of press reports of the deaths of a few young
persons in circumstances suggesting cult activity.
Inter-faith groups work to bring together the various religious
groups in the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Representatives of the U.S. Embassy and Consulate General, up to
and including the Ambassador, continue to monitor closely issues
relating to religious freedom and inter-faith relations; one officer
devotes the vast majority of his time to questions of Polish/Jewish
relations, for example. Embassy and consulate officers meet frequently
with representatives of religious communities, the Government, and
local authorities on such matters as property restitution, skinhead
harassment, and inter-faith cooperation.
Embassy and consulate representatives actively monitor threats to
religious freedoms; the Embassy intervened to assure rapid police
response to threatening demonstrations by skinheads against the Jewish
community of Wroclaw in 1998. The Embassy and Consulate General work as
well to facilitate the protection and return of former Jewish
cemeteries throughout the country.
On a regular basis, embassy and consulate officials discuss issues
of religious freedom, including property restitution, with a wide range
of government officials at all levels. The Embassy and the Consulate
General play a continuing role in ongoing efforts to establish an
international foundation to oversee restitution of Jewish communal
property. A U.S. Government mediator worked with the two sides (the
Polish Union of Jewish Religious Communities and the World Jewish
Restitution Organization) to resolve outstanding differences that have
delayed establishment of such a foundation. In June 2000, the sides
reached agreement. The sides must now submit the appropriate
documentation to a Polish court so that the foundation can be
registered as a non-profit organization.
Embassy and consulate representatives, including the Ambassador,
also meet regularly with representatives of major religious communities
in the country. The Ambassador holds regular consultations with Primate
Glemp and meets with religious leaders, including leaders of the Jewish
community, both in the capital and during his travels throughout the
country.
The public affairs sections of the Embassy and the Consulate in
Krakow provided continuing support for activities designed to promote
cultural and religious tolerance. Such activities included a digital
videoconference linking young Poles with U.S. participants in the March
of the Living; a 2-week voluntary visitor program for senior
administrators at the Auschwitz-Birkenau state museum; and ongoing
press and public affairs support for the Auschwitz Jewish Center
Foundation and its project to renovate the last remaining synagogue in
Oswiecim.
__________
PORTUGAL
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
Portugal is a secular state. Other than the Constitution, the two
most important documents relating to religious freedom are the 1971 Law
on Religious Freedom and the 1940 Concordat (as amended) between
Portugal and the Holy See. Under this legal regime, the Roman Catholic
Church has several privileges not granted to other religions. For
example, the Catholic Church is completely exempt from the country's
value-added tax, whereas other religions only can exempt expenditures
related directly to worship. The Catholic Church has exclusive control
over the naming of military, prison, and hospital chaplains.
Since 1975 there has been a very liberal regime for recognizing
churches. Ministers of all faiths are also permitted to participate in
the country's social insurance scheme.
In recent years, minority religious groups, particularly
evangelical Christians, have called for an updated law on religious
freedom to replace the 1971 law. In April 2000, Communist and left bloc
deputies in the Parliament introduced a bill that would have ended not
only the special privileges enjoyed by the Catholic Church, but also
the tax breaks, religious instruction in schools, and other privileges
enjoyed by all religions. The bill was defeated, as expected. A second
bill was introduced by the governing Socialist Party and was debated
during the spring. The Socialist bill would preserve religious
instruction in schools and continue tax breaks for religious bodies,
allowing taxpayers to dedicate half a percent of their taxes to
religious projects. Religious communities would have to have been
present in the country for at least 30 years to qualify for these
benefits. This bill has wide support, and the only controversy is over
whether the country should first pass a new religious freedom law such
as this one and then renegotiate the Concordat with the Vatican, or
whether it should first renegotiate the Concordat and then pass a new
religious freedom law. As of mid-2000, the first approach appeared to
have greater support. The Catholic Archbishop of Lisbon endorsed the
Socialist bill; however, noting the important historical role that the
Catholic Church has played in the country. The Archbishop did not
express a view as to which should come first, the bill or a new
Concordat, calling them separate issues. Prior to the Pope's visit to
Portugal and the shrine of Fatima in May 2000, the country's Catholic
bishops met to compile their recommendations to the Vatican on
revisions to the Concordat.
Religious Demography
More than 80 percent of the population above the age of 12 identify
with the Roman Catholic Church. About 2 percent identify with various
Protestant denominations, and about 1 percent with non-Christian
religions. Less than 3 percent say that they have no religion.
Non-Christian religions include about 25,000 Muslims (largely from
Portuguese Africa, ethnically sub-Saharan African or South Asian), a
small number of Jews, and very small groupings of Buddhists, Taoists,
and Zoroastrians. A small Hindu community also exists, which traces its
origins to South Asians who emigrated from Portuguese Africa and the
former Portuguese colony of Goa in India. Many of these minority
communities are not organized formally.
Brazilian syncretistic Catholic Churches, which combine Catholic
ritual with pre-Christian Afro-Brazilian ritual such as Candomble and
Ubanda, also operate in small numbers, as do the Seventh-Day
Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and
Orthodox Christians. The Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus (the
Universal Church of the Kingdom of God), a proselytizing church that
originated in Brazil, also exists.
Public secondary school curriculums include an optional course
called ``religion and morals.'' This course functions as a survey of
world religions and is taught by a lay person. It can be used to give
Catholic religious instruction. The Catholic Church must approve all
teachers for this course. Other religions can set up such a course if
they have 15 or more children in the particular school. There are about
100 such non-Catholic programs in the country.
The Government takes active steps to promote inter-faith
understanding. Most notably, 5 days a week state television channel
(Radiotelevisao Portuguesa 2) broadcasts ``A Fe dos Homens''--``The
Faith of Man''--a half-hour program consisting of various segments
written and produced by different religious communities. The Government
pays for the segments and professional production companies are hired
under contract to produce the segments.
The concept behind ``The Faith of Man'' originated in 1984, when
minority religious communities began to request broadcast time on RTP
television. In 1997 arrangements for such broadcasts were regularized
and formalized and the program was launched. Religious communities send
delegates to a special television commission, which determines the
scheduling of segments. The television commission has operated on the
general rule that religious communities eligible for the program are
those that have been operating for at least 30 years in the country or
at least 60 years in their country of origin.
The Catholic Church owns a television station, Televisao
Independente. Its programming is basically indistinguishable from that
of other stations.
Foreign missionary groups (such as the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints) operate freely.
Major Catholic holidays are also official holidays. Seven out of
the country's 16 national holidays are Catholic holidays. The Papal
Nuncio is always the dean of the diplomatic corps.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. Many communities conduct ``open houses'' or sponsor inter-
faith education seminars. Sunday Mass is broadcast live. The Roman
Catholic Church regularly broadcasts its television program, ``Seven
Times Seventy.''
In May 2000, the Islamic center in Lisbon hosted visiting Nobel
Peace Prize winner and East Timorese bishop Ximenes Belo at a special
prayer for East Timor. The event was covered by the Portuguese press,
and attended by government officials, leaders from the country's other
religious communities, and members of the diplomatic corps. In 2000 the
municipality also revealed plans to light the Islamic center mosque at
night (as are other prominent landmarks in Lisbon), and to rename its
street ``Rua da Mesquita''--the street of the mosque.
Also in 2000, a project was begun in the Azores to restore the old
synagogue in Ponta Delgada, which was constructed in 1836 and abandoned
60 years ago. This project is the culmination of 15 years of lobbying
by the Azores Synagogue Restoration Committee, and is supported by both
the regional government of the Azores, the Portuguese-American
community, and universities in both countries. The synagogue is not to
be used for worship (the number of Jews in the Azores is virtually
zero) but is to serve as a monument to the country's Jewish heritage.
In April 2000, the Portuguese National Heritage Association
commemorated International Monuments Day at the synagogue.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy representatives have discussed issues and problems of
religious freedom with government officials, members of the National
Assembly, broadcasting executives, and leading religious figures in the
overall context of the promotion of human rights. These contacts are
ongoing.
__________
ROMANIA
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, several minority
religious groups continued to claim credibly that low-level government
officials and Romanian Orthodox clergy impeded their efforts at
proselytizing, as well as interfered with other religious activities.
The status of respect for religious freedom has improved slightly
during the period covered by this report; however, religious life
continues to be ruled by old laws that reinforce government
discrimination in favor of certain religious groups.
There are generally amicable relations among the different
religious groups; however, the Romanian Orthodox Church has attacked
the ``aggressive proselytizing'' of Protestant, neo-Protestant, and
other religious groups, repeatedly described as ``sects.'' Government
registration and recognition requirements still pose obstacles to
minority religions, and restitution of religious property remains a
problem.
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy engaged actively in encouraging respect for religious freedom,
pressing strongly with religious and political leaders for the
withdrawal of the draft religion bill and the restitution of religious
property.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, several minority
religious groups continued to claim credibly that low-level government
officials and Romanian Orthodox clergy impeded their efforts at
proselytizing, as well as interfered with other religious activities.
Since the Government has not adopted a new law, the Communist era
decree 177 of 1948 remains the law of the land, and it allows
considerable state control over religious life. Technically, none of
the articles of this law have been abrogated, but, according to the
State Secretariat for Religious Denominations, a large number of its
articles have been nullified in practice by the Constitution and a
series of governmental decrees. Though several religious denominations
and religious associations confirmed that articles stipulating the
State's interference with or control over religious life and activities
have not been enforced, such provisions still exist in the law.
Under the provisions of Decree 177 of 1948, the Government
recognizes 14 religions. In addition to this, a December 1989 decree
reestablished the Greek Catholic Church, which had been dismantled by a
Communist decree in 1948. Only the clergy of these 15 recognized
religions are eligible to receive state support. Recognized religions
have the right to establish schools, teach religion in public schools,
receive funds to build churches, pay clergy salaries with state funds
and subsidize their housing expenses, broadcast religious programming
on radio and television, apply for broadcasting licenses for
denominational frequencies, and enjoy tax-exempt status. The number of
adherents each religion had in the last census (1992) determines the
proportion of the budget each recognized religion receives. The
Romanian Orthodox religion, in accordance with its size as recorded in
the 1992 census, receives the largest share of governmental financial
support. In addition mostly Orthodox religious leaders preside over
state occasions. In 1999 the Government allocated funds amounting to
almost 1 million dollars (approximately 15 billion lei) to the Roman
Catholic Church and close to $650,000 (over 9 billion lei) to the Greek
Catholic Church (both budgetary and off-budget funds) for the
construction of churches.
The Government requires religious groups to register. To be
recognized as a religion, religious groups must register with the State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations and present their statutes,
organizational, leadership, and management diagrams, and the body of
dogma and doctrines formally stated by a religion. According to Article
13 of Decree 177 of 1948, a religious group can acquire religion status
by decree, issued at the Government's initiative, with the prior
recommendation of the State Secretariat for Religious Denominations.
Representatives of religious groups that sought recognition after 1990
allege that the registration process was arbitrary and unduly
influenced by the Romanian Orthodox Church, and that they did not
receive clear instructions concerning the requirements. The
Organization of the Orthodox Believers of Old Rite, Jehovah's
Witnesses, the Adventist Movement for Reform, the Baha'i Faith, and the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon) are some of the
religious groups that have tried unsuccessfully to register as
religions. The Baha'i Faith stated that it has never received any
answer to its repeated requests to be registered as a religious
denomination. Jehovah's Witnesses also complained that the State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations consistently had refused to
grant it status as a religion.
Not one religious group has succeeded in receiving religion status
since 1990. The State Secretariat for Religious Denominations stated
that this was due to the provisions of Article 13 of Decree 177 of
1948, which stipulates the recognition of religious denominations by a
decree issued by the Presidium of the Grand National Assembly--a
Communist body that passed laws but does not exist any more. Since no
new legislation has been passed in this regard, the State Secretariat
stated that the registration of any new religion is not possible.
The Government registers religious groups that it does not
recognize as ``independent religions'' either as religious and
charitable foundations or as cultural associations. The State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations reported that it has licensed
622 religious and charitable foundations, as well as cultural
organizations, under Law 21 of 1924 on Juridical Entities, thereby
entitling them to juridical status as well as to exemptions from income
and customs taxes. According to Article 18 of Decree 177 of 1948 on
Religion, religious and charitable foundations, to be recognized as
juridical entities, must request and receive approval from the
Government through the State Secretariat for Religious Denominations.
After receiving the approval, such organizations have to apply for
registration in local court, which has the final authority under the
law to register religious organizations, but the courts frequently
defer to the opinion of the State Secretariat for Religious Affairs.
Several religious organizations have complained that, in most cases,
the courts do not accept their registration without approval of the
State Secretary of Religions. These organizations receive no financial
support from the State, other than limited tax and import duty
exemptions, and are not permitted to engage in profit-making
activities. Moreover, religious groups registered as foundations or
charitable organizations are allowed to rent or build office space
only; they are not permitted to build churches or other buildings
designated as houses of worship. According to the State Secretariat for
Religious Denominations, such religious groups receive building permits
only for halls of prayer because the legislation in force makes
reference only to religions and does not include any provisions for
religious associations. The differentiation between religions and
religious associations with regard to the construction of places of
worship appears to be an arbitrary decision by the State Secretariat
for Religious Denominations.
A government decree on associations and foundations became
effective on May 1, 2000. Upon its coming into effect, Law 21 of 1924
was abrogated. The new law eliminates, at least in theory, the
bureaucratic obstacles in the registration process, which repeatedly
have been criticized by religious groups as arbitrary and time-
consuming. (Smaller religious groups also have criticized the State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations for its obstructionist tactics
in favor of the Romanian Orthodox Church.) It also removes the minimum
requirement of members required to establish religious associations and
foundations.
After almost a decade of discussion and multiple drafts, a bill on
religious denominations was approved suddenly by the Government in
September 1999 and submitted to Parliament. Since the bill dramatically
differed from any version discussed with the religious denominations
and would have strengthened government regulation of religious
activity, it generated a wave of criticism. Most religious
denominations, religious and human rights groups, and foreign observers
called for the draft law's withdrawal. If enacted, the law effectively
would have restricted freedom of religion, by imposing tough conditions
on the registration of religious denominations and religious groups and
strengthening the powers of the State Secretariat for Religious
Denominations. The draft law would have declared the Romanian Orthodox
Church to be the national church. Confronted with strong criticism both
domestically and abroad, the Government (headed by a new Prime
Minister) in February 2000 decided to withdraw the bill and undertook
to draft a new one based on democratic principles. However, completion
of such a draft bill is not expected before the end of 2000.
Religious Demography
The Romanian Orthodox Church is the predominant religion in the
country. The following are the number of believers in the historical
religions (those recognized under the provisions of the 1948 decree),
according to the disputed 1992 census: the Romanian Orthodox Church,
19,802,389 followers (86.8 percent of the population) including about
50,000 Serbs and Ukrainians; the Roman Catholic Church, 1,161,942
followers; the Catholic Church of Byzantine Rite (Greek Catholics or
Uniates), 223,327 followers. The census was taken in an atmosphere of
intimidation that equated Greek Catholics with Hungarians, not
Romanians. The Greek Catholic Church estimates that its adherents
number close to 750,000 members. (The country's Greek Catholics were
members of the Orthodox Church who accepted the four principles that
were required for union with Rome in 1697, but observed the Orthodox
festivals and many traditions from their Orthodox past). Among the
other recognized religions, the Old Style Orthodox Church has 32,228
members; the Old Rite Christian Church has 28,141 believers (of whom
3,711 are ethnic Romanian and 24,016 are ethnic Lippovans/Russians);
the Reformed (Protestant) Church has 802,454 believers (of whom 765,370
are ethnic Hungarians); the Christian Evangelical Church has 49,963
believers; the Evangelical Augustinian Church has 39,119 followers (of
whom 3,660 are Romanians and 27,313 are ethnic Germans); the Lutheran
Evangelical Church Synod-Presbyterian has 21,221 members (of whom
12,842 are ethnic Hungarians); the Unitarian Church of Romania has
76,708 believers; the Baptist Church has 109,462 believers; the
Apostolic Church of God (Pentecostal Church) has 220,824 believers
(400,000, according to Pentecostal reports); the Seventh-Day Christian
Adventist Church has 77,546 members; the Armenian Orthodox and Catholic
Churches have 2,023; Judaism has 9,670 followers, according to the 1992
census (the Jewish Community Federation states there are about 12,000
members); and the number of Muslims is 55,928.
According to the State Secretariat for Religious Denominations,
most religions have followers dispersed throughout the country, but a
few religious communities are concentrated in particular regions in the
country: the Old Rite (Lippovans) in Moldavia and Dobrogea; the Muslims
in the southeastern part of the country in the Dobrogea area; most of
the Greek Catholics in Transylvania but also in Moldavia; Protestant
and Catholic churches in Transylvania, but also around Bacau; the
Orthodox or Greek Catholic ethnic Ukrainians in the northwest area; the
Orthodox ethnic Serbs in Banat; and the Armenians in Moldavia and the
south.
According to published sources, the following religious
denominations are also active in the country in the form of religious
organizations: the Baha'i Faith, established in 1990; the Family (God's
Children), established in 1990; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
Day Saints (Mormons), which sent more than 100 missionaries to the
country immediately after 1989; the Unification Church; the Methodist
Church, established in 1990; Jehovah's Witnesses, established in 1990;
the Presbyterian Church, established in 1995; Transcendental
Meditation, legally registered in 1992; Hare Krishna; and Zen Buddhism.
According to a nationwide poll conducted in May 2000, 6 percent of
those polled say that they go to church on a weekly basis; 25 percent
claim to go several times per month; 28 percent attend services several
times per year; 12 percent go only once a year or less; and 9 percent
do not go to church at all.
In August 2000, the Government passed an ordinance on military
clergy, according to which all recognized religious denominations are
entitled to have military clergy, trained to render religious service
to conscripts.
The State Secretariat for Religious Denominations stated that the
Government does not have a policy of sponsoring or promoting inter-
faith programs.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Although protected in law, several minority religious denominations
made credible complaints that low-level government officials and
Romanian Orthodox clergy impeded their efforts to proselytize. Members
of religious communities not officially recognized as religious
denominations by the Government presented credible accusations that
government officials discriminated against them during the period
covered by this report. The Government denies these allegations.
Although under the Constitution persons are legally free to speak about
their religious beliefs, some low-level government officials strongly
discourage proselytizing. Representatives of some religious groups
recognized only as religious associations credibly claimed that local
officials pressure them to refrain from speaking out. In some
instances, local police and administrative authorities tacitly
supported, which were at times violent, societal campaigns against
proselytizing (see Section II). There seems to be no clear
understanding of what activities constitute proselytizing.
Minority religious groups asserted that they have found central
government and parliamentary officials more cooperative than local
officials. They specifically reported that communication with the State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations has improved in recent months.
According to the State Secretariat for Religious Denominations,
about 1,000 missionaries per year who enter the country as tourists can
renew their residence permits without special formalities. They require
only a formal letter of request from the religious group for which they
work. Over the past year the process has become smoother and faster.
Most religious groups said that they have not been faced with any
problems other than minor delays in getting residence permit extensions
for their missionaries. The State Secretariat for Religious
Denominations differentiates between missionaries of religious
denominations, who receive 1-year extensions, and those of religious
organizations, who are granted only 6-month extensions, apparently
because of a protocol between the State Secretariat for Religious
Denominations and the Interior Ministry. However, minority religious
groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, complained of receiving shorter-
term extensions. There are penalties for any foreigner who stays over
30 days without a visa, but there is no evidence that these penalties
were linked to religious activities.
Representatives of minority religious groups dispute the 1992
census results, claiming that census takers in some cases simply
assigned an affiliation without inquiring about religious affiliation.
Moreover, representatives of several minority religious groups complain
that off-budget funds are allocated in many cases in a biased manner,
mostly favoring the Orthodox Church. For example, minority religious
groups complained that Orthodox churches were built in areas without
Orthodox believers. According to the State Secretariat for Religious
Denominations, off-budget funds are distributed depending on the needs
of the various religious denominations.
The Government's approach to building places of worship by
organized churches varies, depending upon whether the organized
religion is one of the 15 recognized religions or not. The State
Secretariat for Religious Denominations reported that, between January
1999 and April 2000, it granted 31 approvals to the Greek Catholic
Church and 13 to the Roman Catholic Church for the construction of
churches. Religious groups that are not among the 15 recognized
religions receive approvals only for halls of prayer and not for places
of worship. Several nonrecognized religious groups have made credible
allegations that their efforts to acquire property, including getting
building permits and other documents, have been delayed or impeded for
lengthy periods of time by local officials. They believe these delays
are encouraged by local Orthodox clergy. The new State Secretary for
Religious Denominations, who took office in the fall of 1999, said that
he had withdrawn an internal note issued by his predecessor, who had
asked local authorities to deny building licenses to religious
associations and foundations. As a result, it has been much easier to
get licenses since then, though some religious groups still complain of
delays.
In July 1999, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Seventh-Day
Adventist high school students, who did not show up at one of the
graduation exams because it was scheduled on a Saturday. Consequently
they were entitled to take the exam in question on a different date and
without paying a fee. In March 2000, the Supreme Court also issued two
rulings that called for the official recognition of the status of
Jehovah's Witnesses as a religious denomination.
The law does not prohibit or punish assembly for peaceful religious
activities. However, several different nonrecognized religious groups
complained that on various occasions local authorities and Orthodox
priests prevented religious activities from taking place, even when
they had been issued permits. The Evangelical Alliance mentioned
incidents in particular in rural areas in Iasi and Vaslui counties, but
also in Braila and Arges counties, where a movie about Jesus could not
be shown in several villages (Sipote, Vladeni, Tufesti, Insuratei, and
Dobresti) because of violent incidents, allegedly instigated by
Orthodox priests supported by the police, who reportedly asserted that
prior approval by the Orthodox priest and the local police was required
for such activities.
The Government permits but does not require religious instruction
in public schools. While the law permits instruction according to the
faith of students' parents, some parents who practice minority
religions complain that they have been unable to have classes offered
in their faith in public schools. Teachers of religion are permitted to
teach only those students who adhere to the same religion as the
teacher.
Religious leaders occasionally play a role in politics. In
particular, many Orthodox leaders make public appearances alongside
prominent political figures on various occasions.
There is no law establishing procedures for restituting religious
or communal property. Some of the properties in these categories, which
were seized by the Communist regime, were returned to former owners as
a result of government decrees or agreement of local religious leaders.
However, in many cases religious minorities have not succeeded in
regaining actual possession of the properties. In fact many of the
properties returned by decree house state offices, schools, or
hospitals that would require relocation, and resolving this issue has
delayed restitution of the property to rightful owners.
The Greek Catholic community has been less successful than any
other group in regaining its properties. The Greek Catholic Church was
the second largest denomination (about 1.5 million adherents out of a
population of about 15 million) in 1948 when Communist authorities
outlawed it and dictated its forced merger with the Romanian Orthodox
Church. The latter received most of the former Greek Catholic
properties, including over 2,600 churches and other facilities. The
Greek Catholic Church made little progress in recovering its former
properties. Of the 2,600 former Greek Catholic churches and other
facilities that were transferred to the Orthodox Church by the
Communist regime, only a handful have been returned. According to the
State Secretariat for Religious Denominations, the Greek Catholic
Church has received 142 (the Greek Catholics claim they have received
only 136) of the churches transferred by the Communists to the Orthodox
Church. The Greek Catholic Church has very few places of worship. Many
followers still are compelled to hold services in public places or
parks (260 such cases, according to Greek Catholic reports) because
most of the former Greek Catholic churches have not been returned. In
1992 the Government adopted a decree that listed 80 properties owned by
the Greek Catholic Church to be returned. Only between 60 and 65 of
them have been returned to date (the worst situation is in Maramures
county and Bucharest.) In some cases, Orthodox priests whose families
had been Greek Catholics converted back to Greek Catholicism and
brought their parishes and churches back with them to the Greek
Catholic Church. In several counties, in particular in Transylvania,
local Orthodox leaders have given up smaller country churches
voluntarily. For example, in the Diocese of Lugoj in the southwestern
part of the country, local Orthodox Church representatives have reached
agreement on the return of an estimated 160 of 2,600 churches; however,
for the most part the Orthodox have refused to return to the Greek
Catholics those churches that they acquired during the Communist era
(Orthodox Archbishop of Timisoara Nicolae Corneanu was responsible for
returning some of the churches, including the cathedral in Lugoj, to
the Greek Catholic Church. However, due to his actions, the Orthodox
Holy Synod marginalized Archbishop Corneanu, and his fellow clergymen
criticized him.)
A governmental decree in 1990 called for the creation of a joint
Orthodox and Greek Catholic committee to decide the fate of churches
that had belonged to the Greek Catholic Church before 1948. However,
the Government has not enforced this decree, and the Orthodox Church
has resisted efforts to resolve the issue. The committee did not meet
until October 1998 and had three more meetings in 1999. The courts
generally refuse to consider Greek Catholic lawsuits seeking
restitution, citing the 1990 decree establishing the joint committee to
resolve the issue. However, the Orthodox Church consistently has
resisted efforts to resolve the issue in that forum. From its initial
property list of 2,600 seized properties, the Greek Catholic Church has
scaled back the properties that it is asking back to fewer than 300--
all of them churches--yet the only thing agreed upon at the joint
committee meetings has been the date for the next meeting. Restitution
of the existing churches is important to both sides because local
residents, who prize tradition, are likely to attend the church no
matter whether it is Greek Catholic or Orthodox. Thus the number of
believers and share of the state budget allocation for religions is at
stake. At the most recent meeting of the joint committee in November
1999, the Orthodox Church proposed to help the Uniates build new
churches. However, such support has been almost nonexistent, according
to Uniate reports. Since July 1999, the Greek Catholic Church has
recovered fewer than 10 of its former churches (in Cluj, Blaj, and
Oradea). A new meeting of the committee was scheduled for September
2000.
The historical Hungarian churches, including the Roman Catholic as
well as the Protestant churches (Reformed, Evangelical, and Unitarian),
have not received their properties back from the Government. Churches
from these denominations were not seized by the Communist regime, just
closed. However, the Communist regime confiscated many of their secular
properties, which still are used for public schools, post offices, and
student dormitories. Of the about 1,400 to 1,450 buildings reclaimed by
the Hungarian churches, it has been able to take possession of only
about 10. The Catholic Church of Romanian Language is in a similar
situation.
The Jewish community reported in May 2000 that 21 of its properties
had been returned by government decrees. However, the Jewish community
has taken actual possession of only 5 of them, the rest having been
restituted merely on paper so far.
Several religious communities have regained ownership of some of
their schools, hospitals, residences, and other properties. In some
cases this proved to be a disadvantage since the rightful owner could
not take possession of the property because it was being used by the
State, in which situation the owner receives minimal or no rent but has
to pay taxes as the property owner instead. For example, this was the
case of the former Reformed College restituted to the Reformed Church
in Cluj by government decree in 1999. The building currently is used as
a high school, which does not pay any rent, and the Reformed Church has
not been able to occupy the property. Compensation to any kind of
former owner for properties that are not returned must be established
by law; this issue remains with Parliament.
On June 22, 2000, the Government passed an emergency ordinance to
allow restitution of 10 unspecified buildings (not churches) to each
bishopric of each religious denomination from which property was seized
during the Communist period. This ordinance requires a commission be
established to determine which properties will be restored, a process
that is expected to take time.
According to Law 1/2000 adopted by Parliament in December 1999 and
signed into law in January 2000, religious denominations are entitled
to claim between 10 and 100 hectares (25 to 250 acres) of farmland
(depending on the type of religious unit--parish, eparchy, bishopric,
etc.) and up to 30 hectares (75 acres) of forestland from properties
seized by the Communists. This is the first law that establishes a
systematic procedure for churches to claim land.
The Hungarian churches repeatedly have expressed dissatisfaction
with the Government's failure to allow by law the establishment of
confessional schools subsidized by the State.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
The status of respect for religious freedom improved slightly
during the period covered by this report. Parliament passed a law
entitling religious denominations to reclaim back farm and forestland,
and the Government took steps to allow restitution of 10 unspecified
buildings (not churches) to each bishopric. A government decree
somewhat reduced the bureaucratic procedures required for the
registration of religious associations and foundations. Two decisions
by the State Secretariat for Religious Denominations have contributed
somewhat to speeding up the process of granting visa extensions for
religious workers and relaxed the policy of issuing construction
licenses for religious associations and foundations.
Jehovah's Witnesses and the Seventh-Day Adventists reported three
court rulings upholding their rights to build places of worship and
practice their faith, which apparently represent small steps toward
increased religious freedom.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are generally amicable relations among the different
religious groups. However, the Romanian Orthodox Church has attacked
the ``aggressive proselytizing'' of Protestant and other religious
groups repeatedly (see Section I). Some prominent members of society
publicly criticized proselytizing.
There is no law against proselytizing. However, the dominant
Orthodox Church repeatedly and publicly has criticized what it
described as proselytizing by various religious groups. Proselytizing
that involves denigrating established churches is perceived as
provocative. There seems to be no clear understanding of what
activities constitute proselytizing. This sometimes has led to
conflicts. According to the Jehovah's Witnesses, the local Orthodox
clergy in Mizil (Prahova county), with the tacit support of the local
police and administration, started a campaign at the beginning of 2000
aimed at barring activity by Jehovah's Witnesses. Anti-Jehovah's
Witnesses flyers were spread in the town, denouncing it as a fanatic
and criminal sect, and Jehovah's Witnesses repeatedly were harassed and
assaulted, allegedly at the instigation of an Orthodox youth league
tied to the Orthodox Church.
In addition, the dialog between the Orthodox and the Greek Catholic
churches has not eliminated disputes at the local level and has led to
little real progress in solving the problem of the restitution of the
Uniate assets (see Section I).
Disputes between Greek Catholics and Orthodox believers over church
possession in several localities occasionally became heated during the
period covered by this report. In Ardud the Orthodox Church first
reached agreement to share the local church with the Greek Orthodox
community in the same town, but subsequently changed its mind and the
lock on the church door. Eventually, the Uniates decided to build a new
church. In Bicsad the Uniates obtained a government decision allowing
them to take possession of a former Greek Catholic monastery, but they
were stopped by agitated local residents led by Orthodox priests. In
Sercaia the Greek Catholic Church regained its former church after a
series of violent incidents, with Orthodox believers allegedly
instigated by the local Orthodox priest. In Dumbraveni the Orthodox
Church's opposition to a court-ordered proposal to share the local
church has forced the Uniates to hold their religious services in a
high school.
The centuries-long domination of the Orthodox Church, and its
status as the majority religion, has resulted in the Orthodox Church's
reluctance (in particular at the local level and with the more or less
direct support of low-level officials) to accept the existence of other
religions (especially new ones.) Consequently, actions by other
religious groups to attract believers are perceived by the Orthodox
Church as attempts to diminish the number of its followers (see Section
I). Due to its broad range of influence, few politicians dare to
sponsor bills and measures that would oppose the Orthodox Church.
According to minority religious groups, the population is receptive to
minority Christian confessions; it is the Orthodox clergy that was at
the root of isolated mob incidents.
Most mainstream politicians have criticized publicly anti-Semitism,
racism, and xenophobia. However, the fringe press continued to publish
anti-Semitic harangues.
In October 1999, a court sentenced Mihai Bogdan Antonescu, editor
of the weekly Atac la Persoana, to a 2-year suspended sentence for
publishing articles that were intended to spread intolerance toward
Jews. The Jewish Community Federation reported that Jewish cemeteries
were desecrated in 10 localities in 1999. The perpetrators have not
been identified in any of these cases, but are believed to have been
local hooligans, rather than an organized anti-Semitic movement. In
April 2000, a letter warning about the danger of the expansion of the
Legionnaire Movement, sent to the President, government officials, and
Parliament by the Jewish Community Federation failed to generate any
reaction by any of the addressees. However, the Jewish Community
Federation praised the local authorities in Timisoara and Iasi for
taking a prompt stand against anti-Semitic graffiti in February 2000.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy also maintains close contact with a broad range of religious
groups in the country. Embassy staff, including the human rights
officer, political counselor, and the Ambassador, met with religious
leaders and government officials who work on religious affairs in
Bucharest and in other cities.
In addition, embassy staff members are in frequent contact with
numerous nongovernmental organizations that monitor developments in the
country's religious life. U.S. officials have lobbied consistently in
government circles for fair treatment on property restitution issues,
including religious and communal properties. The Embassy has a core
group of officials who focus on fostering good ethnic relations,
including relations between religious groups.
The U.S. Embassy took an active stand against the reactionary
religion bill approved by the Cabinet and sent to Parliament in
September 1999. Embassy staff lobbied heads of all the major political
parties, key government officials including the Prime Minister, and
members of the relevant parliamentary committees. In addition, the
Embassy encouraged other western embassies and religious groups in the
country to engage in parallel lobbying actions. The Secretary of State
also raised the issue during Romanian Foreign Minister Petre Roman's
visit to the United States. The bill was eventually withdrawn in
February 2000.
__________
RUSSIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, although
the Constitution also provides for the equality of all religions before
the law and the separation of church and state, in practice the
Government does not always respect the provision for equality of
religions, and some local authorities imposed restrictions on some
religious minority groups. The commitment of the new Government under
President Vladimir Putin to adhere to international standards of
religious freedom remained unclear by mid-2000.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The 1997 law on religion, which replaced a more liberal 1990 law,
continues to be the focus of serious concern about the state of
religious freedom in the country. One of the law's most controversial
provisions is a requirement that a church must prove that it has
existed for at least 15 years in the country before it is allowed to be
registered as a full-fledged religious organization. (Registration as a
religious organization is necessary in order for a religious community
to rent or buy a facility, proselytize, publish literature, provide
religious training, or conduct other activities.) In a November 1999
ruling, the Constitutional Court upheld the 15-year requirement but
also permitted the registration of organizations that already were
registered when the 1997 law was passed or that were willing to become
a local branch of a larger registered denomination. The provision still
severely restricts the activities of small, new, independent
congregations. The 1997 law also requires that all religious
organizations be registered by December 31, 2000. Due to several
factors, the registration process has been slow, and a large number of
religious organizations may remain unregistered by the end of 2000 and
therefore may be subject to ``liquidation'' (that is terminated as a
legal entity) by local authorities at the end of 2000. The lack of
clarity in the 1997 law, combined with contradictions between federal
and local law and varying interpretations of the law, furnish regional
officials with pretexts to restrict the activities of religious
minorities. Discriminatory practices at the local level also are
attributable to the increased decentralization of power over the past
several years and the relatively greater susceptibility of local
governments to lobbying by majority religions, as well as to government
inaction and discriminatory attitudes that are widely held in society.
For example, articles heavily biased against religions considered
``nontraditional'' appear regularly in both the local and national
press. There were reports of harassment of members of religious
minority groups. Several religious communities were forced to defend
themselves in court from charges by local authorities that they were
engaging in harmful activities; however, in many cases local courts
demonstrated their independence by dismissing frivolous cases or
rulings in favor of the religious organizations. As of mid-2000, it
remained unclear whether any religious organization had ceased
operations as a result of the 1997 religion law.
The U.S. Government has been active in encouraging respect for
religious freedom. The U.S. Embassy and the U.S. Consulates General
actively investigated reports of violations of religious freedom,
including anti-Semitic incidents. U.S. officials discuss these issues
with a broad range of government officials, representatives of
religious groups, and human rights activists on a daily basis.
Section I. Government Policies on Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, although
the Constitution also provides for the equality of all religions before
the law and the separation of church and state, in practice the
Government does not always respect the provision for equality of
religions, and in some instances local authorities imposed restrictions
on some groups.
In December 1990, the Soviet Government adopted a law on religious
freedom designed to make all religions equal before the law. (After the
breakup of the Soviet Union, this law became part of the Russian
Federation's legal code.) The 1990 law forbade government interference
in religion and established simple registration procedures for
religious groups. Registration of religious groups was not required;
however, by registering groups obtained a number of advantages, for
example, the ability to establish official places of worship and
benefit from tax exemptions.
During the early and mid-1990's, many sectors of society,
particularly nationalists and many members of the Russian Orthodox
Church, were disturbed by a sharp increase in the activities of well-
financed foreign missionaries. Many advocated limiting the activities
of what they termed ``nontraditional'' religious groups and what
sometimes were called ``dangerous'' or ``totalitarian'' sects. In
October 1997, the Duma enacted a new, restrictive, and potentially
discriminatory law on religion, which raised questions about the
Government's commitment to international agreements honoring freedom of
religion. This law replaced the progressive 1990 religion law that had
helped facilitate a revival of religious activity. Passage of the law
and its signature by then-President Boris Yeltsin prompted concern in
the international community because, for the first time since the
breakup of the Soviet Union, the Government had adopted legislation
that could abridge fundamental human rights. Although President Yeltsin
had rejected earlier drafts of the law, the Presidential Administration
considered the last version the least objectionable and concluded that,
in view of the political situation, any further veto would have been
overridden.
In its preamble (which government officials insist has no legal
force), the 1997 religion law recognizes the ``special contribution of
Orthodoxy to the history of Russia and to the establishment and
development of Russia's spirituality and culture.'' It accords
``respect'' to Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, and certain
other religions as an inseparable part of the country's historical
heritage.
The 1997 religion law ostensibly targeted so-called ``totalitarian
sects'' or dangerous religious cults. However, the intent of some of
the law's sponsors appears to have been to discriminate against members
of foreign and less wellestablished religions by making it difficult
for them to manifest their beliefs through organized religious
institutions. The critics of the law believe that the basic assumption
behind the law is that religious groups must prove their innocence and
their legitimacy before gaining the advantages of state recognition.
Government officials, including then-President Boris Yeltsin and then-
Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin, pledged that the law on religion
would not result in any erosion of religious freedom in the country. As
of mid-2000, the Presidential Administration under President Putin has
yet to comment on the law. Presidential Administration officials have
established consultative mechanisms to facilitate government
interaction with religious communities and to monitor application of
the law on religion. The Government continues to attempt to mitigate
some of the law's most negative aspects and has shown some willingness
to intervene with local authorities in defense of religious rights.
Government officials, some nongovernmental organizations (NGO's),
and religious freedom experts believe that President Vladimir Putin's
emphasis on centralization of power and strengthened rule of law could
lead to improvements in the area of religious freedom. Putin has
promised stricter and more consistent application of all laws. However,
some other NGO's, religion-law experts, and representatives of
religious groups point out that stricter implementation of the 1997
religion law could create opposite results. On one hand, stricter
implementation of the 1997 federal law in the regions could compel some
reluctant local authorities to stop blocking local registration of
``nontraditional'' religions. On the other hand, stricter
implementation also could require local authorities to ``liquidate''
(that is terminate as a legal entity) by court order organizations that
have failed to register by December 31, 2000. An amendment to extend
the registration deadline in the 1997 law, signed on March 27, 2000 by
President Putin, also changed a key phrase: organizations still
unregistered after the deadline ``are subject to liquidation'' (rather
than the previous text's ``may be liquidated''). Some observers believe
that the law now appears to require liquidation of unregistered
organizations; however, other religion law experts consider the more
precise phrasing, which appears to require the liquidation of all
organizations that are unregistered by the deadline, less likely to be
enforced, since the authorities would be unwilling to liquidate the
large number of Russian Orthodox groups that they expect to remain
unregistered at that time.
Given the inadequacy of regulatory guidance from the federal
authorities on how to apply the 1997 law correctly, the shortage of
knowledgeable local officials registering by the end of 2000 is
expected to be a significant obstacle for many religious groups. Human
rights observers remain deeply concerned that President Putin has not
expressed a firm commitment to freedom of religion publicly and point
to the continued public association of the Presidential Administration
with the Russian Orthodox Church as evidence of favoritism.
In May 2000, President Putin took a significant step toward
increasing federal control in the regions by signing a decree dividing
the country into seven federal districts and naming to each of the
seven regions a presidential representative. The Presidential
Administration also reportedly is conducting a review of regional
legislation that conflicts with federal law and the Constitution,
including regional religion laws. According to the Presidential
Administration, 30 of 89 regions have laws and decrees on religion that
violate the Constitution by restricting the activities of religious
groups; presumably they would have to be changed. However, as of June
30, 2000 it remained unclear whether the Federal Government had the
necessary legal mechanisms and political will to bring all religion
legislation into compliance with federal law.
The office of the Russian Federation Human Rights Plenipotentiary
(a government entity created by the Parliament in 1997 and tasked with
promoting human rights) has announced that it is setting up a
department dedicated to religious freedom issues. Oleg Mironov of the
office of Plenipotentiary publicly criticized the 1997 religion law in
a memo to the Duma in April 1999 and recommended changes to bring it
into accordance with the Constitution and international norms for
religious freedom.
The 1997 law on religion is very complex, with many ambiguous and
contradictory provisions. On its face, the law creates various
categories of religious communities with differing levels of legal
status and privileges. The law distinguishes between religious
``groups'' and ``organizations,'' two mutually exclusive registration
categories, and creates two categories of organizations: ``regional''
and ``centralized.'' A religious ``group'' is a congregation of
worshipers that does not have the legal status of a juridical person,
meaning that it may not open a bank account, own property, issue
invitations to foreign guests, publish literature, or conduct worship
services in prisons and state-owned hospitals. Groups are permitted to
rent public spaces and hold services. Moreover, the law does not
purport to abridge the rights of individual members of groups. For
example, a member of a religious group could buy property for the
group's use, invite personal guests to engage in religious instruction,
and import religious material. However, in this case, the group would
not enjoy tax benefits and other rights extended to religious
organizations, such as proselytizing.
In contrast to religious groups, religious organizations, both
local and centralized, are considered juridical persons, enjoy tax
exemptions, and are permitted to proselytize, establish religious
schools, host foreign religious workers, and publish literature. The
law provides that congregations that had existed for 15 years when the
new law was enacted were eligible for registration as an organization.
A ``centralized religious organization'' may be founded by a confession
that has three functioning ``local organizations'' (each of which must
have at least 10 members who are Russian citizens) in different
regions. A centralized organization apparently has the right to
establish affiliated local organizations without adhering to the 15-
year rule. In implementing this provision, the Government has extended
this definition to include a ``registered centralized managing
center.''
The provisions that require that religious groups exist for 15
years before they may qualify for ``organization status'' and that
relegate other religious entities to the status of ``groups'' are among
the most controversial elements of the 1997 law. Critics of the law
claimed that these articles violated the Constitution's provision of
equality before the law of all confessions.
A constitutional challenge to the law on religion was filed with
the Constitutional Court in May 1998 by the NGO the Institute for
Religion and Law. It was based on the cases of a Khakasiya Pentecostal
church and the Yaroslavl Jehovah's Witnesses. The petitioners claimed
that the provision of the 1997 religion law requiring religious
organizations to prove 15 years of existence in Russia in order to be
registered is unconstitutional. In a November 23, 1999 hearing, the
Constitutional Court upheld the 15-year provision but also ruled that
religious organizations that were registered before the passage of the
1997 law were not required to prove 15 years' existence in the country
in order to be registered. The Constitutional Court also upheld the
right of the Government to place certain limits on the activity of
religious groups in the interests of national security. The Institute
and other experts described the decision as a sound and legally correct
compromise.
However, under this ruling independent churches with less than 15
years in the country still are not able to register as religious
organizations unless they affiliate themselves with existing
centralized organizations. The Institute for Religion and Law and other
NGO's point out that this is a significant restriction for small,
independent religious communities. Some human rights activists also are
concerned by language in the ruling that cites 1993 and 1996 decisions
in the European Court of Human Rights regarding religious ``sects,''
and upholds the right of the Government to place certain limits on the
activity of religious groups in the interests of national security.
Despite the Federal Government's efforts to implement the religion
law liberally and to provide assurances that religious freedom would be
observed, restrictions continued at the local level. The vagueness of
the law and regulations, the contradictions between federal and local
law, and varying interpretations of the law provide regional officials
with a pretext to restrict the activities of religious minorities.
Discriminatory practices at the local level are attributable to the
increased decentralization of power and the relatively greater
susceptibility of local governments to lobbying by majority religions,
as well as to national government inaction and prejudicial attitudes
that are widely held in society. Concerns continue that a large number
of religious organizations may remain unregistered by the end of 2000
and therefore may be even more vulnerable to attempts by local
authorities to restrict their activities.
Since 1994 30 of the country's 89 regional governments have passed
laws and decrees intended to restrict the activities of religious
groups. At the time the 1997 religion law was under discussion, its
proponents argued that it was necessary in order to deal with the many
restrictive local laws. However, the federal Government has not
challenged effectively the unconstitutionality of these restrictions,
although the Presidential Administration sent warnings to 30 regions
regarding the unconstitutionality of local laws. Critics contend that
the Federal Government should be more active in preventing or reversing
discriminatory actions taken at the local level by more actively
disseminating information to the regions and, when necessary,
reprimanding the officials at fault. Observers also have proposed that
the federal authorities take action to ensure that regional and local
legislation or other actions do not contradict constitutional
provisions protecting religious freedom. As part of President Putin's
initiative to centralize power, the Presidential Administration
currently is conducting an overall review of regional legislation and
has stated that religion laws also would be addressed by this
initiative.
The Russian Orthodox Church was involved actively in drafting the
1997 law on religion. It has made special arrangements with government
agencies to conduct religious education and to provide spiritual
counseling to Russian military service members. These arrangements do
not appear to be available to other religions. (In particular, Muslim
religious leaders have complained that they are not permitted to
minister to Muslim military service members.) The head of the Moscow
Patriarchate, the Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia, participates in
most high-level official events and appears to have direct access to
and influence with officials of the executive branch. The traditional
view that Russian soil is an exclusively ``Orthodox domain'' leads to
frequent criticism and intolerance of foreign religious groups that
proselytize in the country. Many Orthodox Church officials condemn such
``sheep stealing'' when practiced by other Christian churches. Even
well established foreign religious organizations have been
characterized by some in the Orthodox leadership as ``dangerous and
destructive sects.''
On June 4, 2000, news reports surfaced alleging that Chief Rabbi of
Russia Adolf Shayevich was urged by Presidential Administration
officials to step down in favor of a prominent Lubavitcher rabbi, Berl
Lazar. Rabbi Shayevich later denied that the incident had occurred. On
June 12, 2000, authorities arrested media magnate Vladimir Gusinskiy,
the President of the Russian Jewish Congress President and a critic of
the Government. On the same day, the Federation of Jewish Communities
of Russia elected Rabbi Lazar Chief Rabbi of Russia, which created a
schism in the Jewish community between supporters of Shayevich and
supporters of Lazar. This sequence of events aroused serious concern
among many observers that the Presidential Administration was
attempting to meddle in intraconfessional affairs and prompted the
Russian Jewish Congress to accuse the Administration publicly of a
``divide and conquer'' strategy against the Jewish community. In
addition, on June 19, 2000, the Minister of Culture signed an agreement
with the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia giving it, along
with other organizations, the right to negotiate on behalf of the
Jewish community for restituted property.
Under the 1997 religion law, representative offices of foreign
religious organizations are required to register with state
authorities. They are barred from conducting liturgical services and
other religious activity unless they have acquired the status of a
group or organization. Although the law officially requires all foreign
religious organizations to register, in practice foreign religious
representatives' offices (those not registered under Russian law) have
opened without registering or have been accredited to a registered
Russian religious organization. However, those offices may not carry
out religious activities and do not have the status of a religious
organization.
Religious Demography
There are no reliable statistics that break down the country's
population by denomination, but available information suggests that
approximately half of all citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox
Christians (although the vast majority of these persons are not regular
churchgoers). An opinion poll of 1,500 respondents conducted by Public
Opinion in April 1999 found that 55 percent of the population consider
themselves Orthodox Christian, 9 percent follow another religion, and
31 percent claim to be atheists. Another poll of some 4,000 respondents
by the Center of Sociological Studies at Moscow State University in the
spring of 1999 found that 43 percent claimed to be Orthodox Christians,
while 51 percent described themselves as ``religious believers'' (not
necessarily Orthodox). A separate poll found that in Moscow only 20
percent of respondents who identify themselves as Orthodox are regular
churchgoers, while in the regions only 7 percent attend church
regularly. According to January 2000 Ministry of Justice statistics,
there are now 17,427 religious organizations registered nationwide.
This figure represents a more than three-fold increase over the
approximately 5,500 organizations registered in 1990. Over half of
registered organizations are Russian Orthodox, 18 percent are Muslim,
and 20 percent are Christian organizations other than Russian Orthodox.
Jewish and Buddhist registered religious organizations each account for
slightly less than 1 percent of the total number of organizations.
Jehovah's Witnesses account for 2 percent of the total registered
religious organizations, and the group reports that it has 250,000
members in the country. Ministry of Justice figures also show that
approximately 5,000 nontraditional organizations are registered
nationwide, representing a broad range of denominations and religious
practices. Nontraditional registered organizations include Jehovah's
Witnesses, Methodists, Presbyterians, Pentecostals, the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Evangelical Christian-Baptists,
Roman Catholics, Hare Krishnas, Seventh-Day Adventists, Lutherans,
Baha'is, and offshoots of Russian Orthodox Christianity, as well as 227
organizations representing less well-known denominations. Other
religions, including Buddhism and Shamanism, are practiced in specific
localities where they are rooted in local traditions.
An agreement signed on May 23, 2000, between two large Russian
state radio networks and an international Christian broadcaster, Trans
World Radio, provides for airing evangelical Christian programs on 750
transmitters throughout Russia. The broadcasts began on June 1, 2000 on
Radio Mayak and Radio Yunost.
Governmental Restrictions of Religious Freedom
The Constitutional Court's November 1999 ruling effectively
legalized a number of religious organizations that were registered at
the time the 1997 law was passed but could not prove 15 years of
operation in the country. For example, in the case of Jehovah's
Witnesses, the 15-year rule no longer prevents the registration of
newly created local Jehovah's Witnesses religious organizations, nor
the reregistration of organizations that were registered at the time of
implementation of the 1997 law but which were less than 15 years old.
The likely degree of adherence to this ruling by regional
authorities remains unclear. Most observers agree that many local
authorities remain unaware of this ruling and are uncertain as to how
the 1997 law should be applied. In May 2000, the Russian State Academy
of Public Service, in cooperation with local and foreign NGO's,
attempted to address this problem by conducting a seminar on religion,
which was attended by Ministry of Justice officials from 80 regions.
Between February 12 and June 3, 1998, the Government issued three
sets of regulations governing implementation of the new law. While
providing procedural guidelines for registration, the regulations
failed to clarify many key definitional points in the law.
The case of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) reflects this confusion.
The Society was denied federal registration in April 1999 because the
Jesuit order's status, which is independent of a local bishop, does not
meet requirements contained in the 1997 law's provisions. However, an
April 13, 2000 Constitutional Court ruling authorized the Jesuits to be
registered. This ruling, published in full on May 13, 2000 in
Rossisskaya Gazeta, referred extensively to passages in the November
1999 Constitutional Court ruling (which effectively legalized
registered organizations existing at the time of the passage of the
1997 law). The April 2000 ruling also specifically refuted points cited
by the Ministry of Justice as reasons for refusal. By mid-2000 the
Society of Jesus was still negotiating certain points of its charter
with the Ministry of Justice.
In the case of at least one religion, a federal government agency
has been responsible for significant restrictions on the activities of
a church. In some areas, foreign Roman Catholic religious workers must
return to their home countries every 3 months in order to renew their
visas, unlike other foreign workers who may apply for multipleentry
visas or extend their stays.
In addition to ambiguities in the regulations, the considerable
time, effort, and legal expense required by the registration process--
which involves simultaneous registration at both the federal and local
levels--represent major obstacles for a number of confessions.
International and well-funded Russian religious organizations, in
particular, began the reregistration process soon after publication of
the regulations governing reregistration. Russian Pentecostal groups,
which have a solid and growing network of churches throughout the
country, sought guidance from the Ministry of Justice on reregistration
as early as November 1997. One of the larger organizations, the Russian
Unified Fellowship of Christians of the Evangelical Faith (which traces
its origins back to the early 1900's) reregistered as a centralized
religious organization by late March 1998. It since has incorporated
many smaller, newer Pentecostal groups within its structure. However, a
significant number of smaller congregations remain unaware of how (or
in a few cases, may be reluctant) to comply with Russian registration
and tax-inspection requirements.
According to a May 2000 report by the Keston Institute,
registration of Muslim religious organizations also is proceeding
slowly, with only a small percentage of local organizations registered.
The delay is largely due to a struggle between the Central Spiritual
Directorate of Muslims in European Russia and Siberia, based in Ufa and
led by Mufti Talgat Tadzhuddin, and the Moscow-based Russian Council of
Muftis, led by Chief Mufti Ravil Gainutdin. The Central Spiritual
Directorate informed the Keston Institute that approximately 20 percent
of its 2,500 local organizations have been registered. Mufti
Gainutdin's organization is registered but did not have an estimate of
how many of its local organizations were registered. Chief Mufti
Gainutdin's staff complained that local authorities in some cases were
obstructing the registration of local organizations that wished to join
Gainutdin's rather than Tadzhuddin's union, and that those who wished
to leave Tadzhuddin's Spiritual Directorate were being accused of
``Wahhabism.'' In the Russian context, ``Wahhabism,'' the name of a
strict branch of Sunni Islam that originated in Saudi Arabia, has
become a pejorative term because of persistent allegations that
``Wahhabi extremism'' is to blame for terrorist attacks linked to
Chechnya.
The delay in reregistration was due in part to the slow pace at
which the Federal Ministry of Justice has disseminated the regulations
and guidelines to local authorities and in part to understaffing both
at the Ministry of Justice and at local levels. In many instances, the
Ministry of Justice has asked for additional information and has
demanded changes in the organizational structure and by-laws of some
groups to ensure that they are in conformity with the law. Smaller
minority confessions also sometimes feared the registration process,
while others started the process late because of the time involved in
agreeing internally on how to register their organizations in
conformity with the law. Katya Smyslova of the Esther Legal Assistance
Center, an NGO that provides information to religious groups, reports
that a significant number of congregations are unaware of registration
and tax inspection requirements.
Although reliable statistics are unavailable, observers estimated
that as of mid-2000 just under half of the 400 of those requiring
registration were registered at the federal level. Figures on the
number of pending local registrations are also unavailable, but
observers estimate that from one-half to two-thirds of the
approximately 16,850 organizations required to reregister have not done
so. The Institute for Religion and Law estimates that by the end of
2000, as many as one-third of local religious organizations will not be
reregistered and therefore will be subject to liquidation.
In 1998 and early 1999, the Government attempted to address
mounting concerns that a large number of religious organizations,
particularly at the local level, might remain unregistered when the
deadline passed at the end of 1999 and become left vulnerable to
attempts by local authorities to restrict their activities. In June
1999, the Ministry of Justice recommended to regional directorates of
justice that local religious organizations be reregistered. Religious
groups reported in 1999 and early 2000 that local registrations began
to be processed more easily after the recommendation. On August 2,
1999, a presidential decree was signed that clarified the relationship
between the federal Ministry of Justice and the regional directorates
of justice, stating that the directorates are ``territorial organs of
the Ministry.'' Observers and officials viewed this decree as a means
to help bring insubordinate directorates more in compliance with
federal policies, but, reflecting the decentralization of power of
recent years, it appears to have had little effect.
Due to the Duma's failure to pass the amendment before the law's
original deadline expired, between December 31, 1999 and March 26,
2000, approximately 8,400 religious organizations were left exposed to
``liquidation'' (closure by court order) on grounds of lack of
registration. In an effort to forestall closures, which appears to have
been largely successful, the Ministry of Justice in December 1999 sent
a recommendation to regional authorities that they refrain from
initiating legal proceedings to liquidate any organizations.
According to the Keston Institute and local NGO's, a small handful
of religious organizations were threatened with liquidation due to lack
of registration. In Voronezh, local administration officials filed
petitions to liquidate 13 religious organizations on the basis of lack
of registration in February, 2000, of which three cases were brought to
court. The Institute of Religion and Law alerted the Ministry of
Justice, which took prompt action to prevent the closures. Only one
organization, a Pentecostal church, was liquidated. Local officials in
Voronezh reportedly claimed that they were unaware of the federal
Ministry's recommendation and subsequently withdrew petitions to
liquidate the 10 remaining organizations. Although the incident alarmed
religious freedom activists, in particular because none of the
unregistered Russian Orthodox organizations were singled out, it
appears that the proposed liquidations would not have harmed all of the
denominations in question, because some of the organizations in
question appeared to be either inactive or defunct. In Tatarstan the
Church of Christ in Kazan was reportedly liquidated in April 2000 for
allegedly holding a church conference without the permission of local
authorities. The Kostroma regional department of justice was preparing
lawsuits in June 2000 to dissolve the Kostroma Christian Center and
Grace Church Evangelical Christians for allegedly violating the
religion law by using ``hypnosis'' during their services. The
department refused to register the two groups and authorized a
committee of experts of the regional administration to evaluate the
groups. The actions came after reports appeared on Kostroma state
television accusing Pentecostal groups of using hypnosis during
services.
While there were few efforts at liquidation, local authorities
resisted the registration efforts of congregations belonging to a
number of faiths. Jehovah's Witnesses report a total of 1,000
congregations in Russia, not all of which require registration. In 1998
and 1999, local authorities were refusing to register some local
organizations of Jehovah's Witnesses, pending federal level
registration and the resolution of a Moscow municipal court case
against Jehovah's Witnesses in that city under Article 14 of the 1997
religion law. Jehovah's Witnesses and religious rights activists
welcomed the Ministry of Justice's April 30, 1999 decision to
reregister Jehovah's Witnesses at the federal level, and Jehovah's
Witnesses reported in May 2000 that since the new religion law went
into force on October 1, 1997, it has registered a total of 337 local
religious organizations in 65 regions of the country. However, as of
April 2000, local authorities in 14 regions refused to register local
Jehovah's Witnesses organizations, and no Jehovah's Witnesses
organizations have been registered in St. Petersburg, although there
are some 7,000 members of Jehovah's Witnesses there, according to the
group's representatives. As of May 2000, the Moscow directorate of
justice refused registration to Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow eight
times, despite the precedent set by the Ministry of Justice's April 30
decision to reregister Jehovah's Witnesses at the federal level.
Although there is no legal basis to do so, the directorate may be
refusing registration pending resolution of the outstanding civil case
against Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow. The civil case against the
Jehovah's Witnesses has been adjourned for over 1 year, following a
March 1999 municipal ruling to refer the case to an expert panel for a
recommendation. In the absence of reregistration, the group is subject
to liquidation by court order after December 31, 2000. Moreover,
according to representatives of Jehovah's Witnesses, as of May 31,
2000, there were liquidation warnings and actions to ban Jehovah's
Witnesses at various levels of the judicial system in Novokuznetsk,
Pechora (Komi), Prokhladnyi (Kabardino-Balkaria), Saratov, and Ushaly
(Bashkortostan). An appellate court in Lipetsk ruled in favor of
Jehovah's Witnesses after the group's registration was denied, and
Jehovah's Witnesses intend to challenge decisions in some of the 14
other regions where congregations have been denied registration.
Jehovah's Witnesses report that their applications for local
registration in some regions have been referred to local expert panels,
despite a recommendation by the federal Ministry of Justice expert
panel which, according to the Ministry of Justice, obviates the need
for such review. Local expert studies of Jehovah's Witnesses have
stalled registration efforts in Mari-El, Khabardino-Balkaria, Novgorod,
and Orel. In Lipetsk a local expert study recommended the registration
be refused, but in April 2000 the Lipetsk regional court ordered the
Lipetsk justice department to register Jehovah's Witnesses under their
standard nationwide charter.
Keston reported in March 2000 that Voronezh officials refused to
register the Community of All Saints of the True Orthodox Church, an
Orthodox Christian congregation that left the Moscow Russian Orthodox
Patriarchate in the early 1990's. Parish priest Valeriy Kravets said
that Orthodox communities outside the jurisdiction of the Moscow
Patriarchate that met secretly in the apartments of members and hid
successfully from the KGB during the Soviet era, now are finding it
nearly impossible to register.
The Unification Church had 15 local organizations registered under
the old law. By mid-2000, three organizations, including organizations
in Ul'yanovsk and Ufa, had reregistered under the new law and the
efforts of four others, in Yakutsk, Samara, Yekaterinburg, and Perm,
were rejected. The efforts of the Central Unification Church to
register as a centralized religious organization have been denied 3
times for various reasons.
The Salvation Army has registered local organizations in St.
Petersburg, Rostov-on-Don, and Volgograd, and currently is seeking
federal registration as a centralized religious organization.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) has
registered successfully 20 local religious organizations. After some
initial trouble concerning registration of missionaries residing in the
cities of Tolyatti and Novokuybyshevsk in the Samara region, by
November 1999 the Church was able to agree with the Samara directorate
of justice to establish registered local organizations in these cities
in order to allow Mormon missionaries to reside there legally.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints since mid-1998 has
been attempting to register its organizations in Kazan, Tatarstan as a
local religious organization. After an earlier rejection, the court
responded to a second appeal by transferring the case to a so-called
``religious expertise assessment'' in accordance with the Tatarstan law
on religion. The assessment was supposed to have been completed by
January 2000, but was not completed by mid-2000. Lack of registration
has made it difficult for American missionaries, who would be sponsored
by the local religious organization, to register their visas in Kazan.
The local visa office refuses to register them as sponsored by an
organization, but has told them that if individuals sponsor them, they
can register. Despite these difficulties, the church has managed to
rent space.
Registration problems persist in several regions. For example, the
Moscow directorate of justice, reportedly on legally questionable
grounds, repeatedly has refused registration of at least five religious
organizations, besides Jehovah's Witnesses, including the Salvation
Army and the Church of Scientology. The Salvation Army has a lawsuit
pending against the Moscow department of justice but has had great
difficulty getting a hearing because the municipal court repeatedly
attempted to dodge jurisdiction over the case. The Salvation Army
eventually was forced to obtain a ruling from a higher court, assigning
jurisdiction back to the original municipal court.
The directorate of justice in Chelyabinsk continues to reject the
local registration application of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
Day Saints, based on the alleged incompatibility of church activities
with federal law. Even without registration, the church continues to
hold regular services without incident, although its missionaries have
suspended their door-to-door canvassing and other outreach activities.
The Chelyabinsk directorate of justice also has rejected the
registration applications of Baptist, Adventist, and Pentecostal
churches in Chelyabinsk on similar grounds. As of May 2000, Jehovah's
Witnesses reported that the Chelyabinsk directorate of justice had
refused the group's application for registration seven times.
Measures have been taken to restrict the activities of a number of
foreign missionaries and of congregations associated with them. There
were reports that four U.S. missionaries are being refused visas to
return to Russia. Dan Pollard (formerly of the Vanino Baptist Church in
the Khabarovsk region) currently is banned from receiving a visa based
on allegations that he violated customs regulations and evaded property
taxes; however, it appears that local authorities violated their own
regulations and refused to take necessary actions (such as providing a
timely tax assessment), which would have enabled Pollard to comply with
the law. David Binkley of the Church of Christ in Magadan also faced a
criminal charge for failing to report $8,000 to customs officials,
reportedly because he feared that the money would be stolen. He was
acquitted in December 1999, primarily because the investigation and
prosecution were marred by serious violations of due process by local
authorities. Local authorities then defied a court ruling to return the
money, returning it briefly only to confiscate it a few minutes later,
citing administrative customs regulations not applicable to the case.
The third case, regarding Charles Landreth of the Church of Christ in
Volgograd, appears to have been a response to articles in the local
press accusing Landreth of being a spy. Those allegations may have led
local authorities to recommend to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that
a visa be refused. A member of the local congregation, who has sought
to resolve the matter since January 2000, reported in May that since
local authorities no longer object to Landreth's return, it appears to
be federal authorities who still are refusing to authorize issuance of
a visa. A fourth missionary, Monty Race of Evangelical Free Church of
America, who entered the country legally with a visa sponsored by a
Moscow congregation, has been refused registration to reside in
Naberezhniy Chelniy, Tartarstan. Race, who is married to a Russian
citizen, also has been refused permission to register as a resident
foreign spouse of a Russian citizen. The letter of refusal he received
from the Ministry of Internal Affairs' local passport control office
cited ``national security'' concerns.
Since March 1998, the Vanino Baptist Church and Pollard have fought
a legal battle over registration of the church so that it could sponsor
Pollard or a replacement to remain in the country. Khabarovsk
authorities continue to deny reregistration of the Vanino Baptist
Church on extremely questionable legal grounds. This not only prevents
the Vanino Baptist Church from sponsoring a visa for any foreign
religious worker but also is likely to leave it subject to liquidation
at the end of 2000. The most recent reason for refusal offered by a
local justice official is that the church building must be reclassified
from a residential to a nonresidential property before the church may
use it as a juridical address. However, this official did not cite a
specific local statute, and federal law does not prohibit using a
residence for religious services.
Although it may be a slow and costly process for religious groups,
the judicial system has provided an appeal process for religious
organizations threatened with loss of registered status or
``liquidation'' as a religious organization under Article 14 of the
1997 religion law, expired registration, or other laws. Some local
churches that were initially denied local registration have been
registered following successful lawsuits, as in the case of the
Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Khakasiya in November 1998, when the
federal Supreme Court overturned the verdict of the Khakasiya supreme
court. A few congregations also reported that local authorities that
initially refused to register them relented after the churches said
that they would take the matter to court. In May 1999, a Magadan
municipal court dismissed for lack of evidence a local procurator's
civil case against the Word of Life Pentecostal Church in the Far
Eastern city of Magadan under Article 14 of the 1997 religion law, in
which the Church was accused of using ``cult'' practices to manipulate
its members. The Magadan oblast court upheld this decision in June
1999. The Church reports that investigation of the church on criminal
and tax-related charges continues. Church representatives report that
negative stories about them continue to appear in the local state-
controlled press. Despite these difficulties, the Word of Life
Pentecostal church continues its normal activities.
According to the Keston News Service and to the Slavic Law and
Justice Center's Vladimir Ryakhovskiy, a Kirov municipal court on
February 1, 2000 dismissed the petition of the Kirov department of
justice to close the Kirov Christian Church, a member organization of
the Russian Union of Evangelical Christian Pentecostals. Local justice
officials alleged that the Church used mass hypnosis to manipulate its
followers and presented videotaped ``evidence.'' Church lawyer
Ryakhovskiy and a public prosecutor both successfully argued in court
that the videotape, secretly filmed without the consent of the church,
violated the congregation's right to privacy and could not be presented
as legal evidence.
The department of justice in Cheboksary, Chuvashiya, petitioned for
liquidation of the Cheboksary Church of Christ. Officials accused the
Church of violating a health protection law by praying for the sick,
violating civil law by conducting services in the pastor's apartment,
failing to register by the original December 31, 1999 deadline of the
1997 religion law, and involving minors in church activity without
their parents' consent. In a January 20, 2000 hearing, Anatoliy
Pchelintsev of the Institute of Religion and Law and Vladimir
Ryakhovskiy of the Slavic Center for Law and Justice argued that these
charges had no legal merit, as prayer is not a medical activity and
religious services in residential apartments are not forbidden by law.
Furthermore the children simply had watched videos of ``Superbook,'' a
children's program about the Bible that already had been broadcast in
Russia for 2 years by government-controlled television. Nevertheless,
the judge postponed the case for another hearing.
At mid-June 2000, Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow were continuing
their effort to avoid legal ``liquidation.'' Acting on a complaint from
the Committee to Save Youth from Totalitarian Cults (a group allegedly
linked to the Russian Orthodox Church), a Moscow municipal procurator
is seeking ``liquidation'' of the Moscow Jehovah's Witnesses
organization under Article 14 of the 1997 religion law for its alleged
anti-social, anti-family character. In March 1999, the trial was
suspended pending review of the case by a panel of court-appointed
religious experts. On June 28, 1999, the Moscow city court upheld the
decision of the Golovinskiy municipal court to appoint an expert panel.
As of mid-2000, the expert panel still was reviewing the case and was
expected to render a split recommendation. Meanwhile Jehovah's
Witnesses are preparing an appeal to the Supreme Court.
According to Jehovah's Witnesses, the St. Petersburg case in which
Nataliya Ilyina, the mother of a young mentally disabled woman, had
brought suit against Jehovah's Witnesses, alleging that they
psychologically damaged her daughter, Yekaterina Ilyina, remained
unresolved. Jehovah's Witnesses lawyer Artur Leontyev claimed that the
anti-cult group Committee for Family and Personality and also self-
described ``sectomania'' expert and Moscow psychiatrist Fedor
Kondratyev are responsible for the case being brought. An earlier court
had ruled that the Church had not harmed Ilyina, whose mental
disability existed well before she began attending services. The
plaintiff requested a second study by experts, which was underway at
mid-2000.
There are continuing reports that some local and municipal
governments prevented religious groups from using venues such as
cinemas that are suitable for large gatherings. In many areas of the
country, government-owned facilities are the only available venues. As
a result, in some instances, denominations that do not own property
effectively have been denied the opportunity to practice their faith in
large groups. For example, in August 1999, Jehovah's Witnesses nearly
were forced to cancel a convention for 15,000 members of the group at
Moscow's Olympic Stadium, reportedly because stadium management was
under pressure from the Moscow city administration. The weekend
convention also was disrupted briefly by a telephone bomb threat, but
no device was found (see Section II).
According to representatives of Jehovah's Witnesses, as of spring
2000 four cases were being litigated in which police officers
interrupted meetings or public preaching by Jehovah's Witnesses,
including an April 16, 2000 incident in which police in Chelyabinsk
broke up a small religious meeting of the sign-language congregation of
Jehovah's Witnesses. The other cases occurred in St. Petersburg, Lensk,
and Kislovodsk.
Some congregations also have reported difficulty obtaining
necessary permits to renovate facilities and that local property owners
were pressured by local officials to cancel leases signed with
nontraditional religious churches. Although it remains a legally
registered organization, Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow continue to have
trouble leasing assembly space and obtaining the necessary permits to
renovate their main building. Other religions, including Protestant
groups and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, report that
they continue to face discrimination in their ability to rent premises
and conduct group activities. For example, in April in Kursk, the mayor
refused Baptists and Muslims land and permission to build in the city.
Disputes concerning the return of religious property confiscated by
the Soviet government are some of the most frequent complaints cited by
religious groups. For the most part, synagogues, churches, and mosques
have been returned to communities to be used for religious services.
The Federal Government has met the requirements of the 1993
presidential decree on communal property restitution, and the decree
continues to guide the ongoing process. According to statistics from
the Ministry of State Property, over 2,000 federally owned properties
have been returned to religious communities since 1989. However,
jurisdiction in most cases is at the regional level, and there is no
centralized source of information on these cases. A Ministry of Culture
official responsible for restitution of religious historical monuments
estimated in early 1999 that over 3,600 transfers of religious
buildings had occurred at the regional level and that approximately 30
percent of property designated for return had been transferred back to
its original owners at both the federal and regional levels.
Nonetheless there continue to be reports of religious property that has
not been returned. For example, the Church of the Immaculate Conception
in Ryazan still has not been returned to the local Catholic community.
The Moscow Patriarchate has claimed and taken possession of properties
owned by other branches of Orthodoxy and, in certain cases, property of
other religions. In some property disputes, religious buildings have
been ``privatized,'' and there are long delays in finding new locations
for the current occupants, as required by law. Local authorities often
refuse to get involved in property disputes, which they contend are
between private organizations. Even where state or municipal
authorities still have undisputed control of properties, a number of
religious communities continue to meet significant obstacles when they
request the return of religious buildings. The Jewish community, which
has met with some success on communal property restitution, faces the
same obstacles as other religious communities and has concerns about
the return of Torah scrolls, many of which are in state museum
collections. The federal Government turned over 61 Torah scrolls to the
Jewish community in May 2000.
Land problems are handled similarly when some religious communities
seek to acquire land and necessary building permits for new religious
structures. For example, since February 1999 local authorities in Omsk
have not responded to the Mormons' request to lease land, although
local church leaders are continuing their efforts to locate a site.
Some Protestant faiths have suggested that the Russian Orthodox Church
influences the Government regarding land allocated for churches of
other faiths.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Reports of harassment and punishment for religious belief or
activity continue. Mormon missionaries throughout the country
frequently are detained for brief periods or asked by local police to
cease their activities, regardless of whether they were actually in
violation of local statutes on picketing. The Word of Life Pentecostal
church in Magadan continues to allege that members have been harassed
and followed by persons suspected of being local agents of the Federal
Security Service (FSB). An unregistered local Baptist congregation in
the village of Chernyshevskiy in Sakha-Yakutiya complained that local
authorities were harassing it. Church members reported that on May 5,
2000, local police officers and a fire safety inspector raided the
apartment where the Church meets and gathered lists of church members.
After the Church's pastor protested, he reportedly was brought to the
police station for questioning. The local chief confirmed that police
officers did visited the apartment as part of a fire-safety
investigation but denied that there was any ``incident'' with church
members. He believes the group is illegal because it has not registered
(the congregation believes registration leads to unacceptable
interference in church affairs), although the religion law does not
require all groups to register officially. The group has been harassed
before; in June 1999, local Chernyshevskiy police broke up a street-
evangelism meeting, confiscated a tent, and detained three Baptists.
Catholic parishioners in Moscow have complained of excessive
document checks by authorities, including a document check of attendees
at a Sunday Mass. Catholic organizations have complained of excessive
attention from authorities including the fire inspector and the
Ministry of Interior. In June 2000, police in Tura in central Siberia
threatened to arrest local Baptists if they continued to distribute
free religious material outside of their place of worship. According to
the local police chief, it is a crime for the group to distribute
religious material because it is not a registered religious
organization and such material may not be distributed outside of places
of worship. While the Baptists were distributing Bibles and other
religious material, Russian Orthodox parishioners and a local Orthodox
priest protested and threatened to call the police. Later the police
summoned the Baptists to the police station for questioning.
Human rights activists have claimed in the past that only 15
percent of actual violations of religious freedom are reported, and it
still appears that only a small percentage of actual incidents are
reported to authorities or independent media. According to various
sources, the majority of citizens, especially those living in the
regions, are still skeptical about the protection of religious freedom
and are reluctant to assert their rights due to fear of retaliation.
Federal authorities did not take sufficient action to reverse
discriminatory actions taken at the local level or to discipline those
officials responsible. Federal authorities and Moscow human rights
activists often have limited information about what is happening in the
regions.
Some churches and NGO's are taking steps to teach church members
how to assert their rights. For example, the Church of Scientology
reported that its Russian members initially accepted without protest
verbal harassment and intimidating inquiries by local residents and
police. The Church subsequently educated its members on their rights
under the law and worked to establish cooperative relations with local
police officers, which led to a decrease in harassment.
In May 1999, assisted by religion law experts Anatoliy Pchelintsev
and Vladimir Ryakhosvkiy, former judge Galina Pitkevich filed a case
with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), claiming that her right
to fair trial and her rights to freedom of thought and of expression
under the European Convention on Human Rights had been violated.
Pitkevich, a member of the charismatic church Living Faith, was fired
from her job at the Noyabrsk city court of Yamalo-Nenets autonomous
region, based on accusations that she used her position to attract new
members to her faith. Some human rights groups believe the evidence was
fabricated. The ECHR determined that she has not yet exhausted all
legal remedies in Russia (a fundamental requirement for an ECHR
ruling), but her lawyers are appealing the decision. Pitkevich, now a
private lawyer, reportedly faces discrimination from former colleagues.
The case of Nataliya Nikishchina, a member of Jehovah's Witnesses
who lost custody of her son, allegedly based on religious
discrimination, was returned in 1999 to Russian courts by the ECHR. In
this case, Russia's Supreme Court overturned all previous rulings and
ordered the case be heard again in a new court.
Lengthy investigations continue regarding a number of so-called
``nontraditional'' denominations. The Church of Scientology continued
to experience registration problems. Originally registered in 1994, the
Moscow Church of Scientology has applied 3 times for reregistration
under the 1997 law, only to have the applications denied. As of mid-
2000, the Church was applying a fourth time. The Moscow general
procurator and approximately 70 individuals representing members of the
FSB, Federal Tax Police, the local police, and other law enforcement
organizations in April 1999 conducted a high-profile, 3-day raid on the
Hubbard Humanitarian Center, which is affiliated with the Moscow Church
of Scientology. This was the second such raid. It was undertaken in
connection with charges by the Procurcacy that the Center was engaging
in commercial enterprise without a license and had failed to pay taxes.
Although the Center successfully reregistered as a social organization
in 1997 in accordance with legal requirements that such organizations
reregister by July 1, 1999, a Moscow court subsequently invalidated the
reregistration and ordered the Center to be liquidated, a verdict
upheld by a higher court. However, by mid-2000 this had not taken place
and the center continued to operate as a registered social
organization. A separate case based on similar charges was initiated
against the Center's director, Gennadiy Kudinov, who is also head of
the Church. As of mid-2000, the courts had not determined which Moscow
judge should have jurisdiction over the case. While court rulings were
based on the law on social organizations, church officials believe that
the ruling is part of a broader attack on the Church and its
activities. The Magadan Word of Life Pentecostal Church reports that it
still is being investigated on criminal and tax-related charges. The
Church of Krishna Conscious, which has experienced rapid growth in
recent years and is registered at the federal level, encountered
difficulties in some regions, particularly in Krasnodar and other
southern regions, as well in the Moscow region, where the authorities
repeatedly have denied it permission to acquire land and the building
permits for construction of a temple. Its activities are strongly
opposed by elements of the Russian Orthodox Church.
There have been instances of the serious misuse of psychiatry by
local officials reminiscent of Soviet-era abuses. The Independent
Psychiatric Association of Russia, along with several human rights
organizations, has criticized the use of psychiatry in
``deprogramming'' victims of ``totalitarian sects.'' In such cases,
authorities use pseudo-psychological and spiritual techniques to
``treat'' persons who have been members of new religious groups.
St. Petersburg authorities arbitrarily detained six Scientologists
for psychiatric evaluation. In January in St. Petersburg, Vladimir
Tretyak, leader of Sentuar (the local branch of the Church of
Scientology), was accused by St. Petersburg chief psychiatrist Larisa
Rubina of inflicting psychological damage on his coreligionists. On
June 17, six members of Sentuar--Mikhail Dvorkin, Igor Zakrayev, Irina
Shamarina, Svetlana Kruglova, Svetlana Pastushenkova, and Lyudmila
Urzhumtseva--were hospitalized forcibly and underwent 3 weeks of
criminal psychiatric investigation by order of Boris Larionov,
procurator of the Vyborgskiy district of St. Petersburg. In televised
remarks, Rubina reported their July 8 release and declared that the six
were mentally competent. Rubina referred to the six as ``the accused,''
despite the fact they were only witnesses in the criminal case against
Tretyak.
While they generally have not been inhibited by the authorities in
the free practice of their religion, Jews and Muslims continue to
encounter prejudice and societal discrimination, and government
authorities have been criticized for insufficient action to counter
such prejudice (see Section II). Violently anti-Semitic remarks in
national venues, such as those made by former Communist Duma Deputy and
retired General Albert Makashov in October 1998 and February 1999, have
not been repeated. Makashov's remarks, which blamed Jews for the 1998
financial crisis and called for their elimination, caused a public
furor, but the Duma's Communists and their allies blocked a November 4,
1998 motion to censure him. Some Jewish groups report that the
Communists and a neo-Nazi group, the Russian National Unity (RNE),
continue to use anti-Semitism as a political tool to build populist
support. However, since the December 1999 Duma elections, the Communist
Party's influence and support in the country has somewhat eroded. The
RNE, which is active in a few regions, regularly calls for violence
against other religious and ethnic groups as well, such as Jehovah's
Witnesses and Muslims.
Krasnodar region governor Nikolay Kondratenko is well known for
making anti-Semitic remarks. The governor's public speeches in the
region often contained crude anti-Semitic remarks and stereotypes, and
blame Jews and alleged Jewish conspiracies for the country's problems.
Although some local residents have downplayed the effect of
Kondratenko's open anti-Semitism, it appears that at least some of
these persons practice a degree of self-censorship to avoid retaliation
by local authorities.
According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on March 29, 2000,
then-President-elect Putin approved an interagency plan to combat
extremism and promote religious and ethnic tolerance. Broad in scope,
the plan calls for a large number of interagency measures, such as the
review of federal and regional legislation regarding extremism,
required training for public officials on how to promote ethnic and
religious tolerance, and the design of new educational materials for
use in public educational institutions. Implementation of the plan,
which is to be guided by an interagency commission on combating
extremism, has not yet begun. This plan has attracted little public
commentary so far. In a March 2000 open letter to members of the U.S.
Congress released by the Kremlin press service, President Putin called
anti-Semitism ``an inadmissible display of aggressive nationalism
incompatible with civilized society in Russia.''
The federal Government reports that it has moved forward on other
promised initiatives against extremism and anti-Semitism. In May 1999,
the Moscow city duma adopted a law forbidding the distribution and
display of Nazi symbols, and the Moscow regional duma passed similar
legislation in June 1999. However, on September 2, 1999, the
Nezavisimaya Gazeta newspaper reported that then-Moscow oblast governor
Anatoliy Tyazhlov refused to sign the law, stating that the draft law
threatened not only artistic and academic freedom of expression, but
also freedom of religion, as swastikas are displayed by some religious
groups. Regional duma members are working to redraft the law.
Federal and Dagestani authorities stepped up their pressure on what
they label as the republic's ``Wahhabi'' Muslim community. After an
incursion on August 7 by Chechen-backed Islamist guerrillas, Dagestan
President Magomedali Magomedov declared that his government would take
a harder line against ``Wahhabism.'' In September Dagestan's parliament
passed legislation that outlawed ``Wahhabi'' groups and other
organizations it considered extremist. The Keston News Service reports
that government and religious officials in several Dagestani districts
have wrecked conservative Islamic mosques, suppressed religious
broadcasts, and harassed local conservative Islamic communities.
According to press reports, federal and Dagestani forces have followed
up their initial counterinsurgency efforts with attacks on Muslim
villages that they consider to be ``Wahhabi'' and that refuse to
register their religious communities and turn in their weapons.
On February 3, 1999, Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov declared
Shari'a (Islamic law) to be in effect in the republic of Chechnya.
Maskhadov signed several decrees stipulating that all local legislation
be brought into line with the Koran and Shari'a regulations. Maskhadov
ordered the Chechen legislature and the Council of Muftis to draft a
constitution based on Shari'a within 1 month. The legislature also was
stripped of its legislative functions and, on February 10, 1999, was
replaced with a 34-member Shura that has responsibility for
``consulting'' with the republic's president. The Shura includes
several prominent opposition leaders. According to one expert, the
Shura created in Chechnya is not a traditional Muslim Shura run by
religious men, but instead is a council of military men. The Shura is
not known to have functioned since the beginning of the federal
Government's military campaign in Chechnya in late 1999.
Apart from the 3-week detention and involuntary psychiatric
evaluation of six members of the Church of Scientology, there were no
other reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or
of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to
the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between different religious groups are frequently tense,
and there continue to be instances of religiously motivated violence.
Many Russians firmly believe that at least nominal adherence to the
Russian Orthodox Church is at the heart of what it means to be Russian,
and Russian Orthodoxy is considered in conservative nationalist circles
as the de facto official religion of the country.
There is no large-scale movement to promote inter-faith dialog,
although on the local level different religious groups successfully
collaborate on charity projects and participate in inter-faith dialog.
In addition, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian Pentecostal and
Baptist organizations also have been reluctant to support ecumenism.
Traditionally, the Russian Orthodox Church has pursued inter-faith
dialog with other Christians on the international level.
Muslims, who constitute approximately 10 percent of the population,
continue to encounter societal discrimination and antagonism in some
areas where they are a minority. According to press reports, on October
17, 1999, protesters in Volgograd successfully pressured the World
Congress of Tatars to postpone a ceremony to lay a cornerstone for a
new mosque. Chief Mufti Ravil Gainutdin reportedly stated that
construction would be suspended until an agreement could be reached
with local residents.
Over the last 4 years, there were many instances of violence in the
north Caucasus, some of which had religious motivations. There was only
one new report of violence against non-Muslim religious workers in
Chechnya, apparently because very few or no workers remain. However, on
August 14, 1999, a deacon of the Groznyy Baptist Church was kidnaped
and held for ransom in Groznyy and another church member was kidnaped
earlier that month. The threat of hostage taking, primarily for ransom,
continues to be extremely high in the North Caucuses. There were no
reports of developments in the case of religious affairs official
Abuzar Sumbulatov, who, according to the Keston Institute in Groznyy,
was kidnaped in 1999. No ransom was demanded, and Sumbulatov, known for
his tolerant views on religion, is presumed dead. Kidnapings of Russian
Orthodox and Baptist clergy in Chechnya and bordering areas in 1998 and
1999, according to Keston, suggested that Christians were being
targeted specifically. The Russian Baptist Union advised its members in
1998 to leave Chechnya.
Following large-scale emigration over the last 2 decades, between
600,000 and 700,000 Jews remain in Russia (0.5 percent of the total
population). While Jewish emigration rates are significantly lower than
there were during the late Soviet period, the number of Jews leaving
Russia for economic reasons and fear of persecution more than doubled
in 1999, from 13,019 to 29,534, according to the Russian branch of the
Jewish Agency. The vast majority of Jews (80 percent) live in Moscow or
St. Petersburg. Jews continue to encounter societal discrimination, and
government authorities have been criticized for insufficient action to
counter it. However, in August 1999, the Ministry of Press, Television,
Radio Broadcasting, and Mass Communications issued a warning to a city-
owned television station in St. Petersburg for broadcasting anti-
Semitic material in violation of the mass media law's prohibition on
inciting racial violence or hatred. That same month, the St. Petersburg
Commissioner for Human Rights, Mikhail Chulaki, publicly criticized the
program that broadcast the anti-Semitic material.
Anti-Semitic themes continue to figure prominently in hundreds of
extremist publications in Krasondar and Samara regions, among others.
However, traditionally anti-Semitic publications with a large
distribution, such as the newspaper Zavtra, while still pursuing anti-
Semitic themes, such as portraying Russian Oligarchs as exclusively
Jewish, appear to be more careful than in the past about using crude
anti-Semitic language. Some Jewish groups believe that the Communist
Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF) uses anti-Semitism as a
political tool to build populist support, which is seen by many to be
decreasing.
Observers in the country and abroad are assessing whether anti-
Semitic rhetoric represents a sustained pattern of intensified anti-
Semitism. There were several reports of major crimes or acts of
intimidation linked to anti-Semitic groups or motives in the early
months of the period covered by this report. However, the number of
anti-Semitic incidents reportedly decreased beginning in the fall of
1999. Observers differ as to whether these incidents represent an
increase in violence, but human rights proponents agree that anti-
Semitism remains a very serious societal problem and that the
Government and civil society must continue to build institutions to
protect the rights of religious minorities.
On July 13, 1999, Jewish Cultural Center director Leopold
Kaymovskiy was wounded severely in a knife attack in his office at the
Moscow Choral Synagogue. Kaymovskiy's attacker, 20-year-old Nikita
Krivchun, said that he acted alone and that he considered Jews
``evil.'' Krivchun was charged with attempted murder for reasons of
national, racial, or religious hatred, and subsequently was declared
mentally incompetent and placed in a psychiatric institution. Initial
press reports quoted statements by Krivchun implying that he belonged
to an anti-Semitic group, but investigators did not uncover evidence of
such a connection and made no other arrests. On July 25, 1999, a bomb
was found in the Bolshaya Bronnaya Lubavitcher synagogue. The bomb was
removed by synagogue workers and later detonated by the FSB, causing
some damage to the synagogue. Moscow Mayor Yuriy Luzhkov criticized the
bombing and attended a July 29, 1999 service at the synagogue. The FSB
is investigating the bomb as a terrorist act, but has made no arrests
in the case. Vandals desecrated six Jewish graves in Tomsk on August 2,
1999. Also, on August 2, 1999, then-President Yeltsin told visiting
Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak that the Government would prosecute
anti-Semitic crimes and proposed Israeli-Russian cooperation in
combating anti-Semitism. No progress was reported in investigations of
two May 1999 bombings near the Moscow Choral Synagogue, the May 1998
bombing of the Marina Roshcha Synagogue in Moscow, the vandalism of
synagogues in Novosibirsk and in Birobidjan in early 1999, or the May
1998 desecration of 149 Jewish graves in Irkutsk. There was a more
positive outcome to the June 5, 2000 incident in which some 40
gravestones in the Jewish part of a cemetery in Nizhnii Novgorod were
destroyed. The teenage vandals were quickly captured by local police,
and they and their parents were required to work with their children to
help clean up the cemetery.
The ultranationalist and anti-Semitic Russian National Unity (RNE)
paramilitary organization, led by Aleksandr Barkashov, claims to have
extended its presence beyond its southern Russian stronghold since
1998. However, the party has remained a fairly marginal political force
in regional and national politics. Although reliable figures on its
membership are not available, in what is most likely an exaggeration,
the RNE claims a membership of 50,000 persons in 24 federation
chapters. At least one RNE member has been elected to a local
administration (in Saratov) and, according to press accounts, the RNE
has representatives in regional governments in Kostroma and Vladimir,
Tver and Samara oblasts provide resources for RNE youth groups, and, in
Voronezh, RNE members patrol the streets with local militias. According
to press sources, these joint street patrols failed in Kostroma and
Yekaterinburg, where RNE members turned them into opportunities for
petty crime, causing local authorities to cancel the programs. RNE
``uniformed'' members were visible in 1999 at political and cultural
public gatherings, but their day-to-day visibility on the streets and
in public areas of Moscow has not been obvious since a march in January
1999.
The increased visibility of the RNE and other extremists across the
country prompted government efforts to address the problem of extremism
more forcefully in 1998 and 1999. Moscow authorities banned the RNE
from convening a congress in December 1998, citing the RNE's lack of
credentials as a legally registered public organization at the time.
(The Ministry of Justice twice denied the RNE's registration.) The RNE
subsequently managed to register, but then was stripped of its
registration by a Moscow court in April 1999. However, some observers
called the municipal prosecutor's case weak and motivated only by the
desire of city authorities to ban the organization. Although an
interagency plan to combat extremism and promote tolerance was signed
by President Putin on March 29, 2000, many elements of the plan need
further definition, and implementation of most of its concrete measures
has yet to begin. Its potential impact cannot yet be gauged.
Krasnodar region governor Kondratenko regularly engages in anti-
Semitic remarks (see Section I). A report issued in October 1997 by the
human rights group Memorial criticized Krasnodar government officials
for ``encouraging radical nationalist groups,'' including the Cossacks,
and ``indirectly inciting them to violence'' against ethnic minority
groups in the area. Local government authorities have sanctioned
patrols by Cossack paramilitary groups in the name of law enforcement.
Such groups are not publicly accountable, and their activities have
resulted in human rights abuses.
After his 1996 election, Kondratenko appointed Cossack ``hetman''
Vladimir Gromov as deputy governor of the region. In April 1997,
Kondratenko and Gromov issued a resolution making Cossack groups
subordinate to the regional rather than the federal Government,
according to the Center for Human Rights Advocacy. According to media
reports of statements by radical Cossack chieftain Ivan Bezguly, he has
44,000 Cossacks at his disposal ostensibly to enforce ``law and
order.'' Estimates of the total number of Cossacks in Krasnodar are as
high as 300,000. The Cossacks' tactics appear designed to brutalize and
intimidate the area's ethnic minorities and to bring about the group's
stated goal of cleansing the area of all non-Slavic Russians. A 1999
joint report by anti-fascist Youth Action, the Union of Societies of
Soviet Jews, and the Moscow Helsinki Group states that Cossacks closely
monitor local officials to ensure loyalty to Kondratenko. The extent or
effectiveness of federal investigations of racial or ethnic
provocations in Krasnodar is unknown. Nonetheless, the effect of
Putin's regional reforms on such regions remains to be seen.
Despite legal registration, members of some religions, including
some Protestant groups, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, continued to face discrimination in their
ability to rent premises and conduct group activities (see Section I).
Occasionally opposition to the activities of religious groups came
from other religious groups. For example, in July 1999, the Russian
Orthodox Church diocese in Vladivostok asked the Primorskiy Kray
prosecutor to examine the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-
Day Adventists, and an offshoot group of Hare Krishnas. The diocese
reportedly argued that the three groups were violating the religion law
by using deceptive methods to recruit converts. Leaders of the Russian
Orthodox Church also have criticized publicly the Catholic Church for
proselytizing in regions where residents have been traditionally
Orthodox. Russian Orthodox Patriarch Aleksii II charged in June 2000
that the Catholic Church was attempting to expand its influence into
Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. From time to time, the
Russian Orthodox Church has criticized the press for what it called
``antichurch publications,'' but stopped short of imposing any church
sanctions against particular authors or editors. However, the Church
appealed to authors of what it considered inaccurate accounts of church
history to ``realize the sinfulness of their evil deeds.'' Religious
groups frequently complain of biased accounts in local press outlets.
While the overall scope of the problem is difficult to gauge, both
regional and national newspapers have published sensational, biased, or
libelous articles criticizing nontraditional religions, such as the
Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Pentecostals, the Church of Christ, and
the Church of Scientology. According to Jehovah's Witnesses, a local
Chelyabinsk television station broadcast prime time news reports in
late 1999, accusing Jehovah's Witnesses of being an illegal
organization of mentally ill persons who abuse children and possess
nuclear and chemical weapons. Jehovah's Witnesses filed a libel suit,
which was under way as of mid-2000. The defendants rejected an out-of-
court settlement that would have permitted Jehovah's Witnesses a
televised response to the programs. The court itself rejected a similar
request by Jehovah's Witnesses.
As foreign or so-called nontraditional religions in the country
continue to grow, many Russians, influenced by negative reports in the
mass media and public criticism by Russian Orthodox Church officials
and other influential figures, continue to exhibit hostility toward
these ``foreign sects.'' These sentiments apparently sparked occasional
harassment and even physical attacks. For example, according to press
reports, in August 1999, between 10 and 15 youths burst into a Moscow
Hare Krishna temple, beat followers, and inflicted a severe head
laceration on 1 person that require hospitalization. Mormons and
Pentecostals have reported instances in which they may have been
followed, harassed, and, in at least one case, physically struck. For
example, on August 21, 1999, an anonymous bomb threat led to the
evacuation of 15,000 persons attending a Jehovah's Witnesses convention
in Moscow's Olympic Stadium (see Section I). There are believed to be
more cases of such harassment than are reported. In several instances
during 1999, local press outlets accused Scientologists, Mormons, and
Jehovah's Witnesses of espionage, brainwashing, and other activities
that they believed to be harmful to citizens. A political commentator
for the ORT network alleged in a November 1999 broadcast that Moscow
mayor Luzhkov is a Scientologist as part of the station's effort to
reduce Luzhkov's party's chances in the December 1999 Duma elections.
In an August 1999 conference on spirituality at Moscow State
University, Metropolitan Kirill, head of the Patriarchate's public
relations department, voiced the view that international human rights
standards do not apply to Russia, because they are based on Western
standards, which do not take into account Eastern tradition.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Mission has been active in encouraging respect for
religious freedom. Throughout the period covered by this report, the
Embassy in Moscow and the Consulates General in Yekaterinburg, St.
Petersburg, and Vladivostok were active in investigating reports of
violations of religious freedom, including anti-Semitic incidents.
Working-level U.S. Government officials engage a broad range of
government officials, representatives of religious groups, and human
rights activists on a daily basis. These contacts include:
representatives of over 20 religious confessions; the Institute for
Religion and Law; the Slavic Law and Justice Center; the Esther Legal
Information Center; lawyers representing religious groups; journalists;
academics; former and current government officials; and mainstream
human rights activists long known for their commitment to religious
freedom, such as Moscow Helsinki Group Chairman Lyudmila Alekseyeva,
Father Gleb Yakunin, and former Duma Deputy Valeriy Borshchev.
The Embassy's political section uses a team approach to track
religious issues, which involves the human rights officer, the rule-of-
law officer, and the civil society officer (all of whose duties include
religious affairs). This strategy allows the Embassy to offer a broad
range of reporting and provide continuous coverage, even if one of the
officers is absent. The Embassy's consular section, officers from the
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and representatives
of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) regularly cooperate
with the political section to gather information on religious freedom
in the country. Embassy personnel of all sections and agencies
travelling to the regions are encouraged to inquire into the local
religious-freedom situation. Embassy officials at the chief of mission
level discuss religious freedom with high-ranking officials in the
Presidential Administration, the Government, and Ministry of Foreign
Affairs approximately every 6 weeks, raising specific cases of concern.
Federal officials have responded by investigating those cases and
keeping embassy staff informed on issues they have raised. The
Ambassador publicly criticized the attack on Jewish leader Leopold
Kaymovskiy and the attempted bombing of the Bolshaya Bronnaya
Synagogue, calling on the Government to investigate these crimes
vigorously. Embassy representatives maintained close contact with
Jewish leaders throughout the aftermath of these two crises. After the
attempted bombing, the Embassy's regional security officer also visited
two other Lubavitcher synagogues to advise them on physical security.
The Embassy closely followed and reported on the progress of the
amendment to the 1997 religion law and related Constitutional Court
rulings.
The Embassy and consulates also approach local officials at the
working-level on individual religious freedom cases. For example, the
Embassy played a role in resolving registration problems of two
religious groups in Samara and Tatarstan, and is maintaining contact
with Tatarstan authorities in an effort to resolve a third case. The
Embassy and consulates also repeatedly have investigated and raised
with federal and local authorities problems experienced by individual
missionaries, including the refusal of Russian visas and registrations.
As implementation of the 1997 religion law continues, the Embassy
maintains semiweekly contact with working-level officials at the
Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In May 2000, an
Embassy official attended a 4-day religion law seminar hosted by the
Russian State Academy for Public Service, consulted with Russian and
foreign religion law experts on the seminar results, and met with
representatives of religious groups at a subsequent briefing organized
by the Esther Legal Information Center.
In Washington as well as in Russia, the U.S. Government urges
adherence to international standards of religious liberty in the
Russian Federation. Officials in the State Department regularly meet
with human rights groups and religious organizations concerned about
religious tolerance in Russia. The Office of International Religious
Freedom, headed by Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom Robert
Seiple, has met with numerous visiting Russian officials, as well as
with delegations representing various Russian religious groups. The
1997 law on religious freedom has been the subject of numerous high-
level communications between representatives of the U.S. and Russian
Governments, involving the President, the Vice President, Secretary of
State Madeleine Albright, and other senior U.S. officials. For example,
at the U.S.-Russia Summit held in Moscow on June 10-11, 2000, President
Clinton discussed religious freedom in Russia in his meetings with
President Putin and other government officials. On September 14, 1999,
Ambassador-at-Large Stephen Sestanovich, Special Advisor to the
Secretary of State for the New Independent States, co-chaired a
roundtable meeting with representatives of religious communities at the
State Department, together with Senator Gordon Smith, Ambassador at
Large for International Religious Freedom Robert Seiple, and National
Security Council Senior Director Carlos Pascual. On April 13, 2000,
Ambassador Sestanovich co-chaired another roundtable discussion on
religious freedom in Russia with Senator Smith, Ambassador Seiple, and
NSC Senior Director Mark Medish. On May 22, 2000, in compliance with
Section 567 of the fiscal year 2000 Foreign Operations Act, the Acting
Secretary of State made a determination that the central authorities in
Russia did not implement the law on religion in a manner intended to
restrict the religious liberty of minority faiths. However, in the
report to Congress that accompanied the Acting Secretary's
determination, he noted that some local officials have used the 1997
law to restrict citizens' rights.
__________
SAN MARINO
The law provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The law provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
respects this right in practice.
Although Roman Catholicism is dominant, it is not the state
religion, and the law prohibits discrimination based on religion. The
Catholic Church receives direct benefits from the State through income
tax revenues as taxpayers may request that 0.3 percent of their income
tax payments be allocated to the Catholic Church or to ``other''
charities, including two religions (the Waldesian Church and Jehovah's
Witnesses).
In 1993 recently elected parliamentarians objected to the
traditional 1909 oath of loyalty to the ``Holy Gospels.'' Although they
eventually swore as required, the parliamentarians contended that it
violated Article 9 of the European Convention and brought suit in the
European Court of Human Rights. Following this objection, Parliament
changed the law in 1993 to permit a choice between the traditional oath
and one in which the reference to the Gospels was replaced by ``on my
honor.'' On February 18, 1999, the European Court found the requirement
that Members of Parliament swear their loyalty to the ``Holy Gospels''
violated religious freedom. However, its ruling also implicitly
endorsed the revised 1993 legal formulation. The Court also noted that
the traditional (``Holy Gospels'') oath is still mandatory for other
offices, such as the Captain Regent or a member of the Government;
however, to date, no elected Captain Regent or government member has
challenged the validity of the 1909 oath.
Religious Demography
The country does not provide statistics on the size of religious
groups and there is no recent census data providing information on
religious membership; however, it is estimated that over 95 percent of
the population are Catholic. There are also small groups of Jehovah's
Witnesses and adherents to the Baha'i Faith (who organize small, active
missionary groups), some Muslims, and members of the Waldesian Church.
There are no private religious schools; the school system is public
and is financed by the State. Public schools provide Catholic religious
instruction; however, students may choose without penalty not to
participate.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Amicable relations exist between the religious communities, and
government and religious officials encourage mutual respect for
differences.
Roman Catholicism is not a state religion but it is dominant in
society, as most citizens were born and raised under Catholic
principles that form part of their culture. These principles still
permeate state institutions symbolically; for example, crucifixes may
be found hanging on courtroom or government office walls. They also
affect societal lifestyles independently of individual compliance with
Catholic precepts (such as strictures on divorce).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Consulate General in Florence discusses religious freedom
issues with the Government in the overall context of the promotion of
human rights.
__________
SERBIA-MONTENEGRO
Federal and republic law provide for freedom of religion; however,
in practice both the Government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) and the constituent Republic of Serbia and their legal systems
provide little protection for the religious rights of minority groups.
The Republic of Montenegro, in contrast, does attempt to ensure and
protect religious rights. In Kosovo the withdrawal of Serbian forces
and establishment of the U.N. Interim Administration Mission (UNMIK),
resulted in an improved situation for the largely Muslim ethnic
Albanian population that was a victim of the massive human rights
abuses committed by FRY forces in 1999. However, retributions against
the minority Serbs have continued. UNMIK has worked since June 1999 to
secure peace and foster respect for human rights regardless of
ethnicity or religion.
There was no change in the overall status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report in those areas subject
to the Serbian Government's control.
Religion and ethnicity are closely intertwined in Serbia-
Montenegro, and it is often difficult to clearly identify
discriminatory acts as primarily religious in origin rather than
ethnic. However, views on ethnic groups in the region historically have
been strongly influenced by religion, and most instances of ethnic
discrimination have at least some religious roots.
Both the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) Government and
Government of Serbia continued to suppress ethnic and religious
minorities, using intolerance as a tool to maintain FRY President
Slobodan Milosevic's grip on power. Both Governments provided
preferential treatment to the Serbian Orthodox Church, and societal
discrimination against minorities remained widespread throughout areas
of the FRY under the Serbian Government's control. In Kosovo where the
effects of the regime's ethnic cleansing campaign linger, societal
tensions were particularly noticeable. In Montenegro tensions between
the unofficial Montenegrin Orthodox Church and the Serbian Orthodox
Church worsened and were politicized by opposing political factions,
despite the Montenegrin Government's attempts to moderate the
situation.
The U.S. Government seeks to promote ethnic and religious tolerance
in the FRY through public admonitions, support of the U.N. Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo, support for the democratic opposition
in Serbia, and support of the reform-oriented government of Montenegro.
Section I. Government Policies on Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
The law in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, as well as in the
constituent republics of Serbia and Montenegro, provides for freedom of
religion; however, in practice, the Government and the legal system
provide very little protection for the religious rights of minority
groups in those areas under the Serbian Government's administration.
There is no state religion, but the regime of President Milosevic gives
preferential treatment, including access to state-run television for
major religious events, to the Serbian Orthodox Church.
In Montenegro, the Constitution specifically recognizes the
existence of the Serbian Orthodox Church, but not other faiths. The
Montenegrin Orthodox Church was autocephalous when Montenegro was an
independent principality. However, when Montenegro became part of the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes after the First World War, the
Montenegrin Orthodox Church lost its independence and became part of
the Serbian Orthodox Church. The re-established Montenegrin Orthodox
Church is registered with the Government of Montenegro Ministry of
Interior in Cetinje, the former capital, as a nongovernmental
organization (NGO). The Government of Montenegro has been careful to
remain neutral in the dispute between followers of the Serbian Orthodox
Church and Montenegrin Orthodox Church, but political parties have used
this issue in pursuit of their own agendas. Pro-Serbian parties
strongly support moves for the establishment of an official state
religion, while pro-independence parties have pushed for the official
recognition of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church.
Religious Demography
The predominant faith in the FRY, outside of Kosovo, is Serbian
Orthodoxy, although religion is not a significant factor in public
life. Serbs, who are predominantly Serbian Orthodox if they follow any
religion, make up approximately 65 percent of the population.
Montenegrins, who constitute about 6 percent of the total population
and live mainly in Montenegro, also primarily follow Serbian Orthodoxy.
The Muslim population, composed mostly of Slavic Muslims who live
predominantly in the Sandzak region bordering Serbia and Montenegro,
and ethnic Albanians located primarily in Kosovo, constitutes about 19
percent of the total population. Like Serbs and Montenegrins, many FRY
Muslims are not in fact religious, and ``Muslim'' is often more a form
of ethnic identity than of belief. About 4 percent of the population
are Roman Catholic, and consist of ethnic Hungarians, who live
primarily in Vojvodina, ethnic Albanians, and Croats who live in
Vojvodina and scattered communities in Montenegro. About 1 percent of
the population is Protestant. Other minority religious groups make up
another 12 percent of the population.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Serbian Government made no progress in the restitution of
property that belonged to the Jewish community prior to World War II,
despite President Milosevic's past promises to resolve the disputes.
The Orthodox and Catholic Churches have had similar difficulties with
the restitution of their property confiscated by the Communist regime
(1944-89).
When it suits its political aims, the Milosevic regime does not
hesitate to attack verbally the Serbian Orthodox Church, which was more
outspoken in its criticism of the regime during the period covered by
this report. The Church called openly for Milosevic to step down in
1999 as a result of his campaign of ethnic cleansing.
There was no change in the overall status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report in those areas subject
to the Serbian Government's control.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Since 1992 the Milosevic regime has attempted to suppress all of
its enemies in the FRY, Serb and non-Serb alike. To achieve his primary
political aim of continued rule of Serbia, Milosevic has exploited
ethnic, religious, and political divisions through his control of the
media and the organs of state security. The focus of this suppression
has been primarily along ethnic lines, and in general encompasses
religion only as a component of ethnicity.
Prior to their expulsion from Kosovo in June 1999, Serbian Interior
Ministry troops, police, and paramilitary formations committed
widespread and severe abuses against Kosovo's ethnic Albanian
population. The regime attempted to rid the province of almost its
entire ethnic Albanian population, killing thousands of ethnic
Albanians and forcing nearly one million to become refugees. This
ethnic cleansing was distinct from religiously motivated violence;
however, because most Kosovar Albanians are Muslim, the Serbian
campaign also resulted in deliberate destruction of mosques and other
Islamic landmarks.
For similar reasons, during the period of this report, police
repression continued against ethnic and religious minorities elsewhere
in Serbia. Repression was reported against Muslims in the Sandzak
region along the border between Serbia and Montenegro. Reports of
harassment in the Sandzak region indicated that it was carried out
mostly by federal Yugoslav army troops.
Serbian police often selectively applied certain laws only against
minorities and used force with relative impunity. In the Sandzak
region, Serb authorities harassed the Slavic Muslim minority. Police
use of arbitrary arrest and detention continued in the region.
In Kosovo the withdrawal of Serbian troops and establishment of
UNMIK resulted in an improved situation for the majority, largely
Muslim ethnic Albanian population. One of the most serious challenges
facing the international community in its administration of Kosovo has
been to ensure the protection of the minority Serbian community from
retribution by the Albanian community for the abuses they suffered at
the hands of Serbian forces.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Religion and ethnicity in the FRY are so closely intertwined as to
be inseparable. Increased societal violence against the Catholic
minority in Vojvodina, largely consisting of ethnic Hungarians and
Croats, also was reported. In addition, Catholic churches frequented by
the Croat minority were attacked, although there have been few reports
of this type of activity during the period covered by this report.
Ethnic and religious minorities in Kosovo, the Sandzak region, and
Vojvodina face discrimination in housing and employment. In Kosovo,
ethnic Serbs have experienced societal discrimination since the
expulsion of FRY security forces. Slavic Muslims in Sandzak face severe
discrimination in health care, commerce, and education. There were
credible reports that ethnic Albanians and Muslims in Serbia continued
to be driven from their homes or fired from their jobs on the basis of
religion or ethnicity. Other ethnic minorities, including ethnic
Hungarians in Vojvodina who are predominantly Catholic (if religious),
also allege discrimination. However, these forms of discrimination are
primarily based on ethnicity rather than religion.
In light of societal violence in Kosovo against properties owned by
the Serbian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox religious symbols,
UNMIK authorities took extra steps following the Kosovo conflict to
protect religious sites and to ensure that members of all religious
groups could worship safely. Kosovo Force (KFOR) deployed security
contingents at religious sites throughout the province to protect them
from further destruction, as had occurred immediately after KFOR's
intervention in June 1999.
However, reflecting the severity of security concerns, Bishop
Artemije, head of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Kosovo, declared soon
after KFOR entered the province in June 1999, that the city of Prizren
was no longer safe and announced that he, 9 priests, and 200 Serb
civilians would leave for Pristina. Approximately 60 Serb families from
Pristina already had taken refuge with Artemije in a monastery outside
the city.
As of December 1999, Bishop Artemije reported that more than 80
Orthodox churches had been destroyed, damaged, or desecrated. Serbian
Orthodox priests also were intimidated by Albanian Kosovars, with
reports of attacks on priests accused in the Albanian press of
collaborating with Serb forces. However, targeting of Orthodox churches
and priests was based primarily on ethnic rather than religious
grounds.
The small Albanian Roman Catholic community, largely centered in
the southern and western part of Kosovo, complained during the summer
of 1999 that Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) members or others acting in
the name of the KLA harassed Catholics and hindered religious
activities on the pretext that Catholics collaborated with the Serbs
during the conflict.
Although there were few reported instances of abuses based on
religion in the Republic of Montenegro, there were numerous acts of
societal violence against ethnic minorities in Serbia, especially in
the Sandzak region and Vojvodina. Serbs primarily have shown
intolerance toward predominantly Muslim ethnic Albanians in Kosovo and
toward the Slavic Muslims in the region of Sandzak. These abuses stem
both from religious intolerance and ethnic prejudice.
In Montenegro, relations between religious communities are
generally peaceful. Catholic, Muslim, and Orthodox communities coexist
within the same communities and often use the same municipally owned
properties to conduct worship services. However, during the period
covered by this report, there was a rise in tensions between the
Serbian Orthodox Church and the self-proclaimed Montenegrin Orthodox
Church. There were several incidents of violence between the supporters
of these two competing Orthodox churches. The Montenegrin Orthodox
Church has claimed holdings of the Serbian Orthodox Church in
Montenegro. The Serbian Orthodox Church remains the most significant
faith in Montenegro and has rejected the property claims.
Violence is alleged to have broken out between members of the
Montenegrin Orthodox Church and of the Serbian Orthodox Church in late
1999 when on November 21 Father Dragan Stanisic of the Serbian Orthodox
Church reportedly hit Montenegrin Orthodox Metropolitan Mihajlo in the
face during a confrontation on a road near Cetinje. According to press
reports, Father Stanisic's followers then attacked Metropolitan
Mihajlo's car, although Stanisic denies that the incident ever
occurred. Approximately 250 persons demonstrated to protest the
incident in Cetinje, and authorities summoned riot police and
reinforcements to prevent further incidents.
The rift between the churches was highlighted again in January 2000
when a Serbian Orthodox priest delayed the traditional Christmas
celebration by calling on the audience to leave the hall because
Montenegrin Orthodox Metropolitan Mihailo was present. Police
reportedly had prevented a parallel Montenegrin Orthodox celebration
from taking place in a separate location in the town on the same day.
The Serbian Orthodox Church then publicly protested the Government's
tolerance of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church.
Seventh-Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses are officially
registered religions in Montenegro. However, their followers report
that their efforts to build and renovate churches have been impaired by
persons they believe to be loyal to the local Serbian Orthodox Church.
The Jewish population in the FRY has also expressed concern about
ultra-nationalist political figures and their anti-Semitic rhetoric.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government has sought to promote ethnic and religious
tolerance in the FRY. The break in diplomatic relations has limited
severely the U.S. Government's ability to engage directly with
religious representatives. However, in the summer of 1999 and again in
February 2000, Secretary of State Madeleine Albright met with Bishop
Artemije, head of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Kosovo, who expressed
concern about the safety of the Serbs still living in Kosovo. During
visits to Kosovo in July and November 1999, Secretary Albright
delivered strong messages concerning ethnic tolerance in Kosovo.
President Clinton also appealed for tolerance in the region on his
visit in November 1999. U.S. KFOR peacekeeping troops have worked to
prevent ethnic and religious violence in Kosovo and have guarded some
religious sites. The U.S. is involved actively in UNMIK, the interim
administration mission in Kosovo, which is aimed at securing peace,
facilitating refugee return and reconstruction, laying the foundations
for democratic self-government in the province, and fostering respect
for human rights regardless of ethnicity or religion.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State identified the Federal
Government of Serbia-Montenegro for particularly severe violations of
religious freedom.
In Montenegro the U.S. Government has provided significant support
and assistance to the reform-oriented republic government, which also
seeks to ensure respect for human rights, including religious freedom.
__________
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
However, anti-Semitism persists among some elements of the population.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The Constitution also provides for the right to change religion or
faith, as well as the right to refrain from any religious affiliation.
Registration is not required, but under existing law, only
registered churches and religious organizations have the explicit right
to conduct public worship services and other activities, although no
specific religions or practices are banned or discouraged by the
authorities in practice. Those that register receive state benefits
including subsidies for clergymen and office expenses. State funding
also is provided to church schools and to teachers who lecture on
religion in state schools. Occasionally, the State subsidizes one-time
projects and significant church activities, and religious societies are
partly exempt from paying taxes and import custom fees. A religion may
elect not to accept the subsidies. There are 15 officially registered
religions.
To register a new religion, it is necessary to submit a list of
20,000 permanent residents who adhere to that religion. There is no
case of a religious order being refused registration and the religions
already established before the law passed in 1991 were all exempt from
the minimum membership requirement.
The Church Department at the Ministry of Culture administers
relations between church and state. The Church Department manages the
distribution of state subsidies to churches and religious associations.
However, it cannot intervene in their internal affairs and does not
direct their activities. The Ministry administers a cultural state
fund--Pro Slovakia--which, among other things, allocates money to cover
the repair of religious monuments. There is a government institute for
relations between church and state.
Religious officials report that due to cuts in subsidies their
ability to pay salaries of clergy was hindered.
Law 308/91 provides for freedom of religion and defines the status
of churches and religious groups, including those groups not registered
with the Government. It does not prohibit the existence of
nontraditional religions.
In April 2000, the Parliament passed legislation establishing a
private Catholic university in the town of Ruzomberok. The university
is to be launched by the Roman Catholic Church and managed by the
Conference of Bishops. It is to receive a state subsidy amounting to
$200,000 (Sk 8.6 million) in 2000; this amount is scheduled to be
increased to $445,000 (Sk 20 million) in 2001. Initially, the
university is to consist of two faculties, pedagogical and
philosophical, and a theological institute. In the future the
Conference of Bishops plans to open a faculty for mass media.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is negotiating a treaty with the
Vatican to define the framework of church-state relations and mutual
commitments. It is expected to be signed in a few months.
Religious Demography
There are approximately 3.2 million Roman Catholics who make up
60.4 percent of the population. There are 180,000 Byzantine Catholics,
who constitute roughly 3.4 percent of the population. There are 35,000
Orthodox believers, who make up 0.7 percent of the population. The
Augsburg Lutheran Church has 330,000 members, who constitute 6.2
percent of the population. The Reformed Christian Church has 80,000
members and constitutes 1.7 percent of the population. Jehovah's
Witnesses have 22,000 members. The Baptist Church has 2,500 members.
The Brethren Church has 2,000 members. There are 1,700 Seventh-Day
Adventists. The Apostolic Church has 1,200 members. The Evangelical
Methodist Church has 1,100 members. Jewish congregations have 1,000
members. The Old Catholic Church has 900 members. The Christian Corps
in Slovakia has 700 members. The Czechoslovak Husite Church has 700
members. According to the 1991 census, 27.2 percent of the population
had no religious affiliation.
According to a poll conducted by the Institute of Sociology of the
Academy of Sciences in 1998, the number of practicing believers
increased from 73 percent in 1991 to 83 percent in 1998. There was also
an increase in the number of those who do not practice any religion,
from 9.9 to 16.3 percent. Approximately 54 percent of Catholics and 22
percent of Lutherans actively participate in formal religious services.
There are three categories of nonregistered religions that comprise
about 30 groups: nontraditional religions (Ananda Marga, Hare Krishna,
Yoga in Daily Life, Osho, Sahadza Yoga, Shambaola Slovakia, Shri
Chinmoy, Zazen International Slovakia, and Zen Center-myo Sahn Sah);
the syncretic religious societies (Moonist, the Church of Scientology,
Movement of the Holy Grail, and Baha'i); and the Christian religious
societies (the Church of Christ, Manna Church, International
Association of Full Evangelium Traders, Christian Communities,
Nazarens, New Revelation, New Apostolic Church, Word of International
Life, Society of the Friends of Jesus Christ, Sword of Spirit,
Disciples of Jesus Christ, Universal Life, Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormon), Unification Church, and Free Peoples'
Mission).
The law allows all churches and religious communities and enables
them to send out their representatives as well as to receive foreign
missionaries without limitation. Missionaries do not need special
permission to stay in the country, nor are their activities regulated
in any way.
According to Government information, there are missionaries from
the Roman Catholic, Augsburg Lutheran, and Methodist faiths as well as
a Jewish emissary active in the country. From among the nonregistered
churches, there are Mormon missionaries.
Since 1989 the State has promoted inter-faith dialog and
understanding by supporting events organized by various churches.
The state-supported Ecumenical Council of Churches in Slovakia
promotes communication within the religious community. All Christian
churches have the status of members or observers in the Council. The
Jewish community was invited, but chose not to participate.
Law 282/93 on restitution of communal property enabled all churches
and religious societies to apply for the return of their property that
was confiscated by the Communist government. The deadline for these
claims was December 31, 1994. The property was returned in its current
condition and the State did not provide any compensation for the damage
to it during the previous regime. The property was returned by the
State, by municipalities, by state legal entities, and under certain
conditions even by private persons. In some cases, the property was
returned legally by the State but has not been vacated by the former
tenant--often a school or hospital with nowhere else to go--rendering
no gain to the religious entity involved. There also have been problems
with the return of property that had been undeveloped at the time of
seizure but upon which there since has been construction. Churches,
synagogues, and cemeteries have been returned, albeit mostly in poor
condition. The churches and religious groups often lack the funds to
repair these properties to a usable condition. The main obstacles to
the resolution of outstanding restitution claims are the Government's
lack of financial resources, due to its austerity program, and
bureaucratic resistance on the part of those entities required to
vacate restitutable properties. While the Orthodox Church reported that
six of the seven properties on which it had filed claims already had
been returned, the Catholic Church and the Federation of Jewish
Communities reported lower rates of success. The Catholic Church
reported that almost half of the property that it had claimed had been
returned to it already. In another 12 percent of cases the property had
been returned legally to the Church but typically was occupied by other
tenants and would require court action to be returned to Church hands.
The Church had not received any compensation for the remaining 40
percent of claims since these properties were undeveloped at the time
of nationalization but since have been developed. The Church also is
not eligible to reacquire lands that originally were registered to
Church foundations that no longer exist or no longer operate in the
country, like the Benedictines. The Federation of Jewish Communities
(FJC) has reported some successful cases of restitution and has only a
few pending cases that require resolution. These include cases in which
property had been restituted to the FJC but not in usable condition;
cases in which the property still is occupied by previous tenants; and
lands upon which buildings had been constructed after the seizure of
the property.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report. However, the Government took
several steps that contributed to religious tolerance. In February
2000, the Ministry of Education and the Institute of Judaism undertook
an educational project on Jewish history and culture that is targeted
to elementary and high school teachers of history, civic education, and
ethics. This project is intended to assist in broadening the education
of the public about Jewish themes, which were absent in the past, and
increase tolerance toward minorities.
On May 18, 2000, the Government sponsored a national conference on
racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and intolerance. At the conference
the President announced that he would dedicate September 10 as a
memorial day to victims of the Holocaust.
When the city council of the town of Zilina announced in March 2000
its decision to install a plaque honoring the Nazi-collaborationist
wartime Slovak president, Jozef Tiso, on the city's Catholic community
center, high-level politicians including President Rudolf Schuster and
Prime Minister Mikulas Dzurinda made public statements condemning the
proposal. The council reversed its decision (see Section I).
On November 3, 1999, Parliament passed legislation compensating
citizens who were deported to German-controlled concentration camps
during World War II on the basis of their nationality, race or
religion. For each month of deportation, those eligible are to receive
a cash sum of $75 (Sk 3,000) plus a $0.75 (Sk 30) addition to their
monthly pension. Direct heirs of deceased victims, who were minors at
the time of deportation, are entitled to a lump sum of up to
approximately $2,500 (Sk 100,000). The legislation disqualifies nearly
700 Slovak Jewish survivors from southern Slovakia, which was under
Hungarian control during World War II, because they received
compensation from the Hungarian Government. Of the 450 applications
submitted to date, 200 were refused and only 50 applications have been
processed completely. The Federation of Jewish Communities has asked
the Justice Ministry to expedite its procedures in order to compensate
the aging survivors.
In February 1999, police arrested two former high officials in the
Slovak Secret Information Service (SIS) for involvement in the 1995
effort to discredit the chairman of the Slovak Bishops Conference. The
SIS allegedly framed the bishop for selling religious art for personal
gain. If convicted former Chief of the SIS Counterintelligence Unit
Jaroslav Svechota and Deputy Director of the Surveillance Unit Robert
Beno would face sentences of between 5 and 12 years in jail.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among churches and religious societies are amicable.
However, anti-Semitism persists among some elements of the population.
In October 1998, police arrested four teenage skinheads who
allegedly painted swastikas and pro-Fascist slogans on a business run
by a Jewish manager in Zvolen, but released them because they were
juveniles. In November 1998, approximately 40 gravestones in the Jewish
cemetery in Nitra were overturned. The Ministry of Interior arrested
four high school students from Nitra and one apprentice from Bratislava
for the incident. Because they were juveniles, they were given only
community service work as punishment.
Despite protests by the Federation of Jewish Communities, Slovak
National Party members and the official Slovak cultural organization
Matica Slovenska continued their efforts to rehabilitate the historical
reputation of Jozef Tiso, the leader of the Nazi-collaborationist
wartime Slovak state. On March 14, 2000, a marginal nationalist party,
Slovak National Unity (SNU), held a rally to commemorate the 61st
anniversary of the founding of the wartime Slovak State. The rally was
attended by approximately 300 persons, including a number of skinheads.
The police kept the event under tight control to prevent any violence.
The chairman of the SNU, Stanislav Panis, in his tribute to Tiso
appealed to the Government to make March 14 an official national
holiday.
In March 2000, the official Slovak cultural organization Matica
Slovenska and the confederation of political prisoners commemorated the
1939-1945 Slovak State at a meeting in which they emphasized the
significance of March 14 as a symbol of Slovak statehood. Unlike
previous years, prominent government officials did not attend.
The Lutheran Church, Jewish community, government officials, and
NGO leaders and activists criticized the Zilina city council's decision
to install a memorial plaque to commemorate the wartime Slovak
president Jozef Tiso (see Section I.). The overwhelmingly negative
public reaction led to the council to reverse its decision in March
2000.
In early 1999, the Conference of Catholic Bishops in Slovakia and
the Ecumenical Council of Churches in Slovakia had declared 1999 the
year of Christian culture and invited the Ministry of Culture to join
this project. These activities have been continued under the title
``Great Anniversary of 2000.''
An interconfessional tradition called the Week of Prayers for the
Unity of Christians was established in 1994.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains contacts with a broad spectrum of
religious groups. The Embassy assists U.S. groups in making contacts in
the country and also encourages tolerance for minority religions.
Embassy officers meet with officials of the major religious groups
on a regular basis to discuss property restitution issues as well as
human rights conditions. Relations with religious groups are friendly
and open. The Embassy continued its dialog with the Conference of
Bishops, Federation of Jewish Communities, and the Orthodox Church. The
Embassy has good relations with the Ministry of Culture and has
fostered an effective dialog between religious groups, the Ministry,
and the Commission for the Preservation of U.S. Heritage Abroad on
matters of importance to the Commission.
The U.S. Embassy issued a press release criticizing the local
initiative to install a plaque commemorating Josef Tiso. Embassy
officers met with the head of Catholic Church, Cardinal Jan Korec, and
the director of the local branch of Amnesty International to discuss
human rights concerns, including those of a religious nature. The
Embassy organized meetings between the First Lady and several officials
of the Jewish community during her visit to the country in October
1999. Embassy officers have played an active role in assisting in
restitution cases involving U.S. citizens and have assisted the
Government in its attempts to become a member of the Task Force for
International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and
Research and to initiate a Liaison Project on Holocaust education in
cooperation with the Task Force.
__________
SLOVENIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The Government at all
levels generally protects this right in full, and does not tolerate its
abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Constitution
provides that no person shall be compelled to admit his religious or
other beliefs.
There are few formal requirements for recognition as a religion by
the Government. The requirements are technical, and there were no
reports that any group was denied registration during the period
covered by this report. The Government's Office for Religious
Communities registers organizations as religious with the Ministry of
Interior and also convenes regular meetings of all 35 registered
religious communities in the country.
Religious groups, including foreign missionaries, must register
with the Ministry of the Interior if they wish to receive value added
tax rebates on a quarterly basis. All groups in the country report
equal access to registration and tax rebate status.
Religious Demography
While no data are available on active participation in religious
services, citizens identify themselves as follows: about 71 percent are
Roman Catholic, 2.5 percent are Serbian Orthodox, and 1.5 percent are
Sunni Muslim. Protestants, largely Lutherans concentrated in the
eastern part of the country, constitute less than 1 percent of the
population. The remainder of the population considers itself agnostic
or atheist.
Foreign missionaries, including a mission of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) and religious groups (including
Hare Krishna, Scientology, and Unification organizations) operate
without hindrance.
The appropriate role for religious instruction in the schools
continues to be an issue of debate. The Constitution states that
parents are entitled to give their children ``a moral and religious
upbringing.'' Before 1945 religion was much more prominent in the
schools, but now only those schools supported by religious bodies teach
religion.
The Roman Catholic Church was a major property holder in the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia before World War II. After the war, much Church
property--church buildings and support buildings, residences,
businesses, and forests--was confiscated and nationalized by the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
After Slovenian independence in 1991, Parliament passed legislation
calling for denationalization (restitution and/or compensation) within
a fixed period. The first post-independence government in 1991 was a
center-right coalition headed by a Christian Democrat prime minister.
However, a subsequent change of government in 1992 to a center-left
coalition led by current Prime Minister Janez Drnovsek led to a virtual
standstill in denationalization proceedings for several years. The
strong opposition of the current Government toward returning large
tracts of forest and other property to the Catholic Church is an
frequently cited reason for the paralysis of the denationalization
process.
As of mid-1999, only one-third of all cases had been adjudicated at
the initial administrative level. Restitution of church property is a
politically unpopular issue, and the Catholic Church, despite its
numerical predominance, does not have the political support necessary
to force a faster pace for denationalization.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Societal attitudes toward religion are complex. Historical events
dating long before Slovene independence color societal perceptions of
the dominant Catholic Church. Much of the gulf between the (at least
nominally) Catholic center-right and the largely agnostic or atheistic
left stems from the massacre of large numbers of alleged Nazi and
Fascist collaborators in the years 1946-48. Many of the so-called
collaborators were successful businessmen whose assets were confiscated
after they were killed or driven from Slovenia, and many were prominent
Catholics.
Inter-faith relations are correct, although there is little warmth
between the majority Catholic Church and foreign missionary groups,
such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, which are
viewed as aggressive proselytizers.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy has discussed worldwide religious freedom
worldwide in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
Embassy has held extensive discussions with the Government on the topic
of property denationalization in the context of the rule of law,
although it has not specifically discussed church property during these
sessions.
__________
SPAIN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The Government at
all levels generally protects this right in full and does not tolerate
its abuse, either by governmental or private actors.
The 1978 Constitution, which declares the country to be a secular
state, and various laws provide that no religion should have the
character of a state religion. However, the Government treats religions
in different ways. Catholicism is the predominant religion and enjoys
the closest official relationship with the Government as well as the
most benefits, including financing through the tax system. The
Government supports the Catholic Church with an amount close to $1
million annually. Jews, Muslims, and Protestants also have official
status but enjoy fewer privileges. These religions have bilateral
agreements with the Government and receive some financial assistance
from the Government. Other recognized religions, such as Jehovah's
Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons), are covered by constitutional protections but have no
special agreements with the Government.
The Organic Law of Religious Freedom of 1980 implements the
constitutional provision for freedom of religion. The 1980 law
establishes a legal regime and certain privileges for religious
organizations. To enjoy the benefits of this regime, religious
organizations must be entered in the Register of Religious Entities
maintained by the General Directorate of Religious Affairs of the
Ministry of Justice. The register was established in 1981, and was
updated most recently in 1998. In order to register with the Ministry
of Justice, religious groups must submit documentation supporting their
claim to be religions. If a group is turned down, it may appeal the
decision to the courts. If it is judged not to be a religion, it may be
included on a Register of Associations maintained by the Ministry of
Interior. Inclusion on the Register of Associations grants legal status
as authorized by the law regulating the right of association. Religions
not officially recognized, such as the Church of Scientology, are
treated as cultural associations.
The Catholic Church does not have to register with the Ministry of
Justice's religious entities list; however, some entities do register
for financial or other reasons. The first section of the Register of
Religious Entities, called the special section, contains a list of
religious entities created by the Catholic Church and a list of non-
Catholic churches, confessions, and communities that have an agreement
on cooperation with the State. In 1992 agreements on cooperation with
the State were signed by three organizations on behalf of Protestants,
Jews, and Muslims. The organizations were the Federation of Evangelical
Entities of Spain (FEREDE), the Federation of Israelite Communities of
Spain (FCIE), and the Islamic Commission of Spain (CIE).
Religious Demography
The Catholic Church hierarchy maintains that 93.63 percent of
citizens are declared Catholics. However, many persons argue that this
figure is based on numbers of baptisms, weddings, and first communions,
events that are essentially social rites, and which are practiced by
many who do not attend church regularly or believe in Catholic
teachings. According to a survey published in April 2000 by the Center
for Sociological Investigations, 83.6 percent of citizens consider
themselves Catholics, 2 percent followers of other religions, 7.9
percent non-believers, and 4 percent atheists. The Federation of
Protestant Churches represents 350,000 Protestants. The Federation of
Spanish Islamic Entities (FEERI), located in Cordoba, estimates that
there are more than 450,000 Muslims, not counting illegal immigrants
(who could number a quarter million). There are approximately 25,000
Jews registered with the major Jewish organization. However 50,000
persons attend Jewish religious services in 13 of the country's 17
regions. There are 3,000 Buddhists registered, but according to their
president, there are three times that many in practice.
There are 11,081 entities created by the Catholic Church in the
first section of the Register of Religious Entities, and 570 non-
Catholic churches, confessions, and communities. The second section of
the register, called the general section, contains non-Catholic
churches, confessions, and communities that do not have an agreement
with the State, and their creations. There are 329 entities in this
section. The third section contains canonical foundations of the
Catholic Church. There are 153 entries in this section.
There are a total of 899 non-Catholic churches, confessions, and
communities in the register. These consist of 747 Protestant church
entities, which have 1,643 places of worship. These include:
Charismatics--89 entities and 113 places of worship; Assemblies of
Brothers-120 entities and 143 places of worship; Baptists-213 entities
and 247 places of worship; Pentecostals64 entities and 259 places of
worship; Presbyterians--36 entities and 58 places of worship; one
entity of the Evangelical Church of Philadelphia, which has 613 places
of worship; Church of Christ--9 entities and 19 places of worship; the
Salvation Army--1 entity and 9 places of worship; Anglicans--17
entities and 26 places of worship; interdenominational churches and
entities--60 entities and 13 places of worship; Churches for Attention
to Foreigners-25 entities and 9 places of worship; Adventists--3
entities and 76 places of worship; and other evangelical churches--106
entities and 53 places of worship. In addition, there are also:
Orthodox--5 entities and 5 places of worship; Christian Scientists--3
entities and no places of worship; Jehovah's Witnesses--1 entity and
873 places of worship; Mormons--1 entity and 30 places of worship;
other Christian confessions--10 entities and 29 places of worship;
Judaism--15 entities and 15 places of worship; Islam--99 entities and
45 places of worship; Baha'is--2 entities and 12 places of worship;
Hinduism--3 entities and no places of worship; Buddhism--13 entities
and 13 places of worship; and other confessions--3 entities and 12
places of worship.
Foreign missionaries proselytize in the country.
Religion courses are offered in public schools but are not
mandatory. There are religious schools, supported by the Catholic
Church.
Governmental Restrictions on Freedom of Religion
There are some allegations that the Government discriminates
against non-Catholic religions. A senior Protestant leader stated that
Protestants want the same tax exemptions as Catholics, the same access
to legal services, the same right to establish foundations, the same
presence in the communications media, and better treatment in the
matter of religious groups.
According to a senior Muslim leader, in 1999 30 Muslim girls in
Granada were required to remove their veils for their national identity
card photos; Catholic nuns are not required to remove their head
coverings for their identity card photos.
The Defense Ministry requires soldiers to declare their religion
before allowing entry into military barracks by any religious figures
other than Catholic army chaplains. The State funds Catholic chaplains
who serve in hospitals.
The government income tax form includes a box that allows taxpayers
to assign 0.5239 percent of their taxes to the Catholic Church.
Protestant and Muslim leaders would like their adherents to have a
similar option. The Government was agreeable to adding the three
``established religions''--Protestants, Jews, and Muslims--to the
income tax check-box list, and opened negotiations with the Protestants
on this subject on April 15, 1999. As of mid-2000, both Protestants and
Muslims had been added to the list.
The Jewish community wants to receive money from the Government,
but does not want to be included in the check-box list on the income
tax form. This reticence is attributed to the community's past history,
which included persecution and expulsion from the country in 1492. In
addition to an annual subsidy, the Jewish community is asking for a
one-time reparations payment for the community's historic experience of
suffering. A spokesman for the Jewish community said that Jews would
not claim compensation for their lost patrimony, but would like the
State to give back part of what was once theirs and is now in the hands
of the Catholic Church. These properties could then be used jointly by
Jews and Catholics. The Jewish community also wants the Government to
resolve problems associated with Jewish cemeteries. (Under the law,
land for cemeteries is not granted in perpetuity, and it is expected
that cemeteries may be moved and the land developed for urban uses if
the need so arises.)
In May 1999, the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament approved a
nonbinding resolution calling on the Government to reinforce measures
against the activity of destructive ``sects'' in the country and to
create a permanent observatory to monitor these organizations. In press
reports, sources cited figures attributed to the Interior Ministry
stating that there were 200 destructive sects in the country, which
have between 100,000 and 150,000 members. The Law of Sects in Spain,
passed in 1989, authorizes the police to investigate sects with a
destructive character. As a result, a special unit was created within
the police to investigate allegedly destructive sects.
The government of the Canary Islands, one of Spain's 17 regions,
has refused to grant permission to the Salvation Army to open a center
for needy children, on the grounds that the Salvation Army is a
``destructive sect.''
In early April 1999, the Helsinki Human Rights Federation presented
a report to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE) that included criticism of Spain for failing to implement its
commitment in the 1994 Budapest Document on freedom of religion and
conscience. The report criticized Spain for discrimination against
``new religions,'' which often are considered by authorities to be
dangerous and destructive, while older, established religions continue
to receive financial and other privileges from the State.
The regional government of Catalunya's 1999 failure to renew three
broadcast licenses belonging to the ``Network of Popular Spanish
Airwaves,'' or ``Cadena Cope,'' would have effectively shut down three
of the Catholic Church's FM radio stations. However, this decision was
challenged successfully in the Supreme Court of Justice of Catalunya by
the Cope. The Court ruled in March 2000 that the criteria used by the
regional government to determine the award or renewal of licenses and
frequencies placed a disproportionate emphasis on the planned use of
the Catalan language in the programming, adding that this violated
constitutional provisions for free access to information. The
Government elected not to appeal the decision and announced its
intention to review the applications again, using more balanced
criteria.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Embassy officials meet with religious leaders of the various
denominations.
__________
SWEDEN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government respects this right in practice. The rights and freedoms
enumerated in the Constitution include freedom of worship, protection
from compulsion to make known one's religious views, and protection
from compulsion to belong to a religious community.
The country has maintained a state (Lutheran) church for several
hundred years, supported by a general ``church tax'' (although the
Government routinely grants any request by a taxpayer for exemption
from that tax). The Church of Sweden receives state financial support
not offered to other religions.
In 1995 after decades of discussion, the state church and the
Government agreed to a formal separation. This reform came into effect
in 2000. However, the Church still is to receive some state support.
Religious Demography
As of 1996, citizens were no longer automatically members of the
state church at birth. It is possible to leave the state church, but
very few persons do. Eighty-four percent belong to the Church of
Sweden.
There are about 165,000 Catholics, and the Orthodox Church has
around 100,000 members, the main national groups being Greek, Serbian,
Syrian, Romanian, Estonian and Finnish. There is a large Finnish-
speaking Lutheran denomination in Sweden. The number of Muslims has
increased rapidly in recent years to between 250,000 and 300,000.
Mosques are being built in many parts of the country. There are around
17,000 Jews, of whom 8,500 are members of a congregation. Buddhists and
Hindus number around 3,000 to 4,000 each. Although no reliable
statistics are available, it is estimated that 15 to 20 percent of the
adult population are atheist.
The major religious communities and the state church are spread
across the country. Large numbers of immigrants in recent decades have
led to the introduction of nontraditional religions in those
communities populated by immigrants.
In October 1998, the Government published a report by a commission
of experts entitled ``In Good Faith--Society and New Religious
Movements.'' The report sought to gauge the needs of persons leaving
new religious movements for support from the larger Swedish community.
It paid special attention to the needs of children. According to the
commission, each year approximately 100 persons seek assistance for
various medical, legal, social, economic, or spiritual difficulties
arising from their departure from new religious movements. The
commission recommended passage of legislation making ``improper
influence'' (such as forcing an individual to renounce his or her
faith, or other such ``manipulation'') a punishable offense. The
commission's proposal for legislation requires further investigation by
the Government. The commission also proposed the establishment of a
foundation for the study of questions of belief and to help build
bridges between new religious movements and mainstream society.
While weekly services in Christian houses of worship generally are
poorly attended, a great many persons observe major festivals of the
ecclesiastical year and prefer a ceremony with a religious stamp to
mark the turning points of life. About 78 percent of children are
baptized, 50 percent of all those eligible are confirmed, and 90
percent of funeral services are performed under the auspices of the
state church. Approximately 62 percent of couples marrying choose a
Church of Sweden ceremony. Around 100,000 of the 250,000 to 300,000
Muslims in the country are active religiously. Large numbers of Jews
attend high holiday services but attendance at weekly services is low.
There is a relatively large number of smaller church bodies.
Several are offshoots of 19th century revival movements in the Church
of Sweden. Others, such as the Baptist Union of Sweden and the
Methodist Church of Sweden, trace their roots to British and North
American revival movements. There are Orthodox, Conservative, and
Reform synagogues. Muslim affiliations are represented among immigrant
groups predominantly from the Shi'a and Sunni branches of Islam.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and other foreign
missionary groups are active in the country. They do not face special
requirements.
In 1986 Parliament established the Office of the Ombudsman Against
Ethnic Discrimination, whose task is to ensure that individuals and
groups do not suffer discrimination ``due to race, skin color, national
or ethnic origin, or religion.'' For many years the Government has
supported the activities of groups working to combat anti-Semitism.
The Government promotes inter-faith understanding and meets
annually with representatives from various religious groups. The
Commission for State Grants to Religious Communities (SST) is a
government body. It cooperates with the Swedish Free Church Council.
SST members are selected by religious bodies, which are entitled to
some forms of state financial assistance.
In 1985 the Parliament resolved that public education should adopt
an intercultural approach. There is an overall time schedule for
compulsory course work in public schools. Religious education is part
of this schedule, but is not limited to instruction in the state
religion.
The law permits official institutions, such as government
ministries and Parliament, to provide copies to the public of documents
that are filed with them, even though such documents may be unpublished
and protected by copyright law. This is due to a contradiction between
the Constitution's freedom of information provisions and the country's
international obligations to protect unpublished copyrighted works.
This contradiction has affected copyrighted, unpublished documents
belonging to the Church of Scientology which have been made available
to the public by the Parliament in accordance with domestic
legislation. The Government is now in the process of drafting new
legislation designed to eliminate the contradiction and protect
copyrights.
In January 1998, the Government began a national Holocaust
education project after a public opinion poll found that only a low
percentage of school children had basic knowledge about the Holocaust.
Approximately 1 million copies of the education project's core textbook
(available at no cost to every household with children, including in
the most prevalent immigrant languages) are in circulation among the
population of 9 million. Also in May 1998, the Prime Minister initiated
the Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education,
Remembrance, and Research, to combat anti-Semitism, racism, and
intolerance by placing international political support behind efforts
to teach about the Holocaust. Eight other countries, including the
United States, are members of the Task Force. In January 2000 the
Government established January 27, the anniversary of Auschwitz's
liberation, as a national day of remembrance. Also in January 2000,
Sweden hosted a large, high level international conference on Holocaust
education. The Stockholm International Forum on the Holocaust was
attended by over 40 countries and over 20 heads of state and
government.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who have been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Citizens are tolerant of diverse religions practiced in the
country, including the Mormon faith and Scientology. However, there is
limited anti-Semitism, which occasionally manifests itself in the
vandalization of synagogues with graffiti and in threatening letters.
In 1997 there were two cases of synagogues being vandalized with
graffiti. In 1998 there was one case. No cases were reported in 1999 or
the first half of 2000. The only anti-Semitic incident of note during
1999 involved an assault by neo-Nazi teenagers on a Jewish musical
conductor in July of that year. The teenagers involved were tried and
incarcerated. Some immigrant groups have experienced discrimination or
violence due to their ethnic background or race. The Government
criticizes such practices and prosecutes offenders.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. The
U.S. Government is a member of the Task Force for International
Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research. The Task
Force is an intergovernmental multinational Government initiative to
combat anti-Semitism, racism, and intolerance. Deputy Treasury
Secretary Stuart Eizenstat led the U.S. delegation to the Stockholm
International Forum on the Holocaust, and President Clinton addressed
the forum in a videotaped message.
__________
SWITZERLAND
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice.
There is no official state church. However, all of the cantons
financially support at least one of the three traditional
denominations--Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, or Protestant--with funds
collected through taxation. Each of the 26 states (cantons) has its own
regulations regarding the relationship between church and state. In all
cantons an individual may choose not to contribute to church taxes.
However, in some cantons private companies are unable to avoid payment
of the church tax. A religious organization must register with the
Government in order to receive tax-exempt status. There have been no
reports of a non-traditional religious group applying for the ``church
taxation'' status that the traditional three denominations enjoy.
The Government is considering formulating a national policy on
``sects.'' In July 1999, the Business Review Commission of the National
Assembly issued a report entitled ``Sects or Assimilative Movements in
Switzerland,'' containing recommendations to the Government on the need
for state involvement and the creation of national policy. The
Commission recommended that the Government formulate a ``sect'' policy
and coordinate the cooperation of researchers and informational and
counseling committees. In June 2000, the Government rejected the
Business Review Commission's recommendation to formulate a national
sect policy. The Government said such a policy would conflict with the
constitutional right to freedom of religious beliefs. The Government
also opposed the creation of a National Information and Counseling
Center pointing out that religious matters fall under the jurisdiction
of the cantons.
Religious Demography
Although traditionally approximately 95 percent of the population
have been split 50-50 between the Protestant and Catholic churches, in
the last 10 years there has been a trend of persons formally renouncing
their membership and thus excluding themselves from church taxation.
According to the 1990 census, the trend of renouncing church membership
accounts for a loss of 1 to 2 percent for each of the three traditional
religions. Membership in religious denominations is as follows: Roman
Catholic--44 percent, Protestant--40 percent, Atheist--7 percent,
Muslim--2 percent, Eastern religions--1 percent. Other denominations
account for trace percentages: Christian, other--58,501, new religious
movements--19,175, Jewish--17,577, Old Catholic--11,768, and unknown/
undecided--1 percent.
Muslims have grown to at least 200,000, fueled by the influx of
Yugoslav refugees in recent years. Muslims practice their religion
throughout the country. Although only two mosques exist--in Zurich and
Geneva--there have been no reports of difficulties in Muslims buying or
renting space to worship. Although occasional complaints arise, such as
a Muslim employee not being given time to pray during the workday,
attitudes are generally tolerant toward Muslims, who constitute the
country's largest non-Christian minority.
Groups of foreign origin are free to proselytize. Groups such as
Young Life, Youth for Christ, Church of Scientology, Youth With a
Mission, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-Day Adventists, and the
Islamic Call are also active in the country. Experts estimate that
between 300 to 800 denominations and groups are established throughout
the country.
Foreign missionaries must obtain a ``religious worker'' visa to
work in the country. Requirements include proof that the foreigner
would not displace a citizen from doing the job, that the foreigner
would be financially supported by the host organization, and that the
country of origin of religious workers also grants visas to Swiss
religious workers. Youth ``interns'' may qualify for special visas as
well.
Religion is taught in public schools. The doctrine presented
depends on which religion predominates in the particular state.
However, those of different faiths are free to attend classes for their
own creeds during the class period. Atheists are allowed to skip the
classes. Parents also may send their children to private schools or
teach their children at home.
In response to the issue of Holocaust era assets, the Government
and private sector initiated a series of measures designed to shed
light on the past, provide assistance to Holocaust victims, and address
claims to dormant accounts in Swiss banks. These measures include: The
Independent Commission of Experts under Professor Jean-Francois
Bergier, charged with examining the country's wartime history and its
role as a financial center;
the Independent Committee of Eminent Persons under Paul Volcker,
charged with resolving the issue of dormant World War II era accounts
in Swiss banks; and the Swiss Special Fund for Needy Holocaust Victims,
which received approximately $190 million (273 million Swiss francs) in
contributions from the private sector and the Swiss National bank. In
August 1998, a $1.25 billion settlement of the class action lawsuit
filed in the U.S. against Swiss banks was announced.
The debate over the country's World War II record contributed to
the problem of anti-Semitism (see Section II). The Federal Council took
action to address the problem of anti-Semitism. In December 1999, the
Council reiterated a statement of regret first made in 1997 over
Switzerland's failures to assist minorities fleeing the Nazi regime. On
December 13, 1999, it established an association for a Center of
Tolerance in Zurich. The aim of the center is to keep alive lessons of
the past, to encourage ongoing analysis of history and current events,
and to make clear the danger of possible manifestations of racism and
xenophobia. The center's activities include a permanent exhibit in Bern
and two traveling exhibits per year, as well as workshops. Its
facilities include research and documentation offices.
The Government does not initiate inter-faith activities.
Of the country's 16 largest political parties, only three--the
Evangelical People's Party, the Christian Democratic Party, and the
Christian Social Party--subscribe to a religious philosophy. There have
been no reports of individuals being excluded from a political party
because of their beliefs. Some groups have organized their own parties,
such as the Transcendental Meditation Maharishi's Party of Nature and
the Argentinean Guru's Humanistic Party. However, none of these have
gained enough of a following to win political representation.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Due to increasing concern over certain groups, especially
Scientology, the Government in 1997 asked an advisory commission to
examine Scientology. The commission's 1998 report concluded that there
was no basis for special monitoring of Scientology, since it did not
represent any direct or immediate threat to the security of the
country. However, the report stated that Scientology had
characteristics of a totalitarian organization and had its own
intelligence network. The commission also warned of the significant
financial burden imposed on Scientology members and recommended
reexamining the issue at a later date. There have been no new
developments in this regard.
In 1998 the city of Basel passed a law banning aggressive tactics
for handing out flyers. This action was prompted by complaints about
Scientologists' methods. In June 1999, Scientology suffered a setback
when it lost a bid in the country's highest court to overturn a
municipal law that barred persons from being approached on the street
by those using ``deceptive or dishonest methods.'' The Court ruled that
a 1998 Basel law, prompted by efforts to curb Scientology, involved an
intervention in religious freedom but did not infringe on it.
The city of Buchs, St. Gallen, also has passed a law modeled on the
Basel law. However, it is still legal to proselytize in nonintrusive
ways, such as public speaking on the street or by going door-to-door in
neighborhoods.
In Zurich in June 1995 Scientologists appealed a city decision that
prohibited them from distributing flyers on public property. In a
qualified victory for the Scientologists, a higher court decided in
September 1999 that the Scientologists' activities were commercial and
not religious, and that the city should grant them and other commercial
enterprises such as fast food restaurants more freedom to distribute
flyers on a permit basis. Fearing a heavy administrative and
enforcement workload, the city has appealed to the Supreme Court. The
Supreme Court decision rejected the appeal in June 2000, reinforcing
the decision by the previous court that the Scientologists' activities
were commercial in nature. The Supreme Court decision is expected to
establish a nationwide legal guideline on the issue.
In Winterthur city authorities require Scientologists to apply for
an annual permit to sell their books on public streets. The permit
limits their activities to certain areas and certain days. This
practice has been in effect since 1995 when a district court upheld
fines issued to Scientologists by the city for accosting passersby to
invite them onto their premises to sell them books and do personality
tests. The court ruled that the Scientologists' activities were
primarily commercial, rather than religious, which required them to get
an annual permit for the book sale on public property and prohibited
them from distributing flyers or other advertising material. The
Supreme Court ruling in the Zurich case is expected to set a precedent
for this case as well.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities generally are
amicable.
In the context of discussions over Nazi gold and Holocaust era
assets, anti-Semitic slurs reportedly still remain a problem, although
there was no marked increase over the previous year. Government
officials, including the President, have spoken frequently and publicly
against anti-Semitism. According to the 1999 Swiss National Security
Report, between 1995, when the anti-racism law was enacted, and
December 1999, there were 104 cases brought to court under the anti-
racism law, with 45 convictions. Of those, 15 persons were convicted
for anti-Semitism, 9 for revisionism, 20 for racist oral or written
slurs, and 1 for other reasons. The heaviest penalty was a 15-month
imprisonment and a fine of $12,000 (20,000 Swiss francs) against a
person for denying the existence of the Holocaust.
In November 1998, the Federal Commission Against Racism released a
report on anti-Semitism in Switzerland, expressing concern that the
recent controversy over the country's role during World War II had to
some extent opened the door to expressions of latent anti-Semitism. At
the same time, the Commission described the emergence of strong public
opposition to anti-Semitism and credited the Federal Council with
taking a ``decisive stand'' against anti-Semitism. The Commission also
proposed various public and private measures to combat anti-Semitism
and encourage greater tolerance and understanding.
In response the Federal Council has committed to intensify efforts
to combat anti-Semitic sentiment and racism. The Federal Council
welcomed the publicly funded Bergier Commission report in December 1999
that disclosed Switzerland's World War II record on turning away
certain refugees fleeing from Nazi oppression, including Jewish
applicants. The Federal Council described the publication of the
Bergier Report as an occasion for reflection and discussion of
Switzerland's World War II history. The Federal Council took action to
address the problem of anti-Semitism (see Section I).
In March 2000, a Geneva research group released a survey in
cooperation with the American Jewish Committee in New York, stating
that anti-Semitic views are held by 16 percent of Swiss citizens. Other
prominent survey firms, as well as some Jewish leaders, disputed the
accuracy of the Geneva firm's survey, stating that the survey
overestimated the prevalence of anti-Semitic views. According to the
survey, 33 percent of the Swiss People's Party (SV) supporters voiced
anti-Semitic views. However, the survey found that 92 percent of all
Swiss youth rejected anti-Semitic notions. The survey reflected some
inconsistencies. For example, during the recent period of controversy
over the country's World War II record, public opinion in support of
Switzerland's anti-racism laws actually strengthened.
Many nongovernmental organizations coordinate inter-faith events
throughout the country.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with both
Government officials and representatives of the various faiths and in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
__________
TAJIKISTAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
are some restrictions, and the Government monitors the activities of
religious institutions to keep them from becoming overtly political.
There was no change in the overall status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report. However, a national
referendum in September 1999 amended the Constitution to legalize
religiously oriented political parties, and two representatives of one
such party were elected to Parliament. Legal action was initiated
against one evangelical Christian congregation that for many years has
declined to register with the Government.
The Government continues to pursue an aggressive policy of
secularism, which it tends to define in anti-religious rather than
nonreligious terms. Government policies reflect a pervasive fear of
Islamic fundamentalism, a fear shared by much of the general
population.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
are some restrictions, and the Government monitors the activities of
religious institutions to keep them from becoming overtly political.
According to the Law on Religion and Religious Organizations, religious
communities must be registered by the Committee on Religious Affairs
under the Council of Ministers, which monitors the activities of Muslim
groups, the Russian Orthodox Church, and possibly other religious
establishments. While the official reason given to justify registration
is to ensure that religious groups act in accordance with the law, the
practical purpose is to ensure that they do not become overly
political. In 1997 the Council of the Islamic Center was subordinated
to the Government Committee on Religious Affairs. This move took place
quietly, and with no apparent objection from the observant Muslim
community.
Regularly throughout the period covered by this report President
Imomali Rahmonov aggressively defended secularism, which in the Tajik
political context is a highly politicized term that carries the strong
connotation--likely understood both by the President and his audience--
of being ``antireligious'' rather than ``nonreligious.'' The President
also occasionally criticized Islam as a political threat. While the
vast majority of citizens, including members of the Government,
consider themselves Muslims and are not anti-Islamic, there is a
pervasive fear of Islamic fundamentalism among both progovernment
forces and much of the population at large.
On May 23, 1998, Parliament passed a law prohibiting the creation
of political parties with a religious orientation. The United Tajik
Opposition (UTO), the largest component of which is the Islamic Revival
Party (IRP), along with international organizations and foreign
governments, strongly criticized the law for violating the June 1997
peace agreement, which included a government commitment to lift the ban
on member parties of the UTO. The post-independence 1992-97 civil war
was fought in part over differing views of the role of religion in the
republic. On June 2, 1998, President Rahmonov established a Special
Conciliation Commission to resolve the dispute. On June 18, the
Commission reported that it had devised compromise language for the
law, banning parties from receiving support from religious
institutions. A new version of the law including the compromise
language was passed in the November 1998 parliamentary session. A
constitutional amendment passed in a September 26, 1999 referendum,
states that the State is secular and that citizens can be members of
parties formed on a religious basis. Two representatives from a
religiously oriented party, the Islamic Renaissance Party, now sit in
the lower house of the national Parliament.
Religious Demography
An estimated 95 percent of the citizens, about 5,550,000 persons,
consider themselves to be Muslims, although the degree of religious
observance varies widely. Only an estimated 10 percent regularly follow
Muslim practices (such as daily prayer and dietary restrictions) or
attend services at mosques. About 3 percent of all Muslims are
Ismailis; almost all reside in the remote Gorno-Badakhshan region. The
rest of the Muslim population is Sunni. There are more than 4,000
registered mosques open for daily prayers. (An exact figure was not
available from the State Committee on Religion. The number appears to
have risen significantly in comparison to the previous figure of 3,082
only because of a government effort to force existing mosques to
register and thus pay registration fees.) In addition there are 237 so-
called ``Friday mosques'' (which are large facilities built for Friday
prayers) registered with the State Committee on Religion. These figures
do not include Ismaili places of worship because complete data were
unavailable. There is no religious conflict between these two groups.
There are approximately 230,000 Christians, mostly consisting of ethnic
Russians and other Soviet-era immigrant groups. The largest Christian
group is Russian Orthodox, but there are also Baptists (five registered
organizations), Roman Catholics (two registered organizations),
Seventh-Day Adventists (one registered organization), Korean
Protestants (one registered organization), Lutherans (no data on
registration), and Jehovah's Witnesses (one registered organization).
Other religious minorities are very small and include Baha'is (four
registered organizations), Zoroastrians (no data on registered
organizations), Hare Krishnas (one registered organization), and Jews
(one registered organization).
Each of these groups probably totals less than 1 percent of the
general population. The overwhelming majority of them live in the
capital or other large cities.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Missionaries of registered religious groups are not restricted
legally and proselytize openly. There were no reports of harassment of
such groups, but neither are missionaries particularly welcomed.
Christian missionaries from Western nations, Korea, India, and other
countries are present, but their numbers are quite small. Current
estimates put the number of recent Christian converts at approximately
2,000 persons. However, the Government's fear of Islamic terrorists
prompts it to restrict visas for Muslim missionaries. There was
evidence of an unofficial ban on foreign missionaries who are perceived
as Islamic fundamentalists.
Aside from the registration requirement, there are few official
constraints on religious practice, but government officials sometimes
issue extrajudicial restrictions. For example, the mayor of Dushanbe
prohibited mosques from using microphones for the 5-times-daily call to
prayer. There are also reports that some local officials have forbidden
members of the Islamic Revival Party from speaking in mosques in their
region. However, this restriction is more a reflection of political
rather than religious differences. In Isfara, following allegations
that a private Arabic language school was hosting a suspected Uzbek
terrorist, the authorities imposed restrictions on private Arabic
language schools (to include restrictions on private Islamic
instruction). These restrictions appear to be based on political
concerns, but the effect on private religious instruction is also
clear.
The Government arrested numerous members of the Islamist
organization, Hizb Ut-Tahrir (Party of Emancipation) in the northern,
primarily ethnic Uzbek, Leninobod district. According to a press
account, over 50 of the Hizb Ut-Tahrir organization's members were
arrested between January and April 2000. At least two of the detainees
reportedly were charged with disseminating subversive literature and
planning to overthrow the Government. This organization is linked with
an organization of the same name in Uzbekistan which calls for the
creation of a Muslim caliphate in the country and has become a target
of repression by the Uzbek Government, which has accused its members of
acting against the constitutional order and of belonging to an
extremist group.
An unregistered Baptist congregation in Dushanbe was informed in
early 2000 that it was obliged to register with the Government, but the
Baptists refused on the grounds that they are a branch of the larger
All-Baptist Churches, an organization of Baptist churches from
throughout the former Soviet Union. They argued that only their
leadership in Moscow has the right to register with a government
authority. Proceedings began against the Baptists in March 2000 and the
court fined the congregation a little more than 50 cents (1,000 Tajik
rubles). The congregation refuses to pay as a matter of principle.
There have been some instances of petty harassment of the church, with
the militia on at least one occasion taking down the sign outside the
congregation's building.
Although there is no official state religion, the Government has
declared two Islamic holidays, Id Al'fitr and Idi Qurbon, as state
holidays.
There were government-imposed restrictions on the number of
pilgrims allowed to go on the Hajj in 1999. Individuals were not
permitted to travel in a personal vehicle; persons were required to
travel by government-owned transportation, primarily buses. There were
regional quotas on the number of pilgrims, which led to corruption as
places were sold. The motivation for quotas and other restrictions
appears to be profit (maximizing bribes from Hajj pilgrims), rather
than discouraging a religious practice.
Government publishing houses are prohibited from publishing
anything in Arabic script; they do not publish religious literature.
However, in the first half of 1998, the President initiated a project
to publish a Tajik version of the Koran in both Cyrillic and Arabic
script. The books were printed in Iran and sold through the Iranian
bookshop in Dushanbe. There are small private publishers that publish
Islamic materials without serious problems. There is no restriction on
the distribution or possession of the Koran, the Bible, or other
religious works. The Islamic Renaissance Party, a religiously oriented
party, began publishing Najot, a weekly newspaper, in 1999. Privately
owned mass-circulation newspapers regularly published articles
explaining Islamic beliefs and practices.
There was no change in the overall status of respect for religious
freedom during the period covered by this report. However, a national
referendum in September 1999 amended the Constitution to permit
religiously oriented political parties, and two representatives of one
such party were elected to Parliament.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Conflict between different religious groups is virtually unknown,
in part because there are so few non-Muslims. However, some Muslim
leaders occasionally have expressed concern that minority religious
groups undermine national unity.
There were no reports that conservative Muslims in rural areas
physically harassed non-Muslim women for not wearing traditional attire
during the period covered by this report.
The small Baha'i community normally does not experience prejudice,
but a prominent 88-year-old member of the community was killed in his
home in Dushanbe in September 1999. Members of the Baha'i community
believe that he was killed because of his religion, since none of his
personal possessions were taken from the murder scene. Police have made
no arrests, but militant Islamists aligned with Iran are considered
likely perpetrators.
On July 28, 1998, an unknown group near Dushanbe kidnaped the imam
of the central mosque, Mullo Giyomiddin. His body was found some days
later. There have been no developments in the case. His successor,
Mullo Khudoiberdi, was kidnaped on September 3, 1998, but was released
after a few days. There have been no arrests in the case. Motives
behind these crimes are unclear.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Through public diplomacy, the U.S. Embassy has supported programs
designed to create a better understanding of how democracies address
the issue of secularism and religious freedom. Several participants in
these programs are key members of the opposition who now, through their
writings and their debate on the definition of secularism, reveal a
more sophisticated understanding of the concept and of how secularism
and religious activism can coexist in a free society.
__________
TURKEY
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the
Government imposed some restrictions on religious minorities and on
religious expression in government offices and state-run institutions,
including universities.
There was no significant change in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report; however,
there were a few positive developments.
Government policy and the mostly amicable relationship among
religions in society contribute to the generally free practice of
religion; however, extremist groups or individuals target minority
communities from time to time. Unknown perpetrators damaged Greek
Orthodox community property. Some converts to Christianity face
harassment. The Muslim community continued to engage in a heated debate
over the question of wearing traditional religious clothing in
government facilities, including universities. The Government brought
legal action against several prominent Islamist politicians,
businesspersons, and writers, for allegedly ``inciting hatred'' through
speech (albeit usually of a political, not a religious, nature). Police
detained and arrested some Turkish Christians for allegedly
proselytizing or for unauthorized gatherings.
The U.S. Government frequently discusses religious freedom issues
with the Government.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, it
imposes some restrictions on religious minorities and on Muslim
religious expression in government offices and state-run institutions,
including universities. The Constitution establishes Turkey as a
secular state and provides for freedom of belief, freedom of worship,
and the private dissemination of religious ideas. However, these rights
are restricted by constitutional provisions ensuring the integrity and
existence of the State, and rejecting ``discrimination on the basis of
religion.''
The Government oversees Muslim religious facilities and education
through its Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet). The Diyanet,
which some groups claim reflects the beliefs of the Sunni Islamist
mainstream, regulates the operation of the country's more than 70,000
mosques, and employs local and provincial imams, who are civil
servants. The Government states that the Diyanet treats equally all
that request services.
A separate government agency, the Office of Foundations (Vakiflar
Genel Mudurlugu), regulates some activities of religious minorities
including those established under the Lausanne Treaty in 1923 (Greek
Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Jewish), and their affiliated
churches, monasteries, and religious schools. The Vakiflar, which dates
back to the Ottoman Empire, must approve the operation of churches,
monasteries, synagogues, schools, and charitable religious foundations,
such as hospitals and orphanages.
There are 160 minority foundations, including Greek Orthodox (about
70 sites), Armenian Orthodox (about 50), and Jewish (20), as well as
Syrian Christians, Chaldoneans, Bulgarian Orthodox, Georgians, and
Maronis. Minority foundations, including those of religions recognized
under the Lausanne Treaty, may not acquire property for any purpose,
although they can lose it. If a community does not use its property
because of a decline in the size of its congregation over 10 years, the
Vakiflar takes over direct administration and ownership. If such
minorities can demonstrate a renewed community need, they may apply
legally to recover their properties.
During the period covered by this report, the military and
judiciary, with support from other members of the country's secular
elite, continued to wage a private and public campaign against Islamic
fundamentalism, which they view as a threat to the secular republic.
The National Security Council (NSC)--a powerful military/civilian body
established by the Constitution to advise senior leadership on national
security matters--categorizes fundamentalism as a primary threat to
public safety and order. At a meeting in March 2000, the NSC discussed
a report that claimed that fundamentalist Islamic elements had
increased their activities in a number of areas, including infiltrating
government ministries. However, the same NSC report noted that
legislative measures have been taken on only 5 points of the February
1997 18-point program against fundamentalism.
Many prosecutors regard proselytizing and religious activism on the
part of Evangelical Christians, and particularly Islamists, with
suspicion, especially when such activities are deemed to have political
overtones. There is no law that explicitly prohibits proselytizing or
religious conversions; however, police sometimes arrest proselytizers
for disturbing the peace or distributing literature that has criminal
or separatist elements. Courts usually dismiss such charges. If the
proselytizers are foreigners, they may be deported, but generally they
are able to reenter the country.
Religious Demography
About 99 percent of the population are Muslim, primarily Sunni. In
addition to the country's Sunni majority, there is a significant Shi'a
minority, of which an estimated 12 million are Alawis. Alawis, a
heterodox Muslim Shi'a sect, are recognized as a distinct legal school
within the 12 imam Shi'a tradition. Their rituals include men and women
praying together through speeches, poetry, and dance.
There are several non-Muslim religious minority groups; most are
concentrated in Istanbul and other large cities. While exact population
figures are not available, these include an estimated 50,000 Armenian
Orthodox Christians, 25,000 Jews, and roughly 3,000 Greek Orthodox
adherents. There are approximately 3,000 Protestants and 10,000
Baha'is. Additionally, there are an estimated 15,000 Syrian Orthodox
(Syriac) Christians and a small, undetermined number of Bulgarian,
Chaldean, Nestorian, Georgian, and Maronite Christians. The number of
Christians in the southeast has declined as the younger generation,
especially among Syriacs, leaves the area to live in Istanbul, Europe,
or North America.
There are no known estimates on the number and religious
affiliation of foreign missionaries in the country.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
As a minority within the predominant (Sunni Muslim) faith, Alawis
freely practice their religion and build ``Cem houses'' (Alawi places
of gathering). Some Alawis allege discrimination in the form of failure
to include any of their doctrines or beliefs in religious instruction
classes, and charge a Sunni bias in the Diyanet, which they claim tends
to view the Alawis as a cultural rather than religious group. However,
some Sunni Islamic political activists charge that the secular State
favors and is under the influence of the Alawis. No funds are allocated
specifically from the Diyanet budget for Alevi activities. In addition,
there are no government-salaried Alawi religious leaders, in contrast
to Sunni religious leaders.
Tarikats (Sufi religious orders) and other mystical Sunni Islamic,
quasi-religious, and social orders have been banned officially since
the 1920's, but largely are tolerated. In recent years, the National
Security Council has called for stricter enforcement of the ban as part
of its campaign against the perceived threat of Islamic fundamentalism.
Nevertheless, prominent political and social leaders continue to be
associated with Tarikats. There were no significant legal actions
undertaken against the Tarikats during the reporting period.
The military regularly dismisses from the service individuals whose
official files reflect participation in Islamist fundamentalist
activities. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) upheld one such
dismissal in 1998; other cases are pending.
The Government continued to enforce a more than 50-year-old ban on
the wearing of religious head coverings at universities or by civil
servants in public buildings. Some women who wear head coverings, and
both men and women who actively have shown support for those who defy
the ban, have lost their jobs in the public sector as nurses and
teachers; some others were not allowed to register as university
students. In December 1999, the country's Council of State (Danistay)
overturned a lower court decision that would have permitted a student
to attend a university wearing a headscarf. The Danistay based its
decision on the rationale that universities are public institutions
and, as such, have an obligation to protect the country's basic
principles, including secularism. In its decision, the court referred
to its understanding of a ruling by the ECHR in favor of Turkey, noting
that students had to abide by university dress codes, and that the
wearing of a headscarf could be construed as pressure on other
students.
In November 1999, the Malatya State Security Court (SSC) decided to
remove the threat of the death penalty and charges of attempting to
change the constitutional order by force, and instead charged 48
defendants, arrested for staging violent protests against the headscarf
ban of May 1999 at Malatya's Inonu University, under the (Turkish law
2911) meetings and demonstrations law and Penal Code article (312/2) of
``promoting enmity'' along religious lines. It sentenced them to jail
terms of 18 months to 5 years. Appeals continue. Twenty-two others were
acquitted, 4 cases continue, and 2 were transferred.
Merve Kavakci, elected in April 1999 from the Fazilet (Virtue)
Party, unsuccessfully sought to be sworn in to Parliament wearing an
Islamist-style head covering. Kavakci's case highlighted the ongoing
dispute over the ban on wearing religious-style clothing in official
settings. She later was stripped of Turkish citizenship on the grounds
that she had violated the law by assuming another country's citizenship
without notifying proper authorities. She appealed the verdict and
lost. Kavakci also lost her parliamentary privileges soon after her
citizenship was revoked, although not her elective office since
Parliament has not voted to remove her. The issue of headscarves in
Parliament, in terms of legislation that would give a final definition
to the parliamentary dress code, remains unresolved.
In May 1999, a case was filed at the Constitutional Court to close
the Islamist Fazilet Party for promoting anti-secular activity and for
representing the ideologies of the Islamist Refah (Welfare) Party,
which was banned in 1998. The indictment also calls for banning
Fazilet's leaders from politics for 5 years and stripping its Members
of Parliament (M.P.'s) of their seats. The case still is pending before
the Constitutional Court.
In March 2000, Islamist former prime minister Necmettin Erbakan was
convicted under the Penal Code (Article 312) of ``promoting enmity''
along religious lines, for a speech he had made in 1994 in which (inter
alia) he referred to parliamentarians as ``infidels.'' He was sentenced
to 1 year's imprisonment, pending appeal. Human rights groups and some
politicians criticized the verdict as undemocratic, but the judiciary
and many mainstream politicians defended it. Also in March, the
chairman of the Islamic business-oriented association Musiad was
sentenced to one year's imprisonment under the same law, for a 1999
statement where he referred to ``believers and non-believers.'' His
sentence was suspended.
Government authorities do not interfere on matters of doctrine
pertaining to minority religions, nor do they restrict the publication
or use of religious literature among members of the religion.
The authorities monitor the activities of Eastern Orthodox churches
and their affiliated operations. While the Government does not
recognize the ecumenical nature of the Greek Orthodox patriarch, it
acknowledges him as head of the Turkish Greek Orthodox community and
does not interfere with his travels or other ecumenical activities. The
Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul has sought for years to reopen the
seminary on the island of Halki in the Sea of Marmara. The seminary has
been closed since 1971, when the State nationalized all private
institutions of higher learning. Under current restrictions, including
a citizenship requirement, religious communities remain unable to train
new clergy for eventual leadership. Coreligionists from outside the
country have been permitted to assume leadership positions.
Religious and moral instruction in public 8-year primary schools is
compulsory for Muslims. Upon written verification of their non-Muslim
background, minorities ``recognized'' by the Government to be covered
by the 1923 Lausanne Treaty (Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and
Jewish) are exempted by law from Muslim religious instruction. These
students may attend courses with parental consent. Other non-Muslim
minorities, such as Catholics, Protestants, and Syriac Christians, are
not exempted.
In accordance with a 1997 law, which made 8 years of secular
education compulsory, new enrollments in the first 8 years of the
Islamic imam-Hatip schools (in existence since 1950) were stopped,
although children already in those classes were allowed to finish their
grades. The imam-Hatip schools were very popular among conservative and
Islamist Turks as an alternative to secular public education. Under the
law, students may pursue study at Islamic imam-Hatip high schools upon
completion of 8 years in the secular public schools. Children already
enrolled in the later portion of those classes are allowed to finish
their grades. Only the Diyanet is authorized to provide religious
training, although some clandestine private religious classes may
exist. Students who complete 5 years of primary school may enroll in
Diyanet Koran classes on weekends and during summer vacation.
There are legal restrictions against insulting any religion
recognized by the State, interfering with that religion's services, or
debasing its property.
Under the law, religious services may take place only in designated
places of worship. Non-Muslim religious services, especially for
religions that do not have the status of ``official minorities,'' often
take place in nondesignated places of worship, such as diplomatic
property or apartments. The Roman Catholic Church in Ankara, for
example, is confined to diplomatic property.
Some religious minority groups have lost property. In October 1999,
an Armenian church in Kirikhan, Hatay province, was taken over by the
Vakiflar, because its congregation had dwindled to only two persons.
The case is under administrative appeal. In addition, bureaucratic
procedures and considerations relating to historic preservation at
times have impeded repairs to religious facilities. Restoration or
construction may be carried out in buildings and monuments considered
``ancient'' only with authorization of the Regional Board on the
Protection of Cultural and National Wealth.
The Baha'i community currently is fighting a legal battle against
government expropriation of a sacred Baha'i site near Edirne. The site
was granted cultural heritage status in 1993 by Edirne's Board of
Natural and Cultural Riches, a branch of the Ministry of Culture.
However, in January 2000, the Baha'i community was notified by the
Ministry of Education that the property had been expropriated for
future use by the adjacent primary school. The Ministry has deposited
funds in the Baha'i community's bank account for the expropriated
property. The court process is continuing, and the local administration
court in Edirne recently rescinded its temporary stay of execution,
which technically allows the Ministry of Education to implement
expropriation. However, the Baha'i appeal of the expropriation process
continues.
Although religious affiliation is listed on national identity
cards, there is no official discrimination.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In several incidents over the period covered by this report, police
detained or stopped Christians who were holding services in private
apartments, and those considered to be proselytizing by handing out
literature. In September 1999, police interrupted a service in an Izmir
apartment and held 40 Turkish and foreign Christians overnight,
apparently after neighbors called the police to complain about an
illegal meeting. In another case in March 2000, two Turkish Christians
were detained for a month on the charge of ``insulting Islam'' by
distributing Bibles; they were released in May 2000 at their first
hearing when witnesses refused to stand by their signed statements.
Their trial continues in only one of four jurisdictions where cases
were opened.
On May 24, 2000, in Istanbul, several persons were detained
overnight following a police raid on a private apartment where a group
was holding Protestant services. Most of the participants were released
the next day, but may face charges; two persons were held for several
days before being released.
The Istanbul State Security Court ordered the confiscation of the
June 28 issue of the reportedly anti-Semitic ``Akit'' and the June 23-
29 edition of its related weekly publication ``Cuma'' for ``inciting
religious hatred'' for its treatment of the death of a prominent
secular military official.
Prominent Islamist political leaders, including former Istanbul
mayor Recep Tayyip Erdogan, have been sentenced to jail for threatening
the unity of the State and banned from politics. Erdogan's 10-month
sentence was upheld in September 1998, and he was jailed from March to
July 1999.
There were no reports of persons who were detained or imprisoned
solely for their religious beliefs.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
While the incidents involving Christians brought into focus the
lack of full understanding and tolerance of all minority religions,
there also were positive developments during the period covered by this
report. For the first time, the President issued a Christmas message. A
private foundation and the Ministries of Culture and Tourism co-hosted
an April 2000 seminar on Abraham at his birthplace in Harran. In May
2000, the Diyanet sponsored two ecumenical events: a seminar on
religion and politics in the European Union context and a gathering of
religious groups in Tarsus. The latter was attended by representatives
of Roman, Armenian, and Syrian Catholic communities; Greek, Armenian,
Syrian, and Bulgarian Orthodox communities; and Chaldean and Jewish
communities.
In April 2000, a papal representative participated in a ceremony in
Antakya organized by the Syriac Christians commemorating the 2,000th
anniversary of Jesus's birth. In May 2000, a court victory for the
country's small Protestant community allowed a Protestant church in
Istanbul to establish itself as a ``foundation.'' Normally all
``religious'' foundations need to have been in existence since the
early days of the Republic in order to be deemed as such. On June 16,
2000, in an unprecedented event, Diyanet leader Mehmet Nuri Yilmaz met
at the Vatican with the Pope.
In late 1999, the Vakiflar changed some regulations for minority
foundations. These foundations now may hire their own lawyers, rather
than having to use those from a special government list, to represent
them in dealings with the Government. They also do not have to ask the
Vakiflar's permission to conduct repairs/renovations (previously they
needed this permission for renovations over $200,000; however, they
still must get permission from the Ministry of Culture and local
officials.) In addition, the Government, not the minorities themselves,
now pays Vakiflar inspections and oversight fees.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Jews and most Christian denominations freely practice their
religions and report little discrimination in daily life. However, some
Turks who have converted to Christianity experience harassment from
family and neighbors. Proselytizing remains socially unacceptable.
While there are no legal prohibitions against religious conversion,
individuals contemplating conversion often face family and community
pressures. Some members of religious minorities claim that they have
limited career prospects in government or military service as a result
of their religious affiliation.
Extremist groups or individuals target minority communities from
time to time. In 1999-2000 there were 2 reported attacks on Greek
Orthodox properties in Istanbul. No perpetrators were arrested or
charged in these attacks; or in a 1998 arson attack on the Orthodox
shrine, now a museum, at Saint Therapon where the custodian was killed;
or in the December 1997 bombing at the Orthodox Patriarchate. Police
protection increased after the 1998 attack, and investigations
continue. There were no reported attacks on Jewish and other minority
groups' properties. In June 2000, 33 persons were convicted and given
the death penalty for ``trying to change the constitutional regime,''
for their role in setting a July 1993 fire in which 37 intellectuals
(mainly Alawi Muslims) died.
Many religious minority members, along with many in the secular
political majority of Muslims, fear the possibility of rising Islamic
extremism and the involvement of even moderate Islam in politics. Two
Islamist newspapers regularly publish anti-Semitic material.
In January 2000, police raids uncovered the Turkish Hizbullah
network of Islamic terrorists. This group is alleged to have killed
scores of moderate Islamic imams, businessmen, and political leaders--
including a woman known for her untraditional view of women's role in
Islam.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Encouraging respect for religious freedom is an integral part of
the U.S. Mission's activities. Mission officials, including staff of
the U.S. Consulate General in Istanbul and the U.S. Consulate in Adana,
enjoy close relations with the Diyanet, the Ecumenical Greek Orthodox
Patriarchate, the Armenian Orthodox Patriarchate, Jewish communities in
major cities, and other religious groups. Embassy officers also remain
in close contact with local nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) that
monitor freedom of religion.
In November 1999, during his visit, President Clinton met briefly
in Ankara with the head of the Diyanet and the chief Rabbi of Turkey,
and visited the Ecumenical Patriarch in Istanbul. President Clinton
also visited ``Meryem Ana Evi'' (Mary's House) at Ephesus, and met
there with the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Izmir.
In December 1999, Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom Robert
Seiple visited the country. He met with government officials, including
the head of the Diyanet; representatives of minority faiths; and human
rights NGO's. During his meetings, Ambassador Seiple stressed the
importance of respect for the diversity of the country's religions and
the need for citizens to be able to practice their faith without undue
governmental restrictions.
Embassy and consulate staff members monitor and report on incidents
of detention and deportation of foreigners found proselytizing.
__________
TURKMENISTAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and does not
establish a state religion; however, the Government severely restricts
all religious expression except for the two registered groups, Sunni
Muslims and Russian Orthodox Christians. Unregistered groups are
discouraged from holding gatherings, disseminating religious materials
or proselytizing, although some unregistered congregations exist.
There was a decline in the Government's overall respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report. The
Government became more intolerant of religious minorities and increased
its interference with their religious observances. However, new
procedures ordered by President Saparmurat Niyazov in April 2000, sent
to the legislature in May and passed by the Parliament in June limited
house searches by Government authorities. Coincident with the proposal
and subsequent enactment of the new legislation, reported harassment of
religious believers declined.
Beginning in May 1999, the Government began a crackdown on local
Christian churches. During the period covered by this report,
noncitizen believers were deported, and the Government refused to renew
visas for approximately 20 foreigners it accused of being involved in
missionary activities. In November 1999, the Government razed a
Seventh-Day Adventist church in Ashgabat. In April 2000, the President
ordered the implementation of new procedures restricting searches of
private homes. The measures were formally incorporated into a draft law
in May, and approved by the legislature in June 2000. In parallel,
measures were enacted into law restricting the ability of law
enforcement authorities to institute criminal proceedings against
Turkmen citizens, by requiring permission to do so from commissions
formed of local officials and social organizations. The period
following these measures reportedly saw a significant reduction of
police harassment of some religious believers in their private homes
and a reduction of confiscation of religious property. There were
reports of several religious detainees and prisoners. There is little
or no overt tension among adherents of the various religious groups.
On numerous occasions, officials from the U.S. Embassy in Ashgabat
and Washington pressed the Government to expand religious freedom, in
particular to reduce its burdensome registration requirements for
minority religions. The Ambassador offered his residence for use as a
place of worship by a Protestant prayer group composed of expatriates
who previously used the Seventh-Day Adventist church.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal Policy/Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government imposes severe restrictions on minority religious groups.
There is no state religion, but a modest revival of Islam has occurred
since independence. The Government has incorporated some aspects of
Muslim tradition into its efforts to define a Turkmen identity, and
gives some financial and other support for the construction of new
mosques to the Council on Religious Affairs. This body plays an
intermediary role between the government bureaucracy and registered
religious organizations, but does not promote actively inter-faith
dialog. The Government pays the salaries of Muslim clerics and during
the period covered by this report provided free transportation for as
many as 300 citizens to undertake the Hajj to Mecca.
While it affirms a number of important religious freedoms, the Law
on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations, which was amended
in 1995 and again in 1996, also provides for significant government
control over religion. Religious congregations are required to register
with the Government and must have at least 500 citizens over the age of
18 as adherents to be registered. Moreover, the Government applies this
500-member standard on a local and regional basis. For example, a
Catholic representative was told in 1998 that his congregation would
have to have 500 adherents in Ashgabat to be registered there and
another 500 in the city of Turkmenbashi to be registered there.
Moreover, since Turkmen names are routinely deleted from lists to
prevent discrimination against congregations trying to register ethnic
Turkmen, it has proven almost impossible for groups to find 500 non-
Turkmen names to register. These stringent registration requirements
have prevented all but Sunni Muslims and Russian Orthodox Christians
from setting up legal religious organizations. Although only registered
religious congregations legally can hold gatherings, disseminate
religious materials, and proselytize, some congregations, including
Baptists and Jehovah's Witnesses do manage to meet, and since April
2000 have done so without harassment.
Religious Demography
Reliable statistics on religious affiliation are not available, but
ethnic Turkmen (77 percent of the population), ethnic Uzbeks (9
percent), and ethnic Kazakhs (2 percent) are nominally Muslim. However,
Islam does not play a dominant role in society, in part due to 70 years
of Soviet rule and in part because of the pre-Soviet cultural history
of the region. Russians constitute about 7 percent of the population,
and the remaining 5 percent consist of Armenians, Azeris, and other
ethnic groups. Religious believers among the Russians are most likely
to be members of the Russian Orthodox Church, but their level of
religious observance is uncertain. Some Russians are also Pentecostals,
Jehovah's Witnesses, and Baptists. A small community of Baha'is exists.
Roman Catholicism is practiced by a small number of persons,
predominantly foreigners.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Constitution provides that each person has the right to express
and disseminate religious beliefs. However, proselytizing by
unregistered (that is, other than Russian Orthodox or Sunni Muslim)
religious groups incurs a negative official reaction. Government
permission is required for any mass meetings or demonstrations for
religious purposes.
Islamic religious literature is available from mosques.
Russian Orthodox Churches offer Christian religious literature.
State-controlled broadcast media do not allow religious
broadcasting. Unregistered religious groups face government harassment
if they attempt to meet or distribute religious literature. Some
minority Christian religious groups in Ashgabat said that since the
April 2000 presidential decree restricting searches of private homes,
law enforcement officials had not visited the meetings they hold in
private homes nor confiscated any of their religious literature.
The Government's restrictive policies toward minority religions
have caused problems for a number of them, including the Baha'i Faith,
which was registered by the Government in 1994 only to be deregistered
in 1997 when the threshold was raised to 500 adherents. Members of the
Baha'i Faith have been prevented from conducting services since 1997.
The local Baha'i community in Ashgabat was able to conduct a memorial
service at a local restaurant in January 2000. In January 1999, the
local Armenian community in Turkmenbashi applied to local authorities
to use a church appropriated during the Soviet era as a cultural center
pending registration as a religious organization, but it did not
receive a reply during the period covered by this report. In May 1999,
President Niyazov promised to permit registration of almost all
remaining religious groups by September 1999; however, the Government
did not take any action during the period covered by this report. No
new religious groups were registered and the Halk Mahslahaty (People's
Council) did not reduce the 500-person threshold during its December
1999 meeting despite indications by senior officials that it would do
so.
There is no formal missionary activity in the country. Beginning in
May 1999, the Government began a crackdown on local Christian churches.
According to the Brussels-based nongovernmental organization (NGO)
Human Rights Without Frontiers, in May 1999 government authorities
questioned more than 100 citizens about their contacts with foreign-
nationality Christians residing in the country. In June 1999,
representatives of internal security organizations also visited the
Baha'i center and warned its members not to distribute religious
materials. In June, July, and August 1999, law enforcement officials
harassed congregations of Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and
Pentecostals, seized religious materials, and instructed the groups to
stop their activities in the country. Credible press reports indicate
that another series of efforts to intimidate Baptist congregations
throughout the country took place in early 2000, including raids of
homes and confiscation of religious materials. In March 2000, border
officials confiscated religious materials in bulk being brought into
the country by a visiting group affiliated with an evangelical
Christian organization.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
There were reports of religious detainees and prisoners, and there
were some credible reports that some law enforcement officials beat
religious detainees or prisoners. In March 1999, Shageldi Atakov, a
member of the Baptist faith, was sentenced to 2 years in prison for an
alleged illegal transfer of automobiles in 1994. The prosecutor in the
case protested the leniency of the decision and in August 1999, Atakov
was resentenced to 4 years in prison and fined $12,000. Atakov denied
the charges and claimed that he was being imprisoned because of his
religious beliefs. Atakov reportedly was beaten severely by a law
enforcement officer while in prison. According to a foreign evangelical
organization, authorities sought to pressure Atakov's wife to convert
to Islam. On February 3, 2000, the local Committee of National Security
(KNB) chief reportedly expelled Shageldy's wife and children from Mary
to Kaakha where they were told not to leave the town. On March 3, 2000,
the Government arrested Shageldy's brother Chariyar on unknown charges.
Jehovah's Witnesses living in Gizylarbat also reported that they
were beaten severely while in government custody. In June 1999,
Yazmammed Annamammedov was arrested and charged with insulting a
policeman. While he was being interrogated, local representatives of
the KNB beat him. He was tried and sentenced to 12 days' imprisonment.
On July 23, 1999, he again was arrested, tried, and sentenced to 10
days' imprisonment. In October 1999, he was arrested and sentenced to
10 days' imprisonment. Upon his release on October 19 he again was
asked to renounce his religious beliefs and beaten. According to
Jehovah's Witnesses sources, Annamammedov is now serving a 4-year
sentence at a prison work camp in Bezmein.
In September 1999, local police and KNB officers in Geokdepe
reportedly arrested two Jehovah's Witnesses for discussing the Bible
with fellow citizens. After 3 days of interrogation, which reportedly
included beatings, the two were sentenced to 15 days' imprisonment.
Upon their release, they were told to renounce their faith and warned
not to tell human rights organizations about their treatment while in
Government custody.
Rahim Tashov, the pastor of an unregistered Baptist congregation in
the city of Turkmenabad (formerly Charjou) was arrested twice in
October 1999 and fined for holding meetings of an unregistered
religious group. He reportedly was beaten while in police custody.
Since his arrest the entire congregation has not been able to meet
together in one place. Members of the Baha'i Faith have been questioned
by internal security representatives for holding private prayer
meetings in their homes.
The Government also harassed Pentecostals. On February 4, 2000, law
enforcement authorities reportedly beat up the Pastor and confiscated
religious materials at a facility in Tejen. On February 6, agents from
the KNB broke up a service at a Pentecostal house of worship in
Ashgabat and recorded the names of all those present.
During the December 16-17 visit of a Helsinki Commission staff
delegation, police arrested two Baptist pastors and orchestrated raids
on Baptist churches in Chardjou, Mary, Turkmenbashi, and Ashgabat. In
April 2000, President Niyazov ordered that Muslim madrassahs and other
religious schools be closed and that only two or three such schools,
functioning under the auspices of the government-controlled Muftiyat,
be allowed. In March 2000, the Government arrested religious leader
Hoja Ahmed Orazgylychev and tore down an unregistered mosque and
religious school run by him and his followers. Orazgylychev
subsequently was released and sentenced to internal exile. He earlier
had criticized President Niyazov for directing that Turkmen children
dance around a Christmas tree during New Year's celebrations.
In December 1999, the Government began deporting foreigners
suspected of carrying out missionary activities. In November 1999, the
Government arrested Ramil Galimov, a member of a Jehovah's Witnesses
group in Gizylarbat who has dual Russian-Turkmen citizenship. After
imprisoning him for 2 weeks, it forced him to board a train to Russia
in December 1999 but retained his Turkmen passport. The Government also
deported Baptist pastors Vladimir Chernov to Ukraine and Aleksandr
Yefremov to Russia in December 1999. Baptist leader Anatoliy Belyaev
was arrested in February 2000, and he and his family also were deported
to Russia. In March 2000, Yuriy Senkin, Vyacheslav Shulgin, and their
families also reportedly were deported. In January 2000, the Government
began to refuse to renew residence permits for some 20 westerners that
it believed were engaging in proselytizing. This action was a severe
blow to the expatriate Ashgabat International Fellowship, and the group
now only meets informally in the homes of the remaining members.
In August 1999, the Government demolished a Hare Krishna temple in
Mary and deported the director of the Ashgabat temple. In September
1999, representatives of internal security organs, including the KNB,
attempted to break up a religious service of the Seventh-Day Adventist
congregation in Ashgabat. The congregation later paid a fine for
meeting illegally. On November 13, 1999, a demolition team, sent by the
Ashgabat mayor's office, began tearing down the recently completed
church during a prayer meeting. The building's destruction was part of
a government plan to build a new road through the neighborhood, but to
date the Seventh-Day Adventist church is the only building in the
neighborhood that has been destroyed. The congregation has requested
compensation, but the Government, following initial discussions, had
not acted on the request by mid-2000.
The Government also restricts the travel of clergy or members of
religious groups to the country, although in March 2000,
representatives from the Baptist Union in Uzbekistan reportedly were
able to visit with Baptist congregations in Ashgabat, Balkanabad
(formerly Nebit Dag), Mary, and Turkmenbashi.
In April 2000, President Niyazov appeared on television to announce
that he had received numerous complaints from the public about abusive
law enforcement practices in people's homes and the confiscation of
people's possessions. He is reported to have singled out the names of
officials whose offices were responsible for the behavior. Also in
April 2000, the President ordered the implementation of new procedures
restricting searches of private homes. The measures were formally
incorporated into a draft law in May, and approved by the legislature
in June 2000. In parallel, measures were enacted into law restricting
the ability of law enforcement authorities to institute criminal
proceedings against Turkmen citizens, by requiring permission to do so
from commissions formed of local officials and social organizations.
The period following these measures reportedly saw a significant
reduction of police harassment of some religious believers in their
private homes and a reduction of confiscation of religious property.
However, despite this positive development, there was a decline in
the Government's overall respect for religious freedom during the
period covered by this report. The Government became more intolerant of
religious minorities and increased its interference with their
religious observances.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal attitudes
There is little or no overt tension among adherents of the various
religions present in the country. However, there are reports that
clerics from the registered religious are sometimes resentful of
inroads made by those proselytizing for other, unregistered religions.
The government-controlled press has run articles against proselytizing
by groups that the authorities perceive as cult-like, such as Jehovah's
Witnesses.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
In July 1999, an embassy officer attempted to attend the trial of
Shageldy Atakov but was not allowed into the courtroom. In September
and December 1999, embassy officers met with the head of President
Niyazov's Institute for Democracy and Human Rights and members of the
Council on Religious Affairs to press for reducing the burdensome
registration requirements for minority religions. In the course of a
discussion with the Foreign Minister on bilateral relations in December
1999, an embassy official raised the issue of religious freedom and
prisoners and urged that the latter be included in an upcoming
presidential amnesty. U.S. officials repeatedly raised these issues
with President Niyazov.
In November 1999, the Ambassador and other officials went to the
site of the destruction of the Seventh-Day Adventist church to
criticize the Government's decision to tear down the church. They
assisted the congregation in removing some of its religious materials
from the church for storage elsewhere.
In February 2,000, officials from the U.S. Department of State
visited the country and raised issues about religious freedom with
government officials. In May 2000, the U.S. Ambassador also raised the
burdensome registration requirement with the Deputy Chairman of the
Council on Religious Affairs. Also in May, the Ambassador at Large for
International Religious Freedom, Robert Seiple, visited Ashgabat with a
staff member and met with members of the religious community and with
government officials to discuss religious freedom issues, such as
promised changes in the registration law, amnesty of religious
prisoners, and recent deportations.
__________
UKRAINE
The Constitution and the 1991 Law on Freedom of Conscience and
Religion provide for the separation of church and state and the right
to practice the religion of one's choice, and the Government generally
respects these rights in practice; however, some religious groups
experienced delays in registering.
Virtually all religious organizations must register with the State,
a process that is supposed to take only 1 to 3 months but often takes
longer. No religious organization was denied registration permanently,
although ``traditional'' religious organizations exerted pressure on
local and regional officials not to register nonnative religious
organizations.
The Government's respect for religious freedom improved somewhat
during the period covered by this report. Some ``nontraditional'' and
minority religious organizations reported that registration was easier
than in the previous year. President Leonid Kuchma repeatedly and
publicly spoke about the need for peaceful coexistence among ethnic and
religious groups. The Government also took steps to return to religious
groups properties expropriated during the Soviet era.
Relations among religious denominations in the country are
generally amicable, although problems remain in certain areas. There
are strains among various traditional Christian denominations, between
them and some less traditional groups, and between the Orthodox and
Progressive branches of the Jewish community. However, disputes are
generally resolved through discussion. Many representatives of
religious organizations, although they appreciated the monthly
roundtable of religious leaders convened by the State Committee for
Religious Affairs, believe that sufficient interconfessional dialog
takes place without the assistance of the State Committee. There are
some indications of popular suspicion of less traditional religions and
foreign missionaries; however, such religions continue to find many
converts. Anti-Semitic incidents continue to occur periodically.
Cumbersome visa requirements for foreign clergy and other religious
workers create hardships for religious groups that make extensive use
such workers. The draft law on religion submitted to Parliament in
April 1999, which broadens the range of buildings formerly owned by
religious organizations that would be subject to restitution to include
secular buildings, still had not passed as of mid-2000.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government periodically and has pressed its concerns actively when the
occasion has warranted it. The Embassy has intervened as necessary to
defend the interests of U.S. citizen missionaries working in the
country. The U.S. Government also has been very active in advocating
the just restitution of religious property confiscated by the Nazi and
Communist regimes. The Embassy places a high priority on monitoring
anti-Semitism and maintaining close relations with local Jewish
organizations. The embassy human rights officer continuously monitors
the status of religious freedom in the country.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The 1996 Constitution and the 1991 Law on Freedom of Conscience and
Religion provide for separation of church and state and the right to
practice the religion of one's choice; the Government generally
respects these rights in practice with the exception of some minority
and nontraditional religions, which experienced difficulties in
registering, buying, or leasing property.
The law requires virtually all religious organizations to register
with the state. The agency responsible for interacting with religious
organizations and executing state policy on religion is the State
Committee for Religious Affairs. This committee has its headquarters in
Kiev and maintains branch offices in every regional capital, as well as
the cities of Kiev and Sevastopol. The Law on Freedom of Conscience and
Religion requires all religious organizations of more than 10
individuals who have reached 18 years of age to register their articles
and statutes as either a local or a national organization in order to
obtain the status of a ``juridical entity.'' If a group chooses to
register as a national organization, it must register with the central
office of the State Committee for Religious Affairs, and each of its
local groups must register with the local office of the State Committee
in the region where they are located. Those groups that choose to
register as local organizations must register only with the local
office of the State Committee. This status is necessary to own property
or carry out many economic activities, such as publishing religious
materials or opening bank accounts. According to the law, this
registration process should take not more than 1 month (or 3 months in
cases in which either the central or local committee decides that an
expert opinion is necessary to determine the legitimacy of a group
applying for registration). However, this requirement often is not met.
The local offices also supervise the compliance of religious
organizations with the provisions of the law.
There was no known instance in which a religious organization was
denied registration permanently. Some religious organizations reported
that, especially at the local or regional levels, officials of the
State Committee refused to register their organizations for protracted
periods, thus effectively delaying their activities and limiting
freedom of association. However, these groups also reported that
registration was easier than in the previous year. Delays in
registration sometimes were due to bureaucratic delays and inertia on
the part of individual bureaucrats. However, traditional religious
organizations, especially the Orthodox Church in central, southern, and
eastern regions of the country and the Greek Catholic Church in the
west exerted significant political influence at the local and regional
levels and pressured local officials not to register nontraditional
religious organizations or to allow them to rent or purchase property.
Each of the two dominant denominations, within their respective spheres
of influence, also reportedly pressured local officials to restrict the
activities of the other.
Religious Demography
The primary religions practiced in the country are Orthodox
Christianity and Greek Catholicism. They nominally represent
approximately 85 per cent of the religiously active population.
According to the State Committee, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow
Patriarchate) has 8,590 officially registered parishes. The Ukrainian
Greek Catholic Church has 3,350 officially registered parishes.
According to the State Committee for Religious Affairs, the Ukrainian
Orthodox Church (Kiev Patriarchate) has 2,565 officially registered
parishes, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Autocephalous Church has 1,003.
Judaism, Roman Catholicism, some evangelical Christian denominations,
and Islam also have a firm presence in the country. Evangelical
Christian denominations have grown rapidly since independence.
The Orthodox Church, which nominally represents between 60 and 70
percent of the population, is divided into three denominations: The
Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), the Ukrainian Orthodox
Church (Kiev Patriarchate), and the much smaller Ukrainian
Autocephalous Orthodox Church. The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox
Church was founded in 1918 as a reaction of many Orthodox believers to
what they regarded as the Russification of the Orthodox Church in
Ukraine and to realize their desire to be self-governing
(autocephalous). It was abolished by Stalin in 1933 and survived in the
western Diaspora until its rebirth in Ukraine in 1989. There are
considerable interconfessional disputes among the three Ukrainian
Orthodox denominations; however, these disputes generally have remained
peaceful.
In 1997 leaders of major religious denominations and churches
signed a government-drafted memorandum on the nonviolent resolution of
religious disputes. Nonetheless, some problems remain (see Section II).
The central Government generally discouraged anti-Semitism. In 1999
the authorities opened a criminal case against the editor of the Lviv-
based newspaper Idealist for fomenting interethnic hatred. In addition,
the procuracy warned certain publications against publishing anti-
Semitic material. However, Jewish representatives complained that some
cases were not prosecuted. Representatives of Jewish groups expressed
appreciation for state support of Jewish magazines and newspapers,
including Jewish News, an insert to the weekly Parliament newspaper. A
book documenting Ukrainian Judaica that was financed primarily by state
funds was presented at the May 2000 Cultural Heritage Commission
meeting in Kiev. According to Jewish representatives, President Kuchma
and other high-ranking officials visit the Babi Yar memorial each year
on the anniversary of the massacre of hundreds of Jews. During the
period covered by this report, President Kuchma repeatedly and publicly
spoke about the need for the peaceful coexistence of ethnic and
religious groups. In January 2000, he attended a jubilee service
celebrating the 2000th anniversary of Christ's birth at which the heads
of all major Christian religions gave speeches. Additionally, on
Orthodox Easter, President Kuchma and Prime Minister Viktor Yushchenko
attended services representing diverse Christian Orthodox
denominations, actions which were widely viewed as a sincere effort to
foster religious freedom.
The Ukrainian Greek Catholic (or Byzantine Rite Catholic, sometimes
called ``Uniate,'' a term some Ukrainian Catholics consider derogatory)
Church constitutes around 10 percent of the population. It is centered
in the west, where the proportion of Greek Catholics is much higher
than in the country as a whole. The Greek Catholic Church arose in the
16th century as an attempt to reunify the Catholic and Orthodox
Churches under Polish auspices. It is an eastern Byzantine Rite Church
that recognizes the authority of the Pope and uses Byzantine church
liturgies. Because the Church was introduced to the country in
connection with an attempt by local leaders to loosen the influence of
Moscow, the Church often is associated with Ukrainian nationalism.
During the period covered by this report, various Jewish
representatives estimated the country's Jewish population at between
250,000 and 500,000 persons, of which between 35 and 40 percent are
active religiously or communally. The country's Jews have enjoyed
increasing opportunities for religious and cultural expression since
Ukrainian independence. Although there has been a rebirth of Jewish
life, the community continues to be affected by yearly Jewish
emigration to Israel of around 25,000 persons, an emigration of 18,000
persons to western countries, and an annual decrease of 16,000 due to
negative population growth. Between 1989 and 1997, the Jewish
population decreased by 445,000, of whom 223,000 went to Israel. Both
Orthodox and Progressive (Reform) Judaism are practiced in the country,
although for historical reasons the large majority of religiously
active Jews subscribe to Orthodoxy. The number of progressive
communities increased from 18 to 24 during the period covered by this
report. According to the Kiev Institute of Jewish Studies, in 1999
there were 115 Jewish organizations and religious communities in 62
cities. They publish 30 periodicals and newspapers.
Roman Catholicism is practiced by about 2 percent of the
population, for the most part concentrated in the formerly Austro-
Hungarian and Polish territories of the west. A papal visit originally
planned for the end of 1999 had not taken place as of mid-2000.
Such faiths as Baptists, evangelical Christians, Jehovah's
Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons), also have experienced rapid growth since the country's
independence and currently also constitute approximately 2 percent of
the population.
The Islamic faith is concentrated primarily among the Tatar
population of the autonomous republic of Crimea and amounts to 250,000
persons.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government generally permits religious organizations to
establish places of worship and to train clergy. The Government
continued to take steps to facilitate the allotment of land plots for
construction of new houses of worship and to return religious buildings
and sites to their former owners. Some groups believe that the pace was
adequate while others felt it was too slow.
A 1993 amendment to the 1991 law on freedom of conscience and
religion restricts the activities of foreign religious workers in the
country. The amendment narrowly defines the permissible activities of
foreign members of the clergy, preachers, teachers, and other foreign
religious representatives who seek to carry out religious activities in
the country. They may preach, administer religious ordinances, or
practice other canonical activities ``only in those religious
organizations which invited them to Ukraine and with official approval
of the governmental body that registered the statutes and the articles
of the pertinent religious organization.'' The Mormons previously had
reported difficulty in transferring missionaries between cities;
however, during the period covered by this report they reported no such
difficulties.
As of May 2000, invitations no longer are required for Ukrainian
visa issuance to citizens of Canada, the European Union, Japan, and the
United States. While this greatly simplifies travel to the country for
religious tourists, religious workers still must obtain special
religious visas that are issued only by invitation from a Ukrainian
organization. Both the Mormon Church and the relatively powerful Greek
Catholic Church asserted that such invitations were often difficult to
obtain and that the decision by the regional offices of the State
Committee for Religious Affairs often appeared arbitrary. However, both
the Mormon Church and the Baptist Church reported that they are now
able to obtain visas for all their religious workers. According to
statistics from the State Committee for Religious Affairs, in 1999 the
State Committee (including regional departments) issued 11,650 permits
to foreigners for religious activities and refused 40 applications.
During the first quarter of 2000, the State Committee reported that it
issued 4,089 permits and refused 32. According to the State Committee,
the refusals were based on a failure to fill out the forms properly. Of
the 32 who were refused, none chose to reapply.
Visiting foreign missionaries still must register with the local
government within 3 days of arrival, as must all other foreign visitors
to the country. Some missionaries found this an unnecessarily
burdensome requirement.
In order to promote inter-faith understanding, the State Committee
for Religious Affairs formed the Council of Churches in 1996. The
Council is a consultative body consisting of the heads of all major
religions and denominations, representing over 90 percent of the
country's faithful. The State Committee convenes monthly roundtables
with the council as a whole, as well as monthly roundtables with
representatives of each of the constituent religions and denominations.
However, many representatives of religious organizations believed that
this State Committee activity, while generally helpful in facilitating
interconfessional dialog, was no longer necessary and was not in
accordance with separation of church and state as provided for in the
Constitution.
Religious organizations enjoy privileged status over individuals
and other nonreligious organizations with regard to property
restitution. According to current law, only they are eligible for
restitution of property nationalized during the Soviet period. Only
churches, synagogues, and religious artifacts immediately necessary for
religious services are subject to restitution. Restitution of other
forms of property (for example, school buildings and community centers)
formerly owned by religious organizations is not regulated by current
legislation. Religious buildings and property currently under state
ownership may be returned either to exclusive use without charge or to
actual ownership by religious organizations.
The decision whether or not to return religious buildings or
property is made by the regional administration (or the Kiev or
Sevastopol city administrations) in which the building is located. The
decision on restitution is to be made by these organs within 1 month of
application, and a written notification of the decision is to be
provided to the applicant. However, implementation of a 1992 decree on
restitution of religious community property seized during the Soviet
era remains stalled in many places. In practice it is more common for
buildings to be provided for exclusive free use than for an actual
transfer of ownership to be permitted. Despite the law's provision that
the decision be made within 1 month, the time period involved is
usually considerably longer. Numerous Jewish congregations have
negotiated successfully with local authorities for worship space.
While some Jewish community representatives were pleased with
progress on restitution, others thought that much more should be done.
In August 1999, several Jewish community leaders noted the failure of
local authorities to enforce existing decrees and legislation, and the
group specifically criticized the local governments in Lviv and
Zhytomyr for failing to enforce a presidential decree banning
construction on former Jewish cemeteries. The decrease in Jewish
population has reduced demand for access to religious space, but
progress has been made. For example, a synagogue was returned in
Poltava Oblast in the fourth quarter of 1999. In the first quarter of
2000, one synagogue in Kerch and another in Slavuta in Khmelnitsky
oblast were returned. However, some Jewish leaders maintained that they
continued to face obstacles in reacquiring community properties
confiscated during the Soviet period. Jewish communities claimed that
all property so far returned to them had only been for free exclusive
use, not transferred to Jewish community ownership. However, the State
Committee for Religious Affairs maintains that as of May 2000, 55
synagogues had been transferred to Jewish community ownership, and 22
other buildings had been returned for their exclusive use.
The Jewish communities officially claim approximately 3,000
properties of all types, of which only a minor portion have been
restituted. However, since current law only permits restitution of
synagogues, the proportion of buildings legally subject to restitution
that have been returned is higher than the proportion of the total of
all buildings claimed that have been restituted. In addition, the pace
of restitution of Christian churches has slowed in recent years, since
the buildings that remain in state possession tend to be prime
properties currently in use as museums, concert halls, or city halls.
The Roman Catholic Church has outstanding claims on approximately 40
buildings across the country that have not been returned, some of which
already have been privatized partially. The Ukrainian Greek Catholic
and Ukrainian Orthodox Churches also reported problems in obtaining
formerly owned properties. These difficulties often are due not only to
government bureaucracy, but also to competing claims to the buildings
in an economy where resources are scarce for construction of public
buildings. Nevertheless, even these two dominant churches have been
encountering restitution difficulties, since the remaining buildings in
state ownership are more prestigious or income generating.
However, all religions have enjoyed equal opportunity to regain
control over former community property. Problems in obtaining
restitution result from inadequate legislation, bureaucratic inertia,
and the difficulty of locating alternative quarters for current
occupants. In 1996 a Kiev arbitration court decided in favor of
transferring the title of the former Kiev Central Synagogue, which in
Soviet times was used as a puppet theater, to a Chabad Hasidic
congregation. The decision set an important precedent for the
judiciary's role in religious property restitution. By December 1997,
the puppet theater had vacated the building, and in the spring of 1998
the building reopened once again as a synagogue. In March 2000, the
synagogue held a rededication ceremony after extensive renovation. The
ceremony was attended by Ukrainian and foreign representatives of many
religious groups.
A number of religious properties were returned to Christian
churches during the period covered by this report. Of the 42 houses of
worship returned in the fourth quarter of 1999, the Ukrainian Orthodox
Church received 20 buildings. These included four churches of the
Assumption Monastery in Donetsk and a church of national architectural
importance in Berzhany, Ternopil Oblast. In the first quarter of 2000
the Ukrainian Orthodox Church received 17 buildings. In May 2000, the
Kiev Patriarchate received the newly rebuilt, historic St. Michael's
Cathedral in Central Kiev. The cathedral, which had been destroyed by
Stalin in 1936, was rebuilt with significant local government funding.
During the period covered by this report, authorities transferred 16
former cathedrals to the Greek Catholic Church and 5 to Roman Catholic
parishes. A Lutheran Church also was returned in Ternopil oblast.
However, Christian representatives complained that property generally
was returned for exclusive or shared use, rather than for actual
ownership.
A May 1998 government resolution committed local regional
administrations to pursue the step-by-step restitution of unused or
misused places of worship to religious organizations. According to the
State Committee for Religious Affairs, a list of such buildings had
been compiled, and deadlines and conditions for their return had been
set. In July 1998, the Cabinet issued an ordinance prohibiting
construction and privatization on previous and current Jewish
cemeteries. At a May 2000 meeting in Kiev of the Bilateral Cultural
Heritage Commission, Deputy Minister of Culture Leonid Novahatko and
U.S. Commissioner Stolberg agreed to cooperate on completing the
necessary legislation. However, some construction was reported at the
cemetery in Lviv, which was destroyed by the Nazis in World War II and
is now the site of the city's central market. The cemetery in Berdychev
was returned to the Jewish community early in 1998, and restoration has
begun.
In February 1999, President Kuchma instructed the Cabinet and other
executive bodies to settle all outstanding church property restitution
cases within the current year. This instruction was issued not long
after a meeting between the President and representatives of the
country's religious communities. However, as of mid-2000, there
remained church property restitution cases to be settled. In February
1999, President Kuchma instructed the State Property Fund to take
measures to ban the transfer of property formerly owned by religious
communities to private (that is, non-Church) owners and to require
local authorities to provide land to be used for new churches and
cemeteries. Kuchma also ordered the State Customs Committee to
streamline procedures for sending humanitarian aid to religious
organizations.
A revision of the law on religion was submitted to Parliament by
the Government in April 1999. It would broaden the range of buildings
formerly owned by religious organizations that would be subject to
restitution to include secular buildings once owned by religious
organizations. While in several ways an improvement over the existing
law (including clarification of the separation of church and state and
provision for conscientious objection), it would maintain registration
requirements for religious organizations. As of mid-2000, it remained
unclear when this draft would be considered by Parliament.
The Kiev Patriarchate of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church complained
of harassment by local authorities in the predominantly Russian-
speaking eastern region of the country.
The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church complained of
governmental pressure to join either the Kiev or Moscow Patriarchate
after the April 2000 death of Patriarch Dmitri. It also reported
governmental pressure to choose a Ukrainian successor to Patriarch
Dmitri rather than Metropolitan Konstantin, a U.S. citizen.
In early June 2000, there were reports of harassment from a group
of four American teachers with religious affiliations hired to teach at
a public school in Sevastopol. The teachers initially were hired to
teach morality and ethics, but after a change in school administration,
their contracts were revised to limit their activities to teaching
English. The teachers indicated that they complied with this request.
However, Ukrainian colleagues and fellow parishioners subsequently were
approached by local authorities and asked to report on the activities
of the teachers, in what appeared to be an effort to implicate them in
work and visa status irregularities. One report suggested that this
monitoring may have been prompted by complaints from the Orthodox
Church.
On June 1, 2000, a private prayer meeting hosted by the teachers in
their home was broken up by Ukrainians who refused to identify
themselves but insisted on checking the passports and visa status of
the persons present. The teachers reported that government officials
were verbally abusive and that they interrogated the Ukrainians present
about the teachers' activities. Subsequently, local authorities
searched the school and found religious materials stored by the
teachers. Deportation proceedings against the four followed; they were
found to have engaged in illegal religious activity incompatible with
their visa status. Officials from the State Committee for Religious
Affairs indicated that the local officials claimed to have received
complaints that the teachers were proselytizing in a public school, in
violation of the separation of church and state.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Keston news service reported that members of the Karaite
community in Simferopol began to use their historical religious and
cultural center during the period covered by this report. The center,
Tchufut Kale (``impregnable fortress'' in Turkish), is the site of two
Karaite kenassas (prayer houses). However, according to this report,
which has not been independently verified, representatives of the
community have complained that they have to pay to worship there.
Tchufut Kale currently is designated a conservation area and is under
the control of the Ministry of Culture of the Autonomous Republic of
Crimea. When the Karaites go there to pray, they have to buy tickets to
enter or sometimes have to pray outside until the conservation
authorities grant them permission to enter. The Karaite community also
pointed out that the buildings and grounds have not been cared for
properly by the conservation authorities. Since the community's
registration in 1991, it has been trying to reclaim its property seized
during the Soviet era, including the two kenassas at Tchufut Kale,
through correspondence with the chairman of the committee for religious
affairs in the council of ministers of the Autonomous Republic of
Crimea. There are only about 800 Karaites in Crimea.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
Overall, respect for religious freedom improved somewhat during the
period covered by this report. Although problems remained regarding the
Government's protection of religious freedom for ``nontraditional''
religious organizations (defined as all organizations other than
Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and Jewish), which faced some difficulty in
carrying out their activities, they reported less difficulty in
obtaining visas and registering during the period covered by the
report. Some measures to improve property restitution have been
undertaken. The Government took steps to return to religious groups
properties expropriated during the Soviet era.
As of May 2000, invitations no longer are required for Ukrainian
visa issuance to citizens of Canada, the European Union, Japan, and the
United States for tourist and business travel. Although this greatly
simplified travel to Ukraine for religious tourists, religious workers
still require invitations from an organization registered in Ukraine.
The Baptist Church reported that it no longer encountered any
restrictions on baptizing persons in the Dnipro. A successful Easter
service in Kiev drew more than 5,000 persons.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the religions and religious denominations in the
country are generally amicable, although problems remain in certain
areas.
The ongoing dispute among competing Orthodox Christian
administrative bodies claiming to be ``the Ukrainian Orthodox Church''
remained deadlocked. The disagreements primarily center on the
inheritance of property that belonged to the Unified Russian Orthodox
Church before independence, the proper language to use in the liturgy
(Ukrainian, Russian, or Church Slavonic), and recognition by foreign
religious organizations. The Moscow Patriarchate thus far has claimed
successfully to be the only legitimate representative of Ukrainian
Orthodoxy to foreign religious organizations such as the Vatican, the
Constantinople Patriarchate, and the Russian Orthodox Church. The Kiev
Patriarchate of the Orthodox Church complains of harassment by local
authorities in the predominantly Russian-speaking eastern region of the
country, while the Moscow Patriarchate of the Orthodox Church complains
that local governments turn a blind eye to the appropriation of their
churches by Ukrainian nationalists in the Ukrainian-speaking western
region.
The Government has been unable to stop disagreements between
Orthodox believers and Greek Catholics in the western part of the
country, where the two communities have contentious relations and
engage in bitter disputes over church buildings and property in some
300 localities. The number of localities with disputes between the
Orthodox and Greek Catholic Churches has decreased over the last few
years. The Greek Catholic Church cooperates with the Roman Catholic
Church and with various Jewish groups on humanitarian aid projects.
The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church assisted Lutheran missionaries
with invitations and necessary documentation to work in the country. It
also provided invitations to and facilitated visits and meetings for
U.S. Jewish leaders. The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church assisted the
Jewish community in Ukraine and Jewish organizations in the United
States in obtaining Torah scrolls in government museums and archives
restored to Jewish communities in the country. The Ukrainian Greek
Catholic Church cooperated with the Lviv Jewish community on the
distribution of two shipments of medical humanitarian aid from the U.S.
Government. The Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Roman Catholic Churches
also work together with Caritas, the international Catholic charity.
Church leaders generally resolve interconfessional disputes through
discussion. Many leaders believed that the State Committee for
Religious Affairs, although helpful, should be eliminated, since they
believe that it represents forced rather than natural cooperation.
There are some indications of popular suspicion of ``nonnative''
religions and foreign missionaries. There have been occasional
statements by Ukrainian Orthodox Church officials (both Moscow and Kiev
Patriarchates) denouncing the spread of such religions and sharply
criticizing their missionary activities. Popular suspicion has not led
to significant public criticism or actions against such religions,
which continue to find many converts. However, missionaries reported
some instances of societal discrimination against members of their
churches, such as salary cuts, layoffs, and public criticism for
betraying ``native religions.''
Anti-Semitism exists on an individual and societal basis. Some
ultranationalist groups and newspapers continued to publish and
distribute anti-Semitic tracts regularly. Anti-Semitic publications
also are imported from Russia and distributed without the necessary
state license. In early 1999, the Shimon Dubnov Ukrainian Academy of
Jewish History and Culture filed suit against the nationalist newspaper
Vechirny Kiev for publishing anti-Semitic diatribes about the Academy's
collection of scholarly articles, ``Judeophobia against Ukraine,''
which was published in 1998. As of mid-2000, this case still was
pending.
Anti-Semitic incidents continue to occur but, according to local
Jewish organizations, have declined in number over recent years and
were concentrated in western regions of the country.
During the period covered by this report, there were no arrests
made in the 1997 firebombing of the Kharkiv Israeli cultural center,
nor have there been any prosecutions for the desecration of Jewish
cemeteries in 1997.
Tension continued within the Jewish community, focused primarily on
which Jewish organization should be recognized as representing the
Jewish community in international Jewish forums.
The smaller Progressive Jewish community reported that it was
subject to pressure and discrimination from the dominant Orthodox
Jewish organizations.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government periodically. The U.S. Government has pressed its concerns
actively when the occasion has warranted it. Since most problems
related to religious freedom in the country lie in the relationship
between foreign missionaries of nontraditional religions and local
authorities, and most of the foreign missionaries--approximately 55
percent--working in the country today are U.S. citizens, the Embassy
has intervened as necessary to defend their interests. Responding to
complaints by American missionaries that Ukrainian embassies and
consulates were not issuing religious worker visas, the Embassy's
consular section raised the importance of honoring visa reciprocity in
several 1999-2000 meetings with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These
meetings did not result in tangible improvements in the Government's
visa practices toward prospective religious workers; however, the
Embassy continues to stress the issue with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. During meetings with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the
consular section repeatedly recommended doing away with the Soviet
requirement of an invitation to receive Ukrainian visas. As of May
2000, invitations no longer were required for certain visa categories.
The U.S. Government also has been active in advocating the just
restitution of religious property confiscated by the Nazi and Communist
regimes. The Embassy's political counselor raised the issue in a
February meeting at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ambassador
stressed the importance of a transparent and nondiscriminatory process
for property restitution at the May 2000 meeting of the joint U.S.-
Ukraine Cultural Heritage Commission in Kiev. U.S. Commissioner
Stolberg and Deputy Minister of Culture Novohatko agreed to cooperate
on drafting legislation that would prohibit construction and
privatization on previous and current cemeteries of all religious
denominations.
An embassy officer is tasked with monitoring the status of property
restitution. This officer has discussed the issue on several occasions
with the State Committee for Religious Affairs, with the Cultural and
Humanitarian Cooperation Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
and with representatives of religious organizations. In October 1999,
National Security Council Director for Russian, Ukrainian, and Eurasian
Affairs Tedstrom met with representatives of religious organizations in
Kiev to discuss religious freedom and property restitution.
The Embassy places a high priority on monitoring anti-Semitism and
maintaining close relations with local Jewish organizations. In August
1999, the Embassy hosted a meeting of Jewish community leaders with
Senator Arlen Specter. Two embassy officers and a representative of the
State Department's Office of International Religious Freedom attended
the October 1999 induction ceremony of Rabbi Alexander Dukhovny as the
progressive rabbi of the country. The political counselor and two
political officers attended the March 2000 rededication of the Kiev
grand synagogue. The Embassy's human rights officer also holds regular
meetings with a variety of Jewish community representatives around the
country.
The Embassy closely followed the case of the four American teachers
in Sevastopol. The Embassy raised the case with the Foreign Ministry,
the State Committee for Religious Affairs, and prosecutorial officials.
The Foreign Ministry was helpful and at one point sought to block the
deportation decision. The Embassy requested that the Foreign Ministry
and the State Committee for Religious Affairs review the handling of
this matter to avoid similar problems in the future and to consider
lifting the 1-year restriction on the return of the teachers.
The Embassy's human rights officer continuously monitors the status
of religious freedom in the country. The officers serving in that
position during the period covered by this report regularly met with
the State Committee for Religious Affairs and with representatives from
all the primary religious groups in the country, not only in Kiev, but
in several regional centers as well. They also regularly met with
representatives of human rights groups and other nongovernmental
organizations (NGO's) who deal with issues of religious freedom.
A representative from the State Department's Office of
International Religious Freedom visited Ukraine in October, meeting
with representatives of religious organizations, government officials,
and embassy staff to promote religious freedom.
In Washington, the Department's Office of International Religious
Freedom met with Jewish leaders from Ukraine as well as with Christian
clergy.
__________
UNITED KINGDOM
Government policy provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The 1998 Human
Rights Act, which is to enter into force in October 2000, incorporates
the principle of religious freedom into law.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
However, centuries-old sectarian divisions--and instances of violence--
are part of the troubles in Northern Ireland.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Religious Freedom
Legal/Policy Framework
Government policy provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The 1998 Human
Rights Act, which is to enter into force in October 2000, provides for
freedom of religion, including freedom to change one's religion or
belief.
There are two established (that is state) churches, the Church of
England (Anglican) and the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian). The Queen
is the ``Supreme Governor'' of the Church of England and must always be
a member of the Church and promise to uphold it. The Queen appoints
Church of England officials on the advice of the Prime Minister and the
Crown Appointments Commission (which includes lay and clergy
representatives.) The Church of Scotland appoints its own office
bearers, and its affairs are not subject to any civil authority. There
are no established churches in Wales or Northern Ireland, but the
Church in Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church, and the Church of
Ireland are members of the Anglican Communion.
Religious groups are not required to register with the Government.
No church or religious organization--established or otherwise--receives
direct funding from the State. Religious bodies are expected to finance
their own activities through endowment, investments, and fund-raising.
Since 1977 the Government has appropriated funds for the repair of
historic church buildings, such as cathedrals, but such funding is not
restricted to Church of England buildings. The Government also
contributes 70 percent of the budget of the Redundant Churches Fund,
established by the Church of England in 1969 to preserve ``redundant''
Church of England buildings that are of architectural or historic
significance. In 1993 a similar body, the Historic Chapels Trust, was
founded with the aid of a grant from the Department of National
Heritage to preserve, repair, and maintain non-Anglican houses of
worship, such as mosques, temples, or synagogues. No such bodies exist
in Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland.
Most religious institutions are classified as charities and, as
such, enjoy a wide range of tax benefits. (The advancement of religion
is considered to be a charitable purpose.) In England and Wales, the
Charity Commission reviews the application of each body applying for
registration as a charity. Commissioners base their decisions on a
substantial body of case law. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, the
Inland Revenue performs this task. Charities are exempt from taxes on
most types of income and capital gains, provided that the charity uses
the income or gains for charitable purpose. They are also exempt from
the value-added tax. Donors to charities also enjoy tax relief for
their donations. Transfers to charities are exempt from the inheritance
tax, capital gains tax, and stamp duty.
In November 1999, the Charity Commission rejected a Church of
Scientology application for charitable status, concluding that
Scientology is not a religion for the purposes of charity law.
Some ``voluntary schools'' provided by religious groups enjoy state
support. While the majority of these schools are Anglican or Catholic,
there are a small number of Methodist and Jewish schools. There are
also privately funded schools with religious foundations, including a
growing number of Muslim schools.
Religious Demography
There are no official statistics collected on religious beliefs or
church membership, except in Northern Ireland. Although their
methodologies differ greatly, the numbers collected by individual
religious communities highlight patterns of adherence and belief.
About 65 percent of the population (estimated to total 58.5 million
in 1996) would identify with some form of Christianity. About 45
percent of the population identify with Anglican churches, 10 percent
with the Roman Catholic Church, 4 percent with Presbyterian churches, 2
percent with Methodist churches, and 4 percent with other Christian
churches, but only about 8.7 percent attend a Christian church on a
regular basis. Church attendance in Northern Ireland is estimated at 30
to 35 percent of the population. An additional 2 percent of the
population are affiliated with non-Trinitarian churches, such as
Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,
the Church of Christ, Christian Scientists, and Unitarians. A further 5
percent of the population are adherents to other faiths, including
Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism.
About 28 percent of the population are nonreligious. About half of
all parents choose to have their children baptized. A similar
proportion of all weddings (41.3 percent) are conducted as religious
ceremonies, but the number has decreased in recent years. The vast
majority of funerals are religious, and recent surveys suggest that 63
to 70 percent of the population believe in God.
Between the Reformation and the mid-19th century, Britain was a
predominantly Protestant country. The Jewish community dates from 1656,
with the arrival of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, but it
experienced much of its growth during the 1800's and 1900's, when
Ashkenazic Jews arrived from Eastern Europe. Irish immigration during
the 1800's fostered the resurgence of Roman Catholicism, and later
immigration from British colonies (and now the Commonwealth) led to the
establishment of thriving Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu communities. These
latter communities tend to be concentrated around larger cities.
The conflict between nationalists and unionists in Northern Ireland
has been drawn along religious lines, but the avowed policy of the
Government remains one of religious neutrality and tolerance (See
Section II).
The Government makes an active effort to ensure that public
servants are not discriminated against on the basis of religion and
strives to accommodate religious practices by government employees
whenever possible. For example, the Prison Service permits Muslim
employees to take time off during their shifts to pray. It also
provides prisoners with Jewish and Muslim chaplains. The military
generally provides soldiers who are adherents of minority religions
with chaplains of their faith.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The United Christian Broadcasters (UCB) radio station appealed to
the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in 1999 the existing ban on
nationwide broadcast licenses for religious broadcasters. The
Government filed a counter brief in February 2000; the UCB filed a
response in April 2000. The Court is scheduled to hear the case in late
2000 or early 2001. Due to the limited broadcast spectrum, the 1990
Broadcasting Act precludes certain groups, including those ``wholly or
mainly of a religious nature,'' from obtaining the few available
national licenses. Due to their limited number, digital radio multiplex
licenses, provided for in the 1996 Broadcasting Act, also are
unavailable to religious groups. Religious groups can and do compete
successfully for the more numerous local and regional stations, and
cable and satellite channels; they can advertise. The UCB now
broadcasts by satellite without restriction.
The Church of Scientology asserts that it faces discrimination due
to the failure of the Government to treat Scientology as a religion. In
particular Scientology ministers are not regarded as ministers of
religion under prison regulations, and thus they are not permitted to
provide official pastoral care to prisoners; nor are they considered
ministers of religion for the purpose of immigration relations. The
Government bases its treatment of Scientology on a 1970 judgment by the
Court of Appeal, which held that Scientology chapels did not qualify as
places of worship under the Places of Worship Registration Act of 1855.
In November 1999, the Charity Commission, which acts independently
of the Government and is accountable to the courts for its decisions,
rejected a Church of Scientology application for charitable status,
concluding that Scientology is not a religion for the purposes of
charity law, as ``the core practices of Scientology, being auditing and
training, do not constitute worship.'' It also declared that ``Public
benefit arising from the practice of Scientology and/or the purposes of
the Church of Scientology had not been established.''
Religious education in publicly maintained schools is required by
law throughout the country. According to the Education Reform Act of
1988, it forms part of the core curriculum for students in England and
Wales (the requirements for Scotland were outlined in the Education Act
of 1980.) The shape and content of religious instruction is decided on
a local basis. Locally agreed syllabi uses are required to reflect the
predominant place of Christianity in religious life, but they must be
nondenominational and refrain from attempting to convert pupils. All
parents have the right to withdraw a child from religious education,
but the schools must approve this request.
In addition schools have to provide a daily act of collective
worship. In practice this action is mainly Christian in character,
reflecting Christianity's importance in the religious life of the
nation. This requirement may be waived if a school's administration
deems it inappropriate for some or all of the students. Under some
circumstances, non-Christian worship may instead be allowed. Teachers'
organizations have criticized school prayer and called for a government
review of the practice.
Where a student body is characterized by a substantial population
of religious minorities, schools may observe the religious festivals of
other faiths. Schools also endeavor to accommodate religious
requirements, such as providing halal meat for Muslim children.
In general membership in a given religious group does not confer a
political or economic advantage on individual adherents. However, on
the national level, the House of Lords provides an exception to this
rule. The Anglican Archbishops of York and Canterbury; the Bishops of
Durham, London, and Winchester; and 21 other bishops, in order of
seniority, receive automatic membership in the House of Lords, whereas
prominent clergy from other denominations or religions are not afforded
this privilege. In January 2000, the Wakeham Report on the Reform of
the House of Lords recommended that other Christian denominations and
other faiths also should be represented in the House of Lords. The
report recommended that there be 16 seats for the Church of England, 5
seats for other Christian denominations, and at least 5 seats for non-
Christian faiths. House of Lords reform still is being debated
vigorously, and no final decision has been made.
While it is not enforced and is essentially a legal anachronism,
blasphemy against Anglican doctrine remains technically illegal.
Several religious organizations, in association with the Commission for
Racial Equality, are attempting to abolish the law or broaden its
protection to include all faiths. Responding to a parliamentary
question on removing blasphemy from the statute book, the Home Office
stated in July 1998 that there were no current plans to change the law.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally
amicable.
While the troubles in Northern Ireland are the product of
political, economic, and social factors, conflict between nationalists
and unionists in Northern Ireland is rooted in centuries-old sectarian
divisions between the Protestant and Catholic communities.
The majority of citizens in Northern Ireland appear determined to
diminish sectarian tensions and continue to support the 1998 Good
Friday Agreement, which aims to create a lasting settlement to the
conflict in Northern Ireland and a society based on equality of
opportunity and human rights.
Employment discrimination on religious grounds is proscribed
specifically by law in Northern Ireland, although not in the rest of
the country. Those who believe that their freedom of religion has been
infringed have the right to appeal to the courts for relief. The 1998
Human Rights Act, which is to enter into force in 2000, prohibits
discrimination on the basis of religion.
Government programs and continued economic growth in the region
have resulted in a decrease in the overall unemployment rate (6.3
percent as of March 2000). Although there is some evidence that
unemployment rates among Catholics remain higher than among
Protestants, the often-quoted figure, based on 1991 data, that Catholic
male unemployment is twice the rate of Protestant male unemployment,
has not been updated reliably.
In August 1999, in accordance with the Good Friday Agreement, the
Government appointed 20 members to the board of the Equality
Commission, an amalgamation of the Northern Ireland Fair Employment
Commission, the Equal Opportunities Commission, the Commission for
Racial Equality, and the Disability Council. The Commission assumed its
responsibilities in October 1999.
One of the Commission's mandates is to help enforce the Fair
Employment and Treatment Order of 1998, which incorporates previous
equality legislation and outlaws discrimination based on religion or
political opinion in the workplace, and aids in access to goods,
facilities, services, and premises. Under the order, all public sector
employers and all private firms with more than 10 employees must report
annually to the Equality Commission on the religious composition of
their work forces and must review their employment practices at least
once every 3 years.
In addition Section 75 of the 1998 Northern Ireland Act stipulates
that all public authorities (for example, Northern Ireland Office
government departments, district councils, and the Northern Ireland
Tourist Board, among others) must show due regard to the need to
promote equality of opportunity, including between persons of different
religious beliefs. Each public authority must submit a plan to the
Equality Commission outlining how it plans to promote equality within
its organization. The Equality Commission is to review such plans every
5 years.
Unlike the Northern Ireland Office (comprising province-wide
government departments and the Northern Ireland civil service) and
district councils, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), Northern
Ireland's police force, currently is not required to conform to Section
75. Although Catholics now comprise less than 8 percent of the police
force, the implementation of the recommendations of the Patten
Commission report on police reform, scheduled for late 2000, is
expected to initiate measures intended to make the force more broadly
accepted in Northern Ireland. These include the establishment of an
independent recruitment agency and a recruitment policy mandating equal
intake of qualified Catholics and non-Catholics. The Patten Commission
projected that, following implementation of these reforms, Catholics,
who comprise approximately 40 percent of the population, would make up
30 percent of the police force within 10 years. Reaching this goal in
part depends on the Catholic community's encouragement of its members
to apply for the police force.
The Northern Ireland Office reported 80 attacks against both
Catholic and Protestant churches, schools, and meeting halls from
January 1999 through mid-May 2000. Such sectarian violence often
coincides with heightened tensions, especially in spring and summer,
surrounding certain marches by the ``Loyal Institutions'' (the Royal
Black Preceptory, Orange Order, and Apprentice Boys), whose membership
is almost exclusively Protestant.
In April 2000, an interim report on religious discrimination
commissioned by the Home Office claimed that the establishment of the
Church of England causes ``religious disadvantage'' to other faiths and
Christian denominations. The Home Office is considering the report.
Members of the public have raised concerns with the Home Office
regarding the Church of Scientology, particularly about financial
demands made on church members, alienation of members from their
families, and harassment of members who have left the church.
According to the Community Security Trust, the number of anti-
Semitic incidents during 1999 was 412, compared with 385 in 1998.
Public manifestations of anti-Semitism are confined largely to the
political fringe, either far right or Islamist.
The country has both active inter-faith and ecumenical movements.
The Council of Christians and Jews was founded in 1942 to promote
Christian-Jewish understanding. It continues its work to advance better
relations between the two religions and to combat anti-Semitism. In the
postwar period, as other religious communities arose in Britain, new
inter-faith organizations evolved. The Inter-faith Network was
established in 1987 and links a wide range of religious and educational
organizations with an interest in inter-faith relations, including the
national representative bodies of the Baha'i, Buddhist, Christian,
Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, and Zoroastrian communities. The
newest vehicle for the promotion of inter-faith cooperation is the
Inner Cities Religious Council, which has helped to encourage inter-
faith activity through regional conferences and support for local
initiatives.
The main ecumenical body is the Council of Churches for Britain and
Ireland. The Council serves as the main forum for interchurch
cooperation and collaboration. Interchurch cooperation is not limited
to dealings among denominations at the national level. At the local
level, for example, local Anglican parishes may share their church with
Roman Catholic congregations.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. In
Northern Ireland, longstanding issues related to religion have been
part of the political and economic struggle largely between Protestant
and Catholic communities. As an active participant in the peace
process, the U.S. Government has supported efforts to diminish
sectarian tension and promote dialog between the two largest religious
communities.
__________
UZBEKISTAN
During the period covered by this report, the Government's respect
for religious freedom improved with regard to minority religions,
including Christians; however, its respect for the rights of
unauthorized Muslim groups worsened, as its harsh campaign against such
groups, which it perceives as terrorist security threats, intensified.
In August 1999, the Government made a concerted effort to improve
respect for the religious freedom of Christians and members of other
minority confessions. The President pardoned six Christians who had
been imprisoned, some on fabricated narcotics charges, because of their
religious activities. In addition, the Government registered 20
churches whose applications had been blocked by local officials.
The Government arrested hundreds of alleged members of unauthorized
Islamic groups, such as Hizb ut-Tahrir, and sentenced them to lengthy
jail terms. It also imprisoned dozens of Muslims suspected of being
``Wahabbist,'' a term used loosely to encompass both suspected
terrorists and any former students of certain independent imams or
foreign madrassas (Islamic schools). (As of mid-2000, certain Islamic
extremist groups were conducting significant armed incursions in
Uzbekistan and neighboring states. The publicly acknowledged aim of
this campaign, which includes violent terrorist actions, bombings, and
killings, is the overthrow of the Government of Uzbekistan by force.)
The number of Muslim prisoners, the severity of court sentences, and
the number of deaths from mistreatment in custody all increased. There
are amicable relations among the various religious communities.
U.S. officials, both in Washington and in Tashkent, repeatedly
urged the Government to improve respect for religious freedom. A series
of visits by high-level State Department officials, including Secretary
of State Albright in April 2000, emphasized this point to the
Government. Other visitors during the period covered by this report
included staff members of the U.S. Congress Helsinki Commission, the
Secretary of State, the U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for International
Religious Freedom Robert Seiple, and other State Department officials.
The Embassy conducted regular meetings of the U.S.-Uzbek Human Rights
Working Group, which addressed questions of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and for the
principle of separation of church and state; however, in practice the
Government only partially respects these rights. The Government
perceives unofficial Islamic groups or mosques as extremist security
threats and outlaws them. The Government permits persons affiliated
with mainstream religions, including approved Muslim groups, Jewish
groups, the Russian Orthodox Church, and various other denominations,
such as Catholics and Lutherans, to worship freely and generally
registers more recently arrived religions. However, the religion law
forbids or severely restricts activities such as proselytizing and
importing and disseminating religious literature.
The Government is secular and there is no official state religion.
Although the laws treat all religious confessions equally, the
Government shows its support for the country's Muslim heritage by
funding an Islamic university and subsidizing citizens' participation
in the Hajj. The Government promotes a moderate version of Islam
through the control and financing of the Spiritual Directorate for
Muslims (the Muftiate), which in turn controls the Islamic hierarchy,
the content of imams' sermons, and the volume and substance of
published Islamic materials.
In May 1998, the Parliament passed two laws that restrict religious
activity. The Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations
provides for freedom of worship, freedom from religious persecution,
separation of church and state, and the right to establish schools and
train clergy. However, the law also severely limits religious activity.
It restricts religious rights that are judged to be in conflict with
national security, prohibits proselytizing, bans religious subjects in
schools, prohibits private teaching of religious principles, forbids
the wearing of religious clothing in public by anyone other than
clerics, and requires religious groups to obtain a license to publish
or distribute materials.
The law also requires that all religious groups and congregations
register and provides strict and burdensome criteria for their
registration. In particular it stipulates that each group present a
list of at least 100 Uzbek citizen members (compared with the previous
minimum of 10) to the local branches of the Ministry of Justice. This
provision enables the Government to ban any group simply by denying its
registration petition. Government officials designed the law to target
Muslims who worship outside the system of state-organized mosques.
Although the Government has granted some exemptions to the 100-member
requirement, there are no formal criteria for receiving exemptions.
Instead, exemptions are granted arbitrarily. To register, groups must
report in their charter a valid juridical address. Local officials on
occasion have denied approval of a juridical address in order to
prevent churches from registering.
As of May 1, 2000, the Government had registered 1,894 religious
congregations and organizations, 1,724 of which were Muslim. An
additional 335 applications were denied, 323 of which were from Muslim
groups. The number of mosques has increased significantly from the 80
or so permitted during the Soviet era, but has decreased from the 4,000
or more that opened after the country gained independence and before
registration procedures were in place. Some groups with too few members
have reported that they prefer not to bring themselves to the attention
of the authorities by submitting a registration application that does
not, on its face, meet legal requirements.
A special commission created in August 1998 may grant exemptions to
the religious law's strict requirements and register groups that have
not been registered by local officials. The commission has granted
exemptions to 51 such groups, including congregations with fewer than
100 Uzbek members. However, no formal procedures or criteria have been
established to bring a case before this commission.
Although authorities generally tolerate Christian groups, some
churches found it difficult to obtain registration, especially before
August 1999. In that month, the central Government undertook to
register minority religious groups whose applications had been blocked
by recalcitrant local officials. Twenty churches received their
registration right away, and most new applications since that time have
been approved. While there were several groups whose recent
applications had not been approved by June 2000, only a Baptist
congregation in Gazalkent claimed that officials were blocking its
registration. The deputy mayor of Gazalkent allegedly told church
leaders that its application might be approved if it removed from its
membership list all names of ethnic Uzbek origin.
Some churches, particularly those with ethnic Uzbek members, have
not submitted registration applications because they know they are
unable to comply with the law's requirements. Although church leaders
cite high registration fees and the 100-member rule as obstacles, the
most frequent problem is the lack of an approved legal address, which
is required in order to submit an application. Some groups have been
reluctant to invest in the purchase of a property without assurance
that the registration would be approved. Others claim that local
officials arbitrarily withhold approval of the addresses because they
oppose the existence of Christian churches with ethnic Uzbek members.
The Committee on Religious Affairs has approved the registration of
170 minority religious groups including 47 Korean Christian, 32 Russian
Orthodox, 27 Pentecostal (``full gospel''), 23 Baptist, 10 Seventh-Day
Adventist, 8 Jewish (1 Ashkenazy, 6 Bukharan, 1 mixed), 5 Baha'i, 4
Lutheran, 3 Roman Catholic, 2 Jehovah's Witnesses, and 2 Krishna
Consciousness groups. Several of these congregations had fewer than the
required 100 members but received exemptions from the requirement.
Denis Podorozhny's Word of Faith Pentecostal Church near Tashkent,
which lost its registration in 1998, was reregistered in September
1999. As of June 30, 2000, there was only one pending application by
Jehovah's Witnesses. Government officials stated that many of the
unregistered groups could not meet the requirement of 100 Uzbek
members. Although another unregistered group, the Reformed Baptists,
had refused to register as a matter of religious principle, the
Committee on Religious Affairs subsequently took steps to ensure that
such Baptist congregations meet undisturbed for worship.
The second legislative change enacted in May 1998 consisted of a
series of revisions to the Criminal and Civil codes that stiffened the
penalties for violating the religion law and other statutes on
religious activities. It provided for punishments for activities such
as organizing a banned religious group, persuading others to join such
a group, and drawing minors into a religious organization without the
permission of their parents.
The Criminal Code was amended again in May 1999 with two changes
that affected religious freedom. The changes draw a distinction between
``illegal'' groups, which are those that are not registered properly,
and ``prohibited'' groups, which are banned altogether. The first
measure makes it a criminal offense punishable by up to 5 years in
prison to organize an illegal religious group or to resume the
activities of such a group (presumably after being denied registration
or ordered to disband). Furthermore, the measure punishes any
participation in such a group by up to 3 years in prison. The second
measure sets out stiff penalties of up to 20 years in prison and
confiscation of property for ``organizing or participating'' in the
activities of religious extremist, fundamentalist, separatist, or other
prohibited groups. In practice, the courts ignore the theoretical
distinction and frequently convict members of disapproved Muslim groups
under both statutes.
Religious Demography
Since 1991 when the country gained independence from the Soviet
Union, there has been a resurgence, particularly in the Fergana valley,
of the Sunni variety of Islam traditional in the region. There are no
official statistics on membership in various faiths, but 80 to 85
percent of the population are nominally Muslim. Another 10 to 15
percent are nominally Russian Orthodox. Only a small portion of members
of these two leading faiths actually practices, although the numbers
who do so are growing. Because of the decades of Soviet rule, Islam was
not previously an important factor in the lives of most citizens.
There are roughly 30,000 Ashkenazy and Bukharan Jews, concentrated
in the main cities of Tashkent, Bukhara, and Samarkand. Almost 70,000
have emigrated to Israel or the United States since independence. The
remaining 5 to 10 percent of the population include small communities
of Korean Christians, Baptists, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Seventh-Day
Adventists, evangelical and Pentecostal Christians, Buddhists, Baha'is,
and Hare Krishnas.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious freedom
Although there were no new restrictive policies, there were serious
governmental restrictions on religious freedom during the period
covered by this report. The Government deprived some politically
oriented religious groups of their right to exist, restricted many
religious practices and activities, and punished citizens for their
religious beliefs. Russians, Jews, and foreigners generally enjoy
greater religious freedom than traditionally Muslim ethnic groups,
especially Uzbeks. Christian churches generally are tolerated as long
as they do not attempt to win converts among ethnic Uzbeks. Christians
who are ethnic Uzbeks are secretive about their faith and rarely
attempt to register their organizations. Christian congregations that
are of mixed ethnic background are reluctant to list their Uzbek
members on registration lists for fear of incurring official
displeasure.
While supportive of moderate Muslims, the Government is intolerant
of Islamic groups that attempt to operate outside the state-run Muslim
hierarchy. The Government controls the content of imams' sermons and
the volume and substance of published Islamic materials. At the
beginning of 1998, the Government ordered the removal of loudspeakers
from mosques in order to prevent the amplified public announcement of
calls to prayer. The Government permanently closed several hundred
unauthorized mosques during 1998. Authorities suspect Muslims who meet
privately to pray or study Islam of being extremists, and such
believers are at risk of arrest.
The Government is determined to prevent the spread of
ultraconservative or extremist varieties of Sunni Islam, which it
labels ``Wahabbism'' and considers a security threat. President Islam
Karimov frequently has declared the Government's intention to rid the
country of Wahhabists and underground Islamic groups such as Hizb ut-
Tahrir. The Government considers these groups to be political and
security threats and represses them severely. Hizb ut-Tahrir members
desire an Islamic government and the group's literature includes much
anti-western, anti-Semetic, and anti-democratic rhetoric, but they deny
that they advocate violence. Some independent Muslims deny that they
are extremists and claim that they are being persecuted for their
religious beliefs.
There are numerous reports that Muslims in places of detention are
punished severely if they are caught praying. The Koran reportedly is
banned in most facilities.
The Government bans the teaching of religious subjects in schools,
and also prohibits the private teaching of religious principles. Under
the laws dealing with religion, only registered central offices of
religious organizations are permitted to produce and distribute
religious literature. Six such offices have been registered to date: a
non-denominational Bible society, as well as Islamic, Russian Orthodox,
Full Gospel, Baptist, and Roman Catholic offices. However, the
Government discourages and occasionally has blocked even registered
central offices from producing or importing Christian literature in the
Uzbek language even though Bibles in many other languages are available
in Tashkent bookstores.
Although authorities tolerate the existence of many Christian
evangelical groups, they enforce the law's ban on proselytizing. The
Government often monitors and harasses those that openly try to convert
Muslims to Christianity. Members of Jehovah's Witnesses claim that they
are subject routinely to police questioning, searches, and arbitrary
fines. Several churches, including the Baptist church in Gazalkent,
have reported that local officials did not accept membership lists that
included Uzbek names.
In May 2000, authorities denied the Union of Baptists permission to
hold a religious summer camp for the children of church members.
In 1999 the international nongovernmental organization (NGO) Human
Rights Watch compiled a list of 28 confirmed cases from 1997 and 1998
in which university and secondary school students were expelled for
wearing religious dress. (Only clerics may wear religious clothing in
public.) Several of these students from Tashkent's Oriental Studies
Institute brought suit in civil court to be reinstated but were
unsuccessful.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government continued to commit numerous serious abuses of
religious freedom. The Government deprived some groups of their right
to exist, restricted many religious practices and activities, and
punished citizens for their religious beliefs. The Government's most
serious abuses of the right to religious freedom were committed against
Muslim believers. The Government's campaign against independent Muslim
groups, begun in the early 1990's, resulted in numerous serious human
rights abuses during the period covered by this report. The campaign
has been directed at three types of Muslims: alleged Wahhabists,
including those educated at madrassas (schools) abroad and followers of
missing imams Nazarov of Tashkent and Mirzaev of Andijon; those
suspected of being involved in the 1999 Tashkent bombings or of being
involved with the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, whose roots are in
Namangan; and suspected members of Hizb ut-Tahrir throughout the
country.
The line between the so-called Wahhabists and those suspected of
being involved in the 1999 bombings is not always apparent, even to an
unbiased observer, and the Government sees them as being closely
connected even when they are not in a given case. Both stem from the
growth of independent Islam that the Government has sought to suppress
since the early 1990's. The distinction is that the Government
considers the Wahhabists to be extremists and potential terrorists and
those suspected of involvement in the bombings to be active terrorists.
The Government does not consider repression of these groups to be a
matter of religious freedom, but instead to be directed against those
who oppose the political order. However, authorities are highly
suspicious of those who are more pious than is the norm, including
frequent mosque attendees, bearded men, and veiled women. In practice
this approach results in abuses against many devout Muslims for their
religious beliefs.
There were credible reports that police mistreatment resulted in
the deaths of persons in custody. Law enforcement officials regularly
beat and torture suspects held in pretrial detentionincluding those
accused of religious extremism--in order to extract confessions. Severe
mistreatment of convicted prisoners is also common. According to human
rights activists and other observers, many of those killed in custody
were interned at a new prison near Jaslik in Karakalpakstan, where
conditions are known to be extremely harsh. Nearly all the inmates of
this facility, which opened in the spring of 1999, were accused of
religious extremism. Although there is specific information available
on only a handful of deaths from mistreatment in custody, human rights
observers claim that the number of such cases throughout the country
during the period covered by this report reached at least several
dozen. Law enforcement officials have been known to threaten families
not to talk about their relatives' deaths. Government officials
acknowledge that some inmates of Jaslik died, but attribute the deaths
to illness and the extremely hot climate rather than mistreatment.
According to a Hizb ut-Tahrir leaflet, on July 4, 1999, the parents
of 23-year-old Ulugbek Anvarov buried their son, who authorities
claimed had committed suicide in detention at the end of June. Anvarov
was a member of Hizb ut-Tahrir awaiting trial after his June 23, 1999,
arrest for possessing leaflets. Witnesses to the burial claimed that,
in addition to rope marks on his neck, his skull was crushed and his
body showed clear signs of torture.
Azimboy Khodjaev died in the Jaslik prison in Karakalpakstan on
July 2, 1999. Khodjaev allegedly was imprisoned for not revealing to
police the whereabouts of his two sons, both sought as wahhabist
extremists. According to eyewitnesses, Khodjaev's body showed signs of
severe beatings, although the official cause of death was an
unspecified stomach ailment. Khodjaev's son, Pavlanozar, later was
arrested in Russia and extradited to Uzbekistan. He was sentenced to
death in mid-May 2000 for his alleged involvement in an Islamist
terrorist conspiracy.
On July 17, 1999, according to the Human Rights Society of
Uzbekistan, Jurakhon Azimov died while serving a 16-year sentence at
the Jaslik prison. Azimov's body allegedly was bruised badly and cut
with razor blades, although officials claimed that he died of a heart
attack. Azimov, a 34-year-old leader of the Birlik Democratic Movement,
was arrested after police allegedly planted narcotics, bullets, and
Hizb ut-Tahrir leaflets on him.
Jaloliddin Sodiqjonov, a 45-year-old ``Islamic missionary,''
allegedly died from mistreatment in jail on or about October 13, 1999,
according to the Human Rights Society of Uzbekistan. Sodiqjonov had
been arrested in March after police allegedly planted narcotics and a
weapon in his pocket.
According to the World Organization Against Torture, Rustam
Norbaev, a possible member of Hizb ut-Tahrir, was arrested on March 13,
2000, and died in pretrial detention in Yakkabaga on March 18,
allegedly after being tortured. Officials claimed that Norbaev hanged
himself.
Negmat Karimov, who was sentenced in July 1999 to 20 years in
prison for alleged involvement in the terrorist conspiracy behind the
1999 Tashkent bombings, died in prison in Navoi on March 22, 2000.
According to his parents, his body showed multiple signs of beating.
Karimov also was convicted on charges related to religious extremism.
Shukhrat Parpiev, who was sentenced in December 1998 to 15 years in
prison, died in the Jaslik prison on May 5, 2000. According to an
acquaintance, Parpiev was not religious, but had been arrested because
he was seen with a known religious figure suspected of extremism.
Parpiev's body allegedly was bruised badly, and had a broken clavicle,
crushed skull, and broken ribs.
There were no new reports of disappearances of religious leaders.
It is now widely believed that Imam Sbidkhon Nazarov, who has been
missing since March 5, 1998, fled the country to avoid arrest and was
not abducted by security forces. There were no reported developments in
the 1995 disappearance of Imam Abduvali Mirzaev, the 1997 disappearance
of his assistant, Nematjon Parpiev, or the 1992 disappearance of
Aboullah Utaev, leader of the Uzbekistan chapter of the outlawed
Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP). Most independent observers believe
that the three missing Islamic activists are either dead or in custody.
On September 27, 1999, government agents abducted Kyrgyz citizen
Uuldashbay Tursunbaev on Kyrgyz territory. They brought him to
Tashkent, where he stood trial for being one of the leaders of the
Wahhabist movement throughout the 1990's. He was sentenced in February
2000 to 20 years in prison.
The security services have arrested, detained, and harassed Muslim
leaders for perceived acts of insubordination and independence.
Although international observers are not permitted to inspect prisons,
conditions are said to be inhuman for all varieties of prisoners.
Arbitrary arrest and detention of Muslim believers is commonplace.
Following both the December 1997 murder of police officials in Namangan
and the February 1999 terrorist bombings in Tashkent, police detained
hundreds and perhaps thousands of suspected Wahhabists. The majority of
those detained were released after questioning and detention that
lasted as long as 2 months. The police routinely planted narcotics,
ammunition, and, beginning in 1999, religious leaflets, on citizens to
justify their arrest. According to human rights activists, the police
arrested scores of those whose religious piety, sometimes indicated by
their dress or by wearing beards, made them suspect in the eye s of the
security services.
To determine whom to arrest, the Government used the local mahalla
(neighborhood) committees as a source of information. Shortly after the
February 1999 Tashkent bombings, President Karimov directed that each
committee assign a ``defender of the people,'' whose job it was to
assure that young persons in the neighborhoods were not joining
independent Islamic groups. The committees identified for police those
residents who appeared suspicious. Human rights observers noted that in
practice the committees often saw as suspicious those same individuals
who already had been detained by the police in the wake of either the
1997 murders of officials in Namangan or the Tashkent bombings, and who
subsequently had been released because there was no case against them.
There were dozens of cases involving people who had previously been
detained and released being retried during the period covered by this
report.
The absence of a free press and the rarity of public trials make it
impossible to determine how many persons have been incarcerated.
Nonetheless, the Moscow human rights center, Memorial, has compiled a
list of over 1,400 names of persons arrested and convicted for
political and religious reasons from January 1999 to April 2000. The
number of those in pretrial detention is unknown but is probably
several hundred. Nearly all those listed were accused of being Muslim
extremists. Some human rights groups have speculated that the total of
those in custody is in the tens of thousands. By the end of June 2000,
the Government had convicted 128 persons for direct involvement in the
bombing plot. Of these, at least 18 received death sentences.
Although the Constitution provides for the presumption of
innocence, the system of justice operates on the assumption that only
the guilty are brought to trial. To bolster this claim, government
officials point out that since the bombings, approximately 5,000
persons who were detained later were released. According to government
officials, most of these were released after they renounced their
allegiance to Islamist groups and pledged never again to engage in
anti-state activities, while others were released for lack of evidence.
The Government typically held unannounced trials of large groups of
the alleged extremists, and rarely let international observers attend.
Human rights observers contended these groupings of defendants were
arbitrary, since the prosecution only occasionally argued that those on
trial were actually connected to one another. Defendants often claimed
that the confessions on which the prosecution typically based its cases
were extracted by torture. Judges ignored these claims and invariably
convicted the accused, handing down severe sentences--usually from 15
to 20 years imprisonment.
In one such trial that ended on April 14, 2000 in Tashkent, 12
defendants were convicted of anti-state activity, belonging to illegal
groups, and other charges. Two of the defendants were sentenced to 20
years, and eight more to 17 years. One defendant, Abdulaziz Mavlianov,
an employee of the Tashkent office of the International Committee for
the Red Cross, allegedly confessed only to having given about $15
(10,000 soum) and some publicly available information to the main
defendant, alleged Islamist activist Toirjon Abdusamatov. At his trial,
Mavlianov renounced even that confession, which he had never signed.
Despite the nature of the alleged activities that led to his
conviction, he was sentenced to 17 years in prison.
Accused Hizb ut-Tahrir members also were tried in large groups,
claimed mistreatment, and were sentenced to lengthy jail terms. In a
closed April 2000 trial in Termez, 48 defendants were tried together.
The defendants included both alleged Hizb ut-Tahrir members and alleged
Wahhabists. According to observers at the courthouse, the judge
appointed the police investigator who developed the case against six of
the defendants as their defense counsel. In a Tashkent trial of 10
alleged Hizb ut-Tahrir members in April 2000, all were sentenced to 20
years in prison, although the prosecution asked for lighter sentences.
Most accused Hizb ut-Tahrir members have acknowledged membership in the
group but claim that they believe in peaceful change. Others appear not
to be members of the group but to have been apprehended because of
their religious piety or their possession of Hizb ut-Tahrir leaflets.
While the Government has not charged that Hizb ut-Tahrir was involved
in the bombings, group members usually are accused of acting to
overthrow the constitutional order and of belonging to a prohibited
extremist group.
Abdurakhim Abdurakhmanov, an independent Tashkent imam and follower
of Imam Nazarov, was arrested on or about April 27, 2000. The
Government held him incommunicado and did not inform his family of his
whereabouts. Abdurakhmanov had been fired from his job as leader of the
Kokoldash Madrassa in 1996 and was arrested, severely beaten, and
imprisoned briefly in 1998 after police claimed to have found narcotics
and a false passport on him. After the recent arrest, officials
questioned his wife and sister-in-law, accusing them of Wahhabism.
Authorities continued their persecution of relatives of Imam Abid
Khon Nazarov. All of Nazarov's close male relatives have been
imprisoned. His youngest brother, who has been imprisoned since 1998,
was transferred to Jaslik prison during 1999. Relatives who have
visited him there report that he was bruised and malnourished.
Nazarov's brother, Umarkhon Nazarov, his uncle, Ahmadali Salomov, and
his brother-in-law, Abdurashid Nasetdinov, remain in prison following
their convictions in May 1999. On February 10 and February 17, 2000,
Nazarov's wife and mother were forced to attend anti-Nazarov rallies
staged by local (mahalla) authorities. Speakers from the procuracy,
mayor's office (hokimiat), police, and the official Muftiate, addressed
assemblies of up to 300 persons, calling Nazarov an enemy of the
people. Police keep constant surveillance on the Nazarov household and
have attempted to recruit dozens of neighbors as informants regarding
the family's activities.
There were few reports of human rights abuses against members of
minority religions during the period covered by this report. The major
exception was the October 1999 incident in Karshi in which police beat
and tortured several churchgoers.
An ethnic Korean Christian pastor, Stanislav Kim, who was jailed in
February 1999, allegedly was beaten on one occasion during the period
covered by this report. An acquaintance claimed that Kim was convicted
on false charges of tax evasion and financial impropriety, in part
because local officials believed that Kim's religious activities
conflicted with his duties as director of a state concern. Prison
officials said that Kim was considered a model prisoner, denied he was
in any way mistreated, and suggested that he may have been beaten by
other inmates.
The authorities have attempted to silence human rights activists
who criticize government repression of religious Muslims and others. In
a 3-hour trial on July 13, 1999, a Tashkent court sentenced Mahbuba
Kasimova, a member of the Independent Human Rights Organization of
Uzbekistan (IHROU) and of the Birlik Democratic Movement to 5 years in
prison. On May 12, 1999, police had arrested her houseguest, Ravshan
Hamidov, who was suspected of religious extremism. During their search
of Hamidov's belongings in Kasimova's house, police allegedly planted
narcotics, a grenade, and literature linking Hamidov to the Islom
Lashkarlari religious extremist organization. Kasimova was convicted of
harboring a criminal, despite the fact that her husband was the owner
of the house and that Hamidov had not been accused of a crime prior to
the search (and thus technically could not be considered a criminal).
The prosecutor argued that Kasimova must have known that Hamidov was
wanted by police, although his arrest was not based on a previous
arrest warrant but on the discovery of contraband. Kasimova also was
convicted of fraud, for not having repaid a debt to a neighbor,
although the neighbor insisted in court that she did not want to press
charges.
Kasimova was denied the right to hire her own counsel for the
trial. Officials ignored the presumption of innocence in handling her
case. Prior to the trial, investigators organized a citizens' assembly
headed by the deputy hokim (mayor) of Tashkent, Shukrat Jalilov, at
which Kasimova was accused falsely of supporting religious extremists
and advocating the creation of an Islamic state. In front of relatives
of victims of the February 1999 bombings, she was accused of moral
complicity in the deaths of those victims.
Newspaper, television, and radio coverage of the event echoed the
accusations. On August 17, after a 45-minute appeal hearing, the judge
confirmed the original sentence.
On July 10, 1999, police took into custody IHROU member Ismail
Adylov and held him incommunicado for 72 hours before confirming his
whereabouts to his family. Police allegedly planted 100 Hizb ut-Tahrir
leaflets among his effects to justify the arrest, although Adylov is
known not to be religious. On September 29, 1999, a remote regional
court sentenced Adylov, who has a kidney ailment, to 6 years in prison
for allegedly possessing incriminating papers. Reporters and the
defendant's family were not allowed to attend the 2-day trial; his
appeal was denied on October 26, 1999.
Despite repeated appeals, authorities did not return property,
including a passport, seized from IHROU head Mikhail Ardzinov on June
25, 1999. Ardzinov has alleged that the police beat him twice during
questioning on that date. Although the Government denies beating
Ardzinov, a reliable medical expert confirmed that he was beaten
severely.
The Government is suspicious of all religious literature that does
not emanate from the Muftiate. Possession of tracts by authors deemed
to be Wahhabist can lead to arrest and prosecution. Hundreds of Uzbeks
have been imprisoned for possessing or distributing Hizb ut-Tahrir
leaflets, which are both political and religious in content. Others
have been imprisoned for possessing Islamic texts in Arabic. One ethnic
Uzbek Christian was detained by police for 12 hours after they
discovered a copy of the New Testament in the Uzbek language.
The law treats prayer meetings or services by unregistered groups
as a criminal activity. On October 10, 1999, the police raided the
annual harvest celebration at a Baptist church in the city of Karshi.
(The church is one of several Baptist congregations that, as a matter
of religious conviction, had not attempted to register.) The police
detained and beat many of the participants. Authorities sentenced two
of the group's organizers to 10 days' incarceration and demanded that
they pay fines. The Government investigated the incident and some
officials acknowledged that the Karshi police acted improperly;
however, no disciplinary action was taken against the officers
involved. On May 14, 2000, police detained 10 Baptists who were meeting
for prayer in a private home in Tashkent. The pastor of the
unregistered group was forced to pay a fine of $26 (18,500 sum).
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
Beginning in August 1999, the Government made a concerted effort to
improve respect for the religious freedom of Christians and members of
other minority confessions. The President pardoned six Christians who
had been imprisoned, some on fabricated narcotics charges, because of
their religious activities. These were: Pastor Ibrahim Yusupov of
Tashkent, Sergei Brazgin of Uchkuduk, Na'il Asanov of Bukhara, Pastor
Rashid Turibayev of the unregistered Karakalpak Full Gospel Christian
Church in Nukus and Turibayev's associates, Farkhad Yangibayev, and
Yasif Tarashev.
In addition, the Ministry of Justice summarily approved the
registration applications of 20 minority religion congregations that
were having trouble registering. Since August 1999, the Committee on
Religious Affairs has assisted several additional congregations with
problematic registration applications, and the Ministry of Justice has
been relatively tolerant in approving applications. After the October
1999 incident in Karshi, the Committee on Religious Affairs took steps
to ensure that police allow such Baptist congregations, which consider
registration to be inconsistent with their religious beliefs, to meet
undisturbed for worship.
In a February 2000 roundtable on religious freedom, officials
called for clarifications that would bring religion law and practice
into line with the International Convenant on Civil and Political
Rights, and on May 25, 2000, President Karimov suggested that the
Parliament consider improvements to the religion law.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations among the various religious
communities. There is no pattern of discrimination against Jews.
Synagogues function openly; Hebrew education (long banned in the Soviet
Union), Jewish cultural events, and the publication of a community
newspaper take place undisturbed. However, many Jews are emigrating
because of the perception of bleak economic prospects in Uzbekistan and
their connection to families abroad.
Members of ethnic groups that traditionally are associated with
Islam who convert to Christianity sometimes encounter particular
societal and low-level governmental hostility.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy is engaged actively in monitoring religious
freedom issues and problems and maintains contact with both government
and religious leaders.
The Ambassador at Large for International Religious Freedom and
other U.S. officials met with the Uzbek Ambassador to the United States
in July, August, and November 1999 and June 2000 to encourage
improvement in his country's respect for religious freedom.
The chief of staff of the Commission for Security and Cooperation
in Europe of the U.S. Congress, along with several staff members, held
a series of meetings in Tashkent with government officials in December
1999. Issues of religious freedom were a prominent part of the agenda
in these discussions.
In February 2000, the assistant to the Special Adviser to the
Secretary of State for the Newly Independent States gave a major
address on religious freedom at the Tashkent University for World
Economy and Diplomacy. Together with the Deputy Assistant Secretary of
State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, he also discussed the
country's religion law, and issues of religious freedom with government
officials, religious leaders, and human rights activists. The Deputy
Assistant Secretary held additional separate meetings on these topics
with both officials and activists.
The U.S. Ambassador to Uzbekistan delivered a speech calling for
improved respect for religious freedom at the Ombudsman's February 29,
2000, Roundtable on Amending the Religion Law.
The Secretary of State met with President Karimov in Tashkent in
April 2000, and raised U.S. concerns on these issues, in particular
calling for amendments to the religion law. During her visit the
Secretary also visited Muslim and Jewish places of worship.
The Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor returned to Uzbekistan with the Secretary's party in
April to follow up on his previous meetings, and held a separate series
of discussions with government officials. He also met with the families
of victims of government repression against independent Muslims, as
well as with human rights activists.
The Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom and
staff visited Uzbekistan and met with foreign ministry and other
officials in May, 2000, to press for progress in amending the religion
law, improved treatment of imprisoned Muslims, and permission for
missionary activity. He also met with religious leaders of minority
confessions, including the Russian Orthodox Church, with the families
of victims of government repression against independent Muslims, and
with human rights activists.
The U.S. Ambassador and Deputy Chief of Mission raised issues of
religious freedom on at least 10 occasions in meetings with the Foreign
Minister and other officials, as well as in the context of the U.S.-
Uzbek human rights working group.
The Embassy's human rights officer regularly discussed religious
freedom with the deputy director of the Committee on Religious Affairs
in the Cabinet of Ministers. The Embassy's human rights officer
maintains regular contact with religious leaders and human rights
activists on these and other issues.
NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
----------
ALGERIA
The Constitution declares Islam to be the state religion but
prohibits discrimination based on religious belief, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice.
Islam is the only legal religion, and the law limits the practice
of other faiths; however, the Government follows a de facto policy of
tolerance by not inquiring into the religious practices of individuals.
Terrorists continue to justify their killing of security force members
and civilians by referring to interpretations of religious texts. The
level of violence perpetrated by terrorists declined during the period
covered by this report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and religious homogeneity of society
contribute to the free practice of religion. A very small number of
citizens practice nonmainstream forms of Islam or other religions.
These groups do not seek political rights as groups, and there is
minimal societal discrimination against them.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The U.S. Embassy has worked with Islamic organizations to
promote exchanges with U.S.-based organizations, with a view toward
promoting democratic principles within these organizations.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution declares Islam to be the state religion but
prohibits discrimination based on religious belief, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice.
Islam is the only legal religion, and the law limits the practice
of other faiths; however, the Government follows a de facto policy of
tolerance by not inquiring into the religious practices of individuals.
Religious Demography
The vast majority of citizens belong to the Sunni branch of Islam.
There are no official data available on the number of non-Muslim
residents. Many citizens who practice non-Muslim faiths have fled the
country as a result of the civil war. Thus, the number of Christians
and Jews in the country is significantly lower today than the estimated
total before 1992. The small Christian community, which is
predominantly Roman Catholic, has approximately 25,000 members, and the
Jewish community numbers perhaps fewer than 100.
For security reasons, both Christians and Jews have concentrated in
Algiers and the larger cities of Constantine and Oran. There is also a
Christian community in the eastern region of Kabylie. The small
Christian and Jewish populations practice their faiths without
government interference.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The law prohibits public assembly for purposes of practicing a
faith other than Islam. However, there are Roman Catholic churches,
including a cathedral in Algiers, which is the seat of the Archbishop,
that conduct services without government interference. In 1994 the size
of the Jewish community diminished significantly, and its synagogue has
since been abandoned. There are only a few smaller churches and other
places of worship; non-Muslims usually congregate in private homes for
religious services.
Because Islam is the state religion, the country's education system
is structured to benefit Muslims. Education is free to all citizens
below the age of 16, and the study of Islam is a strict requirement in
the public schools, which are regulated by the Ministry of Education
and the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Private primary and secondary
schools are not permitted to operate.
The Government appoints preachers to mosques and gives general
guidance on sermons. The Government monitors activities in mosques for
possible security-related offenses. The Ministry of Religious Affairs
provides some financial support to mosques and has limited control over
the training of imams.
Conversions from Islam to other religions are rare. Because of
safety concerns and potential legal and social problems, Muslim
converts practice their new faith clandestinely. The Shari'a-based
Family Code prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslims, although
this regulation is not always enforced. The code does not restrict
Muslim men from marrying non-Muslim women.
Non-Islamic proselytizing is illegal, and the Government restricts
the importation of non-Islamic literature for widespread distribution.
Personal copies of the major works of other religions, such as the
Bible, may be brought into the country. Occasionally, such works are
sold in local bookstores in Algiers. However, many vendors refuse to
sell these works due to fear of reprisal by extremists, and, to a
lesser extent, because of government policy. The Government also
prohibits the dissemination of any literature that portrays violence as
a legitimate precept of Islam.
Under both Shari'a (Islamic law) and Algerian law, children born to
a Muslim father are Muslim, regardless of the mother's religion. Islam
does not allow conversion to other faiths at any age.
Religious affiliation is not noted on identity documents issued by
the Government.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
During the period covered by this report, an indeterminate number
of persons were serving prison sentences because of their alleged
Islamist sympathies or membership in Islamist groups; however, there
were no reports of cases in which it was clear that persons were
arrested or detained based solely on their religious beliefs.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
The country's 8-year civil conflict has pitted self-proclaimed
radical Muslims against moderate Muslims. Approximately 100,000
civilians, terrorists, and security forces have been killed during the
past 8 years. Extremist self-proclaimed Islamists have issued public
threats against all ``infidels'' in the country, both foreigners and
citizens, and have killed both Muslims and non-Muslims, including
missionaries. During the period covered by this report, extremists
continued attacks against both the Government and moderate Muslim and
secular civilians. The majority of the country's terrorist groups do
not, as a rule, differentiate between religious and political killings.
In the majority of cases during the period covered by this report, in
which both security forces and civilians died at the hands of
terrorists, the preferred methods of assault were knifings
(particularly throat-slitting), and shootings. Terrorists, claiming
religious justification for their actions, set up false roadblocks to
kill civilians and security forces personnel. Terrorists also killed
villagers and shepherds in their homes and fields, with firearms and
knives.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The majority of cases of harassment and security threats against
non-Muslims come from radical Islamists who are determined to rid the
country of those who do not share their extremist interpretation of
Islam (see Section I). However, a majority of the population subscribes
to Islamic precepts of tolerance in religious beliefs. Through joint
communiques, moderate Islamist religious and political leaders have
criticized publicly acts of violence committed in the name of Islam.
In general, noncitizens who practice faiths other than Islam enjoy
a high level of tolerance within society. However, citizens who
renounce Islam generally are ostracized by their families and shunned
by their neighbors, and expose themselves to the risk of attack by
radical extremists. The Government generally does not become involved
in these kinds of internal family disputes.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains frequent contact with the National
Observatory for Human Rights (ONDH), a quasi-governmental institution
that was established by the Government in response to international and
domestic pressure to improve Algeria's human rights record. The Embassy
assists wherever possible to augment the ONDH's ability to address
human rights abuses. The Embassy also maintains contact with the
Ministry of Religious Affairs and discusses religious freedom issues.
Because Algiers was rated as a ``critical threat'' post during the
period covered by this report, the U.S. Embassy's staff level was one-
third the size that it would have been under normal circumstances.
Officers were confined to the Embassy grounds and moved outside its
walls, for business purposes only, with armed escorts. For practical
and logistical purposes, the Embassy could not maintain regular contact
with leaders in the Muslim community or with the Ministry of Religious
Affairs. Nevertheless, the Embassy tracked human rights issues,
including religious freedom, as closely as possible under these
restrictive working conditions.
The Embassy maintains close contact with religious leaders in the
non-Muslim community, who cite the dangers posed by radical Islamists
as their principal concern regarding the safe practice of their faith.
The Embassy has established contacts with several moderate Islamist
organizations, including a social service nongovernmental organization
and a scholarly institute.
__________
BAHRAIN
The Constitution states that Islam is the official religion and
also provides for freedom of religion; however, the Government does not
tolerate political dissent, including from religious groups or leaders.
The Government subjects both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims to governmental
control and monitoring. Members of other religions who practice their
faith privately do so without interference from the Government.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Proselytizing by non-Muslims is discouraged, anti-Islamic writings
are prohibited, and conversions from Islam to other religions, while
not illegal, are not tolerated well by society. Although there are
notable exceptions, the Sunni Muslim minority enjoys a favored status.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution states that Islam is the official religion and
also provides for freedom of religion; however, the Government does not
tolerate political dissent, including from religious groups or leaders.
The Government subjects both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims to governmental
control and monitoring. Members of other religions who practice their
faith privately do so without interference from the Government.
Religious Demography
The population is overwhelmingly Muslim. Citizens belong to the
Shi'a and Sunni branches of Islam, with Shi'a constituting more than
two-thirds of the indigenous population. However, Sunnis predominate
because the ruling family is Sunni and is supported by the armed
forces, the security service, and powerful Sunni and Shi'a merchant
families. Foreigners constitute 35 to 40 percent of the total
population. Roughly half of resident foreigners are non-Muslim.
Christians and other non-Muslims, including Jews, Hindus, Baha'is,
Buddhists, and Sikhs, are free to practice their religion, maintain
their own places of worship, and display the symbols of their religion.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government funds, monitors, and closely controls all official
religious institutions. These include Shi'a and Sunni mosques, Shi'a
Ma'tams (ceremonial centers), Shi'a and Sunni Waqfs (charitable
foundations), and the religious courts, which represent both the
Ja'afari (Shi'a) and Maliki (Sunni) schools of Islamic jurisprudence.
While the Government rarely interferes with what it considers
legitimate religious observations, it actively suppresses any activity
deemed overtly political in nature. In the past, the Government
occasionally has closed mosques and Ma'tams for allowing political
demonstrations to take place on or near their premises and has detained
religious leaders for delivering political sermons or for allowing such
sermons to be delivered in their mosques. The Government also may
appropriate or withhold funding in order to reward or punish particular
individuals or places of worship. There were no reported closures of
Ma'tams or mosques during the period covered by this report.
The High Council for Islamic Affairs is charged with the review and
approval of all clerical appointments within both the Sunni and Shi'a
communities, and maintains program oversight for all citizens studying
religion abroad. Public religious events, most notably the large annual
commemorative marches by Shi'a, are permitted but are watched closely
by the police. There are no restrictions on the number of citizens
permitted to make pilgrimages to Shi'a shrines and holy sites in Iran,
Iraq, and Syria. However, stateless residents who do not possess
Bahraini passports often have difficulties arranging travel to
religious sites abroad. The Government monitors travel to Iran and
scrutinizes carefully those who choose to pursue religious study there.
Proselytizing by non-Muslims is discouraged, anti-Islamic writings
are prohibited, and conversions from Islam to other religions, while
not illegal, are not tolerated well by society. However, Bibles and
other Christian publications are displayed and sold openly in local
bookstores that also sell Islamic and other religious literature. Some
small groups worship in their homes. Notable dignitaries from virtually
every religion and denomination visit the country and frequently meet
with the Government and civic leaders. Religious tracts of all branches
of Islam, cassettes of sermons delivered by Muslim preachers from other
countries, and publications of other religions are readily available.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The political dynamic of Sunni predominance has led to incidents of
unrest between the Shi'a community and the Government, including during
the period covered by this report.
During the period covered by this report, the Government held in
detention hundreds of Shi'a for security-related crimes such as
treason. In June 1999, the Government gradually began freeing
incarcerated individuals as part of an Amiri decree calling for the
release or pardon of more than 350 Shi'a political prisoners,
detainees, and exiles. Since then, the Amir has pardoned at least
another 350 prisoners in December 1999 and the year 2000. In early July
1999, the Amir pardoned prominent Shi'a cleric Abdul Amir Al-Jamri, who
had been in prison since 1996. Since his release, the Government has
monitored Al-Jamri's movements closely. It also has denied him the
right to issue marital status certificates, a lucrative source of
income for many clerics. Several other clerics associated with Al-Jamri
remain in jail. On March 22, 2000, Shi'a cleric leader Abdul Wahab
Hussain was rearrested only hours after a judge released him following
more than 4 years in detention without charge. The authorities neither
brought charges against Hussain nor provided an explanation for his
rearrest. Hussain remained incarcerated in a Manama jail at the end of
the period covered by this report. By the end of the period covered by
this report, it is believed that less than 500 persons still remain in
detention for political reasons. There were no reports of religious
detainees or prisoners during the period covered by this report whose
imprisonment could be attributed to the practice of their religion.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Although there are notable exceptions, the Sunni Muslim minority
enjoys a favored status. Sunnis receive preference for employment in
sensitive government positions and in the managerial ranks of the civil
service. Shi'a citizens are not allowed to hold significant posts in
the defense and internal security forces. However, since April 1999,
Shi'a have been allowed to be employed in the enlisted ranks of the
Bahrain Defense Force and with the Ministry of the Interior, two bodies
in which Shi'a had been denied employment during the past 4 years. In
the private sector, Shi'a tend to be employed in lower paid, less
skilled jobs.
Educational, social, and municipal services in most Shi'a
neighborhoods, particularly in rural villages, are inferior to those
found in Sunni urban communities. In an effort to remedy social
discrimination, the Government has built numerous subsidized housing
complexes, which are open to all citizens on the basis of financial
need. In order to ease both the housing shortage and strains on the
national budget, in 1997 the Government revised its policy in order to
permit lending institutions to finance mortgages on apartment units.
The Government has declared the Shi'a religious celebration of
Ashura to be a national holiday, and allows Shi'a to stage public
demonstrations during the holiday. In a gesture of conciliation toward
the Shi'a community, the Amir donated rice and lamb to some 500 Shi'a
community centers for the 2000 Ashura.
Converts from Islam to other religions are not well tolerated by
society (see Section I).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
An official written dialog takes place between U.S. Embassy
officials and government contacts on matters of religion. One such
example is the memorandum received by the Embassy each year from the
Government in response to the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
for Bahrain.
__________
EGYPT
The Constitution provides for freedom of belief and the practice of
religious rites; however, the Government places restrictions on this
right. Under the Constitution, Islam is the official state religion and
primary source of legislation. Accordingly, religious practices that
conflict with Islamic law (Shari'a) are prohibited. However, in Egypt
the practice of Christianity or Judaism does not conflict with Shari'a
and, for the most part, members of the non-Muslim minority worship
without harassment and maintain links with coreligionists abroad.
There was a trend toward improvement in the Government's respect
for and protection of the right to religious freedom during the period
covered by this report. The Government undertook a series of
initiatives to address the concerns of the Christian community,
including the facilitation of church repairs, the appointment of Copts
to senior positions in the ruling political party, and expanded
treatment of Coptic themes in the media. There was a significant
increase in press and public discussion of the subject of religious
discrimination.
Many Egyptians agree that more needs to be done to eliminate
religious discrimination, but argue that development of the economy,
polity, and society is the most effective and enduring way to abolish
prejudice. A trade dispute between a Christian clothing merchant and a
Muslim customer that occurred on December 31, 1999, in the village of
Al-Kush in Sohag governorate, escalated into violent exchanges between
Muslims and Christians in the area, culminating in the death of 21
Christians and 1 Muslim on January 2, 2000.
The subject of religious freedom remains an important and active
part of the bilateral dialog between the U.S. and Egyptian Governments.
President Clinton, the U.S. Ambassador, other senior administration
officials, and members of Congress have raised U.S. concerns about
religious discrimination with President Hosni Mubarak and other senior
officials.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of belief and the practice of
religious rites; however, the Government places restrictions on this
right. Under the Constitution, Islam is the official state religion and
primary source of legislation. Accordingly, religious practices that
conflict with Shari'a are prohibited. However, in Egypt the practice of
Christianity or Judaism does not conflict with Shari'a and, for the
most part, members of the non-Muslim minority worship without
harassment and maintain links with coreligionists abroad.
All mosques must be licensed, and the Government is engaged in an
effort to control them legally. The Government appoints and pays the
salaries of the imams who lead prayers in mosques, proposes themes for
them, and monitors their sermons. In September 1999, the Minister of
Awqaf announced that the Government now controls 46,000 mosques and
12,000 ``zawaya'' (corner mosques, or mosques located within a
multipurpose building). (There are approximately 70,000 mosques in the
country.) In an effort to combat extremists, the Government has
announced its intention to bring all unauthorized mosques under its
control by 2002.
Religious Demography
Most Egyptians are Sunni Muslims. There is a small number of Shi'a
Muslims. Approximately 10 percent of the population, or 6 million of 64
million, are Christians, the majority of whom belong to the Coptic
Orthodox Church. Other traditionally Christian communities include the
Armenian, Greek, and Syrian Orthodox Churches, and the Coptic,
Armenian, Chaldean, Greek, Maronite, Roman, and Syrian Catholic
Churches. An Evangelical Protestant Church, first established in the
middle of the 19th century, has grown to a community of 17 Protestant
denominations. The Seventh-Day Adventist Church was granted legal
status in the 1960's. The non-Muslim, non-Coptic communities range in
size from several thousand to hundreds of thousands. Christians are
geographically dispersed throughout the country, although the
percentage of Christians tends to be higher in upper (southern) Egypt
than the national average.
The Jewish community currently numbers fewer than 200 persons.
There is also a very small number of Baha'is.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
An 1856 Ottoman decree still in force requires non-Muslims to
obtain what is now a presidential decree to build a place of worship.
In addition, Interior Ministry regulations issued in 1934 specify a set
of 10 conditions that the Government must consider prior to issuance of
a presidential decree permitting construction of a church. These
conditions include the location of the proposed site, the religious
composition of the surrounding community, and the proximity of other
churches.
The Ottoman decree also requires the President to approve permits
for the repair of church facilities. In response to strong criticism of
the decree, President Mubarak took several steps to facilitate church
repairs. In December 1999, President Mubarak issued a decree making the
repair of all places of worship subject to a 1976 civil construction
code. The decree is significant symbolically because it places churches
and mosques on equal footing before the law. The practical impact of
the decree has been to facilitate significantly church repairs. During
the period covered by this report, the Government approved a total of
32 permits for church-related construction, including 4 permits for the
construction of new churches; 6 permits for the construction of
additional church facilities; and 26 permits for churches previously
constructed without authorization. The Government reported that
governors issued more than 200 permits for church-related repair in
1999.
However, the approval process for church construction is time-
consuming and insufficiently responsive to the wishes of the Christian
community. Although President Mubarak reportedly has approved all
requests for permits presented to him, Christians maintain that the
Interior Ministry delays--in some instances indefinitely--submission to
the President of their requests. They also maintain that security
forces have blocked them from utilizing permits that have been issued.
As a result of these restrictions, some communities use private
buildings and apartments for religious services. In February 2000,
security forces closed a church operating without a permit in the city
of Al-Tour in the Sinai. The Christian community in the Sinai had
submitted its first request for a permit to construct a church in Al-
Tour in 1995. In April 2000, the Government issued a permit to build a
new church in the neighborhood of Al-Qalag in the city of Shebin Al-
Qanater in Qalubiya governorate. Security forces had closed the
community's historic church in 1989. In May 2000, the weekly Christian
newspaper Watany published an editorial series documenting the
Government's failure to issue church permits in 10 ``new communities''
(those areas outside the traditionally inhabited Nile Valley).
In January 1996, human rights activist Mamdouh Naklah filed suit
challenging the constitutionality of the Ottoman decree. In December
1998, an administrative court referred Naklah's case to the State
Commissioner's Office. This decision was considered a setback, as this
body of legal experts is not required to issue an opinion expeditiously
and its advisory opinions are not binding. The office had not issued an
opinion in this case by mid-2000. Once an opinion is issued, the court
is expected to try the case.
Neither the Constitution nor the Civil and Penal Codes prohibit
proselytizing or conversion. However, during the past 2 decades,
several dozen Christians who were accused of proselytizing or who had
converted from Islam to Christianity have been harassed by police or
arrested on charges of violating Article 98(F) of the Penal Code, which
prohibits citizens from ridiculing or insulting heavenly religions or
inciting sectarian strife. No such incidents occurred during the period
covered by this report.
There are no restrictions on the conversion of non-Muslims to
Islam. However, in cases involving conversion from Islam to
Christianity, authorities have charged several converts with violating
laws prohibiting the falsification of documents. In such instances,
converts, who fear government harassment if they officially register
the change from Islam to Christianity, have altered their
identification cards and other official documents themselves to reflect
their new religious affiliation. No such charges were raised during the
period covered by this report.
In 1997, human rights activist Mamdouh Naklah filed suit seeking
removal of the religious affiliation category from government
identification cards. Naklah challenged the constitutionality of a 1994
decree by the Minister of Interior governing the issuance of new
identification cards. The court referred the case to the State
Commissioner's Office. In May 2000, the State Commissioner's Office
issued an opinion noting that the legal challenge had not been filed
within 60 days of the decree's issuance, as required by law. However,
the advisory opinions of the State Commissioner's Office are not
binding. The court is now expected to try the case.
In 1960, President Gamal Abdel Nasser issued a decree (Law 263 for
1960) banning Baha'i institutions and community activities. All Baha'i
community properties, including Baha'i centers, libraries, and
cemeteries, were confiscated. This ban has not been rescinded.
According to a 1995 law, application of family law, including
marriage, divorce, alimony, child custody, inheritance, and burial, is
based on an individual's religion. In the practice of family law, the
State recognizes only the three ``heavenly religions:'' Islam,
Christianity, and Judaism. Muslim families are subject to the Personal
Status Law, which draws on Shari'a. Christian families are subject to
canon law, and Jewish families are subject to Jewish law. In cases of
family law disputes involving a marriage between a Christian woman and
a Muslim man, the courts apply the Personal Status Law. The children of
such marriages must be raised as Muslims. The Coptic Orthodox Church
excommunicates Christian women who marry Muslim men. Muslim women are
prohibited by Shari'a from marrying Christian men.
The Constitution requires schools to offer religious instruction.
Public and private schools provide religious instruction according to
the faith of the student.
The Minister of Awqaf, Hamdy Zaqzouq, established in 1996 a
committee to address a dispute with the Coptic Orthodox Church that
originated in 1952. At that time, the Government seized approximately
1,500 acres of land from the Church and transferred title to the
Ministry of Awqaf, which is responsible for administering religious
trusts. Based on the committee's recommendations, more than 800 acres
have been returned to the Church. The committee continues to review
claims to the remaining disputed property.
The Ministry of Awqaf engages in interfaith discussions both
domestically and abroad.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government occasionally prosecutes members of religious groups
whose practices deviate from mainstream Islamic beliefs and whose
activities are believed to jeopardize communal harmony. One focus of
government scrutiny has been the eponymous religious group established
in 1969 by Salim AlFaramawy, which advocates the belief that members
should isolate themselves from the State and society, which he
considered atheistic, and abjure the use of science and technology,
including medicine. Faramawy also advocated the consumption of dogs and
cats, a practice prohibited by Islam. After his death in 1991, his son-
in-law, Mohamed Gouda, reportedly assumed leadership of the group. In
March 2000, the State Security Prosecutor arrested 48 persons from
several governorates alleged to be members of the Faramawy group. Gouda
and the other 47 alleged members of the group remained in detention at
the end of the period covered by this report, pending completion of an
investigation by the Public Prosecutor.
On November 11, 1999, the State Security Prosecutor arrested 50
persons in Cairo suspected of heresy against Islam. On November 15,
1999, 30 detainees were released and the remaining 20 were charged with
degrading Islam, inciting strife, and meeting illegally. The lead
defendant, a woman named Manal Wahid Mana'a, was accused of attempting
to establish a new Islamic offshoot. She claims that the Prophet
Mohamed speaks to her. A State Security Emergency Court in Boulaq began
the trial of Mana'a and her followers on May 9, 2000. The next hearing
was scheduled for July 11, 2000.
In July 1999, a state security court in Alexandria convicted 14
persons of heresy against Islam. The lead defendant, Mohamed Ibrahim
Mahfouz, was sentenced to 5 years in prison for claiming that he speaks
directly to God and is at times transformed into God or the Prophet
Mohamed. Seven of his followers were sentenced to 3 years in prison.
Six of his followers were sentenced to 1 year in prison. Five other
defendants were acquitted.
In August 1999, the public prosecutor reopened and expanded an
investigation of police torture of mostly Christian detainees that took
place during the police investigation in August and September 1998 of
the murder of Samir Aweda Hakim and Karam Tamer Arsal in the largely
Coptic village of Al-Kush in Sohag governorate. This investigation of
police conduct is ongoing and no conclusions had been reached by mid-
2000. It is unclear whether religion was a factor in the actions of the
police officers. Some human rights groups outside Egypt believe that
religion was a factor in the Al-Kush murder investigation, but most
human rights and Christian activists in Egypt do not. Police abuse of
detainees is a widespread practice that occurs regardless of a
detainee's religious beliefs.
On June 5, 2000, a criminal court in Sohag city convicted Shayboub
William Arsal of the murder of Hakim and Arsal. The court sentenced
Shayboub to 15 years in prison at hard labor. An appeal is pending. The
Christian community of Al-Kush believes that Shayboub, a Christian
resident of Al-Kush, was accused and convicted of the crime because of
his religion. The public prosecution in Sohag has taken no action on
charges of witness tampering in Shayboub's trial that were raised in
1998 against Bishop Wisa and Arch-Priest Antonious.
An estimated several thousand persons are imprisoned because of
alleged support for or membership in Islamist groups seeking to
overthrow the Government. The Government states that these persons are
in detention because of membership in or activities on behalf of
violent extremist groups, without regard to religious affiliation.
There were no reports linking their detention solely to their religious
belief.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
There was a trend toward improvement in the Government's respect
for and protection of the right to religious freedom during the period
covered by this report. In December 1999, President Mubarak issued a
decree making the repair of all places of worship subject to a 1976
civil construction code. The decree is significant symbolically because
it places churches and mosques on equal footing before the law. The
practical impact of the decree has been to facilitate significantly
church repairs. In February 2000, President Mubarak announced the
reorganization of the Government's National Democratic Party (NDP),
including the appointment of five Copts to senior political party
positions. The NDP holds the vast majority of seats in Parliament. The
NDP and opposition political parties also have announced that they
intend to nominate Copts to run for seats in Parliament in the fall
2000 elections.
The Ministry of Tourism arranged festivities in June 2000, which
were attended by the Prime Minister and other senior dignitaries,
celebrating the millennium anniversary of the arrival of the Holy
Family, which, according to tradition, sojourned in Egypt. The Ministry
of Housing and the American Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Athra Kadisha were
expected to complete construction of a highway-bridge through the
ancient Basatin Jewish Cemetery in Cairo in September 2000. The project
is designed to be a modern highway--part of Cairo's Ring Road--that
traverses a cemetery but meets the religious strictures against moving
or vibrating buried bodies.
In January 1999, the Government formed a committee of academics to
revise the history curriculum in the primary and secondary schools. A
primary objective of the committee is to reintroduce into the
curriculum the Coptic and Byzantine periods of Egyptian history. During
the period covered by this report, new text was developed; however, it
has not yet been incorporated into the curriculum.
Building on actions first taken in December 1999 and January 2000,
government-owned television and radio significantly expanded the amount
of programming time devoted to Christian issues, including the live
broadcast of Christmas and Easter services and documentaries on the
Holy Family's travels in Egypt and other Christian history. Pope John
Paul II's February 2000 visit to Egypt, including his Mass, visits to
holy sites, and meetings with religious leaders, received extensive
press and television coverage. The Government introduced several
television dramas that emphasize religious tolerance, and news programs
pointedly sought official Christian views on topical matters. The media
did not broadcast any discriminatory programs. Government newspapers
provided more editorial space to Christian themes and authors than in
past years. The First Lady, Suzanne Mubarak, has endorsed the
development of reading materials that advocate tolerance. These
materials are distributed by projects under her patronage that promote
literacy and educational opportunities for girls.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
During the past 2 decades, the ``Islamic Group in Egypt'' (Islamic
Group) and other terrorist groups that seek the overthrow of the
Government have committed violent acts, including assaults against
government targets, foreign tourists, and Christians. There were no
reported terrorist incidents during the period covered by this report.
Government, Islamic, and community leaders have criticized the attacks
against Christians. The Government remains fully engaged in efforts to
arrest and convict these extremists. However, some Christians allege
that the Government is lax in protecting Christian lives and property.
In October 1999, a State Security Emergency Court in Assiyut city began
the trial of four members of a terrorist group from the upper city of
Dairout who were accused of the murder and attempted murder of
policemen and Christians in the early 1990's. On June 20, 2000, each of
the four defendants was sentenced to 5 years in prison.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Muslims and Copts share a common history and national identity.
They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language.
Christians are geographically dispersed throughout the country, and
Christians and Muslims live as neighbors. At times religious tensions
flare up and individual acts of prejudice occur. Discrimination is
practiced by members of both faiths. The majority of citizens agree
that more needs to be done to eliminate discrimination, but argue that
development of the economy, polity, and society is the most effective
and enduring way to abolish social prejudice.
The Constitution provides for equal public rights and duties
without discrimination due to religion or creed. For the most part,
these constitutional protections are upheld by the Government. However,
discrimination against Christians exists. There are no Christians
serving as governors, university presidents, and deans. There are few
Christians in the upper ranks of the security services and armed
forces. Although there was improvement in a few areas, government
discriminatory practices include: Suspected statistical
underrepresentation of the size of the Christian population; bias
against Christianity and Coptic history in the educational curriculums;
limited coverage of Christian subjects in the media; failure to admit
Christians into public university training programs for Arabic language
teachers (because the curriculum involves study of the Koran);
discrimination against Christians in the public sector; and
discrimination against Christians in staff appointments to public
universities.
Christians have been the objects of occasional violent assault by
the Islamic Group and other terrorists. However, there were no reports
of terrorist attacks against Christians during the period covered by
this report. In incidents unrelated to terrorism, a Christian priest in
the lower (northern) city of Mahalla and a Christian priest in the city
of Dairout were attacked by individual extremists in August and
September 1999, respectively. The assailant in the first case was
convicted on April 15, 2000 of assault and sentenced to 3 years at hard
labor. The assailant in the second case was determined to be mentally
unstable and placed in a state mental institution on April 29, 2000.
The Government provided the priests with medical care.
The public prosecutor charged Ahmad Fergally Ahmad Nasir and
Ibrahim Fergally Ahmad Nasir with premediated murder after the Nasir
brothers shot and killed a monk on September 2, 1999, in Assiyut
governorate following a land dispute. The monk was affiliated with a
monastery that rents thousands of acres of agricultural land to local
tenants, and the Nasir brothers were tenants on the land. The public
prosecutor appealed the September 21, 1999 verdict of a criminal court
that ruled that the Nasir brothers were guilty of an ``attack leading
to death'' and sentenced them to 7 years in prison. The public
prosecutor is seeking a conviction for premeditated murder. The case
was pending before an appeals court at mid-2000.
A trade dispute between a Christian clothing merchant and a Muslim
customer that occurred on December 31, 1999, in the village of Al-Kush
in Sohag governorate, escalated into violent exchanges between Muslims
and Christians in the area, resulting in the death of 21 Christians and
1 Muslim on January 2, 2000. The violence also resulted in the injury
of 39 persons in AlKush and 5 persons in the neighboring municipality
of Dar AlSalaam. Approximately 200 businesses and homes in the area
were damaged. Following the incident, President Mubarak sent the
Minister of Local Administration to Al-Kush as his emissary. The
Minister of Housing and the Public Prosecutor also visited Al-Kush to
investigate. The Government subsequently provided $882 (3000 Egyptian
pounds) to each of the families of those who were killed and $147 (500
Egyptian pounds) to each person who was injured. The Government
relocated and rebuilt 65 kiosks destroyed in the riots. The placement
of the kiosks prior to the incident had been a subject of longstanding
dispute between Christian and Muslim merchants. The Christian community
estimates that Christian residents and merchants lost $1,061,588
(3,609,400 Egyptian pounds) worth of merchandise and personal property
during the looting. The Ministry of Social Affairs thus far has
disbursed $15,560 (52,900 Egyptian pounds) in compensation. The Coptic
Orthodox Church has provided $192,779 (655,450 Egyptian pounds) in
compensation. Several individuals and organizations also provided
donations to the Christian community in Al-Kush.
On March 11, 2000 the Public Prosecutor announced the indictment of
135 persons for involvement in the sectarian violence, on charges
ranging from unlawful assembly to murder. Charges initially raised
against a local priest were dropped. On June 3, 2000 a criminal court
in Sohag city conducted the first hearing in the trial of 39 persons
indicted for committing acts of violence in the municipality of Dar Al-
Salaam. The next hearing was scheduled for July 3, 2000. On June 4,
2000, the same criminal court in Sohag city conducted the first hearing
in the trial of 96 persons accused of committing acts of violence in
the village of Al-Kush. The next hearing was scheduled for August 7,
2000. Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda stated publicly that negligence on
the part of the police and local leaders led to an increase in the
number of victims and an escalation of the violence. Although rumors
reportedly played a significant role in exacerbating the violence, no
incitement charges were brought. The Government did not investigate
police conduct; however, the director of state security for Sohag
governorate, Said Abu Al-Ma'aly, was removed from his position in
March.
On May 8, 2000, Islamist students from Al-Azhar University clashed
with police after their protest of the Culture Ministry's re-issuance
of a novel, which the students deemed insulting to Islam, turned
violent. Dozens of students were injured and approximately 75 were
detained for up to 15 days of questioning. None of the students were
charged for their roles in the incident. Islamic fundamentalists had
objected to the Culture Ministry's supposed pro-Western, anti-Islamic
orientation.
There were reports of forced conversions of Coptic girls to Islam.
Reports of such cases are disputed and often include inflammatory
allegations and categorical denials of kidnaping and rape. Observers,
including human rights groups, find it extremely difficult to determine
whether compulsion was used, as these cases typically involve a Coptic
girl who converts to Islam when she marries a Muslim boy. According to
the Government, the girl in such cases must meet with her family, with
her priest, and with the head of her church before she is allowed to
convert. However, there are credible reports of the Government's
failure to ensure that such meetings occur, of government harassment of
Christian families that attempt to regain custody of their daughters
prior to the marriage, and of the failure of the authorities to uphold
the law (which states that a marriage of a girl under the age of 16 is
prohibited, and between the ages of 16 and 21 is illegal without the
approval and presence of her guardian) in some cases of marriage
between an underage Christian girl and a Muslim male.
There is no legal requirement for a Christian girl or woman to
convert to Islam in order to marry a Muslim. If a Christian woman
marries a Muslim man, she is excommunicated by the Church. Ignorance of
the law and social pressure, including the centrality of marriage to a
woman's identity, often affect her decision. Family conflict and
financial pressure also are cited as factors. In addition, conversion
is a means of circumventing the legal prohibition on marriage between
the ages of 16 and 21 without the approval and presence of the girl's
guardian. Most Christian families would object to a daughter's wish to
marry a Muslim. However, if a Christian girl converts to Islam, her
family loses guardianship, which transfers to a Muslim custodian, who
is likely to grant approval. The law is silent on the matter of the
acceptable age of conversion.
Official relations between Christian and Muslim religious figures
are amicable, and include reciprocal visits to religious celebrations.
A committee on dialog was established in 1998 by the Vatican and Al-
Azhar, the country's foremost Islamic institution and a preeminent
seminary of Sunni Islamic study. Al-Azhar engages in other interfaith
discussions, both in the country and abroad. The Coptic Evangelical
Organization for Social Services (CEOSS) supports a Center for
Intercultural Dialog. In May 2000, Al-Azhar and the CEOSS cosponsored a
conference on ``Religious Thought and Justice.'' Held in the city of
Port Said, the conference drew more than 100 participants, including
the Minister of Awqaf and the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar. Other informal
interfaith discussions take place, as well. Private Christian schools
admit Muslim students, and religious charities serve both communities.
Rejecting foreign and some local negative characterizations of
government treatment of Christians, local Christian and Muslim leaders
formed a Council of ``Wise Men'' in 1998 to define the problems of the
Christian community and to propose solutions to the Government and
society. The council identified the following five priorities:
Abolishing the Ottoman decree and related regulations governing the
construction and repair of churches; increasing the number of
Christians nominated for elected positions by the governing National
Democratic Party; increasing the number of Christians appointed to
senior government positions; correcting the imbalance in media
treatment of Christian subjects and prohibiting the inclusion of
discriminatory materials; and correcting the deficiencies in the
educational curriculums, including insufficient treatment of the Coptic
era of history. The Government is addressing many of these concerns. In
February 2000, following the new year's sectarian violence in Sohag,
these leaders issued a second petition renewing their call on the
Government and society to abolish religious discrimination. In general
there was a significant increase in press and public discussion of
religious discrimination during the period covered by this report.
Anti-Semitism in the press is found in both the government press
and in the nonofficial press of the opposition parties. The Government
has advised journalists and cartoonists to avoid anti-Semitism. There
have been no anti-Semitic incidents in recent years directed at the
tiny Jewish community.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The subject of religious freedom is an important part of the
bilateral dialog. The subject has been raised at all levels of
government, including by the President, Secretary of State, Assistant
Secretary for Near Eastern Affairs, the U.S. Ambassador, and other
embassy officials. The Embassy maintains formal contacts with the
Office of Human Rights at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In addition,
the Ambassador has discussed religious freedom with senior government
officials and religious leaders. The Embassy also regularly discusses
religious freedom issues in contacts with other government officials,
including governors and Members of Parliament. In May 2000,
representatives from the State Department's Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights and Labor visited and met with official interlocutors and
community activists. Visiting congressional delegations have raised
religious freedom issues during visits with government officials.
The U.S. Embassy maintains an active dialog with the leaders of the
Christian and Muslim religious communities, human rights groups, and
other activists. The Embassy investigates every complaint of religious
discrimination brought to its attention. The Embassy also discusses
religious freedom with a range of contacts, including academics,
businessmen, and citizens outside of the capital area, as well as those
from a lower-income background.
The U.S. Mission, including the Department of State and the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID), works in concert to
expand human rights and to ameliorate the conditions that breed
religious strife by promoting economic, social, and political
development. U.S. programs and activities support initiatives in
several areas directly related to religious freedom. During the period
covered by this report, the Mission provided training to Egyptian
police in human rights practices and community policing techniques. The
Mission is working to strengthen civil society, including training for
nongovernmental groups that promote religious tolerance. In March 2000,
the Nongovernmental Organization Service Center was funded by USAID to
provide training and technical assistance to Egyptian NGO's began
operating. The Embassy has nominated participants interested in
advocacy for the international visitors program, and invited American
specialists in this subject as part of the State Department's Speakers
Program. Another mission initiative is to strengthen the rule of law.
USAID supports a major effort to improve the administration of justice,
and State Department exchange activities promote legal reform and
access to justice. The Mission also promotes civic education. The
public affairs section of the Embassy is supporting the development of
materials that encourage tolerance, diversity, and understanding of
others, in both Arabic-language and English-language curriculums.
USAID, in collaboration with the Children's Television Workshop,
developed an Egyptian version of the television program Sesame Street,
which is designed to reach isolated households and has as one of its
goals the promotion of tolerance. The show was scheduled to begin in
the summer of 2000; it had not been aired by the end of the period
covered by this report. USAID also supports private voluntary
organizations that are implementing innovative curriculums in private
schools. The public affairs section of the Embassy is leading an effort
to increase the professionalism of the press, with an emphasis on
balanced and responsible coverage. Finally, USAID is working with the
Supreme Council of Antiquities to promote the conservation of cultural
antiquities, including Islamic, Christian, and Jewish historical sites.
__________
IRAN
The Government restricts freedom of religion. The Constitution
declares that the ``official religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine
followed is that of Ja'fari (Twelver) Shi'ism.'' Members of Iran's
religious minorities--including Baha'is, Jews, Christians, and Sufi
Muslims--reported imprisonment, harassment, and intimidation based on
their religious beliefs. At least 11 Baha'is were among those still
imprisoned for reasons related to their faith, while 10 Jews remained
in prison after being convicted for cooperating with a hostile
government, belonging to an illegal organization, and recruiting
members in an illegal organization.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Society is accustomed to the presence of Iran's pre-Islamic, non-
Muslim communities. However, government actions create a threatening
atmosphere for some religious minorities, especially Baha'is, Jews, and
evangelical Christians. The Revolutionary Court's conduct in the trial
of 13 Jews contributed to worsening societal attitudes toward the
Jewish community.
The U.S. Government makes clear its objections to the Government's
treatment of religious minorities in public statements, support for
relevant U.N. and nongovernmental organization (NGO) efforts, and in
diplomatic contacts with other countries.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated Iran a country
of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Government restricts freedom of religion. The Constitution
declares that the ``official religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine
followed is that of Ja'fari (Twelver) Shi'ism.'' It also states that
``other Islamic denominations are to be accorded full respect,'' and
designates Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians as the only ``recognized
religious minorities,'' which, ``within the limits of the law,'' are
permitted to perform their religious rites and ceremonies and ``to act
according to their own canon in matters of personal affairs and
religious education.'' Although the Constitution states that ``the
investigation of individuals'' beliefs is forbidden'' and that ``no one
may be molested or taken to task simply for holding a certain belief,''
the adherents of religions not specifically protected under the
Constitution do not enjoy freedom of activity. This situation most
directly affects members of the Baha'i Faith.
The central feature of the country's Islamic republican system is
rule by a ``religious jurisconsult.'' Its senior leadership, including
the Supreme Leader of the Revolution, the President, the head of the
judiciary, and the Speaker of the Islamic Consultative Assembly
(Parliament), is composed principally of Shi'a clergymen.
Religious activity is monitored closely by the Ministry of Islamic
Culture and Guidance and by the Ministry of Intelligence and Security
(MOIS). Adherents of recognized religious minorities are not required
to register individually with the Government, although their community,
religious, and cultural events and organizations, as well as schools,
are monitored closely. Baha'is are not recognized by the Government as
a legitimate religious group but are considered an outlawed political
organization. Registration of Baha'i adherents is a police function.
Evangelical Christian groups have been pressured by government
authorities to compile and hand over membership lists for their
congregations. Evangelicals have resisted this demand.
Religious Demography
The population is approximately 99 percent Muslim, of which 89
percent are Shi'a and 10 percent are Sunni (mostly Turkomen, Arabs,
Baluchs, and Kurds living in the southwest, southeast, and northwest).
Sufi Brotherhoods are popular, but there are no reliable figures
available to judge their true size.
Baha'is, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews constitute less than 1
percent of the population. The largest non-Muslim minority is the
Baha'i Faith, estimated at about 300,000 to 350,000 adherents
throughout the country. Estimates on the size of the Jewish community
vary from 25,000 to 30,000. These figures represent a substantial
reduction from the estimated 75,000 to 80,000 Jews who resided in the
country prior to the 1979 Revolution. The Christian community is
estimated at approximately 117,000 persons, according to government
figures. Of these the majority consists of ethnic Armenians and
AssyroChaldeans. There are also Protestant denominations, including
evangelical churches.
The Government figures reported by the United Nations in 1996 place
the size of the Zoroastrian community at approximately 35,000
adherents. Zoroastrian groups cite a larger figure of approximately
60,000, according to the same United Nations report. Zoroastrians are
mainly ethnic Persians concentrated in the cities of Tehran, Kerman,
and Yazd. Zoroastrianism was the official religion of the pre-Islamic
Sassanid Empire and thus has played a central role in Iranian history.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The U.N. Special Representative for Human Rights in Iran noted in
his September 1998 report frequent assertions that religious minorities
are, by law and practice, barred from being elected to a representative
body (except to the seats in the Majles reserved for minorities, as
provided for in the Constitution) and from holding senior government or
military positions. Members of religious minorities are allowed to
vote, but they may not run for president. All religious minorities
suffer varying degrees of officially sanctioned discrimination,
particularly in the areas of employment, education, and housing.
Members of religious minorities generally are barred from becoming
school principals. Applicants for public-sector employment are screened
for their adherence to Islam. The law stipulates penalties for
government workers who do not observe ``Islam's principles and rules.''
Religious minorities may not serve in the army, the judiciary, or the
security services. The Constitution states that ``the Army of the
Islamic Republic of Iran must be an Islamic army, i.e., committed to an
Islamic ideology and the people, and must recruit into its service
individuals who have faith in the objectives of the Islamic Revolution
and are devoted to the cause of achieving its goals.'' Baha'is are
prohibited from government employment.
University applicants are required to pass an examination in
Islamic theology, which limits the access of most religious minorities
to higher education (despite the fact that public-school students
receive instruction in Islam).
The Government allows recognized religious minorities to conduct
the religious education of their adherents. This includes separate and
privately funded Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian schools, but not
Baha'i schools. The Ministry of Education, which imposes certain
curriculum requirements, supervises these schools. With few exceptions,
the directors of these private schools must be Muslim. Attendance at
these schools is not mandatory for recognized religious minorities. All
textbooks used in course work must be approved for use by the Ministry
of Education, including religious texts. Religious texts in non-Persian
languages require approval by the authorities for use. This requirement
imposes sometimes significant translation expenses on minority
communities.
Recognized religious minorities may provide religious instruction
in non-Persian languages but often come under pressure from the
authorities when conducting such instruction in Persian. In particular,
evangelical Christian and Jewish communities suffer harassment and
arrest by authorities for the printing of materials or delivery of
sermons in Persian.
Recognized religious minorities are allowed by the Government to
establish community centers and certain cultural, social, sports, or
charitable associations that they finance themselves. This does not
apply to the Baha'i community, which since 1983 has been denied the
right to assemble officially or to maintain administrative
institutions. Because the Baha'i Faith has no clergy, the denial of the
right to form such institutions and elect officers has threatened its
existence.
Religious minorities suffer discrimination in the legal system,
receiving lower awards in injury and death lawsuits, and incurring
heavier punishments, than Muslims. Muslim men are free to marry non-
Muslim women but marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men are
not recognized.
The Government is highly suspicious of any proselytizing of Muslims
by non-Muslims and can be harsh in its response, in particular against
Baha'is and evangelical Christians. The Government regards the Baha'i
community, whose faith originally derives from a strand of Islam, as a
``misguided'' or ``wayward'' sect. The Government fuels anti-Baha'i and
anti-Jewish sentiment in the country for political purposes.
The Government does not ensure the right of citizens to change or
renounce their religious faith. Apostasy, specifically conversion from
Islam, can be punishable by death.
The Baha'i Faith originated in Iran during the 1840's as a
reformist movement within Shi'a Islam. Initially it attracted a wide
following among Shi'a clergy. The political and religious authorities
of that time joined to suppress the movement, and since then the
hostility of the Shi'a clergy to the Baha'i Faith has remained intense.
Baha'is are considered apostates because of their claim to a valid
religious revelation subsequent to that of Muhammad. The Baha'i Faith
is defined by the Government as a political ``sect'' historically
linked to the Shah's regime and, hence, as counterrevolutionary and
characterized by its espionage activities for the benefit of foreign
entities, particularly Israel. Historically at risk in the country,
Baha'is often have suffered increased levels of harassment and abuse
during times of political unrest.
Baha'is may not teach or practice their faith or maintain links
with coreligionists abroad. The fact that the Baha'i world headquarters
(established by the founder of the Baha'i Faith in the 19th century in
what was then Ottoman-controlled Palestine) is situated in what is now
the state of Israel, exposes Baha'is to government charges of
``espionage on behalf of Zionism,'' in particular when caught
communicating with or sending monetary contributions to the Baha'i
Faith headquarters.
Broad restrictions on Baha'is appear to be geared to destroying
them as a community. Baha'is repeatedly have been offered relief from
oppression if they were prepared to recant their faith.
Baha'i cemeteries, holy places, historical sites, administrative
centers and other assets were seized shortly after the 1979 revolution.
None of the properties have been returned, and many have been
destroyed. Baha'is are not allowed to bury and honor their dead in
keeping with their religious tradition. They are permitted access only
to areas of wasteland, designated by the Government for their use, and
are not allowed to mark the graves. Many historic Baha'i gravesites
have been desecrated or destroyed. In October 1998, three Bahai's were
arrested in Damavand, a city north of Tehran, on the grounds that they
had buried their dead without government authorization.
Baha'i group meetings and religious education, which often take
place in private homes and offices, are curtailed severely. Public and
private universities continue to deny admittance to Baha'i students, a
particularly demoralizing blow to a community that traditionally has
placed a high value on education. Denial of access to higher education
appears aimed at the eventual impoverishment of the Baha'i community.
Baha'is regularly are denied compensation for injury or criminal
victimization. Government authorities claim that only Muslim plaintiffs
are eligible for compensation in these circumstances.
A 1993 law prohibits government workers from membership in groups
that deny the ``divine religions,'' terminology that the Government
uses to label members of the Baha'i Faith. The law also stipulates
penalties for government workers who do not observe ``Islamic
principles and rules.''
In 1993 the U.N. Special Representative reported the existence of a
government policy directive on the Baha'is. According to the directive,
the Supreme Revolutionary Council instructed government agencies to
block the progress and development of the Baha'i community, expel
Baha'i students from universities, cut the Baha'is' links with groups
outside the country, restrict the employment of Baha'is, and deny
Baha'is ``positions of influence,'' including those in education. The
Government claims that the directive is a forgery. However, it appears
to be an accurate reflection of current government practice.
While the Government eased some restrictions thereby enabling
Baha'is to obtain food-ration booklets and send their children to
public schools, the prohibition against the admission of Baha'is to
universities remains. Thousands of Baha'is dismissed from government
jobs in the early 1980's receive no unemployment benefits and have been
required to repay the Government for salaries or pensions received from
the first day of employment. Those unable to do so face prison
sentences.
In his 1996 report to the U.N. Commission on Human Rights, the U.N.
Special Rapporteur on the Question of Religious Intolerance recommended
``that the ban on the Baha'i organization should be lifted to enable it
to organize itself freely through its administrative institutions,
which are vital in the absence of a clergy, so that it can engage fully
in its religious activities.'' In response to the Special Rapporteur's
concerns with regard to the lack of official recognition of the Baha'i
Faith, government officials stated that the Baha'is ``are not a
religious minority, but a political organization which was associated
with the Shah's regime, is against the Iranian Revolution and engages
in espionage activities.'' According to the Special Rapporteur,
government officials stated nonetheless that, as individuals, all
Baha'is were entitled to their beliefs and were protected under other
articles of the Constitution as citizens.
During the period covered by this report, the Government of Iran
took some positive steps in recognizing the rights of Baha'is, as well
as other religious minorities.
In November 1999, President Khatami publicly stated that no one in
Iran should be persecuted because of his or her religious beliefs. He
added that he would defend the civil rights of all citizens, regardless
of their beliefs or religion. Subsequently, the Expediency Council
approved the ``Right of Citizenship'' bill, affirming the social and
political rights of all citizens and their equality before the law. In
February 2000, following approval of the bill, the head of the
judiciary issued a circular letter to all registry offices throughout
the country, which permits any couple to be registered as husband and
wife without being required to state their religious affiliation. This
measure effectively permits the registration of Baha'i marriages in
Iran. Previously, Baha'i marriages were not recognized by the
Government, leaving Baha'i women open to charges of prostitution.
Consequently, children of Baha'i marriages were not recognized as
legitimate and, therefore, were denied inheritance rights. The impact
of the new registration policy on the status of Baha'i families remains
unclear.
Although Sunni Muslims are accorded full respect under the terms of
the Constitution, some groups claim discrimination on the part of the
Government. In particular, Sunnis cite the lack of a Sunni mosque in
Tehran and claim that authorities refuse to authorize construction of a
Sunni place of worship in the capital.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The property rights of Baha'is generally are disregarded. Since
1979, large numbers of private and business properties belonging to
Baha'is have been confiscated. During the period covered by this
report, three Baha'i homes in Yazd and one in Arbakan were confiscated
because their owners were members of the Baha'i community. In September
and October 1998, government officers plundered more than 500 Baha'i
homes throughout the country and seized personal household effects,
such as furniture and appliances. Seizure of personal property, in
addition to the denial of access to education and employment, is
eroding the economic base of the Baha'i community.
Ruhollah Rowhani, a Baha'i, was executed in July 1998 after having
served 9 months in solitary confinement on a charge of apostasy
stemming from allegedly having converted a Muslim woman to the Baha'i
Faith. The woman concerned asserted that her mother was a Baha'i and
that she herself had been raised a Baha'i. Rowhani was not accorded a
public trial or sentencing for his alleged crime, and no sentence was
announced prior to his execution.
The Government of Iran continued to imprison and detain persons
based on their religious beliefs. Manuchehr Khulusi was arrested in
June 1999 while visiting fellow Baha'is in the town of Birjand, and was
imprisoned until his release in May 2000. During his imprisonment,
Khulusi was interrogated, beaten, held in solitary confinement, and
denied access to his lawyer. The charges brought against him are still
unknown, but they were believed to be related to his faith. The Islamic
Revolutionary Court in Mashhad held a 2-day trial in September 1999 and
then sentenced him to death in February 2000. Despite Khulusi's
release, it is unclear if the conviction and death sentence against him
still stand.
Two Baha'is, Sirus Zabihi-Moghaddam and Hadayat KashefiNajafabadi,
are currently in prison for apostasy. Their death sentences were
reaffirmed in February 2000. They were tried for apostasy alongside
Rowhani. Four Baha'is are currently on death row--two for ``Zionist
Baha'i activities'' and two for apostasy.
During the period covered by this report, authorities in Khurasan
intensified their efforts to intimidate and undermine Baha'i education.
Two teachers in Mashhad were arrested and sentenced to 3 years'
imprisonment. Their students were given suspended sentences, to be
carried out if the young persons again participated in religious
education classes. Three more Baha'is were arrested in Bujnurd in
northern Khurasan for participating in religious education gatherings.
After 6 days in prison, they were released with suspended sentences of
5 years. The use of suspended sentences appears to be a new tactic for
the Government to discourage Baha'is from taking part in monthly
religious gatherings.
In September 1998, authorities launched a nationwide operation to
disrupt the activities of the Baha'i Institute of Higher Learning, also
known as the ``Open University,'' which was established by the Baha'i
community shortly after the revolution to offer higher educational
opportunities to Baha'i students who had been denied access to the
country's high schools and universities. The Institute employed Baha'i
faculty and professors, many of whom had been dismissed from teaching
positions by the Government as a result of their faith, and conducted
classes in homes or offices owned or rented by Baha'is. During the
operation, which took place in at least 14 different cities, 36 faculty
members were arrested and a variety of personal property, including
books, papers, and furniture, either were destroyed or confiscated.
Government interrogators sought to force the detained faculty members
to sign statements acknowledging that the Open University was now
defunct and pledging not to associate with it in the future. Baha'is
outside the country report that none of the 36 detainees would sign the
document. All but 4 of the 36 persons detained during the September
1998 raid on the Baha'i Institute were released by November 1998.
In March 1999, Dr. Sina Hakiman, Farzad Khajeh Sharifabadi,
Habibullah Ferdosian Najafabadi, and Ziaullah Mirzapanah, the four
remaining detainees from the September 1998 raid, were convicted under
Article 498 of the Penal Code and sentenced to prison terms ranging
from 3 to 10 years. In the court verdict, the four were accused of
having established a ``secret organization'' engaged in ``attracting
youth, teaching against Islam, and teaching against the regime of the
Islamic Republic.'' According to Baha'i groups outside Iran, the four
taught general science and Persian literature courses. In July 1999,
Mirzapanah, who had been sentenced to 3 years in prison, became ill and
was hospitalized. Prison authorities allowed him to return home upon
his recovery on the understanding that they could find him whenever
necessary. The other three were released in December 1999.
The Government appears to adhere to a practice of keeping a small
number of Baha'is in arbitrary detention, some at risk of execution, at
any given time. There were 11 Baha'is reported to be under arrest for
the practice of their faith as of June 1999, 4 under sentence of death.
The authorities have become particularly vigilant in recent years
in curbing what is perceived as increasing proselytizing activities by
evangelical Christians whose services are conducted in Persian.
Government officials have reacted to this perceived activity by closing
evangelical churches and arresting converts. Members of evangelical
congregations have been required to carry membership cards, photocopies
of which must be provided to the authorities. Worshipers are subject to
identity checks by authorities posted outside congregation centers.
Meetings for evangelical services have been restricted by the
authorities to Sundays, and church officials have been ordered to
inform the Ministry of Information and Islamic Guidance before
admitting new members to their congregations.
As conversion of a Muslim to a non-Muslim religion may be
considered apostasy under traditional Shari'a practices enforced in the
country, non-Muslims may not proselytize Muslims without putting their
own lives at risk. Evangelical church leaders are subject to pressure
from authorities to sign pledges that they would not evangelize Muslims
or allow Muslims to attend church services.
One U.S.-based organization reported 8 deaths of evangelical
Christians at the hands of authorities in the past 11 years and between
15 and 23 disappearances in the year between November 1997 and November
1998.
Oppression of evangelical Christians continued during the period
covered by this report. Christian groups recently reported instances of
government harassment of churchgoers in Tehran, in particular against
worshipers at the Assembly of God congregation in the capital.
Instances of harassment cited included conspicuous monitoring outside
Christian premises by Revolutionary Guards to discourage Muslims or
converts from entering church premises and demands for presentation of
identity papers of worshipers inside. Iranian Christians International
(ICI) detailed the cases of Alireza and Mahboobeh Mahmoudian, converts
to Christianity and lay leaders of the Saint Simon the Zealot Osgofi
Church in Shiraz, who were forced to leave the country permanently in
June 1998 after continued harassment by authorities. ICI reported that
Alireza Mahmoudian had lost his job because of his conversion and had
been beaten repeatedly by Basijis (paramilitary forces) and Ansar-e
Hizbollah (gangs of thugs often aligned with specific members of the
leadership) on orders of government officials from the Ministry of
Islamic Guidance. His wife, Mahboobeh, also had been the subject of
intimidation, principally through frequent and aggressive interrogation
by government officials.
While Jews are a recognized religious minority, allegations of
official discrimination are frequent. The Government's anti-Israel
policies, coupled with a perception among radicalized Muslim elements
that Jewish citizens support Zionism and the State of Israel, create a
threatening atmosphere for the small Jewish community. Jewish leaders
reportedly are reluctant to draw attention to official mistreatment of
their community due to fear of government reprisal.
Some Jewish groups outside Iran cite an increase in anti-Semitic
propaganda in the official and semiofficial media as adding to the
pressure felt by the Jewish community. One example cited is the
periodic publication of the anti-Semitic and fictitious Protocols of
the Elders of Zion, both by the Government and by periodicals
associated with hardline elements of the regime. In 1986 the Iranian
Embassy in London was reported to have published and distributed the
Protocols in English. The Protocols also were published in serial form
in the country in 1994 and again in January 1999. On the latter
occasion they were published in Sobh, a conservative monthly
publication reportedly aligned with the security services.
There appears to be little restriction or interference with their
religious practice or education; however, Jews were eased out of the
Government after 1979. Jews are permitted to obtain passports and to
travel outside the country but, with the exception of certain business
travelers, are required by the authorities to obtain clearance (and pay
additional fees) before each trip abroad. The Government appears
concerned about the emigration of Jews and permission generally is not
granted for all members of a Jewish family to travel outside the
country at the same time.
In March 1999, 13 Jews were arrested in the cities of Shiraz and
Isfahan and purportedly accused of espionage. Neither the defendants
nor their legal counsel were informed of the formal charges facing the
group until the trial began in April 2000. Among the group were several
prominent rabbis, teachers of Hebrew, and their students, including a
16-year-old boy. Governments and human rights groups around the world
criticized the arrests and the lack of due process accorded to the
defendants. They also called for the safe treatment of the detainees,
who were allowed only limited contact with defense counsel, sporadic
family visits, and deliveries of kosher food. On July 1, 2000, the
Revolutionary Court in Shiraz convicted 10 of the accused on charges of
cooperating with a hostile government, membership in an illegal
organization, and recruiting members in an illegal organization, and
sentenced them to between 4 and 13 years in prison. Three of the
original 13 were acquitted.
Jewish groups outside Iran noted that the March 1999 arrest of the
13 Jewish individuals coincided with an increase in anti-Semitic
propaganda in newspapers and journals associated with hardline elements
of the Government. Since the trial began in April 2000, Jewish
businesses in Tehran and Shiraz have been targets of vandalism and
boycotts, and Jews reportedly suffered personal harassment and
intimidation.
Human Rights Watch reported the death in May 1998 of Jewish
businessman Ruhollah Kakhodah-Zadeh, who was hanged in prison without a
public charge or legal proceeding. Reports indicate that Kakhodah-Zadeh
may have been killed for assisting Jews to emigrate. As an accountant,
Kakhoda-Zadeh provided powerofattorney services for Jews departing the
country.
The Government restricts the movement of several senior religious
leaders, some of whom have been under house arrest for years, and often
charges members of religious minorities with crimes such as drug
offenses, ``confronting the regime,'' and apostasy.
Human Rights Watch reported in 1998 the killing of Sunni prayer
leader Molavi Imam Bakhsh Narouie in the province of Sistan
vaBaluchistan in the southeast. This led to protests from the local
community, which believed that government authorities were involved in
the murder.
Majdhub Alishahi, an adherent of the Sufi tradition, reportedly was
executed on charges of adultery and homosexuality after a coerced
confession in 1996. Sufi organizations outside the country remain
concerned about repression by the authorities of Sufi religious
practices.
There were no reports of government harassment of the Zoroastrian
community during the period covered by this report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States. However, according to the tenets of
Islam, a child born to a Muslim father is automatically considered a
Muslim.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The continuous activity of Iran's pre-Islamic, non-Muslim
communities, such as Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians, has accustomed
the population to the presence of non-Muslims in society. However,
government actions create a threatening atmosphere for some religious
minorities.
The Jewish community has been reduced to more than one-half its
pre-revolutionary size. Some of this emigration is connected with the
larger, general waves of departures following the establishment of the
Islamic Republic, but some also stems from perceived anti-Semitism on
the part of the Government and within society.
The Government's anti-Israel policies and the trial of the 13 Jews,
coupled with the perception among some of the country's radicalized
elements that Iranian Jews support Zionism and the State of Israel,
create a threatening atmosphere for the Jewish community (see Section
I). Many Jews have sought to limit their contact with or support for
the State of Israel out of fear of reprisal.
Sunni Muslims encounter religious discrimination at the local
level, and reports of discrimination against practitioners of the Sufi
tradition surfaced during the period covered by this report.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The United States has no diplomatic relations with Iran and thus
cannot raise directly with the Government the restrictions the
Government places on religious freedom and other abuses that it commits
against adherents of minority religions. The U.S. Government makes its
position clear in public statements, support for relevant United
Nations and NGO efforts, and in diplomatic contacts with other
countries.
The President has made a number of statements regarding the
treatment of religious minorities in Iran, including a June 1998
statement criticizing the execution of Ruhollah Rowhani, a member of
the Baha'i Faith, and statements in June 1999 and July 2000 calling on
the Government to exonerate the imprisoned members of Iran's Jewish
community. The Secretary of State also called on Iran to release and
drop charges against the 13 Jews, 10 of whom were convicted and
remained in prison at the end of the period covered by this report.
The U.S. Government has cosponsored each year since 1982 a
resolution regarding the human rights situation in Iran offered by the
European Union at the annual meeting of the U.N. Commission on Human
Rights. The United States has supported a similar resolution offered
each year during the United Nations General Assembly. The U.S.
Government has supported strongly the work of the U.N. Special
Representative on Human Rights for Iran and called on the Iranian
Government to grant him admission and allow him to conduct his research
(he has been denied entry visas since 1996).
The U.S. State Department spokesman on numerous occasions has
addressed the situation of the Baha'i and Jewish communities, notably
following the Secretary's March 17, 2000 speech on Iran, the execution
of Ruhollah Rowhani in June 1998, the Government's actions against the
Baha'i Institute of Higher Education in September 1998, and repeatedly
after the arrest of 13 members of the Iranian Jewish community in March
1999. The U.S. Government has encouraged other governments to make
similar statements and has pressed those governments to raise the issue
of religious freedom in discussions with the Iranian Government.
In September 1999 the Secretary of State designated Iran a country
of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
__________
IRAQ
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government severely limits this right in practice, represses the Shi'a
religious leadership, and seeks to exploit religious differences for
political purposes. Islam is the official state religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Although Shi'a Arabs are the largest religious group, Sunni Arabs
traditionally have dominated economic and political life. Sunni Arabs
are at a distinct advantage in all areas of secular life. The
Government also severely restricts or bans outright many Shi'a
religious practices. The Government has for decades conducted a brutal
campaign of murder, summary execution, arbitrary arrest, and protracted
detention against the religious leaders and followers of the majority
Shi'a Muslim population and has sought to undermine the identity of
minority Christian (Assyrian and Chaldean) and Yazidi groups. The
regime has systematically killed senior Shi'a clerics, desecrated Shi'a
mosques and holy sites, interfered with Shi'a religious education, and
prevented Shi'a adherents from performing their religious rites.
The United States has no diplomatic relations with Iraq and thus is
unable to raise directly with the Government the problems of severe
restrictions on religious freedom and other human rights abuses.
However, the U.S. Government makes its position clear in public
statements and in diplomatic contacts with other states.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated Iraq a country
of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the
Government severely restricts this right in practice. Islam is the
official state religion. The Constitution does not provide for the
recognition of Assyrians, Chaldeans, or Yazidis.
The Government's registration requirements for religious
organizations are unknown. New political parties must be based in
Baghdad and are prohibited from having any ethnic or religious
character. The Government does not recognize political organizations
that have been formed by Shi'a Muslims or Assyrian Christians. These
groups continued to attract support despite their illegal status. There
are religious qualifications for government office; candidates for the
National Assembly, for example, ``must believe in God.''
There are no Shari'a (Islamic law) courts as such. Civil courts are
empowered to administer Islamic law in cases involving personal status,
such as divorce and inheritance.
Religious Demography
While a precise statistical breakdown is impossible because of
likely inaccuracies in the latest census (taken in 1997), according to
conservative estimates, 97 percent of the population of 22 million
persons are Muslim. The (predominantly Arab) Shi'a Muslims constitute a
60 to 65 percent majority, while Sunni Muslims make up 32 to 37 percent
(approximately 18 to 20 percent are Sunni Kurds, 12 to 15 percent are
Sunni Arabs, and the rest are Sunni Turkomans). The remaining
approximately 3 percent consist of Christians (Assyrians, Chaldeans,
Roman Catholics, and Armenians), Yazidis, and a small number of Jews.
The Shi'a, though predominantly located in the south, also are
present in large numbers in Baghdad and have communities in most parts
of the country. Sunnis form the majority in the center of the country
and in the north.
Shi'a and Sunni Arabs are not ethnically distinct. Shi'a Arabs have
supported an independent Iraq alongside their Sunni brethren since the
1920 Revolt; many Shi'a joined the Ba'ath Party and formed the backbone
of the Iraqi Army in the 1980-88 Iran-Iraq War.
Assyrians and Chaldeans are considered by many to be distinct
ethnic groups as well as the descendants of some of the earliest
Christian communities. These communities speak a distinct language
(Syriac). Although these groups do not define themselves as Arabs, the
Government defines Assyrians and Chaldeans as such, evidently to
encourage them to identify with the Sunni-Arab dominated regime.
Christians are concentrated in the north and in Baghdad.
The Yazidis are a syncretistic religious group (or a set of several
groups). Many Yazidis consider themselves to be ethnically Kurdish,
though some would define themselves as both religiously and ethnically
distinct from Muslim Kurds. However, the Government, without any
historical basis, has defined the Yazidis as Arabs. Yazidis are located
in the north of the country.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Although Shi'a Arabs are the largest religious group, Sunni Arabs
traditionally have dominated economic and political life. Sunni Arabs
are at a distinct advantage in all areas of secular life, be it civil,
political, military, or economic.
The following government restrictions on religious rights remained
in effect throughout the period covered by this report: restrictions
and outright bans on communal Friday prayer by Shi'a; restrictions on
Shi'a mosque libraries loaning books; a ban on the broadcast of Shi'a
programs on government-controlled radio or television; a ban on the
publication of Shi'a books, including prayer books and guides; a ban on
funeral processions other than those organized by the Government; a ban
on other Shi'a funeral observances such as gatherings for Koran
reading; and the prohibition of certain processions and public meetings
commemorating Shi'a holy days.
Shi'a groups report capturing documents from the security services
during the 1991 uprising that listed thousands of forbidden Shi'a
religious writings. Since 1991 security forces have been encamped in
the shrine to Imam Ali in Najaf, one of Shi'a Islam's holiest sites,
and at the Shi'a theological schools of Najaf. In June 1999, several
Shi'a opposition groups reported that the Government had instituted a
new program in the predominantly Shi'a districts of Baghdad that use
food ration cards to restrict where individuals could pray. The ration
cards, part of the United Nations oil-for-food program, reportedly are
checked when the bearer enters a mosque and are printed with a notice
of severe penalties for those who attempt to pray at an unauthorized
location. Shi'a expatriates who reported this policy believe that it is
aimed not only at preventing unauthorized religious gatherings of
Shi'a, but at stopping Shi'a adherents from attending Friday prayers in
Sunni mosques, a practice many pious Shi'a have turned to because their
own mosques remain closed.
The Government consistently interferes with religious pilgrimages,
both of Iraqi Muslims who wish to make the Hajj to Mecca and Medina and
of Iraqi and non-Iraqi Muslim pilgrims who wish to travel to holy sites
in Iraq.
In 1998 the U.N. Sanctions Committee offered to disburse vouchers
for travel and expenses to pilgrims making the Hajj, but the Government
rejected this offer. In 1999 the Sanctions Committee offered to
disburse funds to cover Hajj-related expenses via a neutral third
party; the Government again rejected the offer. Following the December
1999 passage of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1284 (UNSCR 1284),
which exempted flights for Hajj pilgrimage travelers from general
sanctions (overland travel to exit Iraq always had been permitted), the
Sanctions Committee again sought to devise a protocol to facilitate the
payment for individuals making the journey. Following passage of UNSCR
1284, the Sanctions Committee proposed to issue $250 in cash and $1,750
in travelers checks to each individual pilgrim to be distributed at the
U.N. office in Baghdad in the presence of both U.N. and Iraqi
officials. No Iraqi pilgrims were able to take advantage of the
available funds or, in 2000, the permitted flights, because government
officials stated that they would accept the funds only in the form of
cash paid to the central bank, a requirement that would have violated
U.N. sanctions.
Twice each year--on the 10th day of the Muslim month of Muharram
and 40 days later in the month of Safar--Shi'a pilgrims from throughout
the country and around the world seek to commemorate the death of the
Imam Hussein in the city of Karbala. The Government for several decades
has interfered with these Ashura holiday commemorations, preventing
processions on foot into the city. In 1998, 1999, and 2000, violent
incidents were reported between Iraqi pilgrims and Ba'ath party members
and security forces enforcing the ban.
In May 2000, the Ba'ath Party organization reportedly issued orders
prohibiting the walking pilgrimage to Karbala. Travelers later reported
that security troops opened fire on pilgrims who had intended to walk
from al-Najaf to Karbala as part of the 40th day ritual.
Some devout Shi'a, wishing to avoid confrontation, have tried to
select other significant days in the Muslim calendar for their
pilgrimage. In 1998 Grand Ayatollah Mohammad al-Sadr announced that the
15th of Sha'baan--the anniversary of the birth of the Twelfth Imam
(which fell in November that year)--would be an appropriate date for
pilgrimage to Karbala; however, the Government reportedly prevented
pilgrims from entering the city. Shi'a expatriates report that groups
as small as 10 to 20 pilgrims attempting to make their way into the
city at other times have been arrested. Shi'a sources report that
Ba'ath Party militia forces clashed with Shi'a pilgrims attempting to
commemorate Ashura in May 1998. The interference reportedly was
especially severe at Karbala, Basra, and the al-Thawra district of
Baghdad.
In past years, the Government has denied visas to many foreign
pilgrims for the Ashura. In 1999 the Government reportedly charged
foreign Shi'a pilgrims $900 for bus passage and food from Damascus to
Karbala, a trip that normally would cost about $150.
The Government does not permit education in languages other than
Arabic and Kurdish. Public instruction in Syriac, which was announced
under a 1972 decree, has never been implemented. Thus, in areas under
government control, Assyrian and Chaldean children are not permitted to
attend classes in Syriac. In northern areas under Iraqi Kurdish
control, classes in Syriac have been permitted since the 1991 uprising
against the Government. By October 1998, the first groups of students
were ready to begin secondary school in Syriac in the north, but some
Assyrian sources reported that regional Iraqi Kurdish authorities
refused to allow the classes to begin. Details of this practice (for
example, the number of students prepared to start secondary courses in
Syriac and the towns where they were located) were not available, and
Kurdish regional authorities denied engaging in this practice. There
were no reports of elementary school instruction in Syriac being
hindered in northern Iraq.
Assyrian religious organizations have claimed that the Government
applies apostasy laws in a discriminatory fashion. Assyrians are
permitted to convert to Islam, whereas Muslims are forbidden to convert
to Christianity.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The Government for decades has conducted a brutal campaign of
murder, summary execution, and protracted arbitrary arrest against the
religious leaders and followers of the majority Shi'a Muslim population
and has sought to undermine the identity of minority Christian
(Assyrian and Chaldean) and Yazidi groups.
Despite supposed legal protection of religious equality, the regime
has repressed severely the Shi'a clergy and those who follow the Shi'a
faith. Forces from the Intelligence Service (Mukhabarat), General
Security (Amn al-Amm), the Military Bureau, Saddam's Commandos
(Fedayeeen Saddam), and the Ba'ath Party have murdered senior Shi'a
clerics, desecrated Shi'a mosques and holy sites (particularly in the
aftermath of the 1991 civil uprising), arrested tens of thousands of
Shi'a, interfered with Shi'a religious education, prevented Shi'a
adherents from performing their religious rites, and fired upon or
arrested Shi'a who sought to take part in their religious processions.
Security agents reportedly are stationed at all the major Shi'a mosques
and shrines and search, harass, and arbitrarily arrest worshipers.
Shi'a groups reported numerous instances of religious scholars--
particularly in the internationally renowned Shi'a academic center of
Najaf--being subjected to arrest, assault, and harassment during the
period covered by this report. This follows years of government
manipulation of the Najaf theological schools. As reported by Amnesty
International in the late 1970's and early 1980's, the Government
systematically deported tens of thousands of Shi'a (both Arabs and
Kurds) to Iran, claiming erroneously that they were of Persian descent.
According to Shi'a sources, religious scholars and Shi'a merchants who
supported the schools financially were prime targets for deportation.
In the 1980's, during the Iran-Iraq war, it was reported widely that
the Government expelled and denied visas to thousands of foreign
scholars who wished to study at Najaf. After the 1991 popular uprising,
the Government relaxed some restrictions on Shi'a attending the
schools; however, this easing of restrictions was followed by an
increased government crackdown on the Shi'a religious establishment,
including the requirement that speeches by imams in mosques be based
upon government-provided material that attacked fundamentalist trends.
Since the 1980's, the Government reportedly has attempted to
eliminate the senior Shi'a religious leadership (the Mirjaiyat) through
murder, disappearances, and summary execution. Since January 1998, the
killings of three internationally respected Shi'a clerics (and an
attempt on the life of a fourth) have been widely attributed to
government agents by international human rights activists, other
governments, and Shi'a clergy in Iran and Lebanon. Grand Ayatollah
Sheikh Murtada al-Borojourdi, age 69, was killed in April 1998. Grand
Ayatollah Sheikh Mirza Ali al-Gharawi, age 68, was killed in July 1998.
Ayatollah Sheikh Bashir al Hussaini escaped an attempt on his life in
January 1999. Grand Ayatollah Mohammad al-Sadr, age 66, was killed in
February 1999.
Former U.N. Human Rights Commission Special Rapporteur for Iraq,
Max Van Der Stoel, sent a letter in 1999 to the Government expressing
his concern that the killings might be part of an organized attack by
the Government against the independent leadership of the Shi'a
community. The Government has not responded to Van Der Stoel's
inquiries.
In the aftermath of these killings, the Government stepped up
repressive activities in the south and in other predominantly Shi'a
areas to prevent mourning observances and popular demonstrations. As
part of this campaign, two Shi'a scholars in Baghdad, Sheikh Hussain
Suwai'dawi and Sheikh Ali al-Fraijawi, reportedly were executed in July
1998.
In April 1999, the Government executed four Shi'a men for the al-
Sadr slaying after a closed trial. Shi'a religious authorities and
opposition groups objected to the trial process and contend that the
four executed men were innocent. At least one of the four, Sheikh Abdul
Hassan Abbas Kufi, a prayer leader in Najaf, was reportedly in prison
at the time of the killing. The Shi'a press reported in January 1999
that he had been arrested on December 24, 1998. The three others
executed with Kufi were Islamic scholar Ahmad Mustapha Hassan Ardabily,
Ali Kathim Mahjan, and Haider Ali Hussain. The condition of Ali al-
Musawi, another Shia cleric accused of complicity in al-Sadr's death,
was unknown. According to a report submitted to the Special Rapporteur
in September 1999, another of al-Sadr's sons, Sayyid Muqtada al-Sadr,
was arrested later in the year along with a large number of theological
students who had studied under the Ayatollah. Nineteen followers of al-
Sadr reportedly were executed toward the end of 1999, including Sheikh
Muhammad al-Numani, Friday imam Sheikh Abd-al-Razzaq alRabi'i,
assistant Friday imam Kazim al-Safi, and students from a religious
seminary in al-Najaf.
Although a funeral for al-Sadr was prohibited, spontaneous
gatherings of mourners took place in the days after his death.
Government security forces used excessive force in breaking up these
illegal religious gatherings. Throughout the country, security forces
used automatic weapons and armored vehicles to break up demonstrations,
killing, injuring, and arresting hundreds of protesters.
In the aftermath of al-Sadr's killing the Shi'a religious community
is in a precarious state. Of the three generally acknowledged senior
Shi'a clerics, Grand Ayatollah Ali as-Seistani is forbidden to lead
prayers and remains home bound in Najaf as a result of attempts on his
life; Ayatollah Mohammed Sayeed al-Hakim is forbidden to lead prayers
at the shrine of Imam Ali in Najaf; and the status of Ayatollah Hussein
Bahr al-Aloom in Kufa is not known. Many scholars at the Shi'a
religious schools in Najaf reportedly have been arrested, as have many
of al-Sadr's religious appointees throughout the country. These
restrictions and abuses had an adverse affect on the development of a
new set of Shi'a leaders.
The al-Sadr killing intensified Shi'a anger at the ruling Sunni
minority and led to more severe government repression of the Shi'a and
bolder actions by the Shi'a resistance against the regime--including
grenade and rocket attacks on security headquarters, Ba'ath Party
offices, and presidential residences in Baghdad, as well as small arms
attacks in many parts of the capital. For example, the al Amin, Nuwab
ad-Dubbat, and al Nafth districts of Baghdad reportedly have remained
in a heightened state of alert every Friday since al-Sadr's death.
During the period covered by this report, Shi'a and opposition
sources with close ties to individuals in the south, such as the
Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI) and the Dawa
organization, report that regular armed forces, the Republican Guard,
Saddam's Commandos, and ad hoc formations of Ba'ath Party members have
conducted deliberate ground sweeps and artillery attacks against Shi'a
civilians.
Reports of military operations against Shi'a civilians also
increased notably in the summer of 1998, after the killings of
Ayatollahs Ali al Gharawi and Sheikh al Borojourdi. In numerous
incidents during 1998, security forces injured and summarily executed
Shi'a civilians, burned Shi'a homes, confiscated land belonging to
Shi'a, and arbitrarily arrested and detained scores of Shi'a.
On January 14, 1999, according to a report from SCIRI, security
officials reportedly arrested Sheikh Awas, imam of the Nasiriyah city
mosque. Shortly after the arrest of Sheikh Awas, hundreds of Shi'a
congregation members reportedly marched on the security directorate to
demand that Awas be released immediately to them. Security forces
allegedly opened fire on the unarmed crowd with automatic weapons and
also threw hand grenades. Five persons were killed, 11 were wounded,
and 300 were arrested. The security services subsequently banned Friday
prayer in Nasiriyah.
The Human Rights Organization in Iraq (HROI) reported that 1,093
Shi'a were arrested in June 1999 in Basrah alone. The Iraqi National
Congress reports that tanks from the Hammourabi Republican Guard
division attacked the towns of Rumaitha and Khudur in June 1999 after
residents protested the systematic misdistribution of food and medicine
to the detriment of the Shi'a. Fourteen villagers were killed, over 100
arrested, and 40 homes were destroyed. On June 29, 1999, SCIRI reported
that 160 homes in the Abul Khaseeb district near Basra were destroyed.
In several incidents in 1999, security forces killed and injured
Shi'a congregants who gathered to protest closures of various Shi'a
mosques.
Security forces also have forced Shi'a inhabitants of the southern
marshes to relocate to major southern cities and to areas along the
Iranian border. Former Special Rapporteur van Der Stoel described this
practice in his February 1999 report, adding that many other persons
have been transferred to detention centers and prisons in central Iraq,
primarily in Baghdad. The Government reportedly also continued to move
forcibly Shi'a populations from the south to the north to replace
Kurds, Turkomen, and Assyrians, who had been expelled forcibly from
major cities.
The military also continued its water-diversion and other projects
in the south. The Government's claim that the drainage is part of a
land reclamation plan to increase the acreage of arable land and spur
agricultural production is given little credence. Hundreds of square
miles have been burned in military operations. The former U.N. Special
Rapporteur noted the devastating impact that draining the marshes has
had on the culture of the Shi'a marsh Arabs. SCIRI claims to have
captured government documents that detail the destructive intent of the
water diversion program and its connection to ``strategic security
operations,'' economic blockade, and ``withdrawal of food supply
agencies.''
The Government's diversion of supplies in the south limited the
Shi'a population's access to food, medicine, drinking water, and
transportation. According to the former U.N. Special Rapporteur and
opposition sources, thousands of persons in Nasiriyah and Basra
provinces were denied rations that should have been supplied under the
U.N. oil-for-food program. In these provinces and in Amarah province,
access to food allegedly is used to reward regime supporters and
silence opponents. Shi'a groups report that, due to this policy, the
humanitarian condition of Shi'a in the south continued to suffer
despite a significant expansion of the oil-for-food program.
The Government continued to hold numerous religious detainees and
prisoners. The Government reportedly continued to target Shi'a Muslim
clergy and their followers for arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. While
Shi'a are not the only group targeted in this way (others, including
Kurds and secular regime opponents, are targeted for ethnic and
political reasons), the Shi'a are the primary group targeted based on
their religion. It is likely that Shi'a Muslims constitute the majority
of the prison population in the country.
While no firm statistics are available, observers estimate the
number of security detainees to be in the tens of thousands. Some
individuals have been held for decades. Others who have remained
unaccounted for since their arrests may have died or been executed
secretly years ago. It is difficult to produce an accurate list of
persons in prison for their religious beliefs. In 1998 and 1999,
hundreds of prisoners, many of them Shi'a, reportedly were executed.
The Government to execute summarily its perceived opponents and
Shi'a leaders. Those few citizens able to protest the arrests and
executions have persisted in attempts at documentation. Opposition
groups, including SCIRI, have provided detailed accounts of summary
executions, including the names of hundreds of persons killed.
Certain prisons are well known for their routine mistreatment of
prisoners, including those persons imprisoned for their religious
beliefs.
The former Special Rapporteur and others have reported that the
Government has engaged in various abuses against the country's 350,000
Assyrian and Chaldean Christians, especially in terms of forced
movements from northern areas and repression of political rights.
Most Assyrians live in the northern governorates, and the
Government often has suspected them of ``collaborating'' with Iraqi
Kurds. In the north, Kurdish groups often refer to Assyrians as Kurdish
Christians. Military forces destroyed numerous Assyrian churches during
the 1988 Anfal Campaign and reportedly executed and tortured many
Assyrians. Both major Kurdish political parties have indicated that the
Government occasionally targets Assyrians as well as ethnic Kurds and
Turkomen for expulsion from Kirkuk, where it is seeking to Arabize the
city.
There is evidence that the Government in the past compelled Yazidis
to join in domestic military action against Muslim Kurds. Captured
government documents included in a 1998 Human Rights Watch report
describe special all-Yazidi military detachments formed during the
1988-89 Anfal campaign to ``pursue and attack'' Muslim Kurds. The
Government also has targeted the Yazidis in the past. For example, 33
members of the Yazidi community of Mosul, arrested in July 1996, still
are unaccounted for.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country's cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity is not
reflected in its political and economic structure. Various segments of
the Sunni Arab community, which itself constitutes a minority of the
population, effectively have controlled the Government since
independence in 1932.
Shi'a Arabs, the religious majority of the population, have long
been economically, politically, and socially disadvantaged. Like the
Sunni Kurds and other ethnic and religious groups in the north, the
Shi'a Arabs of the south have been targeted for particular
discrimination and abuse by the Government, ostensibly because of their
opposition to the Government.
Assyrian groups reported several instances of mob violence by
Muslims against Christians in the north in recent years. Assyrians
continue to fear attacks by the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), a
Turkish-based terrorist organization operating against indigenous Kurds
in northern Iraq. Christians in the country report feeling caught in
the middle of intra-Kurdish fighting. In December 1997, six Assyrians
died in an attack near Dohuk by the PKK. Some Assyrian villagers have
reported being pressured to leave the countryside for the cities as
part of a campaign by indigenous Kurdish forces to deny the PKK access
to possible food supplies.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The United States has no diplomatic relations with Iraq and thus is
not able to raise directly with the Government the problems of severe
restrictions on religious freedom and other human rights abuses.
However, the U.S. Government makes its position clear in public
statements and in diplomatic contacts with other states.
The President regularly discusses the problems experienced by
Shi'a, Christian, and other religious groups in his periodic reports to
Congress on Iraq. The Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern
Affairs, in testimony before Congress on Iraq, has highlighted the
situation of persons in the south. The State Department spokesperson
has issued statements criticizing the deaths of Ayatollahs al-Gharawi,
al-Borojourdi, al-Sadr, and the attempt on the life of Ayatollah al-
Hussaini. The Voice of America has broadcast several editorials dealing
with the human rights abuses committed against religious groups by the
Iraqi Government.
It is the policy of the United States to encourage a change of
regime in Iraq. Through the State Department's Office of the Special
Coordinator for the Transition of Iraq, the United States is in
frequent contact with Iraqi democratic opposition groups, including
religiously oriented Shi'a, Sunni, and Christian groups. All of the
groups designated as eligible for assistance under the Iraq Liberation
Act have indicated their strong support for religious freedom and
tolerance.
In March 2000, for the eighth consecutive year, the United States
joined other members of the U.N. Human Rights Commission (UNHRC), to
call on the U.N. Secretary General to send human rights monitors to
``help in the independent verification of reports on the human rights
situation in Iraq.'' However, the Iraqi Government continued to ignore
these calls. As in the past, it did not allow the U.N. Special
Rapporteur to visit, nor did it respond to his requests for
information. It continued to defy calls from various U.N. bodies to
allow the Special Rapporteur to visit the southern marshes and other
regions. Denied entry to Iraq, the Special Rapporteur has based his
reports on the Government's human rights abuses on interviews with
recent emigres from Iraq, interviews with opposition groups with
contacts in Iraq, and other interviews, as well as on published
reports.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State designated Iraq a country
of particular concern under the International Religious Freedom Act for
particularly severe violations of religious freedom.
__________
ISRAEL
(The religious freedom situation in the occupied territories is
discussed in the annex appended to this report.)
Israel has no constitution; however, the law provides for freedom
of worship, and the Government generally respects this right in
practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The Declaration of Independence describes the country as a ``Jewish
and democratic state.'' The overwhelming majority of non-Jewish
citizens are Arabs and they are subject to various forms of
discrimination. It is not clear that whatever discrepancies exist in
the treatment of various communities in Israeli society are based on
religion per se.
In June 2000, the Government proposed a plan to help redress some
of the gaps in government spending for Arab communities. In March 2000,
the High Court of Justice ruled that the Government's use of the Jewish
National Fund (JNF) to develop public land was discriminatory, as the
JNF's by-laws prohibit sale or lease of land to non-Jews.
Evangelical Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Reform and
Conservative Jews suffered some incidents of harassment, threats, and
vandalism during the period covered by the report; members of these
religious groups complained that the police were slow to investigate
these incidents. Relations between different religious groups often are
strained, both between Jews and non-Jews, as well as among the
different branches of Judaism.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Israel has no constitution; however, the law provides for freedom
of worship, and the Government generally respects this right in
practice. The Declaration of Independence describes the country as a
``Jewish and democratic state.''
The Government recognizes religious groups that were in the country
before 1948. The Government recognizes 5 religious groups, including 10
Christian groups.
Religious Demography
Approximately 80 percent of citizens are Jewish (a significant
majority are non-Orthodox), approximately 16 percent are Muslims, 2
percent are Christians, and 1.5 percent are Druze. The non-Jewish
population is concentrated in the north, east-central, and southern
parts of the country. The population includes small but growing numbers
of adherents of nonrecognized evangelical Christian groups and members
of other faiths, such as Jehovah's Witnesses.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The overwhelming majority of non-Jewish citizens are Arabs and they
are subject to various forms of discrimination. It is not clear that
whatever discrepancies exist in the treatment of various communities in
Israeli society are based on religion per se. Israeli Arabs and other
non-Jewish Israelis are, in fact, free to practice their religions.
The Government does not provide Israeli Arabs, who constitute 20
percent of the population, with the same quality of education, housing,
employment opportunities, and social services as Jews. In addition,
government spending and financial support are proportionally far lower
in predominantly non-Jewish areas than in Jewish areas. According to
the press, an Interior Ministry report released during 1998 noted that
non-Jewish communities receive significantly less government financial
support than their Jewish counterparts. According to several Arab
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), recent government budget cuts
fell disproportionately on Arab communities. In June 2000, the
Government proposed a plan to narrow some of these gaps; however, this
plan was not implemented by mid-2000.
Israeli-Arab organizations have challenged the Government's
``Master Plan for the Northern Areas of Israel,'' which listed as
priority goals increasing the Galilee's Jewish population and blocking
the territorial contiguity of Arab villages and towns, on the grounds
that it discriminates against Arab citizens.
The Government provides proportionally greater financial support to
religious and civic institutions in the Jewish sector compared with
those in the non-Jewish sector, i.e., Muslim, Christian, and Druze. For
example, only 2 percent of the Ministry of Religious Affairs budget
goes to the non-Jewish sector. The High Court of Justice heard a case
in 1997 alleging that this budgetary allocation constitutes
discrimination. In 1998 the Court ruled that the budget allocation
constituted ``prima facie discrimination'' but that the plaintiff's
petition did not provide adequate information about the religious needs
of the various communities. The Court refused to intervene in the
budgetary process on the grounds that such action would invade the
proper sphere of the legislature.
Each recognized religious community has legal authority over its
members in matters of marriage and divorce. Secular courts have primacy
over questions of inheritance, but parties, by mutual agreement, may
bring cases to religious courts. Jewish and Druze families may ask that
some family status matters, such as alimony and child custody in
divorces, be adjudicated in civil courts as an alternative to religious
courts. Christians may only ask that child custody and child support be
adjudicated in civil courts as an alternative to religious courts.
Muslims have no recourse to civil courts in family-status matters.
Legislation passed in 1996 allows the rabbinical courts to sanction
either party who is not willing to grant a divorce.
In civic areas where religion is a determining criterion, such as
the religious courts and centers of education, non-Jewish institutions
routinely receive less state support than their Jewish counterparts.
The status of a number of Christian organizations with representation
in Israel heretofore has been defined by a collection of ad hoc
arrangements with various government agencies. Several of these
organizations seek to negotiate with the Government in an attempt to
formalize their status.
Other examples of discrimination against non-Jewish citizens are
not directly related to freedom to worship. There were some areas of
improvement. For example, in March 2000, the High Court of Justice
ruled that the Government could neither allocate land on the basis of
religion or nationality, nor allocate land to the quasi-governmental
Jewish National Fund, since the by-laws of the organization prohibit
sale or lease of land to non-Jews. The effect of this ruling, and other
decisions made by the current Government to lessen discrimination
against non-Jews, remains unclear.
The Government has recognized Jewish holy places under the 1967
Protection of Holy Sites Law. The Government states that it also
protects the holy sites of other faiths. The Government also states
that it has provided funds for some holy sites of other faiths.
Missionaries are allowed to proselytize, although the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints voluntarily refrains from
proselytizing under an agreement with the Government. A 1977 anti-
proselytizing law prohibits anyone from offering or receiving material
benefits as an inducement to conversion; there have been no reports of
its enforcement. Bills that would have restricted proselytizing further
were introduced and passed their preliminary readings in 1997 and 1998
with the support of some government ministers; however, no further
action was taken before the dissolution of the Knesset following the
May 1999 elections. They are not expected to be enacted if reintroduced
in the Knesset. Christian and other evangelical groups asserted that
the draft bills were discriminatory and served to intimidate Christian
groups.
The Government confers automatic citizenship and residence rights
to Jewish immigrants, their families, and Jewish refugees under the Law
of Return. This law does not apply to non-Jews or to persons of Jewish
descent who have converted to another faith.
The Government designates religion on national identity documents,
but not on passports.
Orthodox Jewish religious authorities have exclusive control of
Jewish marriages, divorces, and burials. They do not recognize
marriages or conversions to Judaism performed in Israel by non-Orthodox
rabbis. Many Jews object to this exclusive control, and it has been at
times a source of serious controversy in society, particularly in
recent years, as thousands of Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet
Union have brought with them family members not recognized as Jewish by
Orthodox authorities. Many Jews who wish to marry in secular or non-
Orthodox religious ceremonies do so abroad, and the Ministry of
Interior recognizes such marriages.
Under the Government's current interpretation and implementation of
Jewish personal status law, a Jewish woman is not allowed to initiate
divorce proceedings without her husband's consent; consequently there
are hundreds of so-called ``agunot'' in the country who cannot remarry
or have legitimate children because their husbands either have
disappeared or refused to grant a divorce. This issue does not affect
citizens' right to worship.
Some rabbis are actively seeking a solution that is consistent with
Jewish law. Legislation passed in 1995 broadened the civil sanctions
made available to rabbinical courts in cases where a wife has ample
grounds for divorce--such as abuse--but the husband refuses to agree.
However, in some cases rabbinical courts have failed to invoke these
sanctions.
Members of nonrecognized religions (particularly evangelical
Christians) suffer difficulties conducting marriages and funerals,
although informal arrangements provide some relief.
A group of more than 100 Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform women
continued a long legal battle to hold women's prayer services at the
Western Wall during the period covered by this report; in May 2000, the
High Court ruled that women may pray aloud and wear prayer shawls at
the Western Wall. Both legislators and the State Prosecutor's office
sought to overturn the ruling; however, they were not successful as of
mid-2000.
The Government generally continued to permit Muslim citizens to
make the Hajj during the period covered by this report. However, for
security reasons, the Government imposes some restrictions on its
Muslim citizens who perform the Hajj, including requiring that they be
over the age of 30. The Government does not allow them to return if
they leave the country without formal permission. The Government
justifies these restrictions on the grounds that Saudi Arabia remains
officially at war with Israel and that travel to Saudi Arabia therefore
is considered subject to security considerations.
Evangelical Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Reform and
Conservative Jews complained of inadequate or slow police response to
incidents of harassment, assaults, theft, and vandalism during the
period covered by this report (also see Section II).
There were no prosecutions of the over 120 cases filed by Jehovah's
Witnesses in 1998 and 1999. Police arrested several members of
Jehovah's Witnesses for questioning on the basis of complaints by
members of ultra-orthodox groups during the period covered by the
report.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between different religious groups often are strained,
both between Jews and non-Jews, as well as among the different branches
of Judaism. Tensions between Jews and non-Jews exist primarily as a
result of the Arab-Israeli conflict, as well as Israel's control of
access to sites holy to Christians and Muslims. Friction between
Christians and Muslims in the Arab community increased during the
period covered by this report, primarily as a result of a dispute about
a plot of land alleged to belong to the Waqf (Islamic religious trust)
in Nazareth. The Government took steps to resolve this dispute with
only partial success. Animosity between secular and religious Jews
continued to grow during the period covered by this report. Non-
Orthodox Jews have complained of discrimination and intolerance.
There are numerous nongovernmental organizations working on dialog
between different religions. Interfaith dialog often is linked to the
peace process between Israel and its Arab neighbors.
Societal attitudes towards conversion are particularly negative.
Religious and lay leaders of most religions largely are hostile to
missionary activity. Muslims consider any conversion from Islam to be
apostasy.
Harassment of Jehovah's Witnesses declined; however, members of
this group continued to complain of inadequate police efforts to
investigate outstanding complaints of harassment, assault, theft, and
vandalism, reportedly by two ultra-Orthodox Jewish groups, Yad L'achim
and Lev L'achim. Ultra-Orthodox groups sought unsuccessfully to
convince a company to fire an employee who is a member of Jehovah's
Witnesses during the period covered by this report.
Evangelical Christian and other religious groups suffered some
incidents of often-violent harassment (also see Section I). In June
2000, a meeting hall used by evangelical Christians (who describe
themselves as ``Messianic Jews'') reportedly was vandalized by members
of an ultra-Orthodox group. Such incidents are not limited to non-Jews.
Instances of ultra-Orthodox Jewish groups verbally or physically
harassing Jewish citizens for ``immodest dress'' or other violations of
their interpretation of religious law are not uncommon and increased
during the period covered by this report.
In July 1999, the Baptist House Center in Jerusalem was vandalized
by unknown assailants who spread tar on the front and along the sides
of the building, as well as defacing the entrance to the sanctuary.
In September 1999, Kol Israel, a state radio station, agreed for
the first time to broadcast advertisements paid for by the Reform and
Conservative branches of Judaism in response to a Supreme Court
petition.
Relative to their numbers, Israeli Arabs are underrepresented in
the student bodies and faculties of most universities, and in higher-
level professional and business ranks. Well-educated Arabs often are
unable to find jobs commensurate with their level of education. Arab
Ph.D.'s suffer the greatest problems in this regard. A small number of
Israeli Arabs have risen to responsible positions in the civil service,
generally in the Arab departments of government ministries. In 1994 a
civil service commission began a 3-year affirmative action program to
expand that number, but it had only modest results. The Government has
allocated only very limited resources to enforce landmark 1995
legislation prohibiting discrimination in employment.
In practice Israeli Arab citizens who do not serve in the military
and therefore cannot obtain security clearances are not allowed to work
in companies with defense contracts or in security-related fields. The
Israeli Druze and Circassian communities are subject to the military
draft, and although some have refused to serve, the overwhelming
majority accept service willingly. Some Bedouin and other Arab citizens
who are not subject to the draft serve voluntarily. Those not subject
to the draft have less access than other citizens to those social and
economic benefits for which military service is a prerequisite or an
advantage, such as housing, new-household subsidies, and government or
security-related industrial employment. Under a 1994 government policy
decision, the social security child allowance for parents who did not
serve in the military and did not attend a yeshiva (including Arabs)
was increased to equal the allowance of those who had done so.
Israeli Arab groups allege that many employers use the prerequisite
of military service to avoid hiring non-Jews. For example, in 1997 a
Haifa employment agency advertised for Arabic-speaking telephone
operators and listed military service as a prerequisite. An Israeli
Arab group noted that there was no clear justification for this
requirement and threatened to file a civil suit under a law prohibiting
employment discrimination and defining requirements unrelated to actual
work as discriminatory. The employment agency eventually agreed to
change the advertisement and run it again.
Arab children make up about one-quarter of the public school
population, but government resources for them are not proportionate to
those for Jewish children. Many schools in Arab communities are
dilapidated and overcrowded, lack special education services and
counselors, have poor libraries, and have no sports facilities. Arab
groups also note that the public school curriculum stresses the
country's Jewish culture and heritage.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy consistently raised issues of religious freedom
with the Government at working levels with the Foreign Ministry, the
police, and the Prime Minister's office. These contacts focused
particularly on complaints from Jehovah's Witnesses about poor police
response to incidents of violent harassment and dealt with specific
incidents as well as the general problem of insufficient police
response. In December 1999, Robert Seiple, Ambassador-at-Large for
International Religious Freedom, met with government officials,
religious leaders, and NGO representatives to discuss a number of
religious freedom issues.
Embassy representatives, including the Ambassador, routinely meet
with religious officials. These contacts included meetings with Jewish,
Christian, Muslim, and Baha'i leaders at a variety of levels.
Embassy officials maintain a dialog with nongovernmental
organizations that follow human and civil rights issues, including
religious freedom. These included the Association for Civil Rights in
Israel, the Israel Religious Action Center, Adalah, and many others.
Embassy representatives attended meetings of groups seeking to
promote interfaith dialog, including the Interreligious Coordinating
Council in Israel, the Anti-Defamation League, and others.
the occupied territories (including areas subject to the jurisdiction
of the palestinian authority)
The Palestinian Authority (PA) \1\ has no constitution, and no
single law in force protects religious freedom; however, it generally
respects religious freedom in practice. Although there is no official
religion in the occupied territories, Islam is treated de facto as the
official religion.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The May 1994 Gaza-Jericho agreement and the September 1995
interim agreement transferred authority over portions of the West Bank
and Gaza Strip from Israel to the Palestinian Authority (PA). Israel
continues to control certain civil functions and is responsible for all
security in portions of the Occupied Territories categorized as Area C,
which includes the Israeli settlements. In areas known as Area B, the
PA has jurisdiction over civil affairs and shares security
responsibilities with Israel. The PA has control over civil affairs and
security in Area A. The PA also has jurisdiction over some civil
affairs in Area C.
The West Bank and the Gaza Strip are governed by a combination of
Ottoman law, British Mandate law, Jordanian law (in the West Bank),
Egyptian law (in the Gaza Strip), Israeli law, Palestinian law, and, in
matters of personal status like marriage, divorce, and inheritance,
various sets of religious law.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Israel has no constitution; however, the law provides for freedom
of worship, and the Government generally respects this right in
practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the free practice of religion.
There were unconfirmed reports that Muslim converts to Christianity
were subjected to mistreatment by individual PA officials and in
Palestinian society.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the PA
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. The U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem investigated
allegations of harassment and discrimination against Christians in the
occupied territories.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Palestinian Authority (PA) has no constitution, and no single
law in force protects religious freedom; however, the PA respects
religious freedom in practice. Although there is no official religion
in the occupied territories, Islam is treated de facto as the official
religion.
Israel has no constitution; however, the law provides for freedom
of worship, and the Government generally respects this right in
practice.
The draft Palestinian Basic Law proposes that Islam be recognized
as the official religion; however, under the draft law, freedom of
worship is to be provided to adherents of other faiths. The draft law
also stipulates that ``the principles of Islamic Shari'a are a main
source of legislation.''
Churches in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza can be subdivided
into three general categories: (1) churches recognized by the status
quo agreements reached under Ottoman rule in the late 19th century; (2)
Protestant and evangelical churches that arrived between the late 19th
century and 1967, which are fully tolerated by the PA, although not
officially recognized; and (3) a small number of churches that became
active within the last decade whose legal status is more tenuous.
The first group of churches is governed by the 19th century status
quo agreements, which the PA respects and which specifically
established the presence and rights of the Greek Orthodox, Roman
Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Assyrian, Greek Catholic, Coptic, and
Ethiopian Orthodox Churches. The Episcopal and Lutheran Churches were
added later to the list. These churches and their rights were accepted
immediately by the PA just as the British, Jordanians, and Israelis had
done before. Like Islam with Shari'a courts, these religious groups are
permitted to have ecclesiastical courts whose rulings are considered
legally binding on personal status issues and some land issues. Civil
courts do not adjudicate on such matters.
The second group of churches, including the Assembly of God,
Nazarene Church, and some Baptist churches, has unwritten
understandings with the PA based on the principles of the status quo
agreements. They are permitted to operate freely and are able to
perform certain personal status legal functions, such as issuing
marriage certificates. These churches thus far have been unsuccessful
in securing de jure recognition. However, they operate with de facto
recognition and maintain cooperation from the PA.
The third group of churches consists of a small number of
proselytizing churches, including Jehovah's Witnesses and some
evangelical Christian groups. These groups have encountered opposition
in their efforts to obtain recognition, both from Muslims, who oppose
their proselytizing, and Christians, who fear that the new arrivals may
disrupt the status quo. These churches generally operate unhindered by
the PA.
The Palestinian Authority does not make overt attempts at
encouraging interfaith dialog. However, it supported the Bethlehem 2000
project, which attracted several hundred thousand visitors of many
faiths to the city. The project was a symbol of Muslim-Christian
cooperation. In March 2000, several thousand persons, including
Chairman Arafat and senior PA officials attended a public mass in
Bethlehem conducted by Pope John Paul II.
The PA makes an effort to maintain good relations with the
Christian community. Within the Ministry of Religious Affairs, there is
a portfolio covering Christian Affairs, and Chairman Arafat has a
Christian Affairs advisor. The established churches also have formed a
legal committee to address issues of religious freedom in the draft
Basic Law, and the PA has been willing to consider suggestions made by
this committee. Christian leaders participated in the design of a
religious studies curriculum for Christian students in the public
schools.
Religious Demography
The great majority of the Palestinian residents of the occupied
territories are Sunni Muslims. A majority of Christians are Greek
Orthodox, with a significant number of Roman Catholics and smaller
groups of Greek Catholics, Protestants, Syriacs, Armenians, Copts,
Maronites, and Ethiopian Orthodox. Christians are concentrated in
Jerusalem, Ramallah, and the Bethlehem area. In addition, there is a
Samaritan community of approximately 550 persons located on Mount
Gerazim near Nablus, and two small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses
in Bethlehem and Ramallah. Jewish Israelis reside in Jerusalem, the
West Bank, and Gaza.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The PA generally does not restrict freedom of religion, and there
is no pattern of PA discrimination against or harassment of Christians.
However, since the establishment of the PA, there have been periodic
allegations that a small number of Muslim converts to Christianity
sometimes are subject to societal discrimination and harassment by PA
officials, including detention and questioning by security forces.
During the period covered by this report, there were several
unconfirmed allegations that converts to Christianity were subjected to
societal discrimination and harassment by PA officials, including
detention and questioning by security forces. In some cases, conversion
may have been only one of several factors influencing the mistreatment.
In previous years, the PA stated that it investigated similar
allegations, but it did not share or publicize the results of these
investigations with any outside party.
The PA generally does not prohibit or punish individuals for
speaking about their religious beliefs. In September 1999, PA officials
issued an order arrogating the establishment of religious radio and
television stations to the PA alone. The PA limited speech on religious
subjects in some instances. For example, in December 1999, the Ministry
of the Interior ordered a Christian television station in Bethlehem to
limit its broadcast of Christmas music. The radio station disobeyed the
directive, and Ministry officials ordered the station to close. The PA
subsequently agreed to drop the issue and allowed the radio station to
operate freely.
In practice, the PA requires that individuals be affiliated at
least nominally with some religion. Religion must be declared on
identification papers, and all personal status legal matters must be
handled in either Shari'a (Islamic law) or Christian ecclesiastical
courts.
Foreign missionaries operate in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza.
These include a handful of evangelical Christian pastors who seek to
convert Muslims to Christianity. While they maintain a generally low
profile, the PA is aware of their activities and generally does not
restrict them.
Christians participate in Palestinian official life. A number of
PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat's senior advisors are Christians. Six
Christians and one Samaritan sit on the 88-member Palestinian
Legislative Council in seats set aside for representatives of these
religions. Occasionally, the PA takes steps to protect Christians.
The PA requires that religion be taught in PA schools. Until
recently, only courses on Islam were offered and Christian students
were excused from them. In 1998 the PA asked representatives of the
Christian community to develop a Christian studies curriculum in order
to implement a compulsory religious curriculum for Christian students.
According to PA officials, the curriculum for grades one through six
are complete and are scheduled to be implemented in 2001. The PA also
is formulating its first indigenous school curriculum that will include
a civic education component, which will cover issues of religious
tolerance. According to PA officials, the curriculum for grades one
through six are complete and will be implemented in academic year 2000-
2001.
PA officials are not required to swear a religious oath upon taking
office. Witnesses in PA courtrooms are required to swear on a religious
book, such as the Koran or the Bible.
In July 1999, the PA prevented Jewish settlers from entering
Joseph's Tomb in PA-controlled Nablus due to the fact that the settlers
brought a cabinet onto the site without coordinating with the PA. The
Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) responded by preventing PA officials from
entering Nablus. The issue was resolved when the IDF agreed to remove
the cabinet and the checkpoint into Nablus.
Palestinians residing outside of the Jerusalem municipal boundary
are required to obtain a permit to enter the city, even to visit a holy
site; the permits often are denied and Israeli security personnel also
sometimes deny permit holders access to Jerusalem. Israel has
instituted these permit requirements in order to address its security
concerns.
The Israeli Government permits all faiths to operate schools and
institutions. Religious publications are subject to the Publications
Laws. In accordance with Orthodox Jewish practice, men and women pray
separately at the Western Wall, Judaism's most sacred site. Reform and
Conservative Jews have challenged this practice and seek to pray at the
Western Wall in mixed-gender groups. A group of women from all branches
of Judaism continued a long legal battle to pray aloud and to wear
prayer shawls at the Western Wall; in May 2000, the Israeli High Court
ruled that they may do so. Israeli legislators and the State
Prosecutor's office sought to overturn the ruling; however, they were
not successful as of mid-2000.
A 1995 ruling by the Israeli High Court of Justice allows small
numbers of Jews under police escort to pray on the Temple Mount, which
is the location of two Muslim holy places and also the former site of
the First and Second Jewish Temples. Other organized Jewish religious
activity on the Temple Mount is prohibited on public safety grounds.
In May 2000, officials in the Israeli Ministry for Religious
Affairs reportedly threatened to reevaluate relations with the
Jerusalem Greek Orthodox Patriarchate if it did not discipline a
Christian cleric for expressing his political views to a group of
Christian pilgrims. As of mid-2000, the Patriarchate had not
disciplined the cleric.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In January 2000, members of the Preventive Security Organization
(PSO) seized a Jericho church compound, which was under the auspices of
the American-based Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). The
PSO handed control of the church to members of the Moscow Patriarchate
(MP) of the Russian Orthodox Church. Although the church compound had
been under the control of the ROCOR for decades, members of the MP
disputed the ROCOR's property claim, maintaining that the MP is the
true owner of this compound. The PSO security forces seized the church
without first conducting legal proceedings to determine the question of
ownership. Two nuns affiliated with the ROCOR held a vigil inside the
compound to protest the PSO seizure of the property; PSO personnel
allegedly harassed the nuns. Following negotiations, the PSO allowed
the MP and ROCOR temporarily to divide the compound between them until
legal ownership can be determined in the courts.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees in the
occupied territories.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the refusal by any authorities to allow such
citizens to be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Generally, there are amicable relations between Christians and
Muslims. Both Christians and Muslims state that when tensions do
surface, it is because of provocative actions by one side or the other
aimed at undermining current social arrangements. Palestinians say that
if Christians try to demand a change in status quo arrangements,
tensions may result. Likewise, Muslims who disregard Christian
sensitivities may trigger social tension. Relations between Jews and
non-Jews, as well as among the different branches of Judaism, often are
strained. Tensions between Jews and non-Jews exist primarily as a
result of the Arab-Israeli conflict, as well as Israel's control of
access to sites holy to Christians and Muslims. Animosity between
secular and religious Jews increased during the period covered by this
report.
Non-Orthodox Jews have complained of discrimination and
intolerance. On June 24, 2000, unidentified persons set fire to a
conservative synagogue in Jerusalem; eyewitnesses reportedly stated
that the perpetrators were Orthodox Jews. On June 25, 2000,
unidentified persons attempted arson and looted Torah scrolls at the
Messianic Shepherd of Israel congregation in Jerusalem; police
personnel arrested two Orthodox Jewish youth for this incident.
Periodically, there are incidents of Christian-Muslim tension in
the occupied territories. Tensions have arisen over Christian-Muslim
romantic relationships or when Christians have erected large crosses in
the public domain. Christians in the Bethlehem area also have
complained about Muslims settling there and constructing homes
illegally on land not zoned for building.
During the period covered by this report, there were periodic
reports that some Christian converts from Islam who publicize their
religious beliefs have been harassed. Converts complained that they
were mistreated and threatened. The draft Palestinian Basic Law
specifically forbids discrimination against individuals based on their
religion; however, the PA did not take any action against persons
accused of harassment.
Instances of ultra-Orthodox Jewish groups verbally or physically
harassing Jewish citizens for ``immodest dress'' or other violations of
their interpretation of religious law occurred during the period
covered by this report.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Consulate in Jerusalem maintains an ongoing, high-level
dialog with PA officials, including Chairman Arafat, on human rights
issues, including issues of religious freedom and the circumstances of
Christians in the West Bank and Gaza. PA officials worked cooperatively
with the U.S. Consulate on a number of issues, including PA treatment
of Christian converts from Islam; how religious minorities are to be
represented in the new school curriculums; and how the draft Basic Law
addresses Shari'a and the issue of a national religion.
The U.S. Consulate plays a reinforcing role in the PA's dialog with
local Christian groups on minority religion representation in the new
curriculums.
The Consulate also maintains contacts with the representatives of
both the Islamic Waqf--an Islamic trust and charitable organization
that owns and manages large amounts of Muslim land including the Al-
Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem--and the various Christian churches in
Jerusalem. In January 2000, the Consulate intervened in a dispute
involving the ROCOR, the MP, and the Palestinian Security Organization.
U.S. Consulate officials stated numerous times to PA officials that
competent legal authorities should resolve the issue of ownership of
the Jericho church compound seized by the PSO.
The Consulate continues to investigate allegations of unequal
treatment of religious minorities. It made inquiries to try to
ascertain the facts of a land dispute case in which the PA allegedly
acquiesced to the confiscation of Christian-owned land by Muslims;
there was no basis found for these allegations during the period
covered by this report.
__________
JORDAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, provided that
religious practices are consistent with ``public order and morality;''
however, the Government imposes some restrictions on freedom of
religion, and citizens may not always be allowed to practice the
religion of their choice. According to the Constitution, Islam is the
state religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between Muslims and Christians in the country generally
are amicable. Bahai's face some societal and official discrimination.
U.S. Embassy officials discussed religious freedom issues with
government authorities on a number of occasions.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for the safeguarding of ``all forms of
worship and religious rites in accordance with the customs observed in
the Kingdom, unless such is inconsistent with public order or
morality;'' however, the Government imposes some restrictions on
freedom of religion. Citizens may not always be allowed to practice the
religion of their choice. According to the Constitution, Islam is the
state religion.
Islamic institutions are managed by the Ministry of Religious
Affairs and Trusts, which appoints imams and subsidizes certain
activities sponsored by mosques. Religious institutions, such as
churches that wish to receive official government recognition, must
apply to the Prime Ministry for registration. The Protestant
denominations registered as ``societies'' come under the jurisdiction
of one of the recognized Protestant churches for purposes of family
law, such as divorce and child custody. The Government does not
recognize a number of religions.
Religious Demography
Over 90 percent of the population are Sunni Muslim. Official
government figures estimate that Christians make up 4 percent of the
population; however, government and Christian officials privately
estimate the true figure to be closer to 2 percent. Neither Islam nor
the Government recognizes religious faiths other than the three main
monotheistic religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. In addition,
not all Christian denominations have been accorded official government
recognition. Officially recognized denominations include the Greek
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic (Melkite), Armenian Orthodox,
Maronite Catholic, Assyrian, Anglican, Lutheran, Seventh-Day Adventist,
United Pentecostal, and Presbyterian Churches. Other churches,
including the Baptist Church, the Free Evangelical Church, the Church
of the Nazarene, the Assembly of God, and the Christian Missionary
Alliance, are registered with the Ministry of Justice as ``societies''
but not as churches. There are also small numbers of Shi'a and Druze,
as well as adherents of the Baha'i Faith. There are no statistics
available on citizens who do not adhere to any particular religious
faith.
With few exceptions, there are no major geographic concentrations
of particular religious groups. The city of Husn, in the north, is
mostly Christian, and Fuheis, near Amman, is also predominantly
Christian. Madaba and Karak, both south of Amman, have significant
Christian populations.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government does not interfere with public worship by the
country's Christian minority. However, although the majority of
Christians are allowed to practice freely, some activities, such as
proselytizing or encouraging conversion to the Christian faith--both
considered legally incompatible with Islam--are prohibited. Christians
are subject to aspects of Shari'a (Islamic law) that designate how
inheritances are distributed.
The Government does not recognize Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church
of Christ, or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, but each
denomination is allowed to conduct religious services and activities
without interference.
The Government does not recognize the Baha'i Faith as a religion
but does not prohibit the practice of the faith. However, Baha'is face
both official and societal discrimination. The Government does not
record the bearer's religion on national identity cards issued to
Baha'is, nor does it register property belonging to the Baha'i
community; Bahai's are not permitted to establish schools, places of
worship, or cemetaries. Adherents of the Baha'i Faith are considered as
Muslims for purposes of family and inheritance law. Unlike Christian
denominations, the Baha'i community does not have its own court to
adjudicate personal status and family matters. Baha'i personal status
matters are heard in Shari'a courts.
Non-Jordanian Christian missionaries operate in the country but are
subject to restrictions. Christian missionaries may not proselytize
Muslims. In late 1999 and early 2000, U.S.-affiliated Christian mission
groups in the country complained of increased bureaucratic
difficulties, including refusal by the Government to renew residence
permits.
The Jordan Evangelical Theological Seminary (JETS), a Christian
training school for pastors and missionaries, applied in August 1998
for a permit to purchase land on which to construct a seminary and
campus. In April 1999, permission was granted to purchase the land on
the condition that the JETS register and receive accreditation from the
Ministry of Education. Pending such registration, authorities suspended
renewal of the residence permits of all of the seminary's 36 foreign
students (who come from 10 foreign countries), and 2 members of the
faculty. In 1998 and early 1999, some noncitizen Arab Muslim students
were deported or asked to leave the country as a result of their
association with the JETS. For several months in late 1999, the
Ministry of Interior relented and issued visas and residence permits to
the students and staff of the JETS. However, in December 1999, the
Ministry again began refusing to issue or to renew visas or resident
permits for students and staff of the school until it received
registration from the Ministry of Education. To date, the school has
not been registered and the Ministry's refusal to issue visas has
affected 14 of 140 students and 4 staff members at the school.
In April and September 1999, an employee of a small language school
in Amman applied for a residence permit from the Ministry of Interior.
His application was denied on both occasions, reportedly because
government officials believed that he had been trying to convert
Muslims to Christianity. He reapplied in April 2000 and is awaiting a
response from the Government.
In September 1999, the authorities threatened to revoke the license
of a businessman who conducts radio listener surveys and follows up
with those respondents who report an interest in Christianity.
In January 2000, General Intelligence Directorate (GID) officials
contacted an official of Life Agape--an organization associated with
the Baptist Church, which distributes Bibles and conducts Bible
studies--and asked him to sign a letter stating that he would not
``deal with Muslims.'' The official was told that if he did not sign
the letter his office would be closed. In February 2000, police brought
the letter to the Life Agape office, escorted the official to the
police station, and then brought him to meet with the governor of the
Amman municipality. The following day, the governor closed the Life
Agape office; no reason for the closure was specified on the governor's
order.
The Government notes individuals' religions (except for Baha'is) on
the national identity card and ``family book'' (a national registration
record issued to the head of every family that serves as proof of
citizenship) of all citizens.
The Constitution provides that congregations have the right to
establish schools for the education of their own members ``provided
that they comply with the general provision of the law and be subject
to the control of government in matters relating to their curricula and
orientation.''
In December 1999, the municipality of Amman closed the Roy and Dora
Whitman Academy--a small, nonprofit school founded by U.S.-affiliated
missionaries in Amman to provide affordable English-language education
for foreign student--on the basis that it was not registered with the
Ministry of Education. The board of the academy had been in the process
of registering the school since 1997 and had been led to believe that
registration would be forthcoming in the spring of 2000. After being
contacted by embassies representing a number of countries, the Ministry
of Education assisted the school in properly fulfilling registration
requirements. In April 2000, the school was officially registered and
once again began teaching students.
Shari'a is applied in all matters relating to family law involving
Muslims or the children of a Muslim father, and all citizens, including
non-Muslims, are subject to Islamic legal provisions regarding
inheritance.
In February 2000, criticism of a poem entitled ``Yusef,'' which was
included in a book of poems published in May 1999 by Muslim poet Musa
Hawamdeh, began to circulate in mosques in Amman. Radical Islamists
escalated the criticism of the poem and the poet, calling for the poet
to be killed if he refused to recant the poem and for him to be
divorced forcibly from his Muslim wife. Criticism of the poem from the
Ministers of Religious Affairs and Information followed, and by the end
of March 2000 the Government banned the book in which the offending
poem was published. In June 2000, Hawamdeh was summoned to a Shari'a
court to face allegations of apostasy; he was charged by the head of
court clerks with denying Koranic facts and defaming a prophet. The
complainant requested that Hawamdeh publicly retract the controversial
statements in his poem and requested that the Shari'a judge order that
he divorce his wife and lose his rights to inherit property or manage
his own wealth. The Shari'a court referred the case to a civil court,
which had not ruled on the case as of June 30, 2000. Apostasy is not
punishable under the civil code; however, other charges, such as
blasphemy, could be filed in civil court. In July 2000, Hawamdeh,
without retracting any portion of his poem, was acquitted on all
charges in both the Shari'a and criminal courts.
According to local press reports, a second book of poetry by Ziyad
al-Anani was banned in April 2000; the book contained a poem that
reportedly was offensive to Islam. The authorities did not bring
charges against al-Anani and the book was published and distributed in
Lebanon instead.
In June 2000, due to a dispute stemming from an intrachurch rivalry
between the Jerusalem Patriarchate and the Antioch Orthodox
Patriarchate, the Government closed an Arab Orthodox church in Amman
that was aligned with the Antioch Patriarch in Damascus, Syria. The
Government closed the church following a request from the local
Orthodox hierarchy to enforce a 1958 law that grants the Jerusalem
Patriarchate authority over all Orthodox churches in the country (also
see Section II).
The law prohibits non-Muslims from proselytizing Muslims.
Conversion to the Muslim faith by Christians is allowed; however, a
Muslim may not convert to another religion. Muslims who convert to
other faiths complain of social and government discrimination. The
Government does not fully recognize the legality of such conversions.
Under Shari'a converts are regarded as apostates and legally may be
denied their property and other rights. However, this principle is not
applied in practice. Converts from Islam do not fall under the
jurisdiction of their new religion's laws in matters of personal status
and still are considered Muslims under Shari'a, although the reverse is
not true. Shari'a prescribes a punishment of death for conversion;
however, there is no equivalent statute under national law.
The Political Parties Law prohibits houses of worship from being
used for political party activity. The law was designed primarily to
prevent Islamist parliamentarians from preaching in mosques.
Two major government-sponsored institutions have been established
to promote interfaith understanding: the Royal Institute for Interfaith
Studies and the Royal Academy for Islamic Civilization Research (Al
Bayt Foundation). Both institutions sponsor research, international
conferences, and discussions on a wide range of religious, social, and
historical questions from the perspective of both Muslims and
Christians.
All minor children of a male citizen who converts to Islam are
automatically considered to be Muslim. Adult children of a male
Christian who has converted to Islam become ineligible to inherit from
their father if they do not themselves convert to Islam. In cases where
a Muslim converts to Christianity, the act is not legally recognized by
the authorities, and the subject continues to be treated as a Muslim in
matters of family and property law. Moreover, the minor children of a
male Muslim who converts to Christianity continue to be treated as
Muslims under the law.
Religious instruction is mandatory for all Muslim students in
public schools. Christian and Baha'i students are not required to
attend courses in Islam.
During the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, all citizens, including
non-Muslims, are discouraged from eating, drinking, or smoking in
public or in vehicles and are discouraged strongly from dressing in a
manner that is considered inconsistent with Islamic standards.
Restaurants are closed during daylight hours unless specifically
exempted by the Government and alcohol is not served except in those
facilities catering specifically to tourists.
The security services detained approximately 100 persons, described
in the press as ``Islamists,'' during the period covered by this
report. These detentions appear related to allegations of involvement
in terrorist or strictly political activities rather than religious
affiliation or belief.
The country's parliamentary election law--which grants
disproportionate representation to rural and tribal districts--was
enacted to limit the number of Islamists elected to Parliament. Many
Islamists boycotted the 1997 parliamentary elections and have stated
that in order for them to participate in the next parliamentary
elections, the election law must be amended.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States. However, according to Jordanian law
the father of a child may restrict the child's travel. There reportedly
are at least 35 cases of U.S. citizen children residing in Jordan
against the will of their U.S. mothers, and perhaps many more. Under
the law, these children automatically are considered Muslim because
their fathers are Muslim.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between Muslims and Christians in the country are
generally amicable. Relations within the Christian community sometimes
are difficult, especially in regard to the evangelical Christian
community. In September 1999, several evangelical organizations
received anonymous facsimile transmissions that purported to be copies
of a letter from a group of older, more established churches to the
Prime Minister. The letter called for the Government to limit the
rights of what it called ``nonestablished'' churches, referring to the
country's small but cohesive evangelical community. In June 2000, due
to a dispute stemming from an intrachurch rivalry between the Jerusalem
Patriarchate and the Antioch Orthodox Patriarchate, the Government
closed an Arab Orthodox church in Amman, which was aligned with the
Antioch Patriarch in Damascus, Syria. The Government closed the church
following a request from the local Orthodox hierarchy to enforce a 1958
law that grants the Jerusalem Patriarchate authority over all Orthodox
churches in the country (also see Section I).
In general Christians do not suffer discrimination. Christians hold
government positions and are represented in the media and academia
approximately in proportion to their presence in the general
population. Baha'is face some societal and official discrimination.
Their faith is not recognized officially, and Baha'is are classified as
Muslims on official documents, such as the national identity card (see
Section I). Christian and Baha'i children in public schools are not
required to participate in Islamic religious instruction.
Muslims who convert to other religions often face social ostracism,
threats, and abuse from their families and Muslim religious leaders.
Employment applications occasionally contain questions about an
applicant's religion.
In March 2000, Jordan University amended the student council
election law, granting the university president the authority to
appoint half of the university's 80-member student council, including
the chair. This decision reportedly was made in order to curb the
influence of Islamists on campus. In April 2000, many students--
Islamists and non-Islamists--protested this decision. Islamist groups
also called for a boycott of the elections on April 25, 2000 and some
persons associated with these groups physically attempted to prevent
students from voting.
During the period covered by this report, several newspaper
articles were published that were critical of evangelical
organizations.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. Embassy officials have raised religious freedom and other
human rights issues with government authorities on a number of
occasions. The Embassy's human rights officer has met frequently with
members of the various religious and missionary communities in the
country, as well as with private religious organizations. The Embassy's
American Citizens' Services officer is in regular contact with members
of the American missionary community in the country, many of whom serve
as emergency wardens. In addition, the Ambassador was in contact with
senior government officials throughout January, February, March, and
April 2000. In February 2000, Congressman Charles Canady of Florida
forwarded a letter signed by 63 members of Congress to King Abdullah,
encouraging the Government to grant the JETS' request for registration
with the Ministry of Education.
__________
KUWAIT
Islam is the state religion; although the Constitution provides for
freedom of religion, the Government places some limits on this right.
There was no significant change in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
There are generally amicable relations among the different
religions in society. There were no new reports of vandalism or other
actions against the country's Christian churches. One violent incident
in April 2000 against a Muslim citizen was attributed to Sunni Muslim
extremists and was criticized harshly by the Government and society at
large. Complaints by the Shi'a community about continued difficulties
in obtaining approval for the construction of new mosques attracted
national attention when approval for the construction of a mosque in
the Al-Qurain area was denied by the municipality of Kuwait after it
had been pending for 9 years. In May 2000, there were indications that
the national Government would reverse this decision.
The U. S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Islam is the state religion; although the Constitution provides for
freedom of religion, the Government places some limits on this right.
The Constitution also provides that the State protect the freedom to
practice religion in accordance with established customs, ``provided
that it does not conflict with public policy or morals.'' The
Constitution states that Shari'a (Islamic law) is ``a main source of
legislation.''
The procedures for registration and licensing of religious groups
are unclear. The Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs has official
responsibility for overseeing religious groups. Nevertheless, in
reality officially recognized churches must deal with a variety of
government entities, including the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor
(for visas and residence permits for pastors and other staff) and the
Kuwaiti Municipality (for building permits). While there reportedly is
no official government ``list'' of recognized churches, seven Christian
churches have at least some sort of official recognition that enables
them to operate openly. These seven churches have open ``files'' at the
Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, allowing them to bring in the
pastors and staff necessary to run their churches. Further, by
tradition three of the country's churches are widely recognized as
enjoying ``full recognition'' by the Government and are allowed to
operate compounds officially designated as churches: the Catholic
Church (which includes two separate churches), the Anglican Church, and
the National Evangelical Church of Kuwait (Protestant). The other four
churches reportedly are allowed to operate openly, hire employees,
invite religious speakers, etc., all without interference from the
Government, but their compounds are, according to government records,
registered only as private homes. The churches themselves appear
uncertain about the guidelines or procedures for recognition. Some have
argued that these procedures are purposely kept vague by the Government
so as to maintain the status quo. All other churches and religions have
no legal status but are allowed to operate in private homes.
The procedures for registration and licensing of religious groups
also appear to be connected with government restrictions on
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), religious or otherwise. In 1993
all unlicensed organizations were ordered by the Council of Ministers
to cease their activities. This order has never been enforced; however,
since that time all but three applications by NGO's have been frozen.
There were reports that in the last few years at least two groups have
applied for permission to build their own churches, but the Government
has not yet responded to their requests.
Religious Demography
Among a total population of 2.2 million, approximately 1.5 million
persons are Muslim, including the vast majority of the 750,000
citizens. The remainder of the overall population consists of the large
foreign labor force and over 100,000 stateless persons, most of whom
are Muslim. The ruling family and many prominent families belong to the
Sunni branch of Islam. The total Sunni Muslim population is
approximately 1 million, 500,000 of whom are citizens. The remaining 30
to 40 percent of Muslim residents (approximately 500,000) are Shi'a,
250,000 of whom are citizens. Estimates of the nominal Christian
population range from 250,000 to 500,000 (including approximately 200
citizens, most of whom belong to 12 large families).
The Christian community consists of the Roman Catholic Diocese,
with 2 churches and an estimated 75,000 members (Maronite Christians
also worship at the Catholic cathedral in Kuwait city); the Anglican
(Episcopalian) Church, with 115 members (several thousand other
Christians use the Anglican Church for worship services); the National
Evangelical Church (Protestant), with 3 main congregations (Arabic,
English, and ``Malayalee'')
and 15,000 members (several other Christian denominations also
worship at the National Evangelical Church Compound); the Greek
Orthodox Church (referred to locally as the ``Roman Orthodox'' Church),
with 3,500 members; the Armenian Orthodox Church, with 4,000 members;
the Coptic Orthodox Church, with 60,000 members; and the Greek Catholic
(Eastern Rite) Church, whose membership totals are unavailable.
There are many other unrecognized Christian denominations in the
country, with tens of thousands of members. These denominations include
Seventh-Day Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormons), Marthoma, and the Indian Orthodox Syrian Church.
There are also members of religions not sanctioned in the Koran,
such as Hindus (100,000 members), Sikhs (10,000), Baha'is (400), and
Buddhists (no statistics available).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Shi'a are free to conduct their traditional forms of worship
without government interference; however, members of the Shi'a
community have complained about the scarcity of Shi'a mosques due to
the Government's slowness or failure to grant approval for the
construction of new Shi'a mosques as well as the repair of existing
mosques. The community was particularly critical in May 2000 when the
municipality rejected a 9-year-old petition for construction of a Shi'a
mosque in the Al-Qurain area. Although the municipality apparently
relented due to direct government intervention, there are still
complaints about the lack of sufficient Shi'a mosques. There are
approximately 30 Shi'a mosques compared with the 1,300 Sunni mosques in
the country. However, Shi'a have noted some improvement in recent years
in that a small number of approvals have been granted for the
construction of Shi'a mosques.
Shi'a leaders also have complained that Shi'a who aspire to serve
as imams are forced to seek appropriate training and education abroad
due to the lack of Shi'a jurisprudence courses at Kuwait University's
College of Islamic Law. They also have expressed concern that certain
pending proposed legislation within the National Assembly does not take
beliefs specific to the Shi'a into account.
The Roman Catholic, Anglican, National Evangelical, Greek Orthodox,
Armenian Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, and Greek Catholic Churches are
able to operate freely on their compounds, holding worship services
without government interference. These leaders also state that the
Government generally has been supportive of their presence, even
providing police security and traffic direction as needed. Other
Christian denominations (including Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists,
Marthoma, and Indian Orthodox), while not recognized legally, are
allowed to operate in private homes or in the facilities of recognized
churches. Members of these congregations have reported that they are
able to worship without government interference, provided that they do
not disturb their neighbors and do not violate laws regarding assembly
and proselytizing.
Members of religions not sanctioned in the Koran, such as Hindus
and Buddhists, may not build places of worship, but are allowed to
worship privately in their homes without interference from the
Government.
The Government prohibits missionaries from proselytizing to
Muslims; however, they may serve non-Muslim congregations. The law
prohibits organized religious education for religions other than Islam,
although this law is not enforced rigidly. Informal religious
instruction occurs inside private homes and on church compounds without
government interference. However, there were reports that government
``inspectors'' periodically visit public and private schools outside of
church compounds to ensure that no religious teaching other than Islam
takes place.
The Government does not permit the establishment of non-Islamic
publishing companies or training institutions for clergy. Nevertheless,
several churches do publish religious materials for use solely by their
congregations. Further, some churches, in the privacy of their
compounds, provide informal instruction to individuals interested in
joining the clergy.
A private company, the Book House Company Ltd., is permitted to
import significant amounts of Bibles and other Christian religious
material--including, as of early 2000, videotapes and compact discs--
for use solely among the congregations of the country's recognized
churches. The Book House Company is the only bookstore that has an
import license to bring in such materials, which also must be approved
by government censors. There have been reports of private citizens
having non-Islamic religious materials confiscated by customs officials
upon arrival at the airport.
Although there is a small community of Christian citizens, a law
passed in 1980 prohibits the naturalization of non-Muslims. However,
citizens who were Christians before 1980 (and children born to families
of such citizens since that date), are allowed to transmit their
citizenship to their children.
According to the law, a non-Muslim male must convert to Islam when
he marries a Muslim woman if the wedding is to be legal in Kuwait. A
non-Muslim female does not have to convert to Islam to marry a Muslim
male, but it is to her advantage to do so. Failure to convert may mean
that, should the couple later divorce, the Muslim father would be
granted custody of any children.
In April 2000, the Government formed a joint interministerial
committee to study ways to control extremist groups (see Section II).
The law requires jail terms for journalists who ridicule religion.
In the period covered by this report, Islamists used this law to
threaten writers with prosecution for publishing opinions deemed
insufficiently observant of Islamic norms. In January 2000, the Kuwaiti
Court of Misdemeanors found two female Kuwaiti authors, Alia Shuaib and
Leila Al-Othman, guilty of writing books that were blasphemous and
obscene. Shuaib and Al-Othman were sentenced to 2 months in prison
which could be suspended upon payment of a $160 (50 Kuwaiti dinars)
fine. On March 26, a Kuwaiti appeals court acquitted Shuaib of the
charges of blasphemy and publishing works that ridicule religion. Al-
Othman's conviction of using indecent language was upheld. The court's
judgments represented the latest in a series of cases brought by
Islamists against secular authors. The court did not provide
explanations for its rulings.
In early 2000, a Vatican representative arrived in the country to
establish a permanent mission. The mission, which currently is headed
by a charge d'affaires who temporarily resides at the Roman Catholic
Church, also is to represent Vatican interests in the smaller Gulf
States and Yemen. The Church views the Government's acquiescence to
establish relations with the Vatican as significant in terms of
government tolerance of Christianity.
There was no significant change in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversions of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States. There have been cases in which U.S.
citizen children have been abducted from the United States and not
allowed to return (under the law, the father receives custody in such
cases, and his permission is required for the children to leave the
country); however, there were no reports that such children were forced
to convert to Islam, or that forced conversion was the reason that they
were not allowed to return.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
In general, there are amicable relations among the different
religions, and citizens generally are open and tolerant of other
religions. While there is a small minority of ultraconservatives
opposed to the presence of non-Muslim groups, there were no new reports
of vandalism or other actions against the country's Christian churches
during the period covered by this report. There was one reported
incident in April 2000 of vigilante justice by extremists against a
female Muslim university student, who allegedly was beaten by three men
for un-Islamic behavior. Subsequent reports claimed that up to seven
members of the extremist group Takfir Wa Hijra (Brand Infidels and
Expel Them) were involved in the assault and had been involved in
similar incidents in recent years. The accused were arrested within
days and the Government formed a joint ministerial committee to study
ways to control such groups. However, the evidence supporting the
student's charges did not hold up in court and on June 12, Kuwait's
criminal court acquitted the accused suspects. While reactions to this
incident varied, in general, most citizens were critical of the
extremists' actions.
During the same month, unidentified gunmen fired shots at a
``husseiniya'' (religious meeting place for Shi'a). Although the
identities of the assailants were never determined, the incident
contributed to a perception by some that extremists (the presumed
attackers) are becoming increasingly disruptive to society.
While some discrimination based on religion reportedly occurs on a
personal level, most observers agree that it is not widespread. There
is a perception among some domestic employees and other members of the
unskilled labor force, particularly nationals from Southeast Asian
countries, that they would receive better treatment from employers as
well as society as a whole if they converted to Islam. However, others
do not see conversion to Islam as a factor in this regard.
The conversion of Muslims to other religions is a very sensitive
matter. While it is reported that such conversions have occurred, they
have been done quietly and discreetly. Muslim conversions that become
public are likely to trigger hostility within society, as demonstrated
by a 1996 case in which the convert received death threats.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
U.S. Embassy officials frequently meet with representatives from
Sunni, Shi'a, and various Christian groups. Intensive monitoring of
religious issues has long been an embassy priority. Embassy officers
have met with most of the leaders of the country's recognized Christian
churches, along with representatives of various unrecognized faiths.
Such meetings have afforded embassy officials the opportunity to learn
the status and concerns of these groups.
__________
LEBANON
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, there
are some restrictions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Discrimination based on religion is built into the system of
government. There are no legal barriers to proselytizing; however,
traditional attitudes and edicts of the clerical establishment
discourage such activity.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. The State is
required to ensure the free exercise of all religious rites with the
caveat that public order not be disturbed. The Constitution also
provides that the personal status and religious interests of the
population be respected. The Government permits recognized religions to
exercise authority over matters pertaining to personal status such as
marriage, divorce, and inheritance. There is no state religion;
however, politics are based on the principle of religious
representation, which has been applied to every conceivable aspect of
public life.
A group that seeks official recognition must submit its dogma and
moral principles for government review to ensure that such principles
do not contradict popular values and the Constitution. The group must
ensure that the number of its adherents is sufficient to maintain its
continuity. Alternatively, religious groups may apply to obtain
recognition through existing religious groups. Official recognition
conveys certain benefits, such as tax-exempt status and the right to
apply the religion's codes to personal status matters.
Religious Demography
Because the matter of religious balance is such a sensitive
political issue, a national census has not been conducted since the
founding of the modern Lebanese State. Consequently, there is an
absence of accurate data on the relative percentages of the population
of the major religions and groups. Most observers believe that Muslims
make up the majority, but they do not represent a homogenous group.
There also is a variety of other religious groups, primarily from the
Christian and Jewish religions.
There are 18 officially recognized religious groups. Their
ecclesiastical and demographic patterns are extremely complex.
Divisions and rivalries between groups date back as far as 15
centuries, and are still a factor today. The pattern of settlement has
changed little since the 7th century, although there has been a steady
numerical decline in the number of Christians compared to Muslims. The
main branches of Islam are Shi'a and Sunni. Since the llth century
there has been a sizable Druze presence, concentrated in rural,
mountainous areas east and south of Beirut. The smallest Muslim
minorities are the Alawites, and the Ismaili (``Sevener'') Shi'a order.
The ``Twelver'' Shi'a, Sunni, and Druze each have state-appointed
clerical bodies to administer family and personal status law through
their own religious courts, which are subsidized by the State. The
Maronites are the largest of the Christian groups. They have had a long
and continuous association with the Roman Catholic Church, but have
their own patriarch, liturgy, and customs. The second largest group is
the Greek Orthodox Church (composed of ethnic Arabs who maintained a
Greek-language liturgy). The remainder of the Christians are divided
among Greek Catholics, Armenian Orthodox (Gregorians), Armenian
Catholics, Syrian Orthodox (Jacobites), Syrian Catholics, Assyrians
(Nestorians), Chaldeans, Copts, evangelicals (including Protestant
groups such as the Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Friends), and
Latins (Roman Catholic). Most Christian groups also administer their
own family and personal status law. State recognition is not a legal
requirement for religious practice. For example, although Baha'is,
Buddhists, and Hindus are not officially recognized, they are allowed
to practice their faith without government interference; however, they
legally may not marry, divorce, or inherit in the country.
The Government allows private religious education. There is a
vigorous debate on the issue of public religious education, but no
final curriculum has been adopted. Publishing of religious materials in
different languages is permitted. The country's religious pluralism and
climate of religious freedom have attracted many refugees fleeing
religious persecution in neighboring states. They include Kurds, Shi'a,
and Chaldeans from Iraq and Coptic Christians from Egypt and Sudan.
The Government promotes interfaith understanding by supporting a
committee on Islamic-Christian dialog, which is cochaired by a Muslim
and a Christian, and includes representatives of the major religious
groups. Leading religious figures who promote Islamic-Christian dialog
and ecumenicism are encouraged to visit and are received by government
officials at the highest levels.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The unwritten ``National Pact'' of 1943 stipulates that the
President, the Prime Minister, and the Speaker of Parliament be a
Maronite Christian, a Sunni Muslim, and a Shi'a Muslim, respectively.
The Taif Accord, which ended Lebanon's 15-year civil war in 1990,
reaffirmed this arrangement but resulted in increased Muslim
representation in Parliament and reduced the power of the Maronite
President. The Accord called for the ultimate abolition of political
sectarianism in favor of ``expertise and competence.'' However, little
substantive progress has been made in this regard. A ``Committee for
Abolishing Confessionalism,'' called for in the Taif Accord, has not
yet been formed. Christians and Muslims are represented equally in the
Parliament. Seats in the Parliament and Cabinet, and posts in the civil
service, are distributed proportionally among the 18 recognized groups.
Each religious group has its own courts for family law matters,
such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. State
recognition is not a legal requirement for religious practice. For
example, although Baha'is, Buddhists, and Hindus are not officially
recognized, they are allowed to practice their faith without government
interference; however, they legally may not marry, divorce, or inherit
in the country.
The Government does not require citizens' religious affiliations to
be indicated on their passports; however, the Government requires that
religious affiliation be encoded on national identity cards.
An individual may change his religion if the head of the religious
group he wishes to join approves of this change. There are different
personal status codes for each of the 18 officially recognized
religious groups. Administered by representatives of the groups, these
codes govern many areas of civil law, including marriage, divorce,
inheritance, and child custody. Many families have relatives who belong
to different religious communities, and intermarriage is not uncommon;
however, intermarriage may be difficult to arrange in practice between
members of some groups because there are no procedures for civil
marriage. An attempt in 1998 by then-President Elias Hrawi to forward
legislation permitting civil marriage failed in the face of opposition
from the religious leadership of all confessions.
Article 473 of the Penal Code stipulates that one who ``blasphemes
God publicly'' will face imprisonment for up to a year.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In September 1999, Marcel Khalife, a leading singer and songwriter,
was accused of insulting Islam for incorporating lines from a poem
based on verses from the Koran into a song he recorded in 1995. An
indictment was issued charging the singer with blasphemy. Most
political and religious leaders, with the exception of the Sunni Grand
Mufti of the Republic, criticized this action. Khalife was acquitted of
the charges on December 15, 1999.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Discrimination based on religion is built into the system of
government. The amended Constitution of 1990 embraces the principle of
abolishing religious affiliation as a criterion for filling government
positions, but few practical steps have been taken to accomplish this.
One notable exception is the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), which,
through universal conscription and an emphasis on professionalism, has
significantly reduced the role of confessionalism (or religious
sectarianism) in that organization.
Citizens still are struggling with the legacy of a 15-year civil
war fought along religious lines. Some of the harshest fighting of the
war occurred within religious groups.
There are no legal barriers to proselytizing; however, traditional
attitudes and edicts of the clerical establishment discourage such
activity.
The Committee of Islamic-Christian Dialog remains the most
significant institution for fostering amicable relations between
religious communities. It has received the Archbishop of Canterbury and
leading representatives of other groups on ecumenical missions to
promote understanding between Muslims and Christians. Clerics play a
leading role in many ecumenical movements worldwide. For example, the
Armenian Orthodox Patriarch, Aram I, is the moderator for the World
Council of Churches. The Imam Musa Sadr Foundation has also played a
role in fostering the ecumenical message of Musa Sadr, a Shi'a cleric
who disappeared in Libya in 1978.
On October 3, 1999, one person was killed when a bomb exploded in a
Maronite church in an eastern Beirut suburb. There were no arrests made
in this case during the period covered by this report.
Throughout the fall of 1999, approximately 6 random bombings were
carried out against Orthodox churches and shops that sold liquor; the
bombings took place in the northern city of Tripoli and in surrounding
areas. The Government suspected that radical Sunni extremists carried
out the bombings in retaliation for Russian military operations in
Chechnya. Police officials detained and allegedly tortured a number of
Sunni youths for suspected involvement in these bombings; however, the
youths later were released due to a lack of evidence.
In December 1999, Sunni extremists killed four LAF soldiers in an
ambush in the northern region of Dinniyeh after these soldiers
attempted to arrest two Sunni Muslims allegedly involved in a series of
church bombings. On December 31, 1999, the LAF retaliated by launching
a massive military operation against Sunni insurgents in north Lebanon.
Five civilians, 7 LAF soldiers, and 15 insurgents were killed in this
operation.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
U.S. policy supports the preservation of pluralism and religious
freedom, and the U.S. Embassy advances that goal through contacts at
all levels of society, public remarks, embassy public affairs programs,
and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) programming. The
issue of political sectarianism remains a delicate one. The United
States supports the principles of the Taif Accord and embassy staff
regularly discuss the issue of sectarianism with political, religious,
and civic leaders. Embassy staff members meet periodically with the
leadership--both national and regional--of officially recognized
groups, all of whom have a long tradition of meeting with foreign
diplomats and discussing issues of general public interest. The Embassy
regularly attends events sponsored by the Committee on Islamic-
Christian Dialog. The U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for International
Religious Freedom visited the country in April 2000 to discuss this
issue with the religious leadership and with local lawyers and
activists. The Embassy sponsored the visit to Beirut of the founder of
the American Muslim Council to speak before the interfaith committee
about Islam in America. USAID programs in rural areas of the country
also require civic participation, often involving villages of different
religious backgrounds, with the aim of promoting cooperation between
religions.
__________
LIBYA
The Government restricts freedom of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Information regarding relations among the country's different
religious groups is limited. According to recent reports, persons
rarely are harassed because of their religious practices unless such
practices are perceived as having a political dimension or motivation.
The U.S. Government has no official presence in the country and
maintains no dialog with the Government.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Government restricts freedom of religion.
The country's leadership has been known to state publicly its
preference for Islam. In an apparent effort to eliminate all
alternative power bases, the regime has banned the once powerful
Sanusiyya Islamic order. In its place, Libyan leader Colonel Mu'ammar
Al-Qadhafi established the Islamic Call Society (ICS), which is the
Islamic arm of the Government's foreign policy and is active throughout
the world. The ICS also is responsible for relations with other
religions, including the Christian churches in the country. The ICS's
main purpose is to promote a moderate form of Islam that reflects the
religious views of the Government, and there are reports that Islamic
groups whose beliefs and practices are at variance with the state-
approved teaching of Islam are banned. Although most Islamic
institutions are under government control, prominent families endow
some mosques; however, they generally remain within the government-
approved interpretation of Islam.
Religious Demography
The country is overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim (97 to 98 percent).
There are small Christian communities, composed almost exclusively of
foreigners. There is a small Anglican community, made up mostly of
African immigrant workers in Tripoli, which is part of the Egyptian
Diocese; the Anglican Bishop of Libya is resident in Cairo. There are
Union churches in Tripoli and Benghazi. There are an estimated 40,000
Roman Catholics who are served by two Bishops--1 in Tripoli (serving
the Italian community) and 1 in Benghazi (serving the Maltese
community). Catholic priests and nuns serve in all the main coastal
cities, and there is one priest in the southern city of Sebha. Most of
them work in hospitals and with the handicapped; they enjoy good
relations with the Government. There are also Coptic and Greek Orthodox
priests in both Tripoli and Benghazi.
In March 1997, the Vatican established diplomatic relations with
Libya, stating that Libya had taken steps to protect freedom of
religion. The Vatican hoped to be able to address more adequately the
needs of the estimated 50,000 Christians in the country.
There still may be a very small number of Jews. Most of the Jewish
community, which numbered around 35,000 in 1948, left for Italy at
various stages between 1948 and 1967. The Government has been
rehabilitating the ``medina'' (old city) in Tripoli and has renovated
the large synagogue there; however, the synagogue has not reopened.
There are no known places of worship for other non-Muslim religions
such as Hinduism, the Baha'i Faith, and Buddhism, although adherents
are allowed to practice within the privacy of their home. Foreign
adherents of these religions are allowed to display and sell religious
items at bazaars and other gatherings.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government controls most mosques and Islamic institutions, and
even mosques endowed by prominent families generally remain within the
government-approved interpretation of Islam. According to recent
reports, individuals rarely are harassed because of their religious
practices, unless such practices are perceived as having a political
dimension or motivation. However, Christians are restricted by the lack
of churches; there is a government limit of one church per denomination
per city. Members of some minority religions are allowed to conduct
services. Christian churches operate openly and are tolerated by the
authorities. The authorities reportedly have failed to honor a promise
made in 1970 to provide the Anglican Church with alternative facilities
when they took the property used by the Church. Since 1988 the
Anglicans have shared a villa with other Protestant denominations.
There continue to be reports of armed clashes between security forces
and Islamic groups that oppose the current regime and advocate the
establishment of a more traditional form of Islamic government.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Information on religious freedom is limited, although members of
minority religions report that they do not face harassment by
authorities or the Muslim majority on the basis of their religious
practices.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The United States has no official presence in Libya, and
consequently maintains no dialog with the Government on religious
freedom issues.
__________
MOROCCO
Islam is the official religion and, although the Constitution
provides for freedom of religion, in practice only Islam, Christianity,
and Judaism are tolerated officially. Baha'is face restrictions on the
practice of their faith. The Government monitors the activities of
mosques and places some restrictions on Christian religious materials.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations between majority and minority religions are amicable.
Since July 23, 1999, when King Mohammed VI succeeded his father, the
late King Hassan II, who ruled for 38 years, the new King has continued
to uphold a tradition of respect for interfaith dialog. Converts to
Christianity sometimes face social ostracism.
The U. S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides that Islam is the official religion, and
designates the King as ``Commander of the Faithful'' with the
responsibility of ensuring ``respect for Islam.'' Although the
Constitution provides for freedom of religion, only Islam,
Christianity, and Judaism are tolerated in practice; however, in 1996 a
small foreign Hindu community received the right to perform cremations
and to hold services. Other foreign communities enjoy similar religious
privileges. However, Baha'is face restrictions on the practice of their
faith. The Government monitors the activities of mosques.
The Government does not license or approve religions or religious
organizations. The Government provides tax benefits, land and building
grants, subsidies, and customs exemptions for imports necessary for the
observance of the major religions.
Religious Demography
Ninety-nine percent of citizens are Sunni Muslims. The Jewish
community numbers approximately 5,000 persons and predominantly resides
in the Casablanca and Rabat urban areas, as well as some smaller cities
throughout the country. The foreign Christian community (Roman Catholic
and Protestant) consists of a little more than 5,000 members. Most
reside in the Casablanca and Rabat urban areas. Also located in Rabat
and Casablanca, the Baha'i community numbers 350 to 400 persons. There
are few practicing atheists in the country; most atheists reportedly
are university students.
The teaching of Islam in public schools benefits from discretionary
funding in the Government's annual education budget, as do other
curriculum subjects. The annual budget also provides funds for
religious instruction to the parallel system of Jewish public schools.
The Government has funded several efforts to study the cultural,
artistic, literary, and scientific heritage of Moroccan Jews. In 1998
the Government created a chair for the study of comparative religions
at the University of Rabat.
The Government regularly organizes events to encourage tolerance
and respect among religions. In April and May 2000, the Government
hosted the first meeting of the ``Traveling Faculty of the Religions of
the Book'' at Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane. Royal counselor Andre
Azoulay, a leading Jewish citizen, spoke of the importance of
interfaith respect and dialog in front of major Islamic, Jewish, and
Christian figures from around the world.
The Government annually organizes in May the ``Fez Festival of
Sacred Music,'' which includes musicians from many religions. The
Government has organized in the past numerous symposiums among local
and international clergy, priests, rabbis, imams and other spiritual
leaders to examine ways to reduce religious intolerance and to promote
interfaith dialog. Each year during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan,
the King hosts colloquiums of Islamic religious scholars to examine
ways to promote tolerance and mutual respect within Islam and between
Islam and other religions.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The small Baha'i community has been forbidden to meet or
participate in communal activities since 1983. However, during the
period covered by this report, no members of the Baha'i community were
summoned to the Ministry of the Interior for questioning concerning
their faith and meetings, as had occurred in past years. For the second
year in a row, there were no reports of Baha'is being denied passports
because of their religion.
Islamic law and tradition call for strict punishment of any Muslim
who converts to another faith. Citizens who convert to Christianity and
other religions sometimes face social ostracism, and in the past a
small number have faced short periods of questioning or detention by
the authorities. Voluntary conversion is not a crime under the Criminal
or Civil Codes; however, the authorities have jailed some converts on
the basis of references to Koranic law.
Any attempt to induce a Muslim to convert is illegal. (According to
Article 220 of the Penal Code, any attempt to stop one or more persons
from the exercise of their religious beliefs, or attendance at
religious services, is unlawful and may be punished by 3 to 6 months of
imprisonment and a fine of $10 (103 dirhams) to $50 (515 dirhams). The
Article applies the same penalty to ``anyone who employs incitements in
order to shake the faith of a Muslim or to convert him to another
religion.'') Foreign missionaries either limit their proselytizing to
non-Muslims or conduct their work quietly. The Government cited the
prohibition in the Penal Code on conversion in most cases in which
courts expelled foreign missionaries.
During the period covered by this report, there were no known cases
of foreigners being denied entry into the country because they were
carrying Christian materials, as had occurred in 1998 and the first
half of 1999.
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs monitors Friday mosque sermons and
the Koranic schools to ensure the teaching of approved doctrine. The
authorities sometimes suppress the activities of Islamists but
generally tolerate activities limited to the propagation of Islam,
education, and charity. Security forces commonly close mosques to the
public shortly after Friday services to prevent use of the premises for
unauthorized political activity. The Government strictly controls
authorization to construct new mosques. Most mosques are constructed
using private funds.
Since the time of the French Protectorate (1912-1956), a small
foreign Christian community has opened churches, orphanages, hospitals,
and schools without any restriction or licensing requirement being
imposed. Missionaries who conduct themselves in accordance with
societal expectations largely are left unhindered. Those whose
activities become public face expulsion.
The Government permits the display and sale of Bibles in French,
English, and Spanish, but confiscates Arabic language Bibles and
refuses licenses for their importation and sale, despite the absence of
any law banning such books. Nevertheless, Arabic Bibles reportedly have
been sold in local bookstores.
There are two sets of laws and courts--one for Jews and one for
Muslims--pertaining to marriage, inheritance, and family matters. The
family law courts are run, depending on the law that applies, by
rabbinical and Islamic authorities who are court officials. Parliament
authorizes any changes to those laws. Non-Koranic sections of Muslim
law on personal status are applied to non-Muslim and non-Jewish
persons. Alternatively, non-Muslim and non-Jewish foreigners in Morocco
may refer to their embassies or consulates for marriage, divorce,
inheritance, and other personal issues if they choose not to adhere to
Moroccan law.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
After 11 years of house arrest for refusing to acknowledge the
religious authority of King Hassan II, Islamist dissident Sheikh
Abdessalam Yassine was allowed to leave his Sale home on May 16, 2000.
Yassine's release came after a May 10 statement by the Minister of
Interior before Parliament that the Sheikh ``leaves and returns to his
residence as he likes. He receives visitors and holds meetings.'' The
Minister also said that Sheikh Yassine was free to take his case to
court if he believed that his rights were being abused. Subsequent to
the lifting of his house arrest, Sheikh Yassine received at his home
leading council members of his Justice and Charity Organization (JCO)
on May 17, attended a Sale mosque prayer service on May 19, and gave a
May 20 press conference widely attended by domestic and foreign media
representatives.
During the period covered by this report, books, articles, and
audio cassettes published and produced by Yassine were sold at some
bookstores. Editorials calling for the Sheikh's release prior to his
liberation were published without impediment. The JCO maintains an
active presence on university campuses and occasionally organized,
prior to Yassine's release, protests of his lengthy house arrest.
However, prominent members of the JCO are subject to constant
surveillance and sometimes encounter problems obtaining passports and
other necessary documents. In addition, after Yassine's release, the
Government banned the JCO's popular summer camps, which were used to
garner and increase support for the organization.
During the period covered by this report, officials of the
Gendarmerie Royale summoned several members of the foreign Christian
community for questioning concerning the practice of their faith. After
8 years of residence in the country, one U.S. citizen in the community
failed to receive annual renewal of his resident's visa after
Gendarmerie Royale officials began an investigation into his religious
activities. The investigation reportedly is still underway. Currently
the U.S. citizen faces no problem residing in, or exiting and returning
to, the country.
Fewer than 50 Islamists are serving sentences for offenses that
range from arms smuggling to participating in a bomb attack on a hotel
in Marrakech. However, a small number of these prisoners remain in
prison for having called for an Islamic state in 1983.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Tolerance is widespread, and relations between majority and
minority religions are amicable. Foreigners attend religious services
without any restrictions or fear of reprisals, and Jews live throughout
the Kingdom in safety. While free expression of Islamic faith and even
the free academic and theological discussion of non-Islamic religions
are accepted on television and radio, public efforts to proselytize are
frowned upon by society. Most citizens view such public acts as
provocative threats to law and order in an overwhelmingly observant
Muslim country. In addition, society expects public respect for the
institutions and mores of Islam, although private behavior and beliefs
are unregulated and unmonitored. Because many Muslims view the Baha'i
Faith as a heretical offshoot of Islam, most members of the tiny Baha'i
community maintain a low religious profile. However, Baha'is live
freely and without fear for their persons or property, and some even
hold government jobs, albeit discreetly.
Because the populace is overwhelmingly Muslim, because Islam is the
religion of the State, and because the King enjoys temporal and
spiritual authority through his role as ``Commander of the Faithful,''
there is widespread consensus among Muslims about religious practices
and interpretation. Other sources of popular consensus are the councils
of ulemas, unofficial religious scholars who serve as monitors of the
monarchy and the actions of the Government. Because the ulemas
traditionally hold the power to legitimize or delegitimize kings
through their moral authority, government policies closely adhere to
popular and religious expectations. While dissenters such as Yassine
and his followers challenge the religious authority of the King and
call for the establishment of a government more deeply rooted in their
vision of Islam, the majority of citizens do not appear to share their
views.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
During the period covered by this report, embassy officers
continued to raise religious freedom issues in an effort to help
resolve the few outstanding cases of restrictions on religious freedom.
Prior to the release of Sheikh Yassine, the Embassy discussed his house
arrest with government interlocutors, Sheikh Yassine's lawyer, his
family, and some of his associates. Similarly, embassy officers sought
openly to meet directly with Sheikh Yassine prior to his release and
were informed by credible sources that ``as a matter of principle'' he
would not meet with either journalists or diplomats. Prior to and after
Yassine's release, embassy officers who sought to meet with Sheikh
Yassine, members of his family, and his close associates encountered no
interference from the Government in seeking these contacts.
The U.S. Consulate in Casablanca investigated the case of the U.S.
citizen who has not yet had his residence permit renewed. The Consulate
ascertained from the police that no formal charges exist against the
U.S. citizen. The Embassy currently remains in contact with the
citizen.
The Ambassador and embassy officials also meet regularly with
religious officials, including the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Islamic
religious scholars, the leader of the Jewish community, and local
Christian leaders and missionaries. The Embassy maintains contacts with
the small Baha'i community as well.
__________
WESTERN SAHARA
Although the Moroccan Constitution provides for freedom of
religion, only Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are tolerated in
practice; however, several foreign communities enjoy some religious
privileges.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Relations among religious believers were generally amicable.
The U. S. Embassy in Morocco discusses religious freedom issues in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights in the Western
Sahara.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Due to continuing Moroccan administrative control of the territory
of the Western Sahara, conditions for religious freedom in that
territory are similar to those found in the Kingdom of Morocco.
Although the Moroccan Constitution provides for freedom of religion,
only Islam, Christianity and Judaism are tolerated in practice;
however, several foreign communities enjoy some religious privileges.
Religious Demography
Apart from a tiny foreign community working for the United Nations
Interposition Force in the territory (known by its French acronym,
MINURSO), the overwhelming majority of the population are Sunni Muslim.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the authorities' refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among religious believers were generally amicable.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy in Morocco discusses religious freedom issues in
the overall context of the promotion of human rights in the Western
Sahara.
__________
OMAN
Islam is the state religion, and the Basic Charter preserves the
freedom to practice religious rites, in accordance with tradition,
provided that it does not breach public order. The Government permits
freedom of worship for non-Muslim residents.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Christian and Hindu worship is permitted, and Sultan Qaboos has
given land for the construction of centers of worship for these
religions. However, it is illegal to proselytize Muslims to abandon
Islam. Islam is an integral part of the scholastic curriculum; however,
non-Muslim students attending private schools are not required to study
Islam.
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Islam is the state religion, which is affirmed by the 1996 Basic
Charter. The 1996 Basic Charter provides that Shari'a (Islamic law) is
the basis for legislation and preserves the freedom to practice
religious rites, in accordance with tradition, provided that it does
not breach public order. The Government permits freedom of worship for
non-Muslims as well.
Non-Muslim religious organizations must be registered with the
Government, and the Government restricts some of their activities.
Religious Demography
Most citizens are Ibadhi or Sunni Muslims, but there is also a
minority of Shi'a Muslims. There is a small community of ethnically
Indian Hindu citizens, and there is reportedly a very small number of
Christians, who were originally from India or the Levant, and who have
been naturalized.
Non-Muslims, the majority of whom are noncitizen immigrant workers
from South Asia, are free to worship at churches and temples, some of
which are built on land donated by the Sultan. There are many Christian
denominations in Muscat, which use two plots of donated land. Two
Catholic and two Protestant churches have been built on this land.
Hindu temples also have been built on government-provided land. The
Government also provided land for Catholic and Protestant missions in
Sohar and Salalah.
Governmental Restrictions on Freedom of Religion
Citizen children must attend a school that provides instruction in
Islam; noncitizen children may attend schools that do not offer
instruction in Islam.
Citizens and noncitizen residents are free to discuss their
religious beliefs; however, the Government prohibits non-Muslims from
proselytizing Muslims. Under Islamic law, a Muslim who recants belief
in Islam would be considered an apostate and dealt with under
applicable Islamic legal procedure. NonMuslims are permitted to change
their religious affiliation to Islam.
In June 2000, the departure from the country of a foreign Baha'i
due to termination of his employment may have been hastened by the
proselytizing activities of his wife. The authorities asked members of
the Baha'i community not to proselytize, in accordance with the
country's law and custom.
The Government prohibits non-Muslim groups from publishing
religious material, although material printed abroad may be brought
into the country. Members of all religions and religious groups are
free to maintain links with coreligionists abroad and undertake foreign
travel for religious purposes. Ministers and priests from abroad also
are permitted to visit the country for the purpose of carrying out
duties related to registered religious organizations.
The police monitor mosque sermons to ensure that the preachers do
not discuss political topics and stay within the stateapproved
orthodoxy of Islam. The Government expects all imams to preach sermons
within the parameters of standardized texts distributed monthly by the
Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs.
The Government has sponsored forums at which differing
interpretations of Islam have been examined; there are no known
instances during the period covered by this report where the Government
has publicly promoted interfaith dialog.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
There are amicable relations between the various religious
communities. Christian theologians have met with local Islamic
authorities and with members of the faculty at the country's major
university. Private groups that promote interfaith dialog are permitted
to exist as long as discussions do not constitute an attempt to cause
Muslims to recant their Islamic beliefs.
The Basic Charter provides that discrimination against individuals
on the basis of religion or religious group is prohibited; however,
decrees implementing the prohibition against religious discrimination
have not yet been established.
Religious discrimination is largely absent; however, some members
of the Shi'a minority claim that they face discrimination in employment
and educational opportunities. Nonetheless, some Shi'a occupy prominent
positions in both the private and public sectors.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of the promotion of human rights.
Members of the staff at the U.S. Embassy routinely participate in local
religious ceremonies, and have contact with non-Muslim practitioners.
__________
QATAR
There is no constitutional protection for freedom of religion. The
Official State religion follows the conservative Wahhabi tradition of
the Hanbali school of Islam. The Government officially prohibits public
worship by non-Muslims; however, it tolerates private worship for
``peoples of the book,'' (i.e., Christians and Jews).
During the past year, the Government took substantive steps that
somewhat improved respect for religious freedom by recognizing
Christian clergy and proceeding with plans to construct Christian
churches in the capital, Doha.
There are generally amicable relations among persons of differing
religious beliefs. However, much of the population opposes the
construction of Christian churches. Discrimination in some areas
occurs, at times along religious lines. In general Muslims hold all
positions of authority in the Government, with citizens holding higher
level positions and foreign Muslims holding lower positions. Shi'a
Muslims experience discrimination in employment in sensitive areas.
Non-Muslims may not proselytize, and the Government formally prohibits
the publication, importation, and distribution of Bibles and other non-
Islamic religious literature. However, in practice individuals
generally are not prevented from importing Bibles and other religious
items for personal use.
The U.S. Ambassador and embassy staff meet regularly with
government officials to discuss issues of religious freedom. Other
embassy officers have taken the lead in bringing government officials
and lay church leaders together to discuss the modalities of expanding
toleration and understanding of non-Islamic worship. The Government has
been receptive to quiet dialog and has offered to donate land for and
assist in the construction of Christian churches.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
There is no constitutional protection for freedom of religion. The
state religion is Islam, as interpreted by the conservative Wahhabi
order of the Sunni branch. The Government officially prohibits public
worship by non-Muslims; however, it tolerates and protects services
conducted privately with prior notification to the authorities. The
Government allows Shi'a Muslims to practice their faith freely;
however, community leaders have agreed to refrain from certain public
practices, such as self-flagellation.
The Government and ruling family are inextricably linked to the
practice of Islam. The Ministry of Islamic Affairs controls the
construction of mosques, the administration of clerical affairs, and
instruction in the Koran. The Minister of Islamic Affairs is a member
of the Emir's cabinet and participates in policymaking at the highest
level. The only official government holidays aside from the
independence day are the Eid Al-Fitr, following the holy month of
Ramadan, and the Eid Al-Adha, which commemorates the end of the Hajj.
The Emir participates in widely publicized ``Eid prayers'' and each
year personally finances the Hajj pilgrimages of many who cannot afford
to travel to Mecca.
During the period covered by this report, the Catholic, Anglican,
and Orthodox churches in effect received de facto official recognition.
However, formal recognition apparently has not yet been granted. There
reportedly is a verbal commitment by the Government to allow the
churches to operate openly in a manner that apparently reflects de
facto government recognition.
Religious Demography
There are no reliable population figures available; however, the
population is estimated to be about 650,000. Of that number, about
170,000 are believed to be citizens. It is estimated that the majority
of the remaining 480,000 persons are Sunni Muslim foreigners, and that
the rest are Shi'a Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, and Baha'is.
A large foreign population practices other faiths, albeit privately
and quietly. Most foreigners are concentrated in and around the capital
city of Doha. In addition to Muslim foreigners, there are a significant
number of Christians (Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and other
Protestant denominations), as well as smaller numbers of Hindus,
Buddhists, and Baha'is living and working in the country. The Christian
community consists of a diverse mix of Americans, Europeans, Arabs,
Indians, and Filipinos. The Hindu community is almost exclusively
Indian. Buddhists are found among the East Asian community, and a small
number of ethnic Persians make up the Baha'i community. The Shi'a
community has a small number of mosques.
Police provide traffic control for authorized Catholic masses,
which may be attended by 1,000 or more persons at Easter and Christmas.
In December 1999, Christmas cards and decorations were readily
available in several shops in the capital, even though the holiday
coincided with the holy month of Ramadan. During March and April,
Easter merchandise was widely available.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Non-Muslims may not proselytize, and conversion from Islam is
theoretically a capital offense. However, there is no record of an
execution for such a conversion since independence in 1971.
The Government formally prohibits the publication, importation, and
distribution of Bibles and other non-Islamic religious literature.
However, in practice individuals generally are not prevented from
importing Bibles and other religious items for personal use. In
previous years, there were sporadic reports of confiscation of such
materials by customs officials. During the period covered by this
report, some Christian worship groups reported having no trouble
importing instructional materials (i.e., Sunday school materials and
devotionals) for use by the groups.
There are no restrictions on non-Muslims providing religious
instruction to their children; however, the public schools provide
compulsory instruction in Islam. The public schools generally are
closed to foreigners, most of whose children attend any of a number of
private schools.
Practice of Islam confers advantage in civil life. For example,
non-Muslims do not have the right to bring suit in the Shari'a (Islamic
law) courts. These courts are utilized to settle the majority of civil
claims; thus, non-Muslims are at a distinct disadvantage.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
The overall trend during the period covered by this report has been
toward somewhat more religious freedom for Christian worship. Private
discussions between the Government and the ambassadors of the United
States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, and South
Korea have yielded progress in the area of religious freedom. The
Government apparently has recognized the Catholic, Anglican, and
Orthodox churches on a de facto basis and allowed them to operate more
openly. For example, priests of the three churches have been asked to
wear their clerical garb and can apply to be sponsors for visitor visas
for other church representatives. In addition, church representatives
can import reasonable amounts of Bibles and other religious literature
for use by their congregations. In February 2000, the Government
identified a parcel of land on which it plans to allow the construction
of three churches, one each for the Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox
communities. Officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture met with diplomats and
representatives of the churches to discuss initial design plans.
Such progress for Christians is due, in large part, to their status
as ``people of the book;'' the Koran accords special status to
Christians and Jews. The Government intends neither to permit Hindus
and Buddhists to worship openly nor to establish temples because it
claims that there is no Koranic justification for tolerance of
polytheistic religions.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
There were no reports that the Government forcibly converted any
individuals. However, a criminal may have his or her sentence reduced
by memorizing the Koran. For non-Muslim prisoners, this may create an
incentive to convert to Islam.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between persons of differing religious beliefs generally
are amicable and tolerant. However, a sizable percentage of the citizen
population opposes the construction of Christian churches.
Discrimination in the areas of employment, education, housing, and
health services occurs, at times along religious lines. Non-Muslims
hold jobs in the Government and military; however, they are generally
technical positions. In general Muslims hold all positions of authority
in the Government, with citizens holding higher level positions and
foreign Muslims holding lower positions. Shi'a Muslims experience
discrimination in employment in sensitive areas, such as security.
However, the critical factor in most cases of discrimination is
citizenship. Muslim and non-Muslim foreigners face the same challenges.
Health care, electricity, water, and education are provided free-of-
charge to citizens, while foreigners must pay for these services.
Citizens also may receive low- or no-interest home loans from the
Government. Foreigners must rent housing because they are not permitted
to own property.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Ambassador, Deputy Chief of Mission, and the Embassy's
political officer meet regularly with government officials at many
levels to address the issue of religious freedom, both in public and in
private. The issue has been raised with the Emir, the Foreign Minister,
and several other government officials. Efforts to emphasize religious
freedom are also being coordinated with the Embassies of the United
Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, and South Korea.
The Government has been receptive to the pleas from foreign
governments to allow the construction of Christian churches, as
evidenced by recent progress (see Section I). Its main concern is that
the process should proceed slowly so as not to create undue opposition
among more conservative elements of the population in the hope that, by
taking the time to lay the groundwork, opposition will be minimal.
__________
SAUDI ARABIA
Saudi Arabia is an Islamic monarchy without constitutional
protection for freedom of religion, and such protection does not exist
in practice. Islam is the official religion, and all citizens must be
Muslims. The Government prohibits the public practice of other
religions. Private worship by non-Muslims, as defined by the
Government, is recognized officially.
Through published interviews with government officials and press
articles that addressed the subject in the context of human rights,
non-Islamic freedom to worship privately received more attention and
greater respect than in the previous year.
The overwhelming majority of citizens support an Islamic state and
oppose public non-Muslim worship. There is a greater degree of
tolerance of foreigners and non-Muslims in both the eastern and western
provinces than in the isolated central Nejd region. There is
institutionalized discrimination against adherents of the Shi'a branch
of Islam.
The U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for International
Organizations, the U.S. Ambassador, and other U.S. government officials
have raised the issue of religious freedom with the Government on
numerous occasions during the period covered by this report.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Freedom of religion does not exist. Islam is the official religion
and all citizens must be Muslims. The Government prohibits the public
practice of other religions. Private worship by non-Muslims is
permitted.
Saudi Arabia is an Islamic monarchy and the Government has declared
the Islamic holy book, the Koran, and the Sunna (tradition) of the
Prophet Muhammad, to be the country's Constitution. The Government
bases its legitimacy on governance according to the precepts of the
rigorously conservative and strict interpretation of the Hanbali school
of the Sunni branch of Islam and discriminates against other branches
of Islam. Neither the Government nor society in general accepts the
concepts of separation of religion and state, and such separation does
not exist.
Islamic practice generally is limited to that of the Wahabi order,
which adheres to the Hanbali school of the Sunni branch of Islam as
interpreted by Muhammad Ibn Abd Al-Wahab, an 18th century Saudi
religious reformer. Practices contrary to this interpretation, such as
visits to the tombs of renowned Muslims, are discouraged. The practice
of other schools of Sunni Islam is discouraged, and there is
institutionalized discrimination against adherents of the Shi'a branch
of Islam. The Government supervises almost all mosques in the country
and funds their construction, maintenance, and operations.
Religious Demography
Sunni Muslims make up approximately 12.1 million of the country's
nearly 14 million citizens.
Seven million foreigners reside in the country, including about 1.2
million Indians, 1.2 million Egyptians, nearly 800,000 Pakistanis,
600,000 Filipinos, 130,000 Sri Lankans, and 30,000 Americans. These
foreigners include Muslims of different denominations, Christians,
Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and, presumably, non-believers and atheists.
Comprehensive statistics for the denominations of foreigners are
not available. However, the Filipino Embassy reports that over 90
percent of the Filipino community (or over half a million persons) is
non-Muslim, including Catholics and Protestants.
The Shi'a Muslim minority (roughly 900,000 persons) lives mostly in
the eastern province, where Shi'a constitute about one-third of the
population.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Ministry of Islamic affairs directly supervises, and is a major
source of funds for, the construction and maintenance of almost all
mosques in the country. The Ministry pays the salaries of imams (prayer
leaders) and others who work in the mosques. A governmental committee
is responsible for defining the qualifications of imams. The Mutawwa'in
(religious police, who make up the Committee to Promote Virtue and
Prevent Vice) are government employees, and the president of the
Mutawwa'in holds the rank of cabinet minister. The spreading of Muslim
teachings not in conformance with the officially accepted
interpretation of Islam is prohibited. Writers and other individuals
who publicly criticize this interpretation, including both those who
advocate a stricter interpretation and those who favor a more moderate
interpretation than the Government's, reportedly have been imprisoned
and faced other reprisals.
During the period covered by this report, foreign imams were barred
from leading worship during the most heavily attended prayer times and
prohibited from delivering sermons during Friday congregational
prayers. The Government claims that its actions were part of its
``Saudiization'' plan to replace foreign workers with citizens.
Under Shari'a (Islamic law), upon which the Government bases its
jurisprudence, conversion by a Muslim to another religion is considered
apostasy. Public apostasy is a crime punishable by death if the accused
does not recant.
The Government prohibits public non-Muslim religious activities.
Non-Muslim worshippers risk arrest, lashing, and deportation for
engaging in overt religious activity that attracts official attention.
During the period covered by this report, two group arrests were made
after religious police raided large Christian congregations during
services that were held on Friday, the Muslim day of rest.
Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal, including the distribution
of non-Muslim religious materials such as Bibles. No foreign
missionaries operate legally in the country. During the period covered
by this report, two Filipino men were arrested, charged with
proselytizing, and forced to serve approximately 2 months in prison.
Members of the Shi'a minority are the objects of officially
sanctioned political and economic discrimination. Prior to 1990, the
Government prohibited Shi'a public processions during the Islamic month
of Muharram and restricted other processions and congregations to
designated areas in the major Shi'a cities. Since 1990, the authorities
have permitted the celebration of the Shi'a holiday of Ashura in the
eastern province city of Qatif, provided that the celebrants do not
undertake large, public marches or engage in self-flagellation (a
traditional Shi'a practice). No other Ashura celebrations are permitted
in the Kingdom, and many Shi'a travel to Qatif or to Bahrain to
participate in Ashura celebrations.
The Government seldom permits private construction of Shi'a
mosques. Shi'a have declined government offers to build state-supported
mosques because the Government would prohibit the incorporation and
display of Shi'a motifs in any such mosques.
The Government actively discourages Shi'a travel to Iran to visit
pilgrimage sites, although Shi'a citizens are permitted to visit holy
sites in Iraq.
Persons wearing religious symbols of any kind in public risk
confrontation with the Mutawwa'in. This general prohibition against
religious symbols also applies to Muslims. A Christian wearing a
crucifix or a Muslim wearing a Koranic necklace in public might be
admonished. A very strict conservative Islamic dress code requiring
extreme modesty is enforced for Muslim and non-Muslim women alike.
Particularly in the more conservative Nejd region, virtually all women
wear an abaya (a long black cloak), and many wear a headscarf while in
public. Failure to do so can lead to admonishment by Mutawwa'in, and in
the past occasionally has led to arrest. Male modesty also is required.
Males going shirtless or in short pants while in public also risk
admonishment.
Islamic religious education is mandatory in public schools at all
levels. All children receive religious instruction, which generally is
limited to that of the Hanbali school of Islam.
In accordance with Shari'a, Saudi women are prohibited from
marrying non-Muslims, but Saudi men may marry Christians and Jews, as
well as Muslims.
The Government requires noncitizens to carry Iqamas, or legal
resident identity cards, which contain a religious designation for
``Muslim'' or ``non-Muslim.''
Governmental Abuses of Freedom of Religion
A Filipino man was arrested in June 1999 and another Filipino man
was arrested in July 1999. Both men were charged with proselytizing,
served approximately 2 months in prison, and subsequently were
deported.
There were two group arrests of Filipino Christians made during the
period covered by the report, one of 13 persons in October 1999 and
another of 16 persons in January 2000. Both arrests occurred after
religious police raided large Christian congregations during services
held on Friday, the local day of rest. In both instances, government
officials maintained that the religious services were attended by such
a large number of persons that they could not be considered private.
Some of those arrested were charged with illegal assembly and all
detainees subsequently were deported to the Philippines.
There were reports that the authorities arrested a Christian man in
June 2000 for possession of a videotape of a religious event. There
were no formal charges brought against him and he remained in custody
at the end of the period covered by this report.
There were no reports that government security forces arrested or
detained Shi'a on the suspicion of subversion and pro-Iranian
activities, as had been reported in the past.
In April 2000, in the city of Najran, in the southwest region
bordering Yemen, riots took place in which members of the Makarama
Ismaili Shi'a community reportedly engaged in gun battles with security
forces. Some press reports indicated that the rioting followed the
arrest of a Makarama Ismaili Shi'a imam and some of his followers on
charges of ``sorcery.'' Various other reports attributed the unrest to
the closure of two Ismaili Shi'a mosques and the provincial governor's
refusal to permit Ismailis to hold public observances of the Shi'a
holiday of Ashura. Still other reports attributed the unrest to a local
crackdown on smuggling and resultant tribal discontent. Officials at
the highest level of the Government stated that the unrest in Najran
was not the result of Shi'a-Sunni tension or religious discrimination.
After the unrest ended the Government stated that 5 members of the
security forces were killed and Ismaili leaders claimed that as many as
40 Ismaili tribesmen were killed. There was no independent confirmation
of these claims.
Since the 1979 Iranian revolution, some Shi'a suspected of
subversion have been subjected periodically to surveillance and
limitations on travel abroad. Since beginning the investigation of the
1996 bombing of the U.S. military installation at AlKhobar, in which a
number of eastern-province Shi'a were arrested, authorities have
detained, interrogated, and confiscated the passports of a number of
Shi'a Muslims. Shi'a who travel to Iran without government permission,
or who are suspected of such travel, normally have their passports
confiscated upon their return to Saudi Arabia for periods of up to 2
years.
As of June 30, 2000, the Government reportedly still held in jail
an unknown number of Shi'a who were arrested in the aftermath of the
Al-Khobar bombing.
Magic is widely believed in and sometimes practiced, often in the
form of fortune-telling and swindles. However, under Shari'a the
practice of magic is regarded as the worst form of polytheism, an
offense for which no repentance is accepted, and which is punishable by
death. There are an unknown number of detainees held in prison on the
charge of ``sorcery,'' or the practice of ``black magic'' or
``witchcraft.'' In a few cases, self-proclaimed ``miracle workers' have
been executed for sorcery involving physical harm or apostasy. In 1999
the Al-Bilad newspaper reported that the Interior Ministry ordered the
execution of a Sudanese man convicted of practicing magic in Jeddah for
3.5 years. The man claimed to be an herbal medicine expert and had
treated a number of women with tonics and potions; he reportedly
possessed 16 spell books and related paraphernalia. The man reportedly
confessed to conspiring with Jinns (beings made of fire who coexist
with humans) in ``efforts to separate wives from their husbands.''
Mutawwa'in practices and incidents of abuse varied widely in
different regions of the country, but were most numerous in the central
Nejd region, which includes the capital Riyadh. In certain areas, both
the Mutawwa'in and religious vigilantes acting on their own harassed,
assaulted, battered, arrested, and detained citizens and foreigners.
The Government requires the Mutawwa'in to follow established procedures
and to offer instruction in a polite manner; however, Mutawwa'in did
not always comply with the requirements. The Government has not
criticized abuses by Mutawwa'in and religious vigilantes publicly but
has sought to curtail these abuses.
Mutawwa'n enforcement of strict standards of social behavior
included closing commercial establishments during the five daily prayer
observances, insisting upon compliance with strict norms of public
dress, and dispersing gatherings in public places. Mutawwa'in
frequently reproached Saudi and foreign women for failure to observe
strict dress codes, and arrested men and women found together who were
not married or closely related.
The Mutawwa'in have the authority to detain persons for no more
than 24 hours for violation of strict standards of proper dress and
behavior. However, they sometimes exceeded this limit before delivering
detainees to the police. Current procedures require a police officer to
accompany the Mutawwa'in at the time of an arrest. Mutawwa'in generally
complied with this requirement. During 1999 and through mid-2000, in
the more conservative Riyadh district, the frequency of reports of
Mutawwa'in accosting, abusing, arresting, and detaining persons alleged
to have violated dress and behavior standards was about the same as in
1998. The Jeddah district also received a similar number of reports as
in 1998.
In November 1998, several Mutawwa'in attacked and killed an elderly
Shi'a prayer leader in Hofuf for repeating the call to prayer twice (a
traditional Shi'a practice). Mutawwa'in attempts to cover up the
killing were unsuccessful. The Government reportedly was investigating
the incident, but there has been no further information on the case.
Criticism of the Mutawwa'in has appeared in the largely government-
controlled press. Also, according to reports, the Mutawwa'in are no
longer permitted to detain citizens for more than a few hours, may not
conduct investigations, and may no longer allow unpaid volunteers to
accompany official patrols.
Customs officials routinely open mail and shipments to search for
contraband, including material that is deemed pornographic, and non-
Muslim religious material. Customs officials confiscated or censored
materials considered offensive, including Bibles and religious
videotapes.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
Through published interviews with government officials and press
articles that addressed the subject in the context of human rights,
non-Islamic freedom to worship privately received more attention and
greater respect than in the previous year.
Senior officials in the Government publicly reaffirmed the right of
non-Muslims to engage in private religious worship. In an address to
the 56th session of the U.N. Committee on Human Rights in April 2000,
Prince Turki bin Muhammad bin Saud AlKabir, King Fahd's son-in-law and
the Director of the International Organizations Department of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stated that ``non-Muslims enjoy full
freedom to engage in their religious observances in private.'' The
media widely disseminated Prince Turki's speech and the media
increasingly acknowledges the right to private non-Muslim worship. Such
private non-Muslim worship occurs on a wide scale throughout the
country, including on the premises of several foreign embassies.
Other high-level Saudi officials repeatedly confirmed during the
period covered by this report that the Government's policy allows for
private non-Muslim worship and that the Government does not sanction
investigation or harassment of such private worship services. These
officials ascribed any residual harassment of private worship services
or seizure of personal religious materials such as Bibles or icons to
individuals and organizations acting on their own authority and in
contradiction of government policy. Representatives of Christian
denominations present in the country report that the Government is not
interfering with private worship services as long as those services
remain discreet.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
Under Saudi law, children of Saudi fathers are considered Muslim,
regardless of the country or the religious tradition in which they may
have been raised. In some cases, children raised in other countries and
in other religious traditions who came to Saudi Arabia or who were
taken by their Saudi fathers to Saudi Arabia reportedly were coerced to
conform to Islamic norms and practices. There were no reports of the
forced religious conversion of minor U.S. citizens who had been
abducted or illegally removed from the United States during the period
covered by this report or of the Government's refusal to allow such
citizens to be returned to the United States. However, there was a
report that prior to the period covered by this report, at least one
U.S. citizen child in Saudi Arabia was subjected to pressure--and at
times force--by her Saudi relatives to renounce Christianity and
conform to Islamic norms and practices.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Members of the Shi'a minority constitute nearly 8 percent of the
citizenry and are discriminated against in government employment,
especially with respect to positions that relate to national security,
such as the military or the Ministry of the Interior. The Government
also restricts employment of Shi'a in the oil industry. Shi'a are the
objects of government discrimination in higher education in the form of
unofficial restrictions on the number of Shi'a admitted to
universities.
Improved relations between Iran (a predominately Shi'a nation) and
Saudi Arabia (a majority Sunni nation) during the period covered by
this report have affected positively the overall climate of Sunni-Shi'a
relations in general.
Relations between Saudi Muslims and foreign Muslims are generally
good. Foreign Muslims of all denominations pray freely in mosques as
long as they follow Saudi Sunni prayer practices, although foreign
imams have a more difficult time obtaining employment in mosques. All
sermons are monitored. There are no separate mosques for foreigners.
Relations between Saudis and non-Muslim foreigners reflect the
general relationship between 14 million Saudi citizens and 7 million
foreigners residing in the Kingdom. Saudis from the historically
isolated central Nejd region have had less exposure to foreigners and
tend to be more reserved and insular. There is a greater degree of
tolerance toward foreigners in both the eastern and western provinces,
where trade and pilgrimage have exposed citizens living in coastal
areas to foreigners and their customs for many centuries.
Non-Muslims who undertook religious observances privately and
discreetly were not disturbed during the period covered by this report.
However, several problems resulted after Saudi citizens complained to
the authorities about services being held on rooftops, in full view and
within hearing range of Muslims living nearby.
In certain areas, religious vigilantes acting on their own
harassed, assaulted, battered, arrested, and detained citizens and
foreigners.
The overwhelming majority of citizens support an Islamic state and
oppose public non-Muslim worship. Citizens often ask foreigners about
religious matters to determine a person's religion, attitudes, and
knowledge of Islam. Under the auspices of the Ministry of Islamic
Affairs, about 50 so-called ``Call and Guidance'' centers employing
about 500 persons work to convert foreigners to Islam. Some non-Muslim
foreigners convert to Islam during their stay in the country, including
more than 200 persons in Jeddah each year. The press often carries
articles about such conversions, including personal testimonials.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Ambassador, the U.S. Embassy's Deputy Chief of Mission,
the U.S. Consuls General in Jeddah and Dhahran, the Embassy's Political
Counselor, and other political officers have raised the issue of
religious freedom on numerous occasions during the period covered by
this report. The Embassy's human rights officer met several times with
Filipino Christian group members and Philippine embassy staff during
the period of detention and deportation of persons suspected of
involvement with Christian proselytizing groups.
Several meetings were held during the period covered by this report
in which the issue of religious freedom was raised. The Embassy's
Political Counselor delivered a demarche on religious freedom to the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs official in charge of human rights. The
Assistant Deputy Foreign Minister met with David Welch, the U.S.
Assistant Secretary of State for International Organizations, the
Embassy's Deputy Chief of Mission, and the Political Counselor
regarding religious freedom and human rights issues. Foreign Minister
Saud Al-Faisal met with Welch and the Political Counselor regarding
religious freedom and human rights issues. The Ministry of Foreign
Affairs official in charge of human rights, including freedom of
religion, met with the Embassy's political human rights officer.
__________
SYRIA
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, it
imposes restrictions in some areas.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to the generally free practice of
religion. However, there are periodic reports of friction between
religious faiths. The Government monitors the activities of all groups,
including religious groups, discourages aggressive proselytizing, and
has banned the Jehovah's Witnesses as a politically-motivated Zionist
organization.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall policy of promoting human
rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and the
Government generally respects this right in practice; however, it
imposes restrictions in some areas. The only advantage given to a
particular religion by the Constitution is the requirement that the
President be a Muslim. There is no state religion, although the
majority of the population is Sunni Muslim.
All religions and orders must register with the Government, which
monitors fund raising and requires permits for all meetings by
religious (and non-religious) groups, except for worship. Recognized
religious groups receive free utilities and are exempt from real estate
taxes and personal property taxes on official vehicles. There is a
strict de facto separation of church and state. Religious groups tend
to avoid any involvement in internal political affairs. The Government,
in turn, generally refrains from becoming involved in strictly
religious issues. However, the Government banned Jehovah's Witnesses as
a politically-motivated Zionist organization in 1964.
Religious Demography
While there is no official state religion, Sunni Muslims represent
about 74 percent of the population. Other orders, including Druze,
Alawi, Ismailis, Shi'a, and Yazidis, constitute an estimated 16 percent
of the population. A variety of Christian denominations make up the
remaining 10 percent of the population. The great majority of
Christians belong to the Eastern groups that have existed in the
country since the earliest days of Christianity. The main Eastern
groups belong to autonomous Orthodox churches, the Uniate churches
which recognize the Roman Catholic Pope, and the independent Nestorian
Church. There also are believed to be less than 100 Jews and a small
number of Yazidis.
The largest Christian denomination is the Greek Orthodox Church,
known in Syria as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All
the East. The Syrian Orthodox Church is notable for its use of a Syriac
liturgy. Most Syrians of Armenian origin belong to the Armenian
Apostolic Church, which uses an Armenian liturgy. The largest Uniate
church in the country is the Greek Catholic Church. Other Uniate
denominations include the Maronite Church, the Syrian Catholic Church,
and the Chaldean Catholic Church, which derives from the Nestorian
Church. The Government also permits the presence, both officially and
unofficially, of other Christian denominations, including Baptist,
Mennonite, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormon).
Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country. Christians tend to
be urbanized and most live in Damascus and Aleppo, although significant
numbers live in the Hasaka governorate in the northeast. A majority of
the Alawis live in the Latakia governorate. A significant majority of
the Druze population resides in the rugged Jabal Al-Arab region in the
southeast. The few remaining Jews are concentrated in Damascus and
Aleppo. Yazidis are found primarily in the northeast.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government considers militant Islam a threat to the regime and
follows closely the practice of its adherents. The Government has
allowed many mosques to be built; however, sermons are monitored and
controlled and mosques are closed between prayers.
Although the law does not prohibit proselytizing, the Government
discourages such activity in practice, particularly when such activity
is deemed a threat to the generally good relations among religious
groups (see Section II). Foreign missionary groups are present but
operate discreetly.
Officially, all schools are government run and nonsectarian,
although some schools are run in practice by Christian and Jewish
minorities. There is mandatory religious instruction in schools, with
government-approved teachers and curricula. Religion courses are
divided into separate classes for Muslim and Christian students. Jews
have a separate primary school, which offers religious instruction on
Judaism, in addition to traditional subjects. Although Arabic is the
official language in public schools, the Government permits the
teaching of Armenian, Hebrew, Syriac (Aramaic) and Chaldean in some
schools on the basis that these are ``liturgical languages.''
Religious groups are subject to their respective religious laws on
marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance.
The Government generally avoids intervention in religious affairs,
including direct support for programs promoting interfaith
understanding. Nevertheless, government policies tend to support the
study and practice of moderate forms of Islam.
Government policy officially disavows sectarianism of any kind.
However, in the case of Alawis, religion can be a contributing factor
in determining career opportunities. For example, members of the
President's Alawi sect hold a predominant position in the security
services and military, well out of proportion to their percentage of
the population, which is estimated to be 12 percent.
For primarily political rather than religious reasons, Jews
generally are barred from government employment and do not have
military service obligations. Jews also are the only religious minority
group whose passports and identity cards note their religion.
The security services constantly are alert to any possible
political threat to the State and all groups, religious and non-
religious, are subject to surveillance and monitoring by government
security services.
Although Jehovah's Witnesses have continued to practice their faith
privately despite the official ban, the Government arrested several
members of Jehovah's Witnesses as they gathered for religious meetings
in 1997.
There were credible reports of large-scale arrests of Syrian and
Palestinian Islamists affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood and the
Liberation Party in late 1999 and early 2000. Some of the Islamist
prisoners reportedly were tortured in detention. A number of Islamist
prisoners also were reportedly released during the period covered by
this report, but some remain in custody. These arrests were motivated
primarily by political reasons as the Government continues to view
militant Islamists as potential threats to the stability of the regime.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
United States citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from
the United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such
citizens to be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations among the various religious communities generally are
amicable, and there is little evidence of societal discrimination or
violence against religious minorities. However, there are periodic
reports of friction between religious faiths, which may be related to
deteriorating economic conditions and internal political issues. To
date, these reports appear isolated.
Although no law prohibits religious denominations from
proselytizing, the Government is sensitive to complaints by religious
groups of aggressive proselytizing by other groups and has intervened
when such activities threatened the relations among religions. Societal
conventions make conversions relatively rare, especially in the case of
Muslim-to-Christian conversions. In many cases, societal pressure
forces those who undertake such conversions to relocate within the
country or to depart Syria in order to practice their new religion
openly.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Ambassador and other embassy officials meet routinely with
religious leaders and adherents of almost all denominations at the
national, regional, and local levels. Embassy officials remain
sensitive to any change in the degree of religious freedom in the
country.
__________
TUNISIA
Islam is the state religion. The Constitution provides for the free
exercise of other religions that do not disturb the public order, and
the Government generally observes and enforces this right; however, it
does not permit proselytizing and partially limits the religious
freedom of Baha'is.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Amicable relations exist among all religious communities. The
Government prohibits proselytizing as an act against the public order
for which foreign missionaries may be expelled.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Islam is the state religion. The Constitution provides for the free
exercise of other religions that do not disturb the public order, and
the Government generally observes and enforces this right; however, it
does not permit proselytizing and partially limits the religious
freedom of Baha'is.
The Government recognizes all Christian and Jewish religious
organizations that were established before independence in 1956.
Although the Government permits Christian churches to operate freely,
only the Catholic Church has formal recognition from the
postindependence Government. The other churches operate under land
grants signed by the Bey of Tunis in the 18th and 19th centuries, which
are respected by the postindependence Government.
Religious Demography
The vast majority of the population of 9.2 million is nominally
Muslim. There is no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims.
There is a small indigenous Sufi community but no statistics regarding
its size. Reliable sources report that many Sufis left the country
shortly after independence when their religious buildings and land
reverted to the Government (as did those of Orthodox Islamic
foundations), leaving them no place to worship. Although the Sufi
community is small, the its tradition of mysticism permeates the
practice of Islam throughout the country. During annual Ramadan
festivals, Sufis provide public cultural entertainment with whirling
dervish dances.
The nominal Christian community--composed of foreign temporary and
permanent residents and a small group of native-born citizens of both
European and Arab origin--numbers approximately 20,000 and is dispersed
throughout the country. According to church leaders, the practicing
Christian population numbers approximately 2,000 and includes an
estimated 200 native-born ethnic Arab citizens who have converted to
Christianity. The Catholic Church operates 5 churches, 14 private
schools, and 7 cultural centers throughout the country, as well as 1
hospital in Tunis, the capital. It has approximately 1,400 practicing
members, composed of temporary and permanent foreign residents and a
small number of native-born citizens of European and Arab origin. In
addition to holding religious services, the Catholic Church also freely
organizes cultural activities and performs charitable work throughout
the country. The Russian Orthodox Church has 100 practicing members and
operates two churches--one in Tunis and one in Bizerte. The French
Reform Church operates one church in Tunis, with a congregation of 140
primarily foreign members. The Anglican Church has approximately 50
foreign members who worship in a church in Tunis. The 30-member Greek
Orthodox Church maintains one church each in Tunis, Sousse, and Jerba.
A community of 43 Jehovah's Witnesses, of which about half are foreign
residents and half are native-born citizens, also exists.
With 1,800 adherents split nearly equally between the capital and
the island of Jerba, the Jewish community is the country's largest
indigenous religious minority. There are also 150 members of the Baha'i
Faith.
Governmental Restrictions on Freedom of Religion
The Government controls and subsidizes mosques and pays the
salaries of prayer leaders. The President appoints the Grand Mufti of
the Republic. The 1988 Law on Mosques provides that only personnel
appointed by the Government may lead activities in mosques, and
stipulates that mosques must remain closed except during prayer times
and other authorized religious ceremonies, such as marriages or
funerals. New mosques may be built in accordance with national urban
planning regulations but become the property of the State. The
Constitution stipulates that the President of the Republic must be a
Muslim. The Government also partially subsidizes the Jewish community.
The Government allows the Jewish community freedom of worship and
pays the salary of the Grand Rabbi. It also partially subsidizes
restoration and maintenance costs for some synagogues. In October 1999,
the provisional Jewish community elected a new board of directors, its
first since independence in 1956, which is awaiting approval from the
governor of Tunis. Once approval is obtained from the governor, which
is expected to be only a formality, the committee is expected to
receive permanent status. The acting board has changed its name to the
Jewish Committee of Tunisia. The Government permits the Jewish
community to operate private religious schools and allows Jewish
children on the island of Jerba to split their academic day between
secular public schools and private religious schools. The Government
also encourages Jewish emigres to return for the annual Jewish
pilgrimage to the historic El-Ghriba Synagogue on the island of Jerba.
The Government regards the Baha'i Faith as a heretical sect of
Islam and permits its adherents to practice their faith only in
private. Although the Government permits Baha'is to hold meetings of
their National Council in private homes, it reportedly has prohibited
them from organizing local councils. The Government reportedly
pressures Baha'is to eschew organized religious activities. The
Government also does not permit Baha'is to accept a declaration of
faith from persons who wish to convert to the Baha'i Faith. There were
credible reports that four members of the Baha'i Faith were
interrogated by Ministry of Interior officials in 1999 and pressed to
sign a statement that they would not practice their religion and would
not hold meetings in their homes.
In general the Government does not permit Christian groups to
establish new churches, and proselytizing is viewed as an act against
the public order. Foreign missionary organizations and groups do not
operate in the country. Authorities ask foreigners suspected of
proselytizing to depart the country and do not permit them to return.
There were no reported cases of official action against persons
suspected of proselytizing during the period covered by this report.
Islamic religious education is mandatory in public schools, but the
religious curriculum for secondary school students also includes the
history of Judaism and Christianity. The Zeitouna Koranic School is
part of the Government's national university system.
Both religious and secular nongovernmental organizations (NGO's)
are governed by the same law and administrative regulations on
association that impose some restrictions on freedom of assembly. For
example, all NGO's are required to notify the Government of meetings to
be held in public spaces at least 3 days in advance and to submit lists
of all meeting participants to the Ministry of Interior. There were
credible reports that two Christian religious organizations did not
attempt to register because they believed that their applications would
be rejected, although they were able to function freely under the
auspices of their respective churches. Neither group believed that it
was a victim of religious discrimination. A third group, composed of
foreign Christians mostly from Sweden and the United Kingdom, is active
in providing medical and social services in the city of Kasserine in
the west. Despite its ambiguous legal status, this group (with 15 to 20
members) reports that it has been free to pursue its social and medical
work without interference and states that it does not believe that it
has been subject to religious discrimination.
Religious groups are subjected to the same restrictions on freedom
of speech and the press as secular groups. Primary among these
restrictions is ``depot legal,'' the requirement that printers and
publishers provide copies of all publications to the Chief Prosecutor,
the Ministry of Interior, and the Ministry of Culture prior to
publication. Similarly, distributors must deposit copies of
publications printed abroad with the Chief Prosecutor and various
ministries prior to their public release. Although Christian groups
reported that they were able to distribute previously-approved
religious publications in European languages without difficulty, they
claimed that the Government generally did not approve either
publication or distribution of Arabic-language Christian material.
Moreover, authorized distribution of religious publications was limited
to existing religious communities, because the Government views public
distribution of both religious and secular documents as a threat to the
public order and hence an illegal act.
The Government promotes interfaith understanding by sponsoring
regular conferences and seminars on religious tolerance and by
facilitating and promoting the annual Jewish pilgrimage to the El-
Ghriba Synagogue.
There was a credible report of a Muslim couple in Bizerte who had
converted to Christianity and were not permitted to renew their
passports as a result of their conversion. Muslim women are not
permitted to marry outside their religion. Marriages of Muslim women to
non-Muslim men abroad are considered common-law, which are prohibited
and thus void when the couple returns to Tunisia. Non-Muslim women who
marry Muslim men are not permitted to inherit from their husbands, nor
may the husbands and any children (who are considered to be Muslim)
from the marriage inherit from the non-Muslim wife.
Although civil law is codified, judges are known to override
codified law with Shari'a (Islamic law) if codified law contradicts it.
For example, codified laws provide women with the legal right to have
custody over minor children; however, judges have refused to grant
women permission to leave the country with minor children, holding that
Shari'a appoints the father as the head of the family who must grant
children permission to travel. In 1999 one human rights activist
reported that Ministry of Interior officials refused to issue her minor
son a passport because the child's father, who was then jailed, was not
present to give permission.
Governmental Abuses of Freedom of Religion
During the period covered by this report, credible sources estimate
as many as 1,000 persons were serving prison sentences because of their
membership in the illegal Islamist group AnNadha or for their alleged
Islamist sympathies; however, there were no reports of cases in which
it was clear that persons were arrested or detained based solely on
their religious beliefs.
According to human rights lawyers, the Government regularly
questioned Muslims who were observed praying frequently in mosques.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who have been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Amicable relations exist among all religious communities.
There were no incidents of religiously motivated violence. However,
there is great societal pressure for Muslims not to convert to other
religions, and conversion from Islam is relatively rare. Muslims who do
convert may face social ostracism for converting. There is some
conversion among individuals in the Christian and Jewish communities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains good relations with leaders of majority
and minority religious groups throughout the country, and the
Ambassador and other embassy officials met regularly with Muslim,
Christian, Jewish, and Baha'i religious leaders throughout the period
covered by this report.
Embassy officials discussed religious freedom issues with
government officials on various occasions during the year. In November
1999, the Ambassador hosted a meeting of a crosssection of Islamic
scholars, religious leaders, and lay persons to discuss Islam in
Tunisia. An Embassy political officer attended the May 22-23, 2000
Jewish El Ghriba pilgrimage in Jerba in commemoration of the Jewish
festival of Lag B'Omer.
__________
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
The federal Constitution designates Islam as the official religion,
and Islam is also the official religion of all seven of the constituent
emirates of the federal union. The federal Constitution also provides
for the freedom to exercise religious worship in accordance with
established customs provided that it does not conflict with public
policy or violate public morals, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice and does not interfere with the private practice
of religion; however, it limits the number of officially recognized
religions, controls virtually all Sunni mosques, grants only a small
number of Christian denominations recognition, prohibits proselytizing,
and restricts the ability of nonrecognized religions to conduct
business as organized groups.
There was no change in the status of religious freedom during the
period covered by this report.
Both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among religions in society contribute to a relatively tolerant
atmosphere for the practice of a wide variety of faiths, albeit within
the context of a predominantly Muslim society in which Islam has a
privileged status, and not all non-Islamic religions have equal legal
standing.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The federal Constitution designates Islam as the official religion,
and Islam is also the official religion of all seven of the individual
emirates in the federal union. The federal Constitution also provides
for the freedom to exercise religious worship in accordance with
established customs, provided that it does not conflict with public
policy or violate public morals, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice. The Government controls virtually all Sunni
mosques. The Government funds or subsidizes virtually all Sunni mosques
and employs all Sunni imams. The Government also distributes guidance
on religious sermons and monitors for political content sermons
delivered in all mosques, whether Sunni or Shi'a. The Government does
not appoint the imams in the country's Shi'a mosques. The Government
prohibits proselytizing by non-Muslims.
The Government does not recognize all non-Muslim religions. In
those emirates that officially recognize and thereby grant a legal
identity to non-Muslim religious groups, only a limited number of
Christian groups are granted this recognition. While recognizing the
difference between Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant
Christianity, the authorities make no legal distinction between
Christian groups, particularly Protestants. Several often unrelated
Christian congregations are required to share common facilities because
of official limitations on the number of Christian denominations that
are recognized officially. Non-Muslim and non-Christian religions have
no legal identity in any of the emirates. Partly as a result of emirate
policies regarding recognition of non-Muslim denominations, facilities
for Christian congregations are far greater in number and size than
those for non-Christian and non-Muslim groups, despite the fact that
Christians are a small minority of non-Muslim foreigners.
Religious Demography
All of the country's citizens are Muslims, with approximately 85
percent followers of Sunni Islam and the remaining 15 percent followers
of Shi'a Islam. Naturalization of new citizens is limited to Sunni
Muslims. Approximately 80 percent of the population are foreigners,
predominantly South and Southeast Asian. A substantial number of
foreign professionals are citizens of countries in the Middle East,
Europe, and North America. Although no official figures are available,
local observers estimate that approximately 55 percent of the foreign
population are Muslim, 25 percent are Hindu, 10 percent are Christian,
5 percent are Buddhist, and 5 percent are a mixture of other faiths,
including Ismailis, Parsis, Baha'is, and Sikhs (most of whom reside in
the Dubai and Abu Dhabi).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Virtually all Sunni mosques are government funded or subsidized;
about 5 percent of Sunni mosques are entirely private, and several
large mosques have large private endowments. The Shi'a minority, which
is concentrated in the northern emirates, is free to worship and
maintain its own mosques. All Shi'a mosques are considered private and
receive no funds from the Government. The Government does not appoint
sheikhs for Shi'a mosques. The Federal Ministry of Awqaf and Religious
Affairs distributes weekly guidance to both Sunni and Shi'a sheikhs
regarding religious sermons and ensures that clergy do not deviate
frequently or significantly from approved topics in their sermons. All
Sunni imams are employees of either the federal Ministry of Awqaf and
Religious Affairs or individual emirate ministries. In 1993 the Emirate
of Dubai placed private mosques under the control of its Department of
Islamic Affairs and Endowments. This change gave the Government control
over the appointment of preachers and the conduct of their work.
Major cities have Christian churches, some built on land donated by
the ruling families of the emirates in which they are located. In
Sharjah a new Catholic church was opened in 1997 and a new Armenian
Orthodox church in 1998, both with public ceremonies. The Government of
Dubai Emirate donated a parcel of land in Jebel Ali in 1998 for the
construction of a facility to be shared by four Protestant
congregations and a Catholic congregation. Also in 1998, land was
designated in Jebel Ali for the construction of a second Christian
cemetery, and Abu Dhabi Emirate donated land for the expansion of
existing Christian burial facilities. In 1999 land was designated in
Ras Al-Khaymah Emirate for the construction of a new Catholic church.
Dubai permits one Hindu temple and two Sikh temples to operate.
There are no such temples elsewhere in the country. There are no
Buddhist temples; however, Buddhists, along with Hindus and Sikhs in
cities without temples, conduct religious ceremonies in private homes
without interference. In 1998 Abu Dhabi Emirate donated land for the
establishment of the country's first Baha'i cemetery. There are only
two operating cremation facilities and associated cemeteries for the
large Hindu community, one in Dubai and one in Sharjah. Official
permission must be obtained for their use in every instance, posing a
hardship for the large Hindu community, and neither accepts Hindus who
have died in other parts of the country for cremation or burial. The
remains of Hindus who die outside Dubai and Sharjah in all cases must
be repatriated to their home country at considerable expense.
Non-Muslims in the country are free to practice their religion but
may not proselytize publicly or distribute religious literature. The
Government follows a policy of tolerance towards non-Muslim religions
and, in practice, interferes very little in the religious activities of
non-Muslims. Apparent differences in the treatment of Muslim and non-
Muslim groups often have their origin in the dichotomy between citizens
and noncitizens rather than religious difference.
The Government permits foreign clergy to minister to foreign
populations, and non-Muslim religious groups are permitted to engage in
private charitable activities and to send their children to private
schools. Apart from donated land for the construction of churches and
other religious facilities, including cemeteries, non-Muslim groups are
not supported financially or subsidized by the Government. However,
they are permitted to raise money from among their congregants and to
receive financial support from abroad. Christian churches are permitted
to openly advertise certain church functions, such as memorial
services, in the press.
The conversion of Muslims to other religions is regarded with
extreme antipathy. While there is no law against missionary activities,
authorities have threatened to revoke the residence permits of persons
suspected of such activities, and customs authorities have questioned
the entry of large quantities of religious materials (Bibles, hymnals,
etc.) that they deemed in excess of the normal requirements of existing
congregations, although in most instances the questions have been
resolved and the items have been admitted.
There have been reports that customs authorities are less likely to
question the importation of Christian religious items than non-Muslim,
non-Christian religious items, although in virtually all instances
importation of the material in question eventually has been permitted.
Although emirate immigration authorities routinely ask foreigners
to declare their religious affiliation, the Government does not collect
or analyze this information, and religious affiliation is not a factor
in the issuance or renewal of visas or residence permits.
In November 1999, the Government sponsored the country's first
ecumenical meeting, officially designated a seminar on ``Islam and the
West,'' in Abu Dhabi, in honor of the visit to the country of the
United Kingdom's Prince Charles. The half-day seminar included
statements by Islamic and Christian clerics and a brief discussion. In
addition, the principal advisor to the ruler of the Emirate of Abu
Dhabi on relations with Christian denominations regularly represents
the country at ecumenical conferences and events in other countries. In
1999 Dubai emirate established a center for the promotion of cultural
understanding aimed at expanding contact and interchange between the
citizen and foreign populations. One of the center's goals is to expose
foreigners to aspects of the indigenous culture, including Islam.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
While citizens regard the United Arab Emirates as a Muslim country
that should respect Muslim religious sensibilities on matters such as
public consumption of alcohol, proper dress, and proper public
comportment, society also places a high value on respect for privacy
and on Islamic traditions of tolerance, particularly with respect to
forms of Christianity. Casual attire for men and women is tolerated in
areas and facilities frequented by foreigners, while hotels, stores,
and other businesses patronized by both citizens and foreigners are
permitted to sell alcohol and pork to non-Muslims, and to acknowledge,
in modest displays, non-Muslim holidays such as Christmas, Easter, and
Diwali (although such displays are not permitted during the month of
Ramadan). Citizens occasionally express concern regarding the influence
on society of the cultures of the country's foreign majority. However,
in general citizens are familiar with foreign societies and believe
that they can best limit unwanted foreign influence by supporting and
strengthening indigenous cultural traditions. Slightly less tolerant
attitudes by citizens toward non-Muslim and nonChristian faiths reflect
both traditional Islamic views of these religions and the fact that
Hindus and Buddhists in the country are overwhelmingly less-educated,
less-affluent, and work in undesirable occupations.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U. S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
In early 1998, the U.S. Ambassador sent a letter to the Government
of Dubai emirate in support of the request of three Protestant
congregations for expanded facilities in Dubai, and later raised the
issue in official meetings with Dubai emirate leaders. In response to
these requests--and with the support of the U.S. and UK Embassies--
Dubai emirate donated land for these facilities and granted permission
for their construction. While originally three churches were
envisioned, the Dubai municipality has instructed that the number of
churches to be built on the site increase from 3 to 7. Financing of the
construction projects is reportedly nearing completion, with
construction expected to begin in fall 2000. The Ambassador and other
embassy personnel also have participated regularly in ceremonies
marking the opening or expansion of religious facilities, and embassy
officers meet on occasion with Muslims, Christians, and representatives
of other religious faiths.
__________
YEMEN
The Constitution declares that Islam is the state religion and also
provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice. Followers of other religions are free to
worship according to their beliefs; however, the Government forbids
conversions and prohibits non-Muslims from proselytizing. The
Constitution states that Shari'a (Islamic law) is the source of all
legislation.
There was no change in the status of respect of religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There are very small numbers of religious minorities, and relations
among religious groups generally are amicable.
The U. S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution declares that Islam is the state religion and also
provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects
this right in practice. Followers of other religions are free to
worship according to their beliefs and to wear religiously distinctive
ornaments or dress; however, the Government forbids conversions,
requires permission for the construction of new places of worship, and
prohibits non-Muslims from proselytizing. The Constitution states that
Shari'a is the source of all legislation.
Religious Demography
Virtually all citizens are Muslims, either of the Zaydi order of
Shi'a Islam or the Shafa'i order of Sunni Islam, representing
approximately 35 percent and 65 percent of the total population,
respectively. There are also a few thousand Ismailis, mostly in the
north.
Almost all Christians are temporary foreign residents, except for a
few families living in Aden that trace their origins to India. There
are a few Hindus in Aden who also trace their origins to India. There
are several churches and Hindu places of worship in Aden, but no non-
Muslim public places of worship exist in the former North Yemen,
largely because northern Yemen does not have a history of a large,
resident foreign community as in the south. However, Christian church
services are held regularly without harassment in private homes or
facilities such as schools, and these facilities appear adequate to
accommodate the small numbers involved.
Christian missionaries operate in Yemen and most are dedicated to
the provision of medical services; others are employed in teaching and
social services. Invited by the Government, the Sisters of Charity run
homes for the poor and disabled in Sana'a, Taiz, Hodeida, and Aden. The
Government has asked the Vatican to open additional Sisters of Charity
facilities. The Government issues residence visas to priests so that
they may provide for the community's religious needs. There is also a
German Christian charitable mission in Hodeida and a Dutch Christian
medical mission in Saada. An American Baptist congregation has run a
hospital in Jibla for over 30 years. The Anglican Church also runs a
charitable clinic. An American nongovernmental organization (NGO), run
by the Seventh-Day Adventists, works in the governorate of Hodeida.
Nearly all of the country's once sizable Jewish population has
emigrated. There are no legal restrictions on the few hundred Jews who
remain, although there are traditional restrictions on places of
residence and choice of employment (see Section II). Approximately 500
Jews are scattered in a handful of villages between Sana'a and Saada in
northern Yemen.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Under Islam the conversion of a Muslim to another religion is
considered apostasy, a crime punishable by death. There were no reports
of cases in which the crime has been charged or prosecuted by
government authorities. In January 2000, the director of the Aden
office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) received a
report that a Somali refugee, who allegedly had converted from Islam to
Christianity after his arrival in Yemen, had been arrested for
apostasy. The UNHCR's investigation found that the refugee had been
detained previously by police in Aden and at the UNHCR's Al-Jahin camp.
The refugee is registered with the UNHCR under a Christian name but
maintains an address in Sana'a under a Muslim name. He is married to a
Muslim woman and has an Islamic marriage certificate. The UNHCR
believed that authorities detained the refugee on criminal rather than
religious grounds. At the end of the period covered by this report, the
refugee was out of police custody and living in Aden while the UNHCR
explored resettlement possibilities.
There are unconfirmed reports that some police, without the
authorization or knowledge of their superiors, on occasion have
harassed and detained persons suspected of apostasy in order to compel
them to renounce their conversions.
The Government does not allow the building of new non-Muslim public
places of worship without permission; however, in 1998 the country
established diplomatic relations with the Vatican and agreed to the
construction and operation of a ``Christian center'' in Sana'a. The
Papal Nuncio, resident in Kuwait, presented his credentials to the
Yemeni Government in March 2000. Yemen's ambassador to Italy was
accredited to the Vatican in July 1999. President Ali Abdullah Saleh
paid an official visit to the Vatican at the time of his state visit to
Italy in April.
Public schools provide instruction in Islam but not in other
religions. However, almost all non-Muslims are foreigners who attend
private schools.
In February the Government revised its travel regulations to allow
Yemeni-origin Jews on third-country passports to travel to Yemen, as
well as Yemeni-origin Israelis with laissez-passer travel documents.
The first such visitors arrived in March.
Private Islamic organizations may maintain ties to pan-Islamic
organizations and operate schools, but the Government monitors their
activities.
Following unification of North and South Yemen in 1990, owners of
property previously expropriated by the Communist government of the
former People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, including religious
organizations, were invited to seek restitution of their property.
However, implementation of the process, including for religious
institutions, has been extremely limited, and very few properties have
been returned to any previous owner.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Official government policy does not prohibit or provide punishment
for the possession of non-Islamic religious literature. However, there
are unconfirmed reports that foreigners, on occasion, have been
harassed by police for possessing such literature. In addition, some
members of the security forces occasionally censor the mail of
Christian clergy who minister to the foreign community, ostensibly to
prevent proselytizing.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The country is overwhelmingly Muslim. There are very small numbers
of religious minorities, and relations among religious groups generally
are amicable. There were no reported incidents of violence or
discrimination between the adherents of the two main orders, Zaydi and
Shafa'i Islam. Religiously motivated violence is neither incited nor
tolerated by the Islamic clergy, except for a small politically
motivated clerical minority, often with ties to foreign extremist
elements.
The tiny number of religious minorities generally live in harmony
with their Muslim neighbors. Apart from a small but undetermined number
of Christians and Hindus of South Asian origin in Aden, Jews are the
only indigenous religious minority. Their numbers have diminished
significantly--from several tens of thousands to a few hundred--due to
voluntary emigration over the last 50 years. Although the law makes no
distinction, Jews traditionally are restricted to living in one section
of a city or village and often are confined to a limited choice of
employment, usually farming or handicrafts (primarily silver working).
They are respected for their craftsmanship and their silver work is
highly prized. Jews may, and do, own land. Traditionally the tribal
leaders of the regions in which the Jews have resided are responsible
for protecting the Jews in their areas. A failure to provide this
protection is considered a serious personal dishonor.
Christian clergy who minister to the foreign community are employed
in teaching, social services, and health care.
In July 1998, a gunman killed three nuns belonging to the Sisters
of Charity order in Hodeidah. The Government took swift action and
immediately arrested the individual. The Government determined that he
was deranged and committed him to a psychiatric institution.
A hospital in Jibla operated by the Baptist Church experienced
occasional threats and harassment from local extremists who feared that
the hospital might be used to spread Christianity. There have been no
reports of threats by extremists in several years, and the hospital
enjoys widespread community support.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains an active dialog on human rights issues
with the Government, NGO's, and others, and discusses religious freedom
issues in the overall context of the promotion of human rights. Embassy
officers, including the Ambassador, meet periodically with
representatives of the Jewish and Christian communities.
SOUTH ASIA
----------
AFGHANISTAN
The U.S. Embassy in Kabul has been closed for security reasons
since January 1989. Information on the religious freedom situation
therefore is limited.
Freedom of religion is restricted severely. Due to the absence of a
constitution and the ongoing civil war, freedom of religion is
determined primarily by the unofficial, unwritten, and evolving
policies of the warring factions. In 1999 the Taliban, the
ultraconservative Islamic movement that controls 90 percent of the
country, claimed that it was drafting a new constitution based on
Islamic law. Although a spokesperson for the Taliban claimed that the
new constitution would ensure the rights of all Muslims and religious
minorities, custom and law require affiliation with some religion, and
atheism is punishable by death. There was no announcement during the
period covered by this report that a constitution was promulgated.
The status of respect for religious freedom continued to
deteriorate during the period covered by this report due to the civil
war, the policies of the Taliban, and the policies of the Taliban's
opponents. In particular, persecution by the Taliban of the Hazara
ethnic group, which is predominantly Shi'a Muslim, reflected great
religious intolerance. Although the conflict between the Hazaras and
the Taliban is political and military as well as religious, and it is
not possible to state with certainty that the Taliban engaged in its
campaign against the Shi'a solely because of their religious beliefs,
the religion of the Hazaras apparently was a significant factor leading
to their persecution.
The Taliban sought to impose its extreme interpretation of Islamic
observance in areas that it controlled and has declared that all
Muslims in areas under Taliban control must abide by the Taliban's
interpretation of Islamic law. The Taliban relies on a religious police
force under the control of the Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and
the Suppression of Vice to enforce rules regarding appearance, dress,
employment, access to medical care, behavior, religious practice, and
freedom of expression. Persons found to be in violation of the edicts
are subject to punishment meted out on the spot, which may include
beatings and/or detention. In practice, the rigid policies adopted both
by the Taliban and by certain opposition groups has a chilling effect
on adherents of other forms of Islam and on those who practice other
faiths.
The U.S. Embassy in Kabul has been closed since 1989 for security
reasons. Although the United States does not recognize any of the
warring factions as the Government of Afghanistan, U.S. officials have
raised religious freedom issues with representatives of the factions on
several occasions. U.S. officials have made similar approaches to other
governments, including countries with influence in Afghanistan.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State identified the Taliban as
a particularly severe violator of religious freedom.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Freedom of religion is restricted severely. Due to the absence of a
constitution and the ongoing civil war, religious freedom is determined
primarily by the unofficial, unwritten, and evolving policies of the
warring factions. In most parts of the country, the Pashtun-dominated
ultraconservative Islamic movement known as the Taliban vigorously
enforced its interpretation of Islamic law. The Taliban movement, which
controls approximately 90 percent of the country, claimed in mid-1999
that it was drafting a new constitution, based upon the sources of
Islamic religious law (Shari'a): the Koran, the Sunna, and Hanafi
jurisprudence. A Taliban spokesman has stated that the new constitution
would ensure the rights of all Muslims and of religious minorities.
However, custom and law require affiliation with some religion, and
atheism is considered apostasy and is punishable by death. The small
number of non-Muslim residents who remain in the country may practice
their faith but may not proselytize.
Afghanistan's official name, according to the Taliban, is the
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan; according to the umbrella organization
of various smaller anti-Taliban groups, the Northern Alliance, it is
the Islamic State of Afghanistan. These names reflect the desire of
both factions to promote Islam as the state religion. Taliban leader
Mullah Omar carries the title of Commander of the Faithful.
Licensing and registration of religious groups do not appear to be
required by the authorities in any part of the country.
Religious Demography
Reliable data on the country's population is not available.
However, informed sources estimate that 85 percent of the population
are Sunni Muslim; most of the remaining 15 percent are Shi'a. The
Hazara ethnic group is predominantly Shi'a; Shi'a are among the most
economically disadvantaged persons in the country. The Shi'a minority
want a national government that would give them equal rights as
citizens. There are also small numbers of Ismailis living in the
central and northern parts of the country. Ismailis are Shi'a, but
consider the Aga Khan their spiritual leader.
Traditionally, Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence
has been the dominant religion. The Taliban also adheres to the Hanafi
school of Sunni Islam, making it the current dominant religion in the
country. For the last 200 years, Sunnis often have looked to the
example of the Deoband madrassa (religious school) near Delhi, India.
Most of the Taliban leadership attended Deobandi-influenced seminaries
in Pakistan. The Deoband school has long sought to purify Islam by
discarding supposedly un-Islamic accretions to the faith and
reemphasizing the models established in the Koran and the customary
practices of the Prophet Mohammed. Additionally, Deobandi scholars
often have opposed what they perceive as Western influences. Much of
the population adheres to Deobandi-influenced Hanafi Sunnism, but a
sizable minority adheres to a more mystical version of Hanafi Sunnism
generally known as Sufism. Sufism centers on orders or brotherhoods
that follow charismatic religious leaders.
In the past, small communities of Hindus, Sikhs, Jews, and
Christians lived in the country, but most members of these communities
have left. Even at their peak, these non-Muslim minorities constituted
only 1 percent of the population. Almost all members of the country's
small Hindu and Sikh population, which once numbered about 50,000
persons, have emigrated or taken refuge abroad. Non-Muslims such as
Hindus and Sikhs are found only in extremely small numbers. They are
almost all foreigners, often working as traders, and generally are not
disturbed as long as they do not attempt to proselytize. The very few
Christians and Jews who live in the country are apparently almost all
foreigners who are assigned temporarily to relief work by foreign
nongovernmental organizations (NGO's).
Several areas of the country are religiously homogeneous. Sunni
Muslim Pashtuns, centered around the city of Kandahar, dominate the
south, west, and east of the country. The homeland of the Shi'a Hazaras
is in the Hazarajat or the mountainous central highlands around
Bamiyan. Badakshan province, in the extreme northeast of the country,
traditionally has been an Ismaili region. Other areas, including Kabul,
the capital, are more heterogeneous. For example, in and around the
northern city of Mazar-i-Sharif, there is a mix of Sunnis (including
Pashtuns, Turkmen, Uzbeks, and Tajiks) and Shi'a (including Hazaras,
Qizilbash, and Ismailis).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
In Taliban-controlled areas authorities have decreed that all
Muslims must take part in five daily prayers. Friday noon prayers at
mosques are said to be compulsory. Women and girls reportedly are
forbidden to enter mosques and therefore must pray at home.
According to Human Rights Watch, in September 1999, the Taliban
issued decrees that forbade non-Muslims from building places of worship
but allowed them to worship at existing holy sites, forbade non-Muslims
from criticizing Muslims, ordered non-Muslims to identify their houses
by placing a yellow cloth on their rooftops, forbade non-Muslims from
living in the same residence as Muslims, and required that non-Muslim
women wear a yellow dress with a special mark so that Muslims could
keep their distance. These decrees followed earlier reports that Hindus
were required to wear a piece of yellow cloth attached to their
clothing to identify their religious identity, and that Sikhs were
required to wear some form of identification as well. This system of
identification allegedly was imposed to spare non-Muslims from the
enforcement of rules that are mandatory for Muslims and from harassment
by agents of the Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and the
Suppression of Vice (PVSV), but reportedly no longer is enforced.
No information is available about any activities by Muslim
missionaries in the country. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is
prohibited. A small number of foreign Christian groups are present in
the country, but they focus on relief work since they are forbidden to
proselytize. Conversion from Islam is considered apostasy and is
punishable by death. There was no information available about converts,
and no information available concerning restrictions on the training of
clergy.
The Taliban does not encourage free speech about religious issues
or frank discussions that challenge orthodox Sunni views. Publishing
and distribution of literature of any kind, including religious
material, is rare. The Taliban continues to prohibit music, movies, and
television on religious grounds in Taliban-controlled areas. In 1998
television sets, videocassette recorders, videocassettes,
audiocassettes, and satellite dishes were outlawed in order to enforce
the prohibition. However, subsequent reports indicate that many persons
in urban areas around the country own such electronic devices despite
the ban.
The sections of the country's educational system that have survived
over 20 years of war put considerable emphasis on religion.
When the Taliban took Kabul in September 1996, it immediately
issued pronouncements forbidding girls to go to school. According to a
United Nations survey, at that time, more than 100,000 girls reportedly
attended public school in Kabul from grades kindergarten to 12. Since
1996 the Taliban has eliminated most of the opportunities for girls'
education that existed in areas that the Taliban has taken over;
however, some girls' schools still operate in rural areas and small
towns. The Taliban has decreed that women are not allowed to attend the
country's formerly coeducational universities, and one women's
university, the Kabul branch of the Peshawar-based Afghan University,
was closed by the Taliban after its takeover of Kabul. More than 100
NGO-funded girls' schools and home-based women's vocational projects
were closed in Kabul in June 1998. The Taliban stated that schools
would not be allowed to teach girls over the age of 8, and that the
schools that were closed had violated this rule. In the future, the
Taliban stated that girls' schools would be licensed, and that teaching
in such schools would be limited to the Koran. Some girls reportedly
are receiving an education in informal home schools, which are
tolerated by the Taliban authorities in various parts of the country.
It also was reported that several girls' schools remain open in
Kandahar, although in Herat, which was captured by the Taliban in 1995,
girls' schools have remained closed except in the refugee camps
maintained by international NGO's. Some families sent girls abroad for
education in order to evade the Taliban's prohibitions on education for
females in most urban areas. It also has been reported that the ban on
women working outside of the home has hampered the education of boys,
since 70 percent of the country's teachers were women prior to the
advent of Taliban rule.
The Taliban announced in 1998 that foreign Muslim women, including
U.N. workers, would be allowed to perform their jobs only if
accompanied by a male relative, a move that was not vigorously enforced
during the period covered by this report.
At various times, the Taliban has banned certain traditional
recreational activities, such as kite flying and playing chess. Dolls,
stuffed animals, and photographs are prohibited under the Taliban's
interpretation of religious injunctions against representations of
living beings; in search of these objects, Taliban soldiers or persons
masquerading as Taliban members reportedly have entered private homes
without prior notification or informed consent. Health care for both
men and women was hampered by the ban on images of humans, which caused
the destruction of public education posters and hampered the provision
and dissemination of health information in a society with massive
illiteracy. However, the Taliban allowed the visual depiction of
persons in demining education materials.
The Taliban reportedly has required parents to give their children
``Islamic'' names.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
In the recent past, the mass killings of the mainly Shi'a Hazaras
by the Taliban in recently occupied territories in the north in
particular, constituted a serious abuse. Although the conflict between
the Hazaras and the Taliban is political and military as well as
religious, and it is not possible to state with certainty that the
Taliban engaged in its campaign of persecution against the Shi'a solely
because of their religious beliefs, the religion of the Hazaras
apparently was a significant factor leading to their persecution.
Since they took control of Kabul in 1996, the Taliban reportedly
has committed numerous human rights violations, particularly against
the Hazaras. In September 1997, the Taliban reportedly massacred 70
ethnic Hazara civilians in Qezelabad. There were reports of mass
arrests by the Taliban in Hazara neighborhoods of Kabul in January
1998. There also were credible reports of the massacre of thousands of
civilians and prisoners by the Taliban during and after the capture of
Mazar-i-Sharif in August 1998; this massacre reportedly was aimed at
ethnic Hazaras. In September 1998, approximately 500 persons were
killed as the Taliban gained control of the city of Bamiyan. The
Hazaras regained control of Bamiyan in April 1999 following prolonged
guerilla-style warfare; however, the Taliban recaptured Bamiyan in May
1999 and reportedly killed a number of Shi'a residents.
There were reports during 1999 and 2000 that there were forced
expulsions of ethnic Hazaras and Tajiks from areas controlled or
conquered by the Taliban, as well as harassment of these minorities
throughout Taliban controlled areas.
The Taliban ruled strictly in areas that it controlled,
establishing ad hoc and rudimentary judicial systems. The Taliban
established Islamic courts in areas under its control to judge criminal
cases and resolve disputes. The courts reportedly dealt with all
complaints, relying on the Taliban's interpretation of Islamic law and
punishments as well as tribal customs. In cases involving murder and
rape, convicted prisoners generally were ordered executed, although
relatives of the victim could instead choose to accept other
restitution. Decisions of the courts reportedly were final. Taliban
courts imposed their extreme interpretation of Islamic law and
punishments following swift summary trials. Murderers were subjected to
public executions, which sometimes took place before crowds of up to
30,000 persons at Kabul Stadium. Executions sometimes were carried out
by throat slitting, a punishment that, at times, was inflicted by the
victims' families. Thieves were subjected to public amputations of
either one hand or one foot, or both. The U.N. Special Rapporteur for
Torture noted particular concern about the use of amputation as a form
of punishment by Taliban authorities. Adulterers were stoned to death
or publicly whipped with 100 lashes. According to Human Rights Watch,
several men who were found guilty of homosexual acts were crushed by
having walls toppled over them by a tank; one man who survived the
ordeal after being left under the rubble for two hours reportedly was
allowed to go free.
The Taliban seeks to impose its extreme interpretation of Islamic
observance in areas that it controlled and has declared that all
Muslims in areas under Taliban control must abide by the Taliban's
interpretation of Islamic law. The Taliban announces its proclamations
and edicts through broadcasts on the Taliban's ``Radio Shariat,'' and
relies on a religious police force under the control of the Ministry
for the Promotion of Virtue and the Suppression of Vice to enforce
rules regarding appearance, dress, employment, access to medical care,
behavior, religious practice, and freedom of expression. Members of the
PVSV, which was raised to the status of a Ministry in May 1998,
regularly check persons on the street in order to ascertain that
individuals are conforming to such Taliban edicts. Persons found to be
in violation of the edicts are subject to punishment meted out on the
spot, which may include beatings and/or detention. In practice, the
rigid policies adopted both by the Taliban and by certain opposition
groups has a chilling effect on adherents of other forms of Islam and
on those who practice other faiths. Enforcement of Taliban social
strictures is much stricter in the cities, especially in Kabul, and
looser in rural areas, where more is left to local custom.
Prayer is mandatory for all, and those who are observed not praying
at appointed times or who are late attending prayer are subject to
punishment, including severe beatings. There were reports in 1998 that
PVSV members in Kabul stopped persons on the street and quizzed them to
determine if they knew how to recite various Koranic prayers.
According to Taliban regulations, men's beards must protrude
farther than would a fist clamped at the base of the chin. Men also
must wear head coverings and must not have long hair. A man who has
shaved or cut his beard may be imprisoned for 10 days and be required
to undergo Islamic instruction. Several civil service employees
reportedly were fired in 1997 for cutting their beards. All students at
Kabul University reportedly are required to have beards in order to
study there (no female students are allowed). There also are credible
reports that Taliban members gave forced haircuts to males in Kabul.
Women and girls suffered the brunt of the Taliban's extreme
interpretation and implementation of Shari'a (Islamic law). Women were
required to don a head-to-toe garment known as the burqa, which has
only a mesh screen for vision, when in public. While in some rural
areas this was the normal garment for women, the requirement to wear
the burqa represented a significant change in practice when imposed in
urban areas. According to a decree announced by the religious police in
1997, women found outside the home who were not covered properly would
be punished severely, along with their family elders. In Kabul and
elsewhere, women found in public who were not wearing the burqa, or
whose burqas did not cover their ankles properly, were beaten by
Taliban militiamen. Some poor women cannot afford the cost of a burqa,
and thus are forced to remain at home or risk beatings if they go out
without one. There are reports that disabled women, who need a
prosthesis or other aid to walk, are virtually homebound because they
cannot wear the burqa properly over the prosthesis or other aid. The
absence of a burqa has resulted in the inability of some women to get
necessary medical care; at least one woman reportedly died because she
did not have a burqa and thus could not leave her home. In a 1998
survey, Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) found that 22 percent of the
female respondents surveyed reported being detained and abused by the
Taliban; of these incidents, 72 percent were related to alleged
infractions of the Taliban's dress code for women. Most of these
incidents reportedly resulted in detentions that lasted 1 hour or less,
but 84 percent also resulted in public beatings, and 2 percent resulted
in torture. Sixty-eight percent of those surveyed reported that they
had reduced their public activities drastically during 1998 in Kabul. A
few reports in 1997 indicated that some women in Herat had covered
their heads with large scarves that leave the face uncovered and had
not faced reprisals, and many women in rural areas also have been
observed without burqas but with scarves covering their heads. Women
are not allowed to wear white burqas, white socks, or white shoes.
Women reportedly were beaten if their shoe heels clicked when they
walked. All of these restrictions apparently are not enforced strictly
upon the nomad population of several hundred thousand or upon the few
female foreigners, who nonetheless must cover their hair, arms, and
legs. Women in their homes also must not be visible from the street;
the Taliban requires that houses with female occupants have their
windows painted over. However, in early 1999 there were reports that
the Taliban may be easing some of the restrictions on women's dress.
Women were expected to leave their homes only while escorted by a
male relative, further curtailing the appearance and movement of women
in public even when wearing approved clothing. Women appearing in
public without a male relative ran the risk of beatings by the Taliban.
Women are not allowed to drive, and taxi drivers reportedly are beaten
if they take unescorted women as passengers. Women only may ride on
buses designated as women's buses; there are reportedly not enough of
these buses to meet the demand, and the wait for women's buses can be
long. In 1998 the Taliban ordered that bus drivers who take female
passengers must encase the bus in curtains, and put up a curtain so
that the female passengers cannot see or be seen by the driver. Bus
drivers also were told that they must employ boys under the age of 15
to collect fares from female passengers, and that neither the drivers
nor the fare collectors were to mingle with the passengers.
When the Taliban took Kabul in 1996, it immediately issued
pronouncements forbidding women to work, including female doctors and
nurses in hospitals. In a few cases, the Taliban relented and allowed
women to work in health care occupations under restricted
circumstances. The prohibition on women working outside of the home has
been especially difficult for the large numbers of widows left by 20
years of civil war; there are an estimated 30,000 widows in Kabul
alone. Many women reportedly have been reduced to selling all of their
possessions and to begging to feed their families. Taliban gender
restrictions continued to interfere with the delivery of humanitarian
assistance to women and girls, as well. In 1997 the Taliban asked that
international assistance be provided to women through their close male
relatives rather than directly. Male relatives also must obtain the
permission of the PVSV for female home-based employment.
While most citizens lack any access to adequate medical facilities,
such access was made even more restrictive for women under Taliban
rule. In 1997 the Taliban announced a policy of segregating men and
women in hospitals and directed most hospitals in Kabul to cease
services to women and to discharge female staff. Services for women
were to be provided by a single hospital still partially under
construction--a drastic reduction in access to, and the quality of,
health care for women. Several orders concerning the provision of
emergency and nonemergency medical aid for women were given and
reversed in 1997. Women were permitted to seek treatment from female
medical personnel working in designated women's wards or clinics; they
were permitted to see male doctors if accompanied by a male relative.
Erratic reversals in policy continued throughout 1998, with the effect
that women often were prevented from obtaining adequate medical care.
In June 1998, the Taliban prohibited all doctors from treating female
patients in the absence of a patient's husband, father, or brother.
This decree, while not universally enforced, made treatment extremely
difficult for Kabul's widows, many of whom have lost all such male
family members. Furthermore, even when a woman is allowed to be treated
by a male doctor, he may not see or touch her, which drastically limits
the possibility of any meaningful treatment.
The Taliban's restrictions on medical treatment by male health
professionals have had a detrimental effect on children. According to
PHR, children sometimes are denied medical care when the authorities do
not let male doctors visit children's wards, which may be located
within the women's ward of a hospital, or do not allow male doctors to
see children accompanied only by their mothers.
While some Taliban leaders have claimed tolerance of religious
minorities, there reportedly have been restrictions imposed upon Shi'a
Muslims in Talibancontrolled territory, although not necessarily on a
uniform basis. However, the Taliban allegedly has ordered Shi'a to
confine their Ashura commemorations during the month of Muharram to
their mosques and to avoid the public processions that are an integral
part of Ashura in other countries with Shi'a populations.
There also are unconfirmed reports that the Taliban has occupied
and ``cleaned'' Shi'a mosques for the use of Sunnis, including a Shi'a
mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998.
No information is available on the numbers of religious detainees
or prisoners. There is no indication that religious detainees or
prisoners are charged formally as part of their incarceration. However,
the Taliban is reported to hold many Hazara Shi'a prisoners, who were
detained as a result of the country's civil war and not solely on the
basis of their religion.
The Ismaili community also fought for the Northern Alliance against
the Taliban and suffered when the Taliban occupied territories once
held by Ismaili forces. There have been reports of the mistreatment of
Ismailis at the hands of the Taliban.
The status of respect for religious freedom continued to
deteriorate during the period covered by this report due to the civil
war, the policies of the Taliban, and the policies of the Taliban's
opponents.
Very little information is available about territory held by the
Northern Alliance, which controls much less territory than the Taliban
and therefore affects a smaller percentage of the population. However,
some groups within the Northern Alliance also are dedicated to
enforcing strict adherence to Islamic law. In past years, some members
of the Northern Alliance were responsible for atrocities against
Taliban forces during the war for control of the country.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of any faction's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the different branches of Islam in the country
are problematic. Historically, the minority Shi'a faced discrimination
from the majority Sunni population. Most Shi'a Muslims are members of
the Hazara ethnic group, which traditionally has been segregated from
the rest of society. The country's history contains many instances of
conflict between the Hazaras and other Afghans. These conflicts often
have had economic and political roots but regularly have acquired
sectarian dimensions. The Hazaras fear that Taliban rule would deprive
their community of its religious, political, and economic rights.
However, many Shi'a, including a sizable community in Kabul, enjoy
limited religious freedom.
For the most part, the current factions in the country are divided
along religious and ethnic lines. The Taliban is made up mainly of
Sunni Muslim Pashtuns; the Taliban's chief opposition is the Northern
Alliance, which, under the nominal leadership of Burhanuddin Rabbani,
is made up of various smaller anti-Taliban groups. Rabbani and his
Defense Minister, Commander Ahmad Shah Masood, are both Tajiks and
control a largely Tajik-inhabited territory in the northeast. Other
members of the Northern Alliance include ethnic Hazara, Uzbeks, Turkmen
and other smaller groups. The Hazara and some other smaller ethnic
groups are Shi'a Muslims. Within the respective factions, there are
economic, political, and military advantages to belonging to the
dominant faith or ethnic group in a given faction. Conversely, members
of a different faith may encounter disadvantages if they seek full
membership in a particular faction. The Taliban has brought several
prominent Shi'a commanders into its organization in an effort to
counter the perception that it is an exclusively Sunni Pashtun
movement. The Northern Alliance includes several Pashtuns in prominent
roles, although its supporters largely come from the non-Pashtun
minorities.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy in Kabul has been closed since 1989 for security
reasons. The United States maintains contact with all factions but does
not recognize any as the Government of Afghanistan. U.S. officials have
raised religious freedom issues with representatives of the factions,
including the Taliban, on several occasions and particularly have
called for the protection of the rights of religious minorities. U.S.
officials have made similar approaches to other governments regarding
the behavior of the Taliban, including countries with influence in
Afghanistan.
The Department of State has raised the issue of Taliban abuses
committed against religious minorities in international forums and has
voted in favor of U.N. Security Council and General Assembly
resolutions criticizing abuses committed against Shi'a by the Taliban.
In August 2000, the Department of State announced that it was doubling
its refugee resettlement ceiling for the Near East and South Asian
regions for the year 2000, in part to allow more Afghan women and their
families into the United States.
In September 1999, the Secretary of State identified the Taliban as
a particularly severe violator of religious freedom.
__________
BANGLADESH
The Constitution establishes Islam as the state religion but also
stipulates the right to practice the religion of one's choice, and the
Government respects this provision in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Citizens generally are free to practice the religion of their
choice; however, members of the majority Muslim population sometimes
commit acts of violence against members of religious minorities.
Violence against Ahmadiyas increased during the period covered by this
report. Police, who generally are ineffective in upholding law and
order, often are slow to assist in such cases.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution establishes Islam as the state religion but also
stipulates the right--subject to law, public order, and morality--to
practice the religion of one's choice, and the Government respects this
provision in practice.
Religious organizations are not required to register with the
Government; however, all nongovernmental organizations (NGO's),
including religious organizations, are required to register with the
NGO Affairs Bureau if they receive foreign money for social development
projects. The Government has the legal ability to cancel the
registration of an NGO or to take other action against it; such powers
rarely are used and have not affected NGO's with religious
affiliations.
Religious Demography
Sunni Muslims constitute 88 percent of the population. About 10
percent of the population are Hindu. The rest are Christian (mostly
Catholic) and Buddhist; these faiths are found predominantly in the
tribal (non-Bengali) populations of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. There
are small populations of Shi'a Muslims, Sikhs, Baha'is, and Ahmadiyas.
Estimates of these populations vary widely, from a few hundred up to
100,000 adherents for each faith.
Family laws concerning marriage, divorce, and adoption differ
depending on the religion of the person involved.
Religion exerts a powerful influence on politics, and the
Government is sensitive to the Muslim consciousness of the majority of
its citizens. Religion is taught in schools, and children have the
right to be taught their own religion. In practice, schools with very
small numbers of religious minority students often work out
arrangements with local churches or temples, which then direct
religious studies outside school hours. The country celebrates holy
days from the Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and Christian faiths as national
holidays.
The Government allows various religions to establish places of
worship, to train clergy, to travel for religious purposes, and to
maintain links with coreligionists abroad.
The law permits citizens to proselytize. However, strong social
resistance to conversion from Islam means that most missionary efforts
by non-Muslims are aimed at Hindus and tribal groups.
Foreign missionaries may work in the country, but their right to
proselytize is not protected in the Constitution, and some foreign
missionaries face problems obtaining visas. There are no financial
penalties imposed on the basis of religious beliefs. However, many
Hindus complain that they have been unable to recover landholdings lost
because of discrimination in the application of the law, especially the
Vested Property Act. Property ownership, particularly among Hindus, has
been a contentious issue since independence in 1971, when many Hindus
lost land because of anti-Hindu discrimination in the application of
the law. The Vested Property Act is a vestige of Pakistani law, which
allowed ``enemy'' (in practice, Hindu) lands to be expropriated by the
State. The law was suspended in 1984, but some claims allegedly have
been backdated. Prior to its 1996 election victory, the Awami League
promised to repeal the Vested Property Act, but to date the Awami
League Government has not done so.
Violence against Ahmadiyas increased during the period covered by
this report, and police have not always intervened promptly to prevent
harassment of Ahmadiyas (see Section II). In the past, the Government
sometimes failed to take action against Islamic extremists who have
attacked women, members of religious minorities, and development
workers (see Section II).
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the religious communities generally are amicable.
Persons who practice different religions often join each others'
festivals and celebrations. Shi'a Muslims practice their faith without
interference from Sunnis. Hindu-Buddhist-Christian unity councils exist
at the local and national levels. Nevertheless, clashes between
religious groups occasionally occur. There have been, in recent years,
cases of violence directed against the religious minority communities
that have resulted in the loss of lives and property. Police, who
generally are ineffective in upholding law and order, often are slow to
assist in such cases. Such intercommunal violence has caused some
members of religious minorities to depart the country, primarily Hindus
emigrating to India where many have relatives; however this phenomenon
is rare.
The Ahmadiyas, whom many mainstream Muslims consider heretical,
have been the target of increased attacks and harassment. In 1999
several mosques belonging to the Ahmadiya sect were attacked. On
October 8, 1999, a bomb killed six Ahmadiyas who were attending Friday
prayers at their mosque in Khulna. The only suspect questioned by
police was a fellow Ahmadiya who later was released. No other suspects
have been questioned, and the case remains unresolved. In November
1999, Sunni Muslims ransacked an Ahmadiya mosque near Natore, in
western Bangladesh. In subsequent clashes between Ahmadiyas and Sunnis,
35 persons were injured. Ahamdiyas regained control of their mosque and
filed a criminal case against 30 persons allegedly responsible for the
conflict. That case remains pending. After a January 1999 attack on an
Ahmadiya mosque in Kushtia, two police officials were disciplined for
failing to discharge their duties in controlling the incident. Ahmadiya
leaders report that their mosque remains under the control of local
police and Ahmadiyas are unable to worship there 15 months after the
original attack.
Islamic extremists occasionally have attacked women, members of
religious minorities, and development workers. The Government sometimes
has failed to criticize, investigate, and prosecute the perpetrators of
these attacks. The Government responded quickly, but ineffectively,
after an April 1998 attack on a Catholic school in Dhaka.
Some members of the Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist minorities
continue to perceive and experience discrimination from the Muslim
majority.
Religious minorities are disadvantaged in practice in such areas as
access to government jobs and political office. Selection boards in the
government services do not have minority group representation. The
current Government has appointed a few Hindus to senior civil service
positions. However, religious minorities remain underrepresented in
government jobs, especially at the higher levels of the civil and
foreign services. Very few members of the armed forces are non-Muslims.
Feminist author Taslima Nasreen, whose writings and statements
provoked death threats from some Islamic groups in 1993 and 1994,
returned to the country in September 1998, after having lived abroad
since 1994. Nasreen immediately went into hiding. The Government has
taken no action against those who issued death threats against her in
1993 and 1994, even though such threats may violate the law. Following
Nasreen's return, there were a number of small demonstrations by
Islamic groups calling for her arrest and punishment by death. The
Government provided Nasreen protection from possible threats. Despite
such protection, in early November 1998, the leader of the Chittagong
branch of the Jamaat-e-Islami, the largest Islamic party, personally
offered a reward for information as to her whereabouts. The central
Jamaat office in Dhaka stated that the Jamaat did not approve of the
reward offer. The Government did not attempt to prosecute Nasreen for
charges filed by authorities in 1994 under a section of the Penal Code
that stipulates punishment for anyone convicted of intentionally
insulting religious beliefs. However, a private citizen filed similar
charges in 1994, and a judge issued an arrest warrant in that case
after Nasreen's September 1998 return. The warrant never was executed,
and Nasreen later requested and received anticipatory bail from the
High Court. She was allowed to leave the country freely in January
1999. She lives abroad in self-imposed exile. On August 12, 1999, the
Bangladesh government banned the import, sale, and distribution of ``My
Childhood,'' Nasreen's latest book. The government ban cited the
likelihood that the book would inflame passions and offend religious
sentiments in the Muslim community.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains a dialog with government, religious, and
minority community representatives to promote religious freedom and to
discuss problems therewith. On an informal basis, the Embassy also has
assisted some U.S. Christian-affiliated relief organizations in guiding
paperwork for schools and other projects through government channels.
The Government has been receptive to discussion of such subjects and
generally helpful in resolving problems.
__________
BHUTAN
The law provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, the Drukpa sect of
the Kagyupa School, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism, is the state
religion, and the law prohibits religious conversions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
In Bhutan, the Drukpa sect of the Kagyupa School, a branch of
Mahayana Buddhism, is the state religion, and the law prohibits
religious conversions. Citizens of other faiths may not proselytize.
There are no formal diplomatic relations between the United States
and Bhutan, but the U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues
with the Government informally in the context of its overall dialog and
policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The law provides for religious freedom, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice; however, the Drukpa sect of
the Kagyupa School, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism, is the state
religion, and the law prohibits religious conversions. Citizens of
other faiths may not proselytize.
Religious communities must secure government licenses before
constructing new places of worship, but there were no reports to
suggest that this process was not impartial. The Government provides
financial assistance for the construction of Drukpa Kagyupa and
Ningmapa Buddhist temples and shrines. In the early 1990's, the
Government provided funds for the construction of new Hindu temples and
centers of Sanskrit and Hindu learning and for the renovation of
existing temples and places of learning.
The Government subsidizes monasteries and shrines of the Drukpa
sect and provides aid to about one-third of the Kingdom's 12,000 monks.
By statute, 10 seats in the 150-seat National Assembly and 2 seats on
the 11-member Royal Advisory Council are reserved for monks of the
Drukpa sect.
All government civil servants, regardless of religion, are required
to take an oath of allegiance to the King, the country, and the people.
The oath is without religionspecific content, but a Buddhist lama
administers it.
Religious Demography
About two-thirds of the declared population of 600,000 practice
either Drukpa Kagyupa or Ningmapa Buddhism. The Drukpa sect is
practiced predominantly in the western and central parts of the
country, although there are adherents in other parts of the country.
The inhabitants of the western and central parts of the country are
mainly, but not exclusively, ethnic Ngalops--the descendants of Tibetan
immigrants who predominate in government and the civil service and
whose cultural norms and dress have been declared by the monarchy to be
the standard for all Bhutanese.
The Ningmapa school of Mahayana Buddhism is practiced predominantly
in the eastern part of the country, although there are adherents in
other parts of the country, including the royal family. Monks and
monasteries of this school also receive some state funding. Most of
those living in the east are ethnic Sharchops--the descendants of those
thought to be the country's original inhabitants. Several Sharchops
hold high rank in the Government, the National Assembly, and the court
system.
There is a tradition of respect among many citizens for the
teachings of an animist and shamanistic faith called Bon; the arrival
of this faith to the country predates that of Buddhism. Bon priests
still can be found in the country, but it is unclear how many citizens
adhere to this faith. Bon rituals sometimes are included in the
observance of Buddhist festivals.
Christians, both Catholics and Protestants, are present in small
numbers throughout the country. There is only one Christian church
building in the country, in the south, where the only concentration of
Christians sufficiently large to sustain a church building is located.
Elsewhere, families and individuals practice their religion at home.
About one-third of the population, ethnic Nepalese who live mainly
in the south, practice Hinduism. The Shaivite, Vaishnavite, Shakta,
Ghanapath, Paurinic, and Vedic schools are represented among Hindus.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Foreign missionaries are not permitted to proselytize. However,
international Christian relief organizations and Jesuit priests are
active in education and humanitarian activities.
Buddhist religious teaching, of both the Drukpa Kagyupa and the
Ningmapa sects, is permitted in schools; the teaching of other
religious traditions is not, according to dissidents living outside of
the country. These same sources claim that the import into the country
of printed religious matter is restricted and that the Government bars
all but Buddhist religious texts from entering.
The passports of members of minority religions cite the holder's
religion, and applicants for government services sometimes are asked
their religion before services are rendered.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
There have been reports in the past that police have used
unwarranted lethal force on peaceful demonstrations, resulting in the
death of at least one monk. Monks also reportedly have been tortured
while in prison.
Dissidents living outside of the country contend that the
Government underreports the number of ethnic Nepalese in the country,
and that the country's actual population is between 650,000 and
700,000. The ethnic Nepalese were subject to discrimination by the
authorities in the late 1980's and early 1990's when many were driven
from their homes and forcibly expelled from the country. The root
causes of this official discrimination and the expulsions were
cultural, economic, and political; however, to the degree that their
Hinduism identified them as members of the ethnic Nepalese minority,
religion was also a factor. The Government contends that many of those
expelled in 1991 were illegal immigrants who had no right to
citizenship or residency in the country. Some 90,000 ethnic Nepalese
continue to live in refugee camps in eastern Nepal and are seeking to
return to their homes in Bhutan. Although the refugees have not been
permitted to return to the country, ethnic Nepalese Hindus remaining in
the country are free to practice their religion. The King has declared
major Hindu festivals to be national holidays and the royal family
participates in them. The Government also provides some scholarships
for Sanskrit studies in Hindu universities in India.
The Government also began a program of resettling Buddhist citizens
from other parts of the country on land in the south vacated by the
expelled ethnic Nepalese now living in refugee camps in Nepal. Human
rights groups maintain that this action prejudices any eventual
negotiated return of the refugees to Bhutan. The Government maintains
that this is not its first resettlement program and that citizens who
are ethnic Nepalese from the south sometimes are resettled on land in
other parts of the country. The motivation for this official
discrimination appears to be economic and political; however, to the
degree that the Hinduism of the ethnic Nepalese identifies them,
religion is also a factor.
A resolution adopted by the National Assembly in July 1997
prohibits family members of ethnic Nepalese refugees from Bhutan
residing in camps in eastern Nepal, who are still resident in the
country, from holding jobs with the Government or in the armed forces.
According to the Government, the resolution was not intended to apply
to any specific ethnic group, but was aimed at those whose views
reflected antigovernment sentiment. Under the resolution, those
relatives of ethnic Nepali refugees holding government jobs were
retired involuntarily. For the purposes of this resolution, the
Government defined a family member as a parent, child, sibling, or a
member of the same household. The Government states that 429 civil
servants, many of them ethnic Nepalis, were retired compulsorily in
accordance with the National Assembly resolution and that the program
was terminated in November 1998. While the ethnic Nepalis retired in
this fashion were mainly Hindu, and the Government and the majority of
the society are generally Buddhist, the motivation for this official
discrimination appears to be mainly economic and political in nature
and does not appear to be related to the practice of religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Governmental discrimination against ethnic Nepalese in the late
1980's and early 1990's arose in part from a desire to preserve the
country's Buddhist culture from the growth of the ethnic Nepalese
population, with its different cultural and religious traditions. That
preoccupation on the part of the Government and many Buddhists is still
present today. It is reflected in official and societal efforts to
impose the dress and cultural norms of the Ngalop ethnic group on all
citizens. While there are no known reports of the repetition of the
excesses of the late 1980's and early 1990's, societal and governmental
pressure for conformity with Drukpa Kagyupa norms is prevalent. The
failure of the Government to permit the return of ethnic Nepalese
refugees has tended to reinforce societal prejudices against this
group, as has the Government's policy on forced retirement of refugee
family members in government service and the resettlement of Buddhists
on land vacated by expelled ethnic Nepalese in the south.
There have been some efforts at promoting interfaith understanding.
There are regular exchanges between monks of the two schools of
Buddhism represented in the country. The King's example of making Hindu
festivals official holidays and observing them also has had a positive
impact on citizens' attitudes.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
There are no formal diplomatic relations between the United States
and Bhutan. There are informal contacts between the two governments
ranging from the level of cabinet secretary to that of embassy officer.
During many of these exchanges, governmental discrimination against the
ethnic Nepalese minority has been discussed. The issue of religious
freedom has not been raised explicitly.
__________
INDIA
The Constitution provides for secular government and the protection
of religious freedom, and the central Government generally respects
these provisions in practice; however, it sometimes does not act
effectively to counter societal attacks against religious minorities
and attempts by state and local governments to limit that freedom. This
failure results in part from the legal constraints inherent in the
country's federal structure, and in part from the demands placed on the
at times ineffective law enforcement and justice systems. Ineffective
investigation and prosecution of attacks on religious minorities is
interpreted by some extremist elements as a signal that such violence
is likely to go unpunished.
There was no change in the status of religious freedom during the
period covered by this report.
India is a secular state in which all faiths generally enjoy
freedom of worship; government policy does not favor any religious
group. However, tensions between Muslims and Hindus, and increasingly,
between Hindus and Christians, continue to pose a challenge to the
concepts of secularism, tolerance, and diversity on which the State was
founded.
The Government is led by a coalition called the National Democratic
Alliance (NDA), which has pledged to respect India's traditions of
secular government and religious tolerance. However, the leading party
in the coalition is the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a Hindu
nationalist political party with links to Hindu extremist groups that
have been implicated in violent acts against Christians and Muslims.
The BJP also leads state governments in Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, and
Uttar Pradesh. Human rights groups and others have suggested that the
response by authorities in these states to acts of violence against
religious minorities by Hindu extremist groups has been ineffective, at
least in part because of the links between these groups and the BJP,
and have noted that the ineffective investigation and prosecution of
such incidents may encourage violent actions by extremist groups.
Governments at state and local levels only partially respect religious
freedom. A number of such governments considered legislation during the
period covered by this report that would limit religious freedom.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the
Government generally respects this right in practice. There are no
registration requirements for religions. Legally mandated benefits are
assigned to certain groups, including some groups defined by their
religion.
There are many religions and a large variety of denominations,
groups, and subgroups in the country, but Hinduism is the dominant
religion. Under the Constitution, the Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh faiths
are considered different from the Hindu religion, but the Constitution
often is interpreted as defining Hinduism to include the Buddhist,
Jain, and Sikh faiths. This interpretation has been a contentious
issue, particularly among the Sikh community.
Religious Demography
According to 1999 government statistics (based on the 1991 national
census), Hindus constitute 82.4 percent of the population, Muslims 12.7
percent, Christians 2.3 percent, Sikhs 2 percent, Buddhists 0.7
percent, Jains 0.4 percent, and others, including Parsis, Jews, and
Baha'is, 0.4 percent. Hinduism has a large number of branches,
including the Sanatan and Arya Samaj groups. Slightly over 90 percent
of the Muslims are Sunni; the rest are Shi'a. Buddhists include
followers of the Mahayana and Hinayana schools, and there are both
Catholic and Protestant Christians. Tribal groups, which for the sake
of government statistics generally are included among Hindus, often
practice traditional indigenous religions. Hindus and Muslims are
spread throughout the country, although large Muslim populations are
found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala, and Muslims are a majority in Jammu and
Kashmir. Christian concentrations are found in the northeastern states,
as well as in the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Goa. Three
small northeastern states have large Christian majorities--Nagaland,
Mizoram, and Meghalaya. Sikhs are a majority in the state of Punjab. In
January 1999, the previous National Commission for Minorities (NCM)
chairman Tahir Mahmoud announced that the NCM had recommended that
Hindus be declared minorities in six states--Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab,
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland; this would help
the NCM to take cognizance of the problems of Hindus in those states.
As of mid-2000 the Government still was considering the proposal;
however, it had not gone into effect.
Over the years, lower castes and Dalits (formerly called
``untouchables'') (see Section II) frequently have converted to other
faiths because they viewed conversion as a means to achieve higher
social status. Dalit leaders frequently have encouraged their followers
to convert to Buddhism, Christianity, and other faiths without a caste
tradition. Yet lower caste and Dalit converts continue to be viewed by
both their coreligionists and Hindus through the prism of caste.
Converts are widely regarded as belonging to the caste of their
ancestors.
Animosities within and between religious communities in India have
roots that are centuries old, and these tensions--at times exacerbated
by poverty, class, and ethnic differences--have erupted into periodic
violence throughout the country's 53-year history. The Government makes
some effort to prevent these incidents and to restore communal harmony
when such incidents occur, but these efforts are not entirely
successful. The Government has taken steps to promote interfaith
understanding, which include the creation of the National Integration
Council (in 1962 as a non-statutory body with an objective of
maintaining social tranquility and communal harmony), the National
Commission for Minorities (as a non-statutory body in 1978 and
statutorily by Parliament act in 1992), and the National Human Rights
Commission (founded by an act of Parliament in 1993).
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Religious Institutions (Prevention of Misuse) Act makes it an
offense to use any religious site for political purposes or to use
temples for harboring persons accused or convicted of crimes. While
specifically designed to deal with Sikh places of worship in Punjab,
the law applies to all religious sites. In addition the state of Uttar
Pradesh passed the ``Religious Buildings and Places Bill'' during the
State Assembly Budget Session of March-May 2000. The bill requires a
state government-endorsed permit before construction of any religious
building could begin in the state. The bill's supporters say that its
aim is to curb the use of Muslim institutions by Islamic fundamentalist
terrorist groups, but the measure has become a controversial political
issue among all religious groups in northern India. Also during the
period covered by this report, West Bengal's government decided to
implement 15-year-old legislation that required any person desiring to
construct a place of worship to seek permission from the district
magistrate; anyone intending to convert a personal place of worship to
one for the community also requires the district magistrate's
permission.
The current legal system accommodates minority religions' personal
status laws; there are different personal laws for different religious
communities. Religion-specific laws pertain in matters of marriage,
divorce, adoption, and inheritance. For example, Muslim personal status
law governs many noncriminal matters involving Muslims, including
family law, inheritance, and divorce.
The personal status laws of the religious communities sometimes
discriminate against women. Under Islamic law, a Muslim husband may
divorce his wife spontaneously and unilaterally; there is no such
provision for women. Islamic law also allows a man to have up to four
wives but prohibits polyandry. Under the Indian Divorce Act of 1869 a
Christian woman may demand divorce only in the case of spousal abuse
and certain categories of adultery; for a Christian man, a wife's
adultery alone is sufficient.
The Government currently is reviewing the legislation on marriage
and drafted the ``Christian Marriage Bill'' in early 2000. The bill
would replace the Indian Divorce Act of 1869 (sic), which is widely
criticized as biased against women. If enacted it would place
limitations on interfaith marriages and specify penalties, such as 10
years imprisonment, for clergymen who contravene its provisions. The
current form of the bill states that no marriage in which one party is
a non-Christian may be celebrated in a church. The bill was not
introduced during the most recent Parliament session in March-May 2000
due to the strong objections and reservations of the Christian
community.
There is no national law that bars proselytizing by Christian
citizens. Foreign missionaries generally can renew their visas, but
since the mid-1960's the Government has refused to admit new resident
foreign missionaries. New arrivals currently enter as tourists on
short-term visas. As of January 1993 (more current figures are not
available), there were 1,923 registered foreign Christian missionaries.
During the period covered by this report, as in the past, state
officials refused to issue permits for foreign Christian missionaries
to enter some northeastern states. This restriction is not specifically
levied against Christians--many foreigners, including diplomats, are
refused permits to the country's northeast on the grounds of political
instability in the region. In September 1999, the Government's Ministry
of Home Affairs ordered a 57-year-old American priest to leave the
country. This individual, Father Anthony Raymond Ceresko, a teacher at
a seminary in Bangalore, entered the country in 1991 and had been able
to renew his residence permit every year until 1999. Ceresko left the
country on September 17, 1999. In addition to foreign missionaries,
several Christian relief organizations have been hampered by
bureaucratic obstacles in getting visas renewed for foreign relief
work.
Missionaries and religious organizations must comply with the
Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA), which restricts funding
from abroad and, therefore, the ability of certain nongovernmental
organizations (NGO's) to finance their activities. The Government is
empowered to ban a religious organization if it has violated the FCRA,
has provoked intercommunity friction, or has been involved in terrorism
or sedition. There is no ban on professing or propagating religious
beliefs, but speaking publicly against other beliefs is considered
dangerous to public order, and is prohibited.
The BJP, which has led two coalition national governments since
March 1998, is one of a number of offshoots of the Rashtriya
Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), an organization that espouses a return to
Hindu values and cultural norms. Members of the BJP, the RSS, and other
affiliated organizations have been implicated in incidents of violence
and discrimination against Christians and Muslims. The BJP and RSS
express respect and tolerance for other religions; however, the RSS in
particular opposes conversions from Hinduism and believes that all
citizens should adhere to Hindu cultural values. The BJP officially
agrees that the caste system should be eradicated, but many of its
members are ambivalent about this. Most BJP leaders, including Prime
Minister A.B. Vajpayee and Home Minister L.K. Advani, also are RSS
members, as are the chief ministers of the state governments in Uttar
Pradesh, Gujarat, and Himachal Pradesh. The BJP's traditional cultural
agenda has included calls for construction of a new Hindu temple to
replace an ancient Hindu temple that was believed to have stood on the
site of a mosque in Ayodhya that was destroyed by a Hindu mob in 1992;
for the repeal of Article 370 of the Constitution, which grants special
rights to the state of Jammu and Kashmir, India's only Muslim majority
state; and for the enactment of a uniform civil code that would apply
to members of all religions. All of these proposals are opposed
strongly by some minority religious groups.
While the BJP at the national level has not included its
traditional agenda items in the program of government of the coalition
Government it leads, some Christian groups have noted the coincidence
of its coming to power and an increase in complaints of discrimination
against minority religious communities. These groups also claim that
BJP officials at state and local levels have become increasingly
unresponsive in investigating charges of religious discrimination and
in prosecuting those persons responsible.
The degree to which the BJP's nationalist Hindu agenda is felt
throughout the country with respect to religious minorities varies
depending on the region. State governments continue to attach a high
priority to maintaining law and order and monitoring intercommunity
relations at the district level. The four southern states are ruled by
political parties with strong secular and prominority views. Each of
these parties--the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, the
Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh, the Communist Party in
Kerala, and the Congress Party in Karnataka--has a history of support
for religious minorities and has attempted to assuage religious
minority fears about religious tension in the rest of the country. Such
fears were aroused when the DMK and TDP entered the National Democratic
Alliance (NDA) with the BJP during the 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
However, both parties subsequently took pains to reaffirm their
commitment to secularism and to allay apprehensions from their
religious minority supporters.
The southern branches of the BJP generally take a more moderate
position on minority issues, but religious groups in the region still
allege that since the BJP's rise to power in the national Government,
some government bureaucrats have begun to enforce laws selectively to
the detriment of religious minorities. The groups cite numerous
examples of discrimination, such as biased interpretations of postal
regulations, including removal of postal subsidies; refusals to
allocate land for the building of churches; and heightened scrutiny of
NGO's to ensure that foreign contributions are made according to the
law. In August 1999, the Union Home Ministry banned the biennial
meeting of the International Anglican Liturgical Consultation in
Kottayam, Kerala, after organizers neglected to seek Home Ministry
permission to hold the conference. Also, Muslim leaders in Hyderabad
allege that Hindu extremists in the Andhra Pradesh police force have
harassed Muslim youth and students at religious schools under the
pretext of investigating plots by the ISI, Pakistan's Inter-Services
Intelligence (intelligence service).
The eastern part of the country presented a varied picture with
regard to religious freedom during the period covered by this report,
and the political leanings of the state governments in the eastern
region did not appear to correlate with the level of protection for
religious freedom. In Orissa, which has acquired notoriety for violence
against religious minorities (particularly after the murder of
Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two young children there
in January 1999), the communal situation remained relatively unchanged
during the period covered by this report, despite the installation of a
BJP-Biju Janata Dal (BJD) government in February 2000. The Orissa
government in November 2000 notified churches that religious
conversions could not take place without notifying the local police and
district magistrate. The Orissa Freedom of Religion Act of 1967
contains a provision requiring a monthly government report on the
number of conversions, but this provision previously had not been
enforced. (After a conversion has been reported to the District
Magistrate, the report is forwarded to the authorities and a local
police officer conducts an inquiry. The police officer can recommend in
favor of or against such intended conversion, often as the sole
arbitrator on the individual's right to freedom of religion; if
conversion is judged to have taken place without permission or with
coercion, the authorities may take penal action.) In West Bengal,
Marxist rulers could not prevent reconversions of religious minorities
by Hindus in some districts. Bihar was peaceful with regard to
religious minorities with the exception of two seemingly unrelated
events in September 1999. The assault of a nun by 2 young men because
of her religion was followed on September 24, 1999 by a silent protest
staged by nuns in Patna against the deletion of the names of 150 nuns
and 5 priests from voters' lists. In Tripura there were several cases
of reverse persecution of non-Christians by Christian members of the
National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT), a militant tribal group
that often is evangelical. For example, NLFT tribal insurgents have
banned Hindu and Muslim festivals in areas that they control, cautioned
women not to wear traditional Hindu tribal attire, and banned
indigenous forms of worship. In Assam, where the number of Muslims is
increasing rapidly, the issue of Bangladeshi migrants (who generally
are Muslim) has become exceedingly sensitive among the Assamese
(predominantly Hindu) population, which feels increasingly outnumbered.
In the west, mostly in Gujarat, incidents of intercommunity strife
continued; however, there were fewer incidents than occurred in
December 1998 and January 1999. There were no major outbreaks of
violence and no instances where the state government was perceived as
supporting or tolerating actions aimed against religious minorities. On
May 14, 2000, the Gujarat and national governments pledged to protect
religious minorities; Union Home Minister L.K. Advani said that if any
``untoward incidents'' occurred, the Government would not spare those
responsible. However, there were few arrests or convictions in
connection with violent incidents against religious minorities. Leaders
of several Hindu nationalist organizations in Gujarat alleged that the
state's government was, in fact, being very harsh on Hindus and was
placating Muslims whenever Hindu-Muslim skirmishes broke out.
A January 2000 decision by the Gujarat state government to revoke
the ban on the participation of government employees in RSS activities
was widely criticized, as was the well-publicized participation of the
state's chief minister at an RSS rally that month. In May 2000, the
government of Gujarat withdrew permission for state government workers
to engage in RSS activities. In March 2000, the government of Gujarat
convinced a BJP legislator to withdraw a bill that sought to regulate
Christian missionary activity within the state; the bill was written to
prohibit ``forced'' or ``induced'' conversions--a crime that would have
been punishable by a fine and up to 3 years in prison. Despite these
steps by the state and national governments to address communal
concerns, many in the minority communities continued to express unease
about BJP rule.
In the north, there were several incidents in April 2000 in which
Hindu groups attacked Christian institutions (see Section II). These
incidents were the first signs of Hindu-Christian clashes in Uttar
Pradesh in over 6 years. The Government dispatched the NCM to
investigate the attacks in the north, but the NCM's findings that the
attacks were not ``communal in nature'' sparked widespread criticism in
the minority community (see Section II). There is strong evidence that
the NCM report misrepresented the victims in its claims that they
themselves are entirely satisfied that there was no religious
motivation behind the violence. Victims of the incidents claim that the
local police were not responsive either before or during the attacks.
No arrests were made as of mid-2000. Christian groups in the north
believe that these incidents were religiously motivated. Religious
minorities in the north claim that they have seen a deterioration in
the Government's attitude toward the minority community since the BJP
assumed power in 1998, and they are concerned that attacks on religious
minorities no longer appear to be confined to Gujarat and Orissa.
On June 26, 2000 the National Human Rights Commission ordered
affected states to provide written reports detailing the violence
against Christians and the actions taken by state governments.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
Jammu and Kashmir, the country's only Muslim majority state, has
been the focus of repeated armed conflict between India and Pakistan,
and internally between security forces and Muslim militants who demand
that the state be given independence or be ceded to Pakistan.
Particularly since an organized insurgency erupted in Jammu and Kashmir
in 1989, there have been numerous reports of human rights abuses
carried out by the security forces and local officials against the
Muslim population, including execution-style killings, beatings, and
other forms of physical abuse. Many of the charges of government
responsibility for massacres of civilians lack credibility; however,
significant evidence emerged in August 1999 about the Government's
earlier role in the killing of 19 Muslims in Saalan village of Poonch
district on August 4, 1998. An investigation by the chief minister
revealed that the state and federal governments had created an overall
infrastructure that specifically included individuals with the
demonstrated capacity and attitude to commit such acts of violence. It
is not clear to what extent the actions of the Government and security
forces were based on religion.
In Uttar Pradesh on June 10, 2000, Vijay Ekka, a witness to the
killing of Catholic priest Brother George Kuzhikandum, died in police
custody. Ekka initially was placed under police protection because it
was believed that there was a risk of reprisals against him by members
of the Hindu community. His death drew serious criticism from human
rights organizations and minority communities nationwide. Archbishop
Vincent Concessao of Agra said Ekka's body showed signs of torture, and
said police had told church authorities that Ekka had committed
suicide. While in detention, Ekka told visitors that he was being
tortured constantly in police custody, and said he was afraid police
would kill him. The state government initiated an investigation into
Ekka's death on June 17, 2000, and a few days later announced plans to
establish a judicial inquiry. The Mathura superintendant of police was
transferred and two policemen were arrested in connection with the
incident.
Nationwide there was no change in the status of respect for
religious freedom during the period covered by this report. Although
the law provides for religious freedom, enforcement of the law has been
poor, particularly at the state and local levels, where the failure to
deal adequately with intragroup and intergroup conflict and with local
disturbances has abridged the right to religious freedom. Some Hindu
groups continued to attack Christians during the period covered by this
report. In many cases, the Government's response consisted largely of
statements criticizing the violence against Christians, with few
efforts to hold accountable those persons responsible or to prevent
such incidents from occurring (see Section--II). A federal political
system in which state governments hold jurisdiction over law and order
problems contributed to the Government's ineffectiveness in dealing
with the problem. India's only national law enforcement agency, the
Central Bureau of Investigation, is required to ask state government
permission before investigating a crime in the affected state. Without
such jurisdiction, the Government generally has described the violence
and attacks as a series of isolated local phenonmena, in some states
calling for a national debate on conversions, which Hindus had
advocated being banned.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
During the period covered by this report, attacks on religious
minorities occurred in several states.
India's caste system generates severe tensions due to disparities
in social status, economic opportunity, and, occasionally, labor
rights. These tensions frequently have led to, or exacerbated, violent
confrontations and human rights abuses. However, for the most part
intercaste violence does not have a significant religious component.
The country's caste system historically has strong ties to
Hinduism. It delineates clear social strata, assigning highly
structured religious, cultural, social roles, privileges, and
restrictions to each caste and subcaste. Members of each casteand
frequently each subcaste--are expected to fulfill a specific set of
duties (known as dharma) in order to secure elevation to a higher caste
through rebirth. Dalits are viewed by many Hindus as separate from or
``below'' the caste system; nonetheless, they too are expected to
follow their dharma if they hope to achieve caste in a future life.
Despite efforts by modern leaders from Mahatma Gandhi's time forward to
eliminate the discriminatory aspects of caste, societal, political, and
economic pressures continue to ensure its widespread practice (see
Section I). Caste today therefore is as much a cultural and social
phenomenon as a religious one.
The Constitution gives the President the authority to specify
historically disadvantaged castes, Dalits, and ``tribals'' (members of
indigenous groups historically outside the caste system). These
``scheduled'' castes, Dalits, and tribes are entitled to affirmative
action and hiring quotas in employment, benefits from special
development funds, and special training programs. The impact of
reservations and quotas on society and on the groups they are designed
to benefit is a subject of active debate within the country. Some
contend that they have achieved the desired effect and should be
modified, while others strongly argue that they should be continued, as
the system has not addressed adequately the long-term discriminatory
impact of caste. According to the 1991 census, scheduled castes,
including Dalits, made up 16 percent and scheduled tribes 8 percent of
the country's 1991 population of 846 million.
Christians historically have rejected the concept of caste, despite
the fact that Christians descended from low caste Hindu families
continue to suffer the same social and economic limitations that low
caste Hindus do. Low caste Hindus who convert to Christianity lose
their eligibility for affirmative action programs. Those who become
Buddhists, Jains, or Sikhs do not, as the Constitution groups members
of those faiths with Hindus and specifies that the Constitution shall
not affect ``the operation of any existing law or prevent the state
from making any law providing for social welfare and reform'' of these
groups. In some states, there are government jobs reserved for Muslims
of low caste descent.
In the past, Hindu-Muslim violence has led to killings and a cycle
of retaliation. In some instances, local police and government
officials abetted the violence, and at times security forces were
responsible for abuses. Excluding incidents in Kashmir, there was a
decline in the number of incidents of Hindu-Muslim violence during the
period covered by this report. On August 26, 1999, a mob of
approximately 15 persons mutilated and burned to death a Muslim cattle
trader in Padiabeda village, Orissa. According to press reports, men
with bows and arrows and axes attacked the cattle trader. He was thrown
into his shop, which had been set ablaze. On January 30, 2000, Muslim
and Hindu crowds clashed and threw stones at each other in Bangalore
after an idol was desecrated in a Hindu temple. No one was killed, but
the police quickly banned public assemblies of more than three persons
(the ban since has been lifted).
Hindus and Muslims continue to feud over the existence of mosques
constructed several centuries ago on three sites where Hindus believe
that temples stood previously. The potential for renewed Hindu-Muslim
violence remains considerable. On July 20, 1999, violence erupted
between Hindus and Muslims in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, and one person died.
The violence began when a band of Hindu youths set fire to Muslim shops
and vehicles after encountering some Muslim youths teasing a mentally
disabled woman in the Muslim-dominated old city. Police responded by
declaring an area-wide curfew, thereby bringing the rioting under
control; however, there was renewed communal violence on July 22, 1999,
when the curfew was lifted.
Attacks by Muslim separatists seeking to end Indian rule in Jammu
and Kashmir, and continued political violence, drove most Hindus in the
Kashmir Valley (Pandits) to seek refuge in camps in Jammu, with
relatives in New Delhi, or elsewhere. Throughout the period covered by
this report, militants carried out several execution-style mass
killings of Hindu villagers and violently targeted Pandits for violence
in Jammu and Kashmir. For example, it is believed that on July 1, 1999,
a group of Muslims killed nine members of two Hindu families, including
three women and a child, in Poonch district, Jammu and Kashmir. The
Pandit community fears that a negotiated solution giving greater
autonomy to the Muslim majority might threaten its own survival in
Jammu and Kashmir as a culturally and historically distinctive group.
On March 20, 2000, 17 unidentified gunmen in army uniforms killed
35 Sikh men in the village of Chatti Singhpora (near Anantnag in south
Kashmir). The incident was the largest single massacre of civilians
during the past 11 years of militancy and the only mass killing in
Kashmir to have involved the Sikh community. The evidence suggests that
Muslim separatists dressed in army uniforms carried out the killings.
No arrests have been reported. The massacre of Sikhs was preceded by
several massacres of Hindus in the area. During the early morning hours
of July 20, 1999, approximately 20 persons entered two houses in the
Doda district of Jammu region and used automatic weapons to kill 15
persons, including 3 women and 7 children. The group, identified by a
survivor as belonging to Hizbul-Mujahideen, were targeting specifically
five men in the house who were members of their local village defense
committee. Also on July 20, 1999, in the Poonch district of Jammu
region, militants killed four members of a government road engineering
group. The four victims were all non-Muslims from outside Jammu and
Kashmir. The July 20, 1999, massacres were the fourth in a series of
incidents during the summer of 1999.
The period covered by this report was preceded in 1998 and early
1999 by a serious outbreak of societal violence against Christians,
apparently sparked by rumors of ``forced conversions'' of Hindus to
Christianity. In Orissa, Dara Singh (a member of the Hindu extremist
Bajrang Dal) was arrested on January 31, 2000 for murdering Graham
Staines and his two young sons in January 1999. He also was charged
with the killings of another Christian and a Muslim. Singh remains a
popular figure among Hindu extremists, many of whom apparently helped
him evade arrest for over a year. Several of Singh's associates also
have been arrested and charged. The Wadhwa Commission established to
probe into the Staines murder presented its findings in August 1999,
confirming that Dara Singh masterminded the killing but it effectively
exonerating Hindu organizations and political parties that had been
accused of complicity. Some Christian groups criticized the
Commission's findings as a coverup.
Between March and November 1999, in the wake of the Staines murder,
five families in Orissa's tribal belt that previously had embraced
Christianity reportedly reconverted to Hinduism. On June 2, 2000, a
Hindu priest reportedly reconverted 72 tribal Christians in the same
village where Graham Staines and his sons were killed. In West Bengal
in February 2000, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) reportedly
reconverted 245 tribals, mostly Christians, in Birbhum district to
Hinduism. According to the VHP's chief organizer in West Bengal, Asit
Bhattacharya, 42 tribal Christians were reconverted in 1999 in Malda
district and 280 Muslims in Murshidabad. He said that the state
government would not stop reconversions of non-Hindus who were willing
to return to the Hindu fold. In Arunachal Pradesh, alleged pressure
from Hindus to reconvert tribals back to Hinduism has led to increased
tension between Hindus and Christians. Members of Hindu organizations
(including members of the Hindu Jagran Manch, the Vishwa Hindu
Parishad, and the Bajrang Dal) are concerned about Christians' efforts
to convert Hindus. They claimed that Hindus, including economically
disadvantaged Dalits and tribals, were being forced or induced to
convert by Christian missionaries; in some cases, Hindus allegedly have
reconverted, at times by force or threat of force, tribals and Dalits
belonging to other religions. However, many tribals follow traditional
religious practices, and many Christian tribals were not Hindu prior to
becoming Christian, even though they often are counted by the
Government and others as Hindu. On September 6, 1999, Vishwa Hindu
Parishad working president Ashok Singhal called for enactment of a law
banning forced conversions.
Christian missionaries have been operating schools and medical
clinics for many years in tribal areas. Tribals and Dalits are outside
of the caste system and occupy the very lowest position in the social
hierarchy. However, they have made socioeconomic gains as a result of
the missionary schools and other institutions, which, among other
things, have increased literacy among the lowest castes. Some higher
caste Hindus tend to resent these gains. Some fault the missionaries
for the resulting disturbance in the traditional Hindu social order as
better educated Dalits, tribals, and members of the lower castes no
longer accept their disadvantaged status as readily as they once did.
During the period covered by this report, there were fewer but more
geographically widespread incidents of anti-Christian violence. There
were attacks against Christian communities and Christian missionaries
by Hindu groups in many areas, including some that previously had not
seen such violence. These attacks, primarily in the form of mob
violence, included the destruction of churches and religious property,
as well as violent attacks on Christian pilgrims and leaders. From July
1, 1999 to June 30, 2000, incidents of violence against Christians were
reported in Tamil Nadu, Goa, Punjab, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and
Uttar Pradesh. For example, on September 2, 1999, Father Arul Doss, a
35-year-old Roman Catholic priest, was killed in a night raid by Dara
Singh-led Hindu groups on a church in Jambani village in Orissa's
Mayurbhanj district. Doss was pulled from the church, shot with arrows,
and beaten to death by his assailants. The mob also severely beat
Doss's associate and vandalized the one-room church, before setting it
on fire. In a public statement the same day, Prime Minister Vajpayee
strongly criticized Father Doss's murder and called for its
perpetrators to be brought to justice. On September 20, 1999, in
Chapra, Bihar, two young men attacked a Roman Catholic nun; they
reportedly questioned her about the number of conversions she and other
nuns had made at Jalalpur convent. The men reportedly stripped the nun,
forced her to drink urine, and attempted to rape her. Bihar Police
Chief K.A. Jacob visited the scene of the crime 3 days later, and the
state government established a three-member committee to investigate
the crime. There were no reports of progress in the investigation of
this case.
On November 11, 1999, a group of about 40 persons attacked a
Christian gathering outside a church in the Khyala area of Delhi, in
the first such incident in the capital. At least 12 persons were
injured in the attack, when the group descended on an open-air Bible
reading session, allegedly tearing pamphlets and damaging two Bibles. A
police spokesman said the group ``may have had some BJP activists'' and
four persons that are suspected of instigating the attacks were being
sought.
There was a series of incidents in Uttar Pradesh in April 2000. On
April 6, 2000, an angry group, demanding a decrease in school fees and
an increase in the number of passing students, harassed the principal
of Sacred Heart School in Mathura. The principal disputed an allegation
that the harassment was because of school fees, saying she was harassed
and chased by a group of young men (not parents of students) who also
asked her questions relating to what religious texts were read at the
school. On April 10, 2000, Father Joseph Dabre, principal of St.
Dominic's School in Mathura, was beaten by six young men who went to
the school on the pretext of a question about admissions. On April 11,
2000, in Kosi Kalan near Mathura, 8 to 10 assailants attacked Father K.
K. Thomas at St. Theresa's school when he rushed to the assistance of a
servant girl and 3 nuns whom the assailants were attacking. The
culprits also stole equipment and cash. Thomas was beaten unconscious
and left for dead by his attackers, who were not found.
Indian Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee asked for a detailed report on
the incidents in the Mathura area from Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Ram
Prakash Gupta. State officials also ordered police to keep watch over
churches, missionary centers, and other places of worship after the
attacks near Mathura. On April 26, 2000, the NCM visited the sites of
these attacks at Sacred Heart School, St. Dominic's School, and St.
Theresa's School, and issued a report on April 27, 2000. The report,
which claimed that the Sacred Heart case had ``no communal tinge,'' and
that the Kosi Kalan case was a ``case of robbery and nothing else,''
was criticized widely by the minority community. The validity of the
report was questioned openly by several members of the Lok Sabha (Lower
House of Parliament), and victims of the attacks claimed that they were
misquoted in the report. These attacks on Christians in Uttar Pradesh
were the first in the state in 6 years.
Following the violence in April 2000 in the vicinity of Mathura, on
June 7, 2000, a Catholic priest, Brother George Kuzhikandum, was killed
on the campus of Brother Polus Memorial School near Mathura. On June
10, 2000, Vijay Ekka, a witness to the killing of Brother George, died
in police custody (see Section I).
In northern Punjab state, in June 2000, the Rev. Ashish Prabash
Masih, age 23, reportedly was murdered and his body burned. While
police ruled out any communal undertones, the Punjab Christian
Association stated that the murder was part of a concerted campaign
against its community by Hindu nationalists.
In April 2000, three nuns said that they were run down deliberately
by a motor scooter in the northern Indian state of Haryana on their way
to a midnight Easter Mass. One of the nuns was injured seriously. The
Christian Forum stated that the attack was the fifth on nuns and
priests in Haryana in the year, but both the National Commission for
Minorities and the Catholic Bishop's Conference stated that the
incident could have been an accident.
On May 9, 2000, in Maharashtra, approximately 150 suspected
activists of the Bajrang Dal and the VHP attacked the 45th annual
convention of the Evangelical Alliance Christian Church and the Nashik
District Church Council, set fire to three vehicles, and ransacked a
bus carrying religious literature. Four persons were hospitalized.
Rural police said that they arrested 33 persons, all of whom belonged
to Bajrang Dal or VHP. Although political leaders from Maharashtra's
ruling party denounced the attack, the minister of state for dairy
development created a stir when he joined a group of BJP, RSS, and VHP
activists who went to meet and congratulate the accused when they were
released from jail on bail.
On May 12, 2000 in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, assailants threw stones
and tried to set fire to one church, while vandalizing two other
churches.
In November 1999, in Anekal, a small village in Karnataka, a group
of Hindus allegedly attacked Selva Kumar, a Catholic seminary student,
and stabbed him in the neck. The attackers accused him of trying to
convert Dalits to Christianity. In November 1999, a group of Hindu and
Muslim students from St. Joseph's Evening College in Bangalore,
Karnataka, was attacked by suspected Hindu members who accused them of
converting villagers in Anekal.
Tamil Nadu was the scene of multiple church burnings between
September 30 and November 12, 1999. During this 6-week period, nine
thatched-roof buildings used for worship services by the Church of
South India (a member of the Anglican Communion), the Syrian Catholic
Church, the Methodist Church, the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, the
International Evangelist Church, and various Pentecostal denominations
were burned down; no one was killed. Police arrested a few individuals
in connection with the fires, but the disposition of these cases is not
known.
The burning of churches continued in the first half of 2000. For
example, on May 12, 2000, a hut used as a prayer cottage by Christians
in Katiguda village was burned by what the local police referred to as
``anti-socials.'' On May 16, 2000, a cottage in Dharakote village used
as a place of congregation for local Christians was set on fire. Armed
police officers were deployed in the area, but no arrests thus far have
been made.
On June 8, 2000, bombs exploded in four churches in Andrha Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Goa. The blasts occurred in a Baptist church in Ongole,
Andrha Pradesh; a Catholic church in Tadepalligudem, Andrha Pradesh; a
Catholic church in Wadi, Karnataka; and a church in Vasco, Goa. The
bombs reportedly blew out windows and damaged pews; three persons in
Ongole and two in Wadi received minor injuries. During the last week of
June 2000, a mosque in Gunter, Andrha Pradesh was bombed. None of the
localities had a history of serious communal tensions before the
blasts. In Karnataka police patrols reportedly were increased at all
places of worship, and a special investigative unit was formed to
investigate the bombings. By June 20, 2000, nine persons reportedly
were arrested in connection with the blasts in Andrha Pradesh,
including a leading member of a Shi'a Muslim organization. On May 5,
2000, six missionaries who were distributing Bibles and other
literature in Vivekanandnagar, Ahmedabad, suffered a severe beating.
Some evangelists and some Bajrang Dal activists came to blows in this
locality when the Bajrang Dal activists forbade distribution of
Christian literature. Both the groups filed complaints against each
other in the police station about being beaten up. A Hindu bystander
who tried to intervene had his finger chopped off, according to
newspaper reports. On May 22, 2000, 30 persons were injured when a
powerful bomb exploded during a Christian meeting at Machlipatnam in
the southern state of Andhra Pradesh.
Referring to the rash of attacks against Christians over the first
6 months of 2000, the National Human Rights Commission expressed its
concern at the upsurge of violence faced by Christians, and demanded
that the Government announce the steps that it was taking to protect
the Christian community.
Other incidents affecting religious minorities during the period
covered by this report occurred in Tripura, where Christian militants
have imposed bans on Hindu and Muslim festivals, and in Assam, where
Hindu concern over the continued influx of illegal Muslim immigrants
from Bangladesh has grown over the past year.
The practice of dedicating or marrying young, prepubescent girls to
a Hindu deity or temple as ``servants of god'' or ``Devadasis,'' is
reported by Human Rights Watch to continue in several southern states,
including Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Devadasis, who generally are
Dalits, may not marry. They are taken from their families and are
required to provide sexual services to priests and high caste Hindus.
Reportedly, many eventually are sold to urban brothels. In 1992 the
state of Karnataka passed the Karnataka Devadasi (Prohibition) Act and
called for the rehabilitation of Devadasis, but this law reportedly is
not enforced effectively and criminalizes the actions of Devadasis.
Since Devadasis are by custom required to be sexually available to
higher caste men, it reportedly is difficult for them to obtain justice
from the legal system if they are raped by anyone.
Despite the incidents of violence and discrimination during the
period covered by this report, relations between various religious
groups generally are amicable among the substantial majority of
citizens. There are efforts at ecumenical understanding that bring
religious leaders together to defuse religious tensions. The annual
Sarva Dharma Sammelan (All Religious Convention) and Mushairas (Hindu-
Urdu poetry sessions) held on many occasions are some events that help
bring the various communities together. The holidays of Eid Milan, Holi
Mila, and Iftar are occasions for Hindus and Muslims to celebrate at
parties together, and are important social events that promote communal
harmony. After episodes of violence against Christians, Muslim groups
have protested against the treatment of Christians by Hindu extremists.
Hundreds of nonChristians joined Christians in the streets of New Delhi
in June 2000 to mourn the sudden loss of Archbishop Alan de Lastic
after his death in a car accident in Europe.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Mission continued to promote religious freedom through
contact with the country's senior leadership, as well as with state and
local officials. The U.S. Embassy and Consulates regularly report on
events and trends that affect religious freedom.
During his state visit to India, President Clinton spoke about the
massacre of Sikhs in Kashmir on March 20, 2000, and called for an end
to the violence. In August and September 1999, the U.S. Consul in
Chennai expressed concern about the status of Father Ceresko's visa
application to the chief secretary of Karnataka and regarding the
cancellation of the conference of the Anglican Church (see Section I)
to Kerala state government officials. In January 2000, Senator Tom
Daschle's delegation raised the issue of religious minorities with Home
Minister L.K. Advani during a visit to New Delhi. In February 2000, a
representative of the State Department discussed minorities issues with
the National Human Rights Commission in New Delhi. On June 23, 2000 the
U.S. Ambassador noted to the press that attacks against Christians are
a serious concern.
Embassy officials meet with religious officials to monitor
religious freedom on a regular basis. U.S. Mission officers traveled to
Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh during the period covered by this report to
assess the situation of religious minorities in those states. Embassy
and consulate officials also engaged with important leaders of all
minority communities. The U.S. mission maintains contacts with U.S.
residents, including those in the NGO and missionary communities. The
NGO community in the country is extremely active with regard to
religious freedom, and mission officers meet with local NGO's to keep
apprised of developments concerning religious freedom.
__________
MALDIVES
Freedom of religion is restricted significantly. The 1997
Constitution designates Islam as the official state religion and the
practice of other religions is prohibited by law.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
The President is the ``supreme authority to propagate the tenets of
Islam.'' The Government observes Shari'a (Islamic law), and in 1998
expelled 24 foreigners suspected of proselytizing non-Islamic faiths.
Citizens regard Islam as one of their society's most distinctive
characteristics and believe that it promotes harmony and national
identity.
The U.S. Government does not maintain a resident Embassy in the
Maldives; the U.S. Ambassador in Colombo, Sri Lanka is also accredited
to the Government in Male. The U.S. Government discusses religious
freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog
and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
Freedom of religion is restricted significantly. The 1997
Constitution designates Islam as the official state religion, and the
Government interprets this provision to impose a requirement that
citizens be Muslims. The practice of any religion other than Islam is
prohibited by law. However, foreign residents are allowed to practice
their religion if they do so privately.
Religious Demography
It is believed that the entire indigenous population is Muslim and
is overwhelmingly Sunni. Foreigners in the Maldives--more than 300,000
tourists annually (predominantly Europeans and Japanese) and about
20,000 foreign workers (predominantly Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Indian,
and Bangladeshi)--are allowed to practice their religion if they do so
in private and do not encourage citizens to participate.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
The Government has established a Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs
to provide guidance on religious matters. The Government also has set
standards for individuals who conduct Friday services at mosques to
ensure adequate theological qualifications.
The President must be a Sunni Muslim and under the Constitution is
the ``supreme authority to propagate the tenets of Islam.'' Cabinet
ministers also are required to be Sunni Muslims. Members of the
People's Majlis (Parliament) must be Muslim. The Government observes
Shari'a (Islamic law).
There are no places of worship for adherents of other religions.
The Government prohibits the importation of icons and religious statues
but generally permits the importation of religious tracts, such as
Bibles, for personal use.
The Government prohibits non-Muslim clergy and missionaries from
proselytizing and conducting public worship services. Conversion of a
Muslim to another faith is a violation of Shari'a and may result in a
loss of the convert's citizenship.
Islamic instruction is a mandatory part of the school curriculum,
and the Government funds the salaries of instructors of Islam.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
The law can limit a citizen's right to freedom of expression in
order to protect ``the basic tenets of Islam.''
In April 1998, the Government asked the Seychelles Government to
stop the radio broadcast of Christian programming in the local
language, Dhivehi. However, the broadcasts continue, albeit
irregularly.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners during
the period covered by this report.
Government officials appear to be as concerned about extremes in
Muslim religious beliefs as they are about other religions; the law
used to expel 24 foreign nationals accused of proselytizing during June
1998 originally was enacted to restrict the influence of Islamic
fundamentalists.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Most citizens regard Islam as one of their society's most
distinctive characteristics and believe that it promotes harmony and
national identity.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government does not maintain a resident Embassy in the
Maldives; the U.S. Ambassador in Colombo, Sri Lanka is also accredited
to the Government in Male. The U.S. Government discusses religious
freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog
and policy of promoting human rights.
__________
NEPAL
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and permits the
practice of all religions; however, although the Government generally
has not interfered with the practice of other religions, conversion and
proselytizing are prohibited, and members of minority religions
occasionally complain of police harassment. The Constitution describes
Nepal as a ``Hindu Kingdom,'' although it does not establish Hinduism
as the state religion.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Adherents of the country's many religions generally coexist
peacefully and respect all places of worship. Those who convert to
other religions may face isolated incidents of violence and sometimes
are ostracized socially, but generally do not fear to admit in public
their affiliations.
The U.S. Embassy maintains regular contact with Hindu, Christian,
Buddhist, Jewish, Ba'hai and other religious groups. It closely
monitors religious freedoms and raises these issues with the Government
when appropriate.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and permits the
practice of all religions; however, although the Government generally
has not interfered with the practice of other religions, conversion and
proselytizing are prohibited and punishable with fines or imprisonment,
and members of minority religions occasionally complain of police
harassment. Some Christian groups are concerned that the ban on
proselytizing limits the expression of nonHindu religious belief. The
Constitution describes Nepal as a ``Hindu Kingdom,'' although it does
not establish Hinduism as the state religion.
Religious Demography
Hindus constitute 85 to 90 percent of the population; Buddhists, 5
to 10 percent; Muslims, 2 to 5 percent; and Christians, approximately
1.7 percent. Christian denominations are few but growing. Recent
estimates put the number of Christians in Nepal at about 400,000, and
press reports indicate that 170 Christian churches operate in Kathmandu
alone.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
A conviction for conversion or proselytizing can result in fines or
imprisonment or, in the case of foreigners, expulsion from the country.
However, arrests or detentions for proselytizing are rare, and there
have been few incidents of punishment or investigation in connection
with conversion or proselytization during the last few years.
April 2000 public observances of Easter in a Kathmandu park and
Passover seder in a major hotel in Kathmandu were uneventful. However,
a year earlier, Christian groups in Kathmandu were prevented from
observing Good Friday in a public park when they failed to obtain the
proper permit; 3 members of a group of 400 persons reportedly were
injured when police attempted to disperse the group's subsequent
protest at a local government office. Easter services that year, which
did have the proper permit, took place in a public park without
incident.
The Government investigates reports of proselytizing. It
investigated a 1997 accusation against the Adventist Development and
Relief Agency (ADRA), and cleared ADRA in 1997. Nongovernmental groups
or individuals are free to file charges of proselytizing against
individuals or organizations. Such a case was filed with the Supreme
Court against ADRA and the United Missions to Nepal, an umbrella
Protestant group, on December 31, 1999. The case still is pending. In
1999 a U.S. medical doctor was deported; he believed that it was
because of an allegation that he had proselytized Christianity.
For decades dozens of Christian missionary hospitals, welfare
organizations, and schools have operated in the country. These
organizations have not proselytized and have operated freely.
Missionary schools are among the most respected institutions of
secondary education in the country; most of the country's governing and
business elite graduated from Jesuit high schools. Many foreign
Christian organizations have direct ties to Nepali churches and sponsor
Nepali priests for religious training abroad.
The Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of caste,
except for traditional religious practices at Hindu temples, where, for
example, members of the lowest caste are not permitted.
The Press and Publications Act prohibits the publication of
materials that create animosity among persons of different castes or
religions.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
Forced Religious Conversions of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
The adherents of the country's many religions generally coexist
peacefully and respect all places of worship. Most Hindus respect the
many Buddhist shrines located throughout the country; Buddhists accord
Hindu shrines the same respect. Buddha's birthplace is an important
pilgrimage site and Buddha's birthday is a national holiday. The
country's Muslim minority is not well integrated with the larger Hindu
majority, and does not have the same level of common religious feeling
that the Hindu and Buddhist communities share.
Some Christian groups report that Hindu extremism has increased in
recent years. In January 1999, the Indiabased Hindu political party
Shiv Sena, locally known as Pashupati Sena, opened an office in
Kathmandu; a few Shiv Sena candidates unsuccessfully ran for office in
the 1999 general elections. Government policy does not support Hindu
extremism, although some political figures have made public statements
critical of Christian missionary activities. Some citizens are wary of
proselytizing and conversion by Christians and therefore, view the
growth of Christianity with alarm.
Those who chose to convert to other religions--in particular Hindu
citizens who convert to Islam or Christianity--sometimes are ostracized
socially. Some reportedly have been forced to leave their villages.
While this prejudice is not systematic, it can be vehement and
occasionally violent. Hindus who convert to another religion may face
isolated incidents of hostility or discrimination from Hindu extremist
groups. Nevertheless, converts generally do not fear to admit in public
their new religious affiliations.
The caste system strongly influences society, even though it is
prohibited by the Constitution. However, traditional religious
practices at Hindu temples are an exception to this prohibition. The
Government allows caste discrimination at Hindu temples where, for
example, members of the lowest caste are not permitted (see Section I).
Otherwise, the Government makes an effort to protect the rights of the
disadvantaged castes.
In August 1999, a mentally deranged man desecrated a Hindu temple
in southern Nepal, declaring that he was a Christian and that ``God
told me to do it.'' Local Christians released a statement indicating
that the man was not a member of any known church. However, in apparent
retaliation and after reports of agitation for revenge, a nearby
Christian church was desecrated and set afire the following week. The
senior local government official said that, although some Hindu-
oriented groups had formed a committee to retaliate against Christians,
it was not clear whether any particular institution or group was
involved in the church burning.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy maintains regular contact with Hindu, Christian,
Buddhist, Jewish, Ba'hai and other religious groups. The Embassy
closely monitors religious freedoms and raises these issues with the
Government when appropriate.
__________
PAKISTAN
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and states that
adequate provisions shall be made for minorities to profess and
practice their religions freely; however, the Government imposes a
range of limits on freedom of religion. Pakistan is an Islamic
republic; Islam is the state religion. Islam also is a core element of
Pakistan's national ideology; the country was created to be a homeland
for Muslims. Religious freedom is ``subject to law, public order, and
morality;'' accordingly, actions or speech deemed derogatory to Islam
or to its Prophet, for example, are not protected. Further, the
Constitution requires that laws be consistent with Islam and imposes
some elements of Koranic law on both Muslims and religious minorities.
There were some slight improvements in the Government's treatment
of religious minorities during the period covered by this report. For
example, the Government of Chief Executive General Pervez Musharraf,
which took power in a military coup on October 12, 1999, abandoned his
predecessor's proposal to impose Shari'a law through a constitutional
amendment. Many religious minorities feared that the implementation of
Shari'a law through a constitutional amendment would increase their
vulnerability. According to persons in religious minority communities,
Musharraf made efforts to seek minority input into decision-making and
offered cabinet positions to individuals from minority communities.
The Government fails in many respects to protect the rights of
minorities. This is due both to public policy and to government
unwillingness to take action against societal forces hostile to those
who practice a different faith. Specific government policies that
discriminate against religious minorities include: the use of
``Hudood'' Ordinances, which apply different standards of evidence to
Muslims and non-Muslims and to men and women in alleged violations of
Islamic law; certain legal prohibitions against Ahmadis freely
practicing their faith; ``blasphemy'' laws, which often are misused to
target minorities; and separate political electorates for minorities
under the (currently suspended) Constitution. In April 2000, Musharraf
announced a proposal to make an administrative change to the blasphemy
laws, which was aimed at reducing the number of persons who are accused
wrongly under the laws; however, Musharraf failed to implement these
proposed changes due to significant opposition and pressure from some
religious groups.
Missionaries are allowed to operate in the country and
proselytizing (except by Ahmadis) is allowed; however, proselytizing is
considered socially inappropriate among Muslims and missionaries face
some problems due to this perception.
Discriminatory religious legislation adds to an atmosphere of
religious intolerance, which contributes to acts of violence directed
against Muslim groups, as well as against Christians, Hindus, and
members of Muslim offshoot sects such as Ahmadis and Zikris. The
Government does not encourage sectarian violence; however, there were
instances in which the Government failed to intervene in cases of
societal violence directed at minority religious groups. The lack of an
adequate government response contributed to an atmosphere of impunity
for acts of violence and intimidation committed against religious
minorities. Parties and groups with religious affiliations target
minority groups.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human
rights. U.S. Embassy officials and visitors have raised issues such as
the blasphemy laws with Government of Pakistan interlocutors on a
number of occasions. The U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom
visited the country in February 2000.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and states that
adequate provisions shall be made for minorities to profess and
practice their religions freely; however, the Government imposes limits
on freedom of religion. Pakistan is an Islamic republic, and Islam is
the state religion, as established in the Constitution. Islam also is a
core element of the country's national ideology; the country was
created to be a homeland for Muslims. Under the Constitution (which was
suspended following the October 12, 1999 coup), both the President and
the Prime Minister must be Muslims, and all senior officials must swear
an oath to preserve the country's ``Islamic ideology.'' A number of
other provisions of the Constitution also limit certain fundamental
rights based on Islamic principles. For example, freedom of speech is
provided for; however, this right is subject to ``reasonable
restrictions'' that can be imposed ``in the interest of the glory of
Islam.'' Actions or speech deemed derogatory to Islam or to its Prophet
are not protected. Further, the Constitution requires that laws be
consistent with Islam and imposes some elements of Koranic law on both
Muslims and religious minorities. The Government does not ban formally
the practice of the Ahmadi religion, but the practice of the Ahmadi
faith is restricted severely by law. For example, Ahmadis, who consider
themselves Muslims, face persecution under the blasphemy laws if they
refer to themselves as such.
The judicial system encompasses several different court systems
with overlapping and sometimes competing jurisdictions, which reflect
differences in civil, criminal, and Islamic jurisprudence. The federal
Shari'at court and the Shari'a bench of the Supreme Court serve as
appellate courts for certain convictions in criminal court under the
Hudood Ordinances, and judges and attorneys in these courts must be
Muslims. The federal Shari'at court also may overturn any legislation
judged to be inconsistent with the tenets of Islam.
Religious Demography
According to the 1981 census (latest available figures), an
estimated 95 percent of the population are Muslim; 1.56 percent are
Christian; 1.51 percent are Hindu; and 0.26 percent are ``other''
(Ahmadis are included in the latter category). The majority of Muslims
in the country are Sunni. An estimated 10 to 15 percent of the Muslim
population are Shi'a, and it is estimated that there are 550,000 to
600,000 Ismailis (a recognized Shi'a Muslim group). Most or all
Ismailis in the country are followers of the Aga Khan. The Government
conducted a census in 1998; however, the updated information is not yet
available.
Religious minority groups believe that they are underrepresented in
government census counts. Official and private estimates of their
numbers can differ significantly. Current population estimates place
the number of Christians at 3 million and the number of Ahmadis at 3 to
4 million. Current estimates for the remaining communities are less
contested and place the total number of Hindus at 2.8 million; Parsis
(Zoroastrians), Buddhists, and Sikhs at as high as 20,000 each; and
Baha'is at 12,000. The ``other'' category also includes a few tribes
whose members practice traditional indigenous religions and who
normally do not declare themselves, and those who do not wish to
practice any religion but remain silent about the fact. Social pressure
is such that few persons would admit to being unaffiliated with any
religion.
While Christianity frequently is seen as a foreign ``Westernized''
religion, it has a long history in the country. Some Christian
communities trace their roots to the time of St. Thomas the Apostle.
Most trace their origin to mid-19th century missionary movements in
both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. Many Christians, in
particular the recent converts, generally are in the poorest
socioeconomic groups. There are several long-established Baptist
churches and, in Karachi, perhaps a dozen storefront Pentacostal and
other evangelical churches. The largest Christian mission group
operating in Sindh and Baluchistan does Bible translation for the
Church of Pakistan, mostly in tribal areas. An Anglican missionary
group fields several missionaries to assist the Church of Pakistan (a
united church of Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Lutherans)
in administrative and educational work. Roman Catholic missionaries,
mostly Franciscan, work with the disabled.
Punjab is the largest province in the country in terms of
population. The Muslims are the largest religious group in Punjab, as
is true for the country as a whole. Although Christians can be found
throughout the country, approximately 98 percent of Christians reside
in Punjab, making them the largest religious minority in the province.
Approximately 60 percent of Punjab's Christians live in villages. The
largest group of Christians belongs to the Church of Pakistan; the
second largest group belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The rest are
from different evangelical and church organizations.
Sindh and Baluchistan provinces also are overwhelmingly Muslim,
with a population that is approximately 97 percent Muslim. Slightly
over 1 percent of the population in these provinces are estimated to be
Christian, and slightly over 1 percent are estimated to be Hindu. The
two provinces also have a few tribes that practice traditional
indigenous religions and a small population of Parsis (approximately
7,000 persons). The Ismailis are concentrated in Karachi and the
northern areas. The tiny but influential Parsi community is
concentrated in Karachi, although some live in Islamabad and Peshawar.
According to local Christian sources, between 70,000 and 100,000
Christians and a few thousand Hindus live in the Northwest Frontier
Province (NWFP). Christians constitute about 2 percent of Karachi's
population. The Roman Catholic diocese of Karachi estimates that there
are 120,000 Catholics in Karachi, 40,000 in the rest of Sindh, and
5,000 in Quetta, Baluchistan. Evangelical Christians have converted a
few tribal Hindus of the lower castes from interior Sindh. Hindus are
concentrated in Sindh and constitute 1 to 2 percent of the province's
population. An estimated 100,000 Hindus live in Karachi. Ahmadis are
concentrated in Punjab and in Sindh.
No data are available on active participation in formal religious
services or rituals (as opposed to mere membership). However, because
religion is tied closely to a person's ethnic, social, and economic
identity, there is less room for nominal, secular passivity with regard
to religion. Most Muslim men offer prayers at least once a week at
Friday prayers, and the vast majority of Muslim men and women pray at
home or at the workplace during one or more of the five daily times of
prayer. During the month of Ramadan, even many of the otherwise less
observant Muslims fast and attend mosque services more faithfully.
About 70 percent of English-speaking Roman Catholics worship regularly;
a much lower percentage of Urdu speakers do so.
Many Muslims consult Pirs (hereditary saints) or saints' shrines,
where pre-Islamic practices are common. As many as 25 percent of
Muslims regularly consult such Pirs, and up to 50 percent may seek
their help in times of crisis.
The Shikaris (a hunting caste now mostly employed as trash
collectors in urban Sindh) are converts to Islam, but eat foods
forbidden by Islam. Other Muslims generally ostracize the Shikaris,
primarily because of their eating habits.
Many varieties of Hinduism are practiced; the type practiced
usually depends upon location and caste. Hindus have retained or
absorbed many ancient traditional practices of Sindh. Hindu shrines are
scattered throughout the country. Approximately 1,500 Hindu temples and
shrines exist in Sindh and about 500 in Baluchistan. Most of the
shrines and temples are tiny, no more than wayside shrines. During
Hindu festivals, such as Divali and Holi, congregational attendance is
much greater.
The Sikh community regularly holds ceremonial gatherings at sacred
places in the Punjab. Prominent places of Sikh pilgrimage include
Nanakana Sahib (where the founder of the Sikh religion Guru Nanak was
born), Hasan Abdal (a shrine where an imprint of his hand is kept), and
Andkartar Poora or Daira Baba Nanak Sahib in Sialkot District (where
Guru Nanak is buried).
Parsis, who practice the Zoroastrian religion, have no regularly
scheduled congregational services, except for a 10-day festival in
August during which they celebrate the New Year and pray for the dead.
All Parsis are expected to attend these services; most reportedly do.
During the rest of the year, individuals offer prayers at Parsi
temples. Parsis maintain a conscious creedal and ceremonial separation
from other religions, preserving ancient rites and forbidding marriage
to members of other religions. The Parsi community is self-sufficient
in religious leaders, and there are no known Parsi missionaries
operating in the country.
Only one group described by the authorities as a ``foreign cult''
reportedly has been established in the country. In Karachi members of
the U.S.-based ``Children of God'' are rumored to be operating a
commune where they practice polygamy.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Government policies do not afford equal protection to members of
majority and minority faiths. For example, all citizens, regardless of
their religious affiliation, are subject to certain provisions of
Islamic law. In the Malakand division and the Kohistan district of the
NWFP, ordinances require that ``all cases, suits, inquiries, matters,
and proceedings in the courts shall be decided in accordance with
Shari'a.'' These ordinances define Shari'a as the injunctions found in
both the Koran and the Sunna. Islamic law judges with the assistance of
the Ulema (Islamic scholars), under the general supervision of the
Peshawar High Court, try all court cases in the Malakand Division and
the Kohistan District. Elsewhere in the country, partial provisions of
Shari'a apply. In 1998 then-Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif, proposed an
amendment to the Constitution (the 15th Amendment) that would have
imposed Shari'a throughout the country; minority religious groups
feared that the implementation of this amendment would have restricted
further the freedom to practice religions other than Islam. However,
the Musharraf Government did not enact the proposed 15th Amendment.
The Government does not ban formally the public practice of the
Ahmadi religion, but the practice of the Ahmadi faith is restricted
severely by law. A 1974 Constitutional amendment declared Ahmadis to be
a non-Muslim minority because, according to the Government, they do not
accept Mohammed as the last Prophet of Islam. However, Ahmadis consider
themselves to be Muslims and observe Islamic practices. In 1984 the
Government inserted Section 298(c) into the Penal Code, prohibiting
Ahmadis from calling themselves Muslim or posing as Muslims; from
referring to their faith as Islam; from preaching or propagating their
faith; from inviting others to accept the Ahmadi faith; and from
insulting the religious feelings of Muslims. This section of the Penal
Code has caused problems for Ahmadis, particularly the provision that
forbids them from ``directly or indirectly'' posing as Muslims. Armed
with this vague wording, mainstream Muslim religious leaders have
brought charges against Ahmadis for using the standard Muslim greeting
form and for naming their children Mohammed. The constitutionality of
Section 286 (c) was upheld in a split-decision Supreme Court case in
1996. The punishment for violation of this section is imprisonment for
up to 3 years and a fine. This provision has been used extensively by
the Government and anti-Ahmadi religious groups to harass and to
persecute Ahmadis. Ahmadis also are prohibited from holding any
conferences or gatherings.
There are a variety of other legal restrictions on the right to
freedom of religion, and religious minorities are afforded fewer legal
protections than Muslim citizens. The judicial system encompasses
several different court systems with overlapping and sometimes
competing jurisdiction, which reflect differences in civil, criminal,
and Islamic jurisprudence. The federal Shari'at court and the Shari'a
bench of the Supreme Court serve as appellate courts for certain
convictions in criminal court under the Hudood Ordinances, and judges
and attorneys in these courts must be Muslims. The federal Shari'at
court also may overturn any legislation judged to be inconsistent with
the tenets of Islam.
The martial law era Hudood Ordinances criminalize nonmarital rape,
extramarital sex, and various gambling, alcohol, and property offenses.
The Hudood Ordinances reportedly are based on Islamic principles and
are applied to Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Some Hudood Ordinance
cases are subject to Hadd, or Koranic, punishment; others are subject
to Tazir, or secular punishment. Although both types of cases are tried
in ordinary criminal courts, special rules of evidence apply in Hadd
cases. For example, a non-Muslim may testify only if the victim also is
non-Muslim. Likewise, the testimony of women, Muslim or non-Muslim, is
not admissible in cases involving Hadd punishments. Thus, if a Muslim
man rapes a Muslim woman in the presence of women or non-Muslim men, he
cannot be convicted under the Hudood Ordinances.
For both Muslims and non-Muslims, all consensual extramarital
sexual relations are considered a violation of the Hudood Ordinances;
thus, if a woman cannot prove the absence of consent in a rape case,
there is a risk that she may be charged with a violation of the Hudood
Ordinances for fornication or adultery. The maximum punishment for this
offense is public flogging or stoning. According to a police official,
in a majority of rape cases, the victims are pressured to drop rape
charges because of the threat of Hudood adultery charges being brought
against them. A parliamentary commission of inquiry for women has
criticized the Hudood Ordinances and recommended their repeal. It also
has been charged that the laws on adultery and rape have been subject
to widespread misuse, with 95 percent of the women accused of adultery
being found innocent in the court of first instance or on appeal. This
commission found that the main victims of the Hudood Ordinances are
poor women who are unable to defend themselves against slanderous
charges. According to the commission, the laws also have been used by
husbands and other male family members to punish their wives and female
family members for reasons that have nothing to do with sexual
propriety. Approximately one-third or more of the women in jails in
Lahore, Peshawar, and Mardan in 1998 were awaiting trial for adultery
under the Hudood Ordinances. However, no Hadd punishment has been
imposed since the Hudood Ordinances went into effect. Human rights
monitors and women's groups believe that a narrow interpretation of
Shari'a has had a harmful effect on the rights of women and minorities,
as it reinforces popular attitudes and perceptions and contributes to
an atmosphere in which discriminatory treatment of women and non-
Muslims is accepted more readily.
Under the Anti-Terrorist Act, any act, including speech, intended
to stir up religious hatred, is punishable by up to 7 years of rigorous
imprisonment. In the antiterrorist courts, which virtually were shut
down by the Supreme Court in 1998, cases were to be decided within 7
working days, and trials in absentia were permitted. Appeals to an
appellate court also were required to occur within 7 days, but
appellate authority since has been restored to the high courts and the
Supreme Court. Under the act, bail is not to be granted if the judge
has reasonable grounds to believe that the accused is guilty.
The Penal Code incorporates the doctrines of Diyat (blood money)
and Qisas (roughly, an eye for an eye). Qisas is not known to have been
invoked, but Diyat occasionally is used, especially in the NWFP, with
the result that compensation sometimes is paid to the family of a
murder victim in place of punishment of the murderer. Under these
ordinances only the family of the victim, not the state, may pardon the
defendant. Like the Hudood Ordinances, Qisas and Diyat apply to both
ordinary criminal courts and Shari'at courts.
Section 295(a), the colonial-era blasphemy provision of the Penal
Code, originally stipulated a maximum 2-year sentence for insulting the
religion of any class of citizens. In 1991 this sentence was increased
to 10 years. In 1982 Section 295(b) was added, which stipulated a
sentence of life imprisonment for ``whoever willfully defiles, damages,
or desecrates a copy of the holy Koran.'' In 1986 during the martial
law period, another amendment, Section 295(c), established the death
penalty or life imprisonment for directly or indirectly defiling ``the
sacred name of the Holy Prophet Mohammed.'' For example, persons who
overtly deny that Mohammad was the final prophet can be prosecuted for
indirectly defiling the Prophet's name under Section 295(c). In 1991 a
court struck down the option of life imprisonment for this offense. In
1997 cases filed under Penal Code Section 295(a) were transferred to
antiterrorist courts. Personal rivals and the authorities have used
these blasphemy laws, especially Section 295(c), to threaten, punish,
or intimidate Ahmadis, Christians, and even Orthodox Muslims. No one
has been executed by the State under any of these provisions; however,
some persons have been sentenced to death, and religious extremists
have killed persons accused under the provisions. The blasphemy laws
also have been used to ``settle scores'' unrelated to religious
activity, such as intrafamily or property disputes. In 1998 the
previous Government instituted a policy that required magistrates to
investigate the credibility of blasphemy allegations before filing
formal charges; however, the Musharraf Government ended this policy due
to opposition from some religious political parties.
Due to increasing local and international pressure to repeal or
modify the blasphemy laws, Musharraf announced a proposal in April 2000
to modify the administration of the laws so that complainants would
have to register new blasphemy cases with the local deputy
commissioners instead of with police officials. The goal of this
proposed change was to reduce the number of persons who are accused
wrongly under the laws; however, many religious minority
representatives stated that this suggested administrative change would
have done little to protect their communities from being charged under
the blasphemy laws. Religious and sectarian groups mounted large-scale
protests against the proposed change and some religious leaders stated
that if the laws were changed, even just procedurally, persons would be
justified in killing blasphemers themselves. In May 2000, in response
to increasing pressure and threats, Musharraf abandoned his proposed
reforms to the blasphemy laws.
When blasphemy and other religious cases are brought to court,
extremists often pack the courtroom and make public threats about the
consequences of an acquittal. As a result, low level judges and
magistrates, seeking to avoid a confrontation with, or violence from,
the extremists, often continue trials indefinitely, and those accused
of blasphemy often are burdened with further legal costs and repeated
court appearances.
According to the Constitution, both the President and the Prime
Minister must be Muslims, and all senior officials must swear an oath
to preserve the country's ``Islamic ideology.''
The Constitution states that ``the state shall safeguard the
legitimate rights and interest of minorities, including their due
representation in the federal and provincial bodies,'' and the National
Assembly and provincial assemblies have seats reserved for non-Muslims.
However, following the October 1999 coup, the National and provincial
assemblies were suspended.
The Government designates religion on citizens' passports. In order
to obtain a passport, citizens must declare whether they are Muslim or
non-Muslim; Muslims also must affirm that they accept the unqualified
finality of the Prophethood of Mohammed, declare that Ahmadis are non-
Muslims, and specifically denounce the founder of the Ahmadi movement.
On September 4, 1999, Lahore High Court Justice Nazir Akhtar
reportedly stated that those accused of blasphemy ``must be punished or
killed on the spot without any trial and there is not need of the
law.'' Christian leaders publicly criticized this statement and Justice
Akhtar subsequently rescinded his remarks.
Although there are reserved seats in the National Assembly (NA) and
the provincial assemblies for non-Muslims, the Government distinguishes
between Muslims and non-Muslims with regard to political rights. In
national and local elections, Muslims cast their votes for Muslim
candidates by geographic locality, while non-Muslims can cast their
votes only for at-large non-Muslim candidates. Since separate
electorates exist for Muslims and non-Muslims, there is little
participation by non-Muslims in the mainstream Muslim parties, and
local mainstream parliamentary representatives have little incentive to
promote their minority constituents' interests. Many Christian
activists state that these ``separate electorates'' are the greatest
obstacle to the attainment of Christian religious and civil liberties.
Ahmadi leaders encourage the Ahmadis not to register as ``non-Muslims''
(since Ahmadis consider themselves to be Muslims, so most Ahmadis are
completely unrepresented.
Until the suspension of the National Assembly (NA) after the
October 1999 coup, Christians held four reserved seats, Hindus and
members of scheduled castes another four; Ahmadis one; and Sikhs,
Buddhists, Parsis, and other non-Muslims one. The 1997 general election
report states that each Christian NA member represented 327,606
persons; each Hindu and scheduled castes member, 319,029; the Sikh,
Buddhist, Parsi, and other non-Muslim NA member, 112,801; and the
Ahmadi member, 104,244. These figures significantly understate the
population of the religious minorities because they are based on 1981
census figures. However, legal provisions for minority reserved seats
do not extend to the Senate and the federal Cabinet, which were
composed entirely of Muslim members until the coup. The Prime Minister,
federal ministers and ministers of state, as well as elected members of
the Senate and National Assembly (including non-Muslims), must take a
religious oath to ``strive to preserve the Islamic ideology, which is
the basis for the creation of Pakistan.''
On June 28, 1999, the one-member election tribunal of the Peshawar
high court disqualified Walter Siraj, the Christian seat member of the
NWFP provincial assembly for alleged vote rigging.
The Ministry of Religious and Minority Affairs, the government
ministry that is entrusted with safeguarding religious freedom, has on
its masthead a Koranic verse: ``Islam is the only religion acceptable
to God.'' The Ministry claims that it spends 30 percent of its annual
budget to assist indigent minorities, to repair minority places of
worship, to set up minority-run small development schemes, and to
celebrate minority festivals. However, the Bishops' Conference of the
National Commission for Justice and Peace questioned its expenditures,
observing that localities and villages housing minority citizens go
without basic civic amenities. The Bishops' Conference, using official
budget figures for expenditures in 1998, calculated that the Government
actually spent $17 (PRs 850) on each Muslim and only $3.20 (PRs 16) on
each minority citizen per month.
Missionaries are allowed to operate in the country, and
proselytizing (except by Ahmadis) is allowed so long as there is no
preaching against Islam and the missionaries acknowledge that they are
not Muslim. However, all missionaries are required to have specific
missionary visas, which have a validity of 2 to 5 years and allow only
one entry into the country per year. These visas carry the annotation
``missionary.'' Only ``replacement'' visas for those taking the place
of departing missionaries are available, and long delays and
bureaucratic problems are frequent. Proselytizing generally is
considered socially inappropriate among Muslims; missionaries face some
difficulties due to this perception. For example, some Sunni Muslim
groups oppose missionary activities and have at times issued verbal
threats against missionaries in order to discourage them from working.
While there is no law establishing the Koranic death penalty for
apostates (those who convert from Islam), social pressure against such
an action is so powerful that most such conversions reportedly take
place in secret. According to missionaries, police and other local
officials harass villagers and members of the poorer classes who
convert. Reprisals and threats of reprisals against suspected converts
are common.
In a highly publicized case in 1998, a district court in Rawalpindi
removed three sisters from the custody of their Christian parents after
the sisters allegedly had converted from Christianity to Islam.
However, it is not clear to what extent the decision was based upon the
parents' religion. A subsequent decision in March 1999 awarded custody
of the two youngest girls to their older sister and her new Muslim
husband; the eldest of the three sisters reportedly had married her
attorney. The girls' parents attribute the loss of their children to
the influence of religious extremists who packed the courtroom, and
claim to have suffered harassment because of the case. The girls'
family since has moved, and has relinquished contact with the girls out
of fear of further persecution.
Upon conversion to Islam, the marriages of Jewish or Christian men
remain legal; however, upon conversion to Islam, the marriages of
Jewish or Christian women, or of other non-Muslims, which were
performed under the rites of the previous religion, are considered
dissolved.
Links with coreligionists in other countries are relatively trouble
free. The Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Pakistan report no
difficulties. Ismailis are in regular contact with their headquarters,
and their officials, including Prince Karim Aga Khan, visit Pakistan
regularly. Under reciprocal visa arrangements, Indian Hindu and Sikh
leaders and groups travel regularly to Pakistan. However, the
Government prohibits Ahmadis from participating in the Hajj (the Muslim
pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia).
The Constitution safeguards ``education institutions with respect
to religion.'' For example, no student can be forced to receive
religious instruction or to participate in religious worship other than
his or her own. It also prohibits the denial of religious instruction
for students of any religious community or denomination.
``Islamiyyat'' (Islamic studies) is compulsory for all Muslim
students in state-run schools. In March 1998, the Government announced
a new education policy that increased mandatory Islamic instruction in
public schools. While students of other faiths are not required to
study Islam, they are not provided with parallel studies in their own
religions. In practice teachers compel many non-Muslim students to
complete Islamic studies.
The Government nationalized all church schools and colleges in
Punjab and Sindh in 1972. The Government of Sindh gradually
denationalized church schools without compensation from 1985 to 1995.
The Government of Punjab devised a scheme to denationalize schools and
return them to their original owners in 1996. In Punjab, several
schools belonging to the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A. were
denationalized and returned to the former owners in 1998. Other church-
affiliated institutions, including the prestigious Kinnaird College,
received or were granted administrative autonomy. Discussions currently
are underway between the government of Punjab and the Presbyterian
Church, U.S.A. on the denationalization of Forman Christian College.
Throughout 1999, religion-based political parties in Punjab opposed
denationalization of schools.
The Constitution specifically prohibits discriminatory admission to
any governmental educational institution solely on the basis of
religion; however, students must declare their religion on their
application forms. Muslim students must declare in writing that they
believe in the unqualified finality of the Prophethood of Mohammed;
non-Muslims must have their religion verified by the head of their
local religious community. Many Ahmadis and Christians report that they
face discrimination in applying to government educational institutions
due to their religious affiliation.
The Constitution provides for the ``freedom to manage religious
institutions.'' In principle, the Government does not restrict
organized religions from establishing places of worship and training
members of the clergy. However, in practice, Ahmadis suffer from
restrictions on this right. Several Ahmadi mosques have reportedly been
closed; others have reportedly been violated. Ahmadis also are
prohibited from being buried in Muslim graveyards.
In 1998 the Punjab Assembly unanimously passed a resolution to
change the name of the Punjab town that serves as the administrative
religious center of the Ahmadi community. In March 1999, the son of a
prominent Muslim fundamentalist filed charges with the police against
two Ahmadi leaders, Mirza Masroor Ahmad and Colonel Ayyaz Mahmud (ret.)
for allegedly instructing Ahmadi activists to write in the former
Ahmadi name of the town (Rabwah) on a newly installed plaque. In April
1999, four Ahmadi leaders were arrested on blasphemy charges for
allegedly inciting desecration of the plaque. The charges eventually
were dropped and the four were released; however, they still face
criminal charges under the Maintenance of Public Order Act.
Separate categories exist for different religions in the
administration of specific religious sites. Hindus and Sikhs, because
of population shifts that occurred between India and Pakistan after
partition, come under the auspices of the Evacuee Property Board, which
is located in Lahore and is empowered to settle disputes regarding
Hindu and Sikh property. However, Hindus and Sikhs may settle such
disputes in civil courts. Christian churches are free to take their
disputes over religious property and management to the courts. Some
minorities have expressed displeasure over government management of
religious property. Both the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of
Pakistan operate regular seminary programs.
In Sindh Muslim mosques and shrines come under the purview of the
Auqaf Administration Department, a branch of the provincial government
devoted to the upkeep of shrines and mosques, facilities for pilgrims,
and the resolution of disputes over possession of a religious site. In
both Sindh and Baluchistan, the Government has provided funds for the
upkeep and repair of the Hindu Gurumander temple in Karachi, and funded
the repair of Hindu temples damaged by Muslim rioters protesting the
destruction of the Babri mosque by Hindu mobs in Ayodhya, India in
1992.
Permission to buy land comes from one municipal bureaucracy, and
permission to build a house of worship from another. With all religious
groups, the process appears to be subject to bureaucratic delays and
requests for bribes. In May 1999, the International Church of Karachi,
an evangelical congregation serving missionaries, foreigners, and
English-speaking Pakistanis, were denied permission to build after
refusing to pay a large bribe. The congregation continues to meet in
rented quarters.
The Constitution protects religious minorities against being taxed
to support the majority religion; no one may be forced to pay taxes for
the support of any religion other than his or her own. The majority
Sunni Muslims are subject to the ``zakat,'' a religious tax of 2.5
percent of their income, which is taken once a year from their bank
accounts. Shi'a Muslims are exempted from the tax. Non-Muslims do not
have a special tax.
The Government does not restrict religious publishing per se;
however, the Government restricts the right to freedom of speech with
regard to religion. Speaking in opposition to Islam and publishing an
attack on Islam or its Prophet are prohibited. The Penal Code mandates
the death sentence for anyone defiling the name of the Prophet
Mohammed, life imprisonment for desecrating the Koran, and up to 10
years' imprisonment for insulting another's religious beliefs with
intent to outrage religious feelings. Although prosecutions appear to
be few, the threat of the blasphemy law is ever present. The
effectively suspended Anti-Terrorist Act stipulates imprisonment with
rigorous labor for up to 7 years for using abusive or insulting words,
or possessing or distributing written or recorded material, with intent
to stir up sectarian hatred. No warrant is required to seize such
material.
Ahmadis say that they suffer from restrictions on their press.
Christian scriptures and books are available in Karachi and in
traveling bookmobiles. However, the owner of a Christian bookshop in
Karachi has reported frequent questioning by local Muslim religious
leaders and occasional questioning by the police. Such questioning may
lead to self-censorship among Christians. Hindu and Parsi scriptures
are freely available. Foreign books and magazines may be imported
freely, but are subject to censorship for objectionable religious
content.
In December 1999, the Supreme Court ruled that charging interest is
un-Islamic and directed the Government to implement an interest-free
financial system by June 2001.
Governmental Abuses of Religious Freedom
No estimate of the number of religious detainees exists; however,
the Government has arrested and detained numerous Muslims and non-
Muslims for their religious beliefs and practices under the blasphemy
and anti-Ahmadi laws. The blasphemy laws were meant to protect both
majority and minority faiths from discrimination or abuse; however, in
practice these laws frequently are used by rivals and the authorities
to threaten, punish, or intimidate religious minorities. Credible
sources estimate that several hundred persons have been arrested since
the laws were implemented; however, significantly fewer persons have
been tried. Most of the several hundred persons arrested since 1989
have been released due to a lack of sufficient evidence. According to
the Bishops' Conference of the National Commission for Justice and
Peace (NCJP), religious minorities constitute a greater than expected
proportion of the prison population. Prison conditions, except for the
``class A'' facilities provided to wealthy and politically high profile
prisoners, are extremely poor and constitute a threat to the life and
health of prisoners. According to the NCJP, non-Muslim prisoners do not
enjoy the same facilities as Muslim inmates.
According to Ahmadi sources, 80 Ahmadis were implicated in criminal
cases on a ``religious basis'' (including blasphemy) in 22 cases in
1999. Seven Ahmadis were charged in Bakhoo Bhatti, Punjab, with
blasphemy on July 3, 1999. On July 19, 1999 two Ahmadis were charged in
Muzaffargarh for preaching and distributing religious literature; the
case later was transferred to an antiterrorist court at Dera Ghazi
Khan. Ahmadi sources report that bail was denied; the two Ahmadis
remained in prison as of mid-2000. On July 21, 1999, authorities
reportedly arrested a man from District Sialkot, Punjab for issuing a
call to prayer. On September 6, 1999, police officials arrested Dr.
Abdul Ghani for preaching; he was denied bail by the antiterrorist
court and remained in prison as of mid-2000. In September 1999, Azharur
Rehman was arrested for preaching; his trial was underway as of mid-
2000. On April 27, 2000 four Ahmadis were arrested for preaching in
District Sialkot Punjab. According to Ahmadi sources, on July 30, 1999,
a subdivisional magistrate ordered an Ahmadi mosque sealed in
Naseerabad, Sindh; it remained sealed as of mid-2000. Ahmadi sources
report that on September 8, 1999, police personnel arrested an Ahmadi
in Bahawalnagar, Punjab for building a place of worship. Officials
reportedly closed the mosque and confiscated Ahmadi books and a copy of
the Koran. On August 10, 1999, an Ahmadi from Mirpur Khas, Sindh was
arrested for wearing a shirt with an inscription of the Kalima (Islamic
creed) after he was attacked by extremists who tore the shirt off of
him; the man remained in prison as of mid-2000. On September 8, 1999,
police officials arrested an Ahmadi from Sialkot district for preaching
his faith; he currently is serving a 10-year term in prison. On
September 16, 1999, police arrested one Ahmadi in Daska, Sialkot
district, Punjab, for preaching; his plea for bail was rejected and he
remains in jail. On September 22, 1999 an Ahmadi from Jahanian Shah was
arrested; he later was sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment. Three
Ahmadis were convicted of blasphemy in December 1997; they were found
guilty and were sentenced to life imprisonment and $1,250 (PRs 50,000)
fines. Lawyers for the men appealed the decision to the Lahore high
court, whose ruling had not been issued as of mid-2000. According to
Ahmadi sources, 16 Ahmadis have been charged under the blasphemy laws
since the October 12, 1999 coup.
In December 1999, several hundred persons looted and burned
property in Haveli Lakha, Okara district, Punjab, which belonged to
Mohammad Nawaz, a local Ahmadi leader accused of planning to build an
Ahmadi house of worship. A neighbor reportedly incited the incident by
accusing Nawaz of building the house of worship after the two were
involved in a property dispute. Nawaz, a doctor, reportedly intended to
build a free clinic next to his home. The mob destroyed the clinic and
looted and burned Nawaz's home. According to Ahmadi sources, police
personnel arrived at the scene, but did nothing to stop the crowd. As
of mid-2000, neither the neighbor nor anyone in the crowd had been
arrested or questioned in connection with the incident, and police took
no steps to find or return any of Nawaz's property. However, Nawaz and
his two sons were arrested and charged with blasphemy. Several days
later, they were released on bail; however, the blasphemy case against
them was pending as of mid-2000. Three other Ahmadis in Haveli Lakha
also were charged with blasphemy in connection with the incident, even
though they were not in town at the time.
Christian minorities also are frequent targets of the blasphemy
laws. According to the NCJP, police arrested two Christians in 1998 for
allegedly throwing pages of the Koran onto their neighbor's lawn; they
were released on bail during the period covered by this report. In
October 1999, Shafiq Masih was acquitted of a blasphemy charge, but was
sentenced to 8 years' imprisonment for having uttered derogatory
comments against the Prophet Mohammed; he is appealing the decision. In
May 2000, a lower court in Sialkot district, Punjab, sentenced two
Christian brothers to 35 years' imprisonment each and fined both of
them $1,500 (75,000 RS). The brothers were convicted of desecrating the
Koran and blaspheming against the Prophet Mohammed; both cases were
registered by an ice cream vendor who allegedly fought with the
brothers after he asked them to use their own dishes, stating that his
were reserved for Muslim customers. Lawyers for the brothers filed an
appeal in the Lahore high court. On May 2, 2000, Augustine Ashiq Masih
was charged with blaspheming against the Prophet in Faiselbad.
According to press reports, Masih converted to Islam, married a Muslim
woman, and then converted back to Christianity, which angered local
Muslims who brought the charges against him. Ayub Masih (detained since
1996) was convicted of blasphemy for making favorable comments about
Salman Rushdie, the author of the controversial book, ``The Satanic
Verses,'' and was sentenced to death in April 1998. Ayub's family and
13 other landless Christian families were forced from their village in
1996 following the charges, and he survived an attempt on his life in
1997, when he was shot at outside of the courtroom while in trial. The
case was pending appeal before the Lahore high court at the end of June
2000. In May 1998, police arrested a Christian in Sahiwal, Punjab for
stoning a billboard that bore Islamic scripture; he remained in prison
at the end of June 2000. Another Christian, Ranjha Masih, was arrested
and charged with blasphemy for allegedly throwing stones at an Islamic
sign in 1998; he remained in prison as of mid-2000.
Police also arrest Muslims under the blasphemy laws; government
officials maintain that about two-thirds of the total blasphemy cases
that have been brought to trial have affected Muslims. In September
1998, a Shi'a Muslim, Ghulam Akbar, was convicted of blasphemy in
Rahimyar Khan, Punjab, for allegedly making derogatory remarks about
the Prophet Mohammed in 1995. He was sentenced to death, the first time
that a Muslim had been sentenced to death for a violation of the
blasphemy law. The case was pending as of mid-2000.
In June 1999, two Muslim faith healers from Lahore were arrested
for allegedly burning a copy of the Koran; the healers claimed to be
burning evil spirits. Police officials later stated that they were
suffering from mental illness. According to the NCJP, in October 1999,
police officials arrested two Muslims from Bhati Gate Lahore, Punjab
for allegedly burning a copy of the Koran; they were released on bail
in early 2000.
In November 1999, an antiterrorist court in Sindh convicted two
Muslim journalists of blaspheming the Prophet Mohammed; both
journalists were sentenced to seven years' imprisonment and a large
monetary fine. In March 2000, an antiterrorist court in Sindh convicted
Muslim author, Gohar Shahi in absentia under the blasphemy laws.
There are scattered reports that authorities interrogate persons
due to their religious beliefs or practices.
The law regulates arrest and detention procedures; however, the
authorities do not always comply with the law, and police arbitrarily
arrest and detain citizens. Violence in Punjab has prompted the
Government on several occasions to round up hundreds of members of
religious extremist groups and students at religious schools
(madrassahs) believed to be terrorist recruiting centers and training
grounds. The police also arrested demonstrators, including members of
religious minorities.
The Punjab government ordered a crackdown on extremists in early
October 1999; as a result several hundred persons were arrested,
including the leader of the Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), Maulana
Mohammad Azam Tariq, and SSP branch president Maulana Mohammad Ahmad
Ludhianvi. Tariq was released after a year of imprisonment.
In July 1999, police personnel arrested four Hindus who had
traveled to Islamabad from around the country to request visas for
travel to India. According to credible sources, police interrogated the
Hindus at length and subsequently released them.
The authorities sometimes prevent leaders of politico- religious
parties from traveling to certain areas if they believe that the
presence of such leaders would increase sectarian tensions or cause
public violence.
There have been press reports that the authorities are conducting
surveillance on the Ahmadis and their institutions.
There have been instances in which police have used excessive force
against individuals because of their religious beliefs and practices.
The police also have failed to act against persons who use force
against other individuals due to their religious beliefs. Both the
Christian and Ahmadi communities have documented instances of the use
of excessive force by the police and police inaction to prevent
violent, and often lethal, attacks on members of their communities. For
example, both the Christian and Ahmadi communities claim that persons
have been murdered because of their religious beliefs.
Police torture and other forms of mistreatment of persons in
custody are common. However, there were no confirmed reports of torture
of prisoners or detainees based on their religious beliefs during the
period covered by this report. There were a number of deaths in police
custody during the period covered by this report. Two of the persons
who died in police custody were Christians; however, they were not
arrested in connection with their religious beliefs. According to the
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, Asif Masih was tortured and killed
by police personnel in Gujranwala in early 2000; officials have not
disclosed the reason for his arrest. The district magistrate ordered an
inquiry; however, the inquiry results were not known by mid-2000. In
September 1999, police personnel arrested Ilyas Masih, a Christian, on
suspicion of possessing illegal firearms. According to the NCJP, Masih
died as a result of being tortured in police custody. It is unclear if
Masih's religion played any role in his death.
Ahmadis, Christians, and other minority groups also report that
they experience harassment and discrimination in public sector
employment. Religious minorities very rarely are promoted to senior
ranks in civil service or the military.
Improvements in Respect for Religious Freedom
The Musharraf Government took several specific steps that slightly
improved the situation of religious minorities. For example, Musharraf
abandoned his predecessor's proposal to implement Shari'a law through a
constitutional amendment. In February 2000, Musharraf created a
minority affairs portfolio and appointed a Christian to fill the
position. According to persons in religious minority communities, the
Musharraf Government made efforts to seek minority input into decision-
making and offered cabinet positions to individuals from religious
minority communities. The tenor of government-minority relations
changed somewhat since the October 1999 coup. Hostile comments from
government officials regarding minorities are less prevalent since the
change in Government, and some officials in the Musharraf Government
took steps to reach out to some minority communities.
In April 2000, the Government convened a human rights convention,
which included representatives from most of the religious minority
groups, stating that it was ``imperative'' that the country ``build a
culture'' that was conducive to human rights. At the convention,
Musharraf announced a proposed change in the implementation of the
blasphemy laws. The proposed change was for local administrators, as
presumably neutral parties, to review all accusations of blasphemy
before a case is filed with police officials; however, the Musharraf
Government did not implement this change due to strong opposition from
some Muslim groups.
Government officials have discussed the possibility of eliminating
the separate electorate system as a part of electoral reforms currently
being considered; however, no specific steps were taken to implement
this reform as of mid-2000.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. Citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Discriminatory religious legislation has encouraged an atmosphere
of religious intolerance, which has led to acts of violence directed
against Ahmadis, Christians, Hindus, and Zikris. Members of religious
minorities are subject to violence and harassment, and police at times
refuse to prevent such actions or to charge persons who commit them.
There are many sectarian divisions in the country, growing
intolerance for religious minorities within society, and violence
between religious groups, particularly between rival Sunni and Shi'a
organizations, frequently occurred during the period covered by this
report. There were instances when the Government failed to intervene in
cases of societal violence (also see Section I). One newspaper
estimated that 300 persons were killed in sectarian attacks during the
last 2 years. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan reported that
nearly 1,000 persons were killed in religious or ethnic violence each
year since 1990.
A wave of violence occurred just prior to the October 1999 coup,
which claimed dozens of lives. Following the coup, there was a period
of relative quiet until the traditionally tense Muharram period in
April 2000, when a number of persons were killed in incidents of
sectarian violence. Shi'a activists report that approximately 40 Shi'as
have been killed since the coup.
On August 19, 1999, members of an extremist Shi'a organization,
Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-Jafria (TJP), fired on a rally held by members of
the rival Sunni militant group, Sipah-e-Sahabah Pakistan, killing
Mohammed Khalid Rajput. On the following day, a Shi'a mourning
procession was fired upon, although there were no casualties. Five
persons were charged in connection with the killing of Rajput; three
had been arrested by June 30, 2000. On September 6, 1999, an explosion
in a madrassah in Karachi injured more than 20 persons; no arrests have
been made in connection with this attack. On September 24, 1999, three
members of the SSP killed Khurshid Anwar, the Secretary General of the
TJP, his daughter, and his bodyguard, setting off a wave of sectarian
violence. All three of the SSP leaders were arrested soon after the
killing and later were released; no one has been charged with the
murder. After Anwar's murder, Shi'a and Sunni extremist groups
perpetrated numerous attacks in which more than 30 persons were killed.
Among those killed were the president of the Gujranwala division of the
TJP, Ijaz Hussain Rasool Nagri, on September 30, 1999; 9 worshipers in
a Shi'a mosque in Karachi on October 1, 1999; the assistant inspector
general of police in the NWFP, Farooq Haider, a Shi'a, on October 2,
1999; 5 students in a Sunni madrassah in Karachi on October 2, 1999;
and Dr. Quaiser Abbas Sayyal, a relative of an advisor to the Prime
Minister, along with several others, in a clinic in Lahore in early
October 1999. On October 6, 1999, Nisa Ali Hazara, a Shi'a member of
the Baluch assembly and the Baluchistan Education Minister, was shot
and injured in Quetta by masked gunmen as his car left the Baluch
assemly; his driver was killed. Also on October 6, 1999, two Shi'a
homeopathic doctors, Al-e Hassan and Muttasim Hassan, were shot and
killed at their home in Karachi by motorcycle gunmen; another doctor,
Mohammad Nisar, an influential member of the Sunni Jamaat-i-Islam, was
killed in Karachi earlier on the same day. Aun Mohammed Rizvi, a senior
Shi'a official from the state-run television station, was shot and
killed by motorcycle gunmen in Rawalpindi on October 7, 1999. On
October 8, 1999, unknown assailants killed Syed Abbas Shah, president
of the TJP, near Bhalwal.
On November 4, 1999, 3 explosions occurred in Murdike, where the
Sunni militant group Lashkar-e-Taibe was holding its annual conference;
1 person was killed and more than 30 others were injured. On December
27, 1999, 13 Sunnis were killed and 6 were injured in Sikanderpur
village, Haripur district, NWFP. The victims reportedly belonged to the
SSP and were returning from the funeral of another SSP member and were
killed by three Shi'as. On December 28, 1999, thousands of SSP members
destroyed homes and shops belonging to local Shi'as after attending the
funerals of those killed the previous day. As of mid-2000, no suspects
were detained in connection with these events.
In August 1999, the leader of the Sunni religious party Jamiat
Ulema-i-Islami (JUI) Fazlur Rehman, accused the Aga Khan Foundation of
the killing of a Sunni religious leader and his nephew in Chitral and
called for the closure of Aga Khan activities. The Sunni leader was
killed by an Ismaili in a property dispute on August 19, 1999. (The Aga
Khan Foundation is a community service organization sponsored by
Ismaili Shi'as.)
On January 17, 2000, a bomb exploded in front of a Karachi mosque,
killing 9 persons and injuring 25. No one claimed responsibility for
the attack.
Several incidents of sectarian violence between rival Sunni and
Shi'a groups occurred during Muharram, during which Shi'a Muslims mourn
the deaths of the Prophet Mohammed's nephew, Ali and his son Hussain;
this period highlights the major division between Sunni and Shi'a
Muslims over whether Islam should be ruled by the codified Sunnah or by
the lineal successors of the Prophet. On April 7, 2000, a Shi'a lawyer
and the secretary general of TJP, Syed Waqar Hussain, his son, and his
driver were killed by unknown gunmen in Karachi; the assailants may
have been members of the extremist SSP. On April 12, 2000, in the worst
incident of sectarian violence since the coup, unknown assailants
attacked a Shi'a religious congregation in Mullowali, Rawalpindi, with
grenades and bullets, killing 19 persons and injuring 37. Police
personnel arrested several Sunni Muslims following the attack.
On April 19, 2000, unknown gunmen killed TJP activist, Iqubal
Hussain in Multan. On April 26, 2000, unknown assailants killed TJP
activist, Syed Farrukh Birjis Haider and his personal aide in Khanewal.
On April 28, 2000, unknown gunmen killed local Shi'a leader Hakeem Syed
Shahbaz Hussain Sherazi in Chishtian. On May 2, 2000, unidentified
assailants killed a Shi'a doctor, his pharmaceutical dispenser, and a
patient in the doctor's Karachi office. The next day, unknown
assailants killed Shi'a lawyer, Malik Ibrar Hussain in Toba Tek Singh,
Punjab. On May 15, 2000, unknown assailants killed Shi'a lawyer Syed
Sardar Hussain Jafri. Unknown assailants also killed Qudratullah
Cheema, the chief of the Ahmadi community of Khanpur, Punjab during the
period covered by this report. On May 19, 2000, unknown assailants
killed eminent Sunni cleric Maulana Yousuf Ludhianvi, and Abdur Rehman,
a teacher at the Sunni Banuri Town religious school in Karachi;
following these murders, hundreds of Sunni Muslims rioted in Karachi.
In March 2000, 12 men broke into the Lourdes Convent and attacked
Sister Christine, a 78-year old nun; she died in a nearby hospital a
few days later. According to the Christian Liberation Front (CLF), a
nongovernmental organization (NGO), the perpetrators of the attack were
Muslims who previously had accused Sister Christine of proselytizing.
Police officials did not arrest anyone in connection with this attack.
In May 2000, five masked men stopped a factory bus of female factory
employees in Ferozewala and raped six to eight Christian girls who were
passengers; the assailants reportedly spared the two Muslim passengers
on the bus. Initially, police officials urged the girls to report that
were robbed, not raped; however, when the CLF complained to government
officials, the officials immediately registered the cases as rape
cases, arrested two suspects, and promised to investigate police
behavior. Three of the suspects were charged under the Hudood
Ordinances and are scheduled to stand trial in September 2000.
In July 1999, the Government released Sunni extremist leader
Mohammad Azam Tariq, chief of the SSP, who had been arrested in May
1997 and charged with the murder of a former PPP Member of Parliament
and in 58 other cases of murder, terrorism, and incitement to sectarian
violence. The SSP and its militant offshoot, Lashkar-i-Jhangvi,
frequently are involved in anti-Shi'a sectarian violence.
Sectarian violence among members of different religious groups
continued to be a serious problem throughout the period covered by this
report; Ahmadis, Christians and other religious minorities often were
the targets of this violence. In September 1999, a mob raided a church
in Sangla Hill, Punjab, allegedly attacking members of the congregation
as they fled the church. In October 1999, a Sunni Muslim youth set fire
to St. Peter's Catholic Church in Lahore. Police arrested the
individual and charged him under the blasphemy laws; his case was
pending as of mid-2000. In December 1999, a mob vandalized the home of
an Ahmadi in Okara district, Punjab, in the presence of some members of
the local administration; police officials reportedly charged the
Ahmadi and his two sons under the blasphemy laws. According to the
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, in January 2000, persons broke
into a church in Sialkot and desecrated religious literature.
In 1997 mobs looted and burned the Christian village of Shantinagar
in Punjab. Local police participated in the attack and are suspected of
having instigated the riot by inventing spurious charges that a
Christian man had desecrated a copy of the Koran. Hundreds of homes and
a dozen churches were destroyed, and 20,000 persons were left homeless.
The Government has rebuilt damaged and destroyed homes, but has not
provided compensation for personal property lost in the incident. The
police officers accused in the incident were suspended temporarily;
however, after their suspension they either were transferred or granted
early retirement. The results of the official investigation of the
incident were never made public; all of the 86 persons who were charged
with offenses related to the attack remain free on bail and there was
no indication that authorities planned to bring them to trial.
Most Ahmadis are home-schooled or go to private Ahmadi-run schools.
Those Ahmadi students in public schools often are subject to abuse by
their non-Ahmadi classmates. The quality of teachers assigned to
predominately Ahmadi schools by the Government reportedly is poor.
Christian students reportedly sometimes are forced to eat at separate
tables in public schools that are predominately Muslim.
On some university campuses, well-armed groups of students,
primarily from radical religious organizations, clash with and
intimidate other students, instructors, and administrators on matter of
language, syllabus, examination policies, grades, doctrines, and dress.
These groups facilitate cheating on examinations, interfere in the
hiring of staff at the campuses, control new admissions, and sometimes
control the funds of their institutions. At Punjab University, the
largest university in the province, Islami Jamiat-e-Tulaba (IJT--the
student wing of the religious political party Jaamat-i-Islami) imposes
its self-defined code of conduct on teachers and students.
Discrimination in employment is believed to be widespread (also see
Section I). Christians in particular have difficulty finding jobs other
than those of menial labor, although Christian activists say that the
employment situation has improved somewhat in the private sector. There
is a problem of bonded labor in Pakistan and, according to the Bishops'
Conference of Pakistan's National Commission for Justice and Peace, the
vast majority of bonded labor in certain sectors is non-Muslim. All are
subject to the same conditions, whether they are Muslim, Christian, or
Hindu. In September 1999, the Government removed colonial-era entries
for ``sect'' from government job application forms to prevent
discrimination in hiring. However, the faith of some, particularly of
Christians, often can be ascertained from their names.
While many Christians are in the poorest socioeconomic groups, this
may be due more to ethnic and social factors than to religion, per se.
These factors also may account for a substantial measure of the
discrimination that poor Christians face. In Karachi, the majority of
Roman Catholics are Goan Christians, or descendants of Eurasian
marriages. They often are light-skinned and are relatively well-
educated and prosperous, in sharp contrast to their coreligionists
(mostly members of evangelical denominations), who are often dark-
skinned and poorly educated. Many poor Christians remain in the
profession bequeathed by their low caste Hindu ancestors (most of whom
were ``untouchables''). Their lot, though somewhat better today than in
the past, does not reflect any major progress in spite of over 100
years of consistent missionary aid and development.
Ahmadis also have limited chances for advancement into management
levels in government service. Even the rumor that someone may be an
Ahmadi or have Ahmadi relatives can stifle opportunities for employment
or promotion.
Although there are few if any citizens who are Jewish, anti-Semitic
sentiments appear to be widespread, and anti-Semitic articles in the
press are relatively common.
On May 8, 2000, 19 religious parties and politico-religious groups
announced their decision to launch a strike on May 19 to pressure the
Government not to amend the blasphemy laws, as well as to reinstate
Friday as the country's official weekly holiday, ban NGO's funded by
Christian and Jewish groups, and abandon the idea of reforming the
country's madrassahs. The religious parties cancelled the strike after
they received assurances from the Government that the proposed
amendments to the blasphemy laws would not be enacted. However, on May
11, 2000, approximately 750 religious activists gathered to protest the
proposed amendment to the blasphemy laws; some speakers at the protest
said that if the blasphemy laws were amended, persons would be
justified in killing blasphemers themselves (also see Section I.).
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
Advocacy, programming, and reporting on issues of religious freedom
and persecution form a significant part of the work of the U.S. Embassy
and the consulates in Pakistan. U.S. representatives maintain regular
contacts with major Muslim and minority religious groups. U.S.
representatives also maintain a dialog with government, religious, and
minority community representatives to encourage religious freedom and
to discuss problems. U.S. representatives closely monitor the situation
and act when appropriate. For example, embassy officials and the
Ambassador-at-Large for Religious Freedom met with high-level
government officials in February 2000 to discuss the blasphemy laws,
separate electorates for religious minorities, and the issue of
impunity for violent sectarian groups. On an informal basis, the
Embassy has assisted some Christian-affiliated relief organizations in
guiding paperwork through government channels. The Embassy also has
assisted local and international human rights organizations to follow
up on specific cases involving religious minorities.
__________
SRI LANKA
Although the Constitution gives Buddhism a foremost position, it
also provides for the right of members of other faiths to practice
their religion freely, and the Government respects this right in
practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
Despite generally amicable relations among persons of different
faiths, there has been occasional resistance by Buddhists to Christian
church activity, and in particular to the growth of evangelical
Christian denominations. The courts generally have upheld the right of
these groups to worship and to construct facilities to house their
congregations. However, the State limits the number of foreign
religious workers granted temporary residence permits.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting
human rights.
Section I. Government Policies on Freedom of Religion
Legal/Policy Framework
The Constitution gives Buddhism a foremost position, but it also
provides for the right of members of other faiths to practice their
religions freely, and the Government respects this right in practice.
There is a Ministry of Cultural and Religious Affairs and a
Ministry of Buddha ``Sasana'' or Buddhist Affairs; the same person
currently leads both ministries. Within the Ministry of Cultural and
Religious Affairs, there is a Department of Hindu Religious and
Cultural Affairs and a Department of Muslim Cultural and Religious
Affairs. A Senior Assistant Secretary in the Ministry of Cultural and
Religious Affairs monitors government relations with the Christian
denominations, which effectively have resisted greater government
involvement in their affairs. Instead they are registered individually
through acts of Parliament or as corporations under domestic law.
Religious Demography
Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity all are practiced in
the country. Approximately 70 percent of the population are Buddhist,
15 percent are Hindu, 7 percent are Muslim, and 8 percent are
Christian. There also are small numbers of Baha'is. Christians tend to
be concentrated in the western part of the country, with much of the
north almost exclusively Hindu. The other parts of the country have a
mixture of religions, with Buddhism overwhelmingly present in the
south.
The majority of Sinhalese are Theravada Buddhists. Almost all of
the Muslims are Sunnis, with a small minority of Shi'as, including
members of the Borah community. Roman Catholics account for almost 90
percent of the Christians, with Anglicans and other mainstream
Protestant churches also present in the cities. The Seventh-Day
Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Assemblies of God are present
as well. Evangelical Christian groups have made gains in membership in
recent years, although the overall number of members in these groups
still is small.
Governmental Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Foreign clergy may work in the country, but for the last 30 years,
the Government has taken steps to limit the number of foreign Christian
religious workers given temporary work permits. Permission usually is
restricted to denominations that are registered formally with the
Government. Most religious workers in the country, including most
Christian clergy, are Sri Lankan in origin.
Some evangelical Christians, who constitute less than 1 percent of
the population, have expressed concern that their efforts at
proselytization often are met with hostility and harassment by the
local Buddhist clergy and others opposed to their work. They sometimes
complain that the Government tacitly condones such harassment. However,
there is no evidence to support this claim. The Assemblies of God filed
a fundamental rights case with the Supreme Court in 1997, after the
local village council in Gampaha tried to block the construction of a
church on the grounds that it would interfere with Buddhism. The Church
reached agreement with the local council before the Supreme Court heard
the case, and the building project was allowed to proceed. The
denomination complains that it continues to face opposition at the
local level in many places but states that legal action or the threat
of legal action generally has resulted in the Church being allowed to
construct facilities for its congregations and conduct worship
services.
Religion is a mandatory subject in the school curriculum. Parents
and children can choose which religion a child studies: Buddhism,
Islam, Hinduism, or Christianity. Religion is taught in schools from an
academic point of view.
Despite the constitutional preference for Buddhism, major religious
festivals of all faiths are celebrated as national holidays.
The Government has established councils for interfaith
understanding.
Issues related to family law, including divorce, child custody, and
inheritance are adjudicated by the customary law of each ethnic or
religious group. In 1995 the Government raised the minimum age of
marriage for women from 12 to 18 years, except in the case of Muslims,
who continue to follow their customary religious practices. The
application of different legal practices based on membership in a
religious or ethnic group can result in discrimination against women.
There is no tax exemption for religious organizations as such.
However, churches and temples are allowed to register as charitable
organizations and therefore are entitled to some tax relief.
For the past 17 years the Government (controlled by the Sinhalese,
and predominantly Buddhist, majority) has fought the Liberation Tigers
of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), an insurgent organization fighting for a
separate state for the country's Tamil (and predominantly Hindu)
minority. Religion does not play a significant role in the conflict,
which essentially is rooted in linguistic, ethnic, and political
differences. Buddhists, Hindus, and Christians all have been affected
by the conflict, which has claimed more than 60,000 lives. The military
has issued warnings via public radio before commencing major
operations, instructing civilians to congregate at safe zones around
churches and temples; however, in the conflict areas in the north, the
Government occasionally has been accused of bombing and shelling Hindu
temples and Christian churches. In March 1999, government forces
recaptured the town of Madhu in the northwestern area of the country
from the LTTE, the site of a famous Catholic shrine. Because Madhu was
controlled by the LTTE, for several years Catholics from the south had
not been able to make the pilgrimage to Madhu. After the town was
recaptured by government forces, Catholics were able to resume the
pilgrimage, but recapture of the shrine by the LTTE in November 1999
once again limited access.
Security force personnel probably were responsible for the 1997
death of Reverend Innasi Arulpalan, a priest from the Jaffna diocese of
the Church of South India. Although there were reports that witnesses
claimed that the army took away Reverend Arulpalan and two other
individuals, these reports could not be confirmed. The military
initially formally denied responsibility for the incident and placed
the blame on the LTTE. Senior military officials later suggested that
the Reverend may have been killed accidentally, because his death
occurred near the army's forward defense lines, an area where
confrontations with the LTTE were common. Despite a promise of further
investigation into the matter, the Government has not produced
additional information regarding the case. There is no evidence to
indicate that his religious beliefs or affiliation were a factor in his
killing.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report.
There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.
The LTTE has targeted Buddhist sites, most notably the historic
Dalada Maligawa or ``Temple of the Tooth,'' the holiest Buddhist shrine
in the country, in the town of Kandy on January 25, 1998. Thirteen
worshipers, including several children, were killed by the bombing.
Following a bombing in Colombo in October 1997, an LTTE suicide bomber
threw a grenade into a temple compound and killed a Buddhist monk. In
1985 the LTTE massacred 150 persons worshiping at a holy Buddhist site
in Anuradhapura. In 1987 the LTTE killed 31 Buddhist monks.
The LTTE has discriminated against Muslims, and in 1990 expelled
some 46,000 Muslim inhabitants--virtually the entire Muslim
population--from their homes in areas under LTTE control in the
northern part of the island. Most of these persons remain displaced and
currently live in or near welfare centers. Although some Muslims
returned to Jaffna in 1997, they did not remain there due to the
continuing threat posed by the LTTE. There are credible reports that
the LTTE has warned thousands of Muslims displaced from the Mannar area
not to return to their homes until the conflict is over. In the past,
the LTTE has expropriated Muslim homes, lands, and businesses and
threatened Muslim families with death if they attempt to return.
However, it appears that these attacks by the LTTE are not targeted
against persons due to their religious beliefs, but that they are
targeted as part of an overall strategy to clear the north and east of
persons not sympathetic to the cause of an independent Tamil state.
The LTTE has been accused in the past of using church and temple
compounds, where civilians are instructed by the Government to
congregate in the event of hostilities, as shields for the storage of
munitions.
Forced Religious Conversion of Minor U.S. Citizens
There were no reports of the forced religious conversion of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the
United States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to
be returned to the United States.
Section II. Societal Attitudes
Discrimination based on religious differences is much less common
than discrimination based on ethnic group or caste. In general, the
members of the various faiths tend to be tolerant of each other's
religious beliefs. However, on occasion, evangelical Christians have
been harassed by Buddhist monks for their attempts to convert Buddhists
to Christianity, and sometimes complain that the Government tacitly
condones such harassment, although there is no evidence to support this
claim (see Section I).
On April 2, 1999, two bombs were planted in an Assemblies of God
prayer hall under construction in the mainly Buddhist town of
Tissamaharama (in the south). One of the bombs exploded that night,
causing a small amount of structural damage to the building. The other
bomb was found on the morning of April 3 and defused. No one was
injured in these incidents. According to his widow, Lionel Jayasinghe,
the founder of the congregation, was killed on March 25, 1988, because
his ambition to convert Buddhists to Christianity met with violent
opposition from his neighbors. His death was investigated by the
authorities, but no arrests were made in connection with the killing.
Jayasinghe's widow now leads the congregation founded by her husband.
There are reports that members of various religious groups give
preference in hiring in the private sector to members of their own
group or denomination. This practice likely is linked to the country's
ongoing ethnic problems and does not appear to be based principally on
religion. There is no indication of preference in employment in the
public sector on the basis of religion.
The Borah Muslim World Congress held in April 1999 attracted more
than 3,000 participants from a number of countries to hear remarks by
the group's spiritual leader, Dr. Syenda Mohammed Burhamuddin.
In December 1997, a mob led by Buddhist clerics attacked an
Assemblies of God church in Matara, damaging it severely in the
process. The mob also reportedly assaulted several members of the
congregation. Police were stationed in the area due to the size of the
crowd, and intervened to help some of the congregation to leave the
area. Police also have investigated the incident, but no one has been
charged. However, relations between the Assemblies of God and the
Buddhist communities in Matara have since returned to normal.
In mid-February 1999, a group of religious leaders from the
Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Christian communities made a 3-day visit
to the north central part of the country, which is controlled by the
LTTE. The purpose of the visit was to assess the humanitarian situation
in the region and to talk with senior LTTE leaders to discuss the
conflict and the prospects for peace. The group later met with the
President, but there were few concrete results from the meeting.
Follow-up meetings with the LTTE, which were scheduled for mid-1999,
were cancelled after government forces captured additional LTTE-held
territory north of the town of Madhu. Religious leaders have continued
to serve as unofficial envoys between the two warring sides.
Section III. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Embassy discusses religious freedom issues with the
Government in the overall context of its promotion of human rights.
Representatives of the Embassy regularly meet with representatives of
all of the country's religious groups to review a wide range of human
rights, ethnic, and religious freedom issues. The U.S. Ambassador has
met with many religious figures, both in Colombo and in his travels
around the country. Christian bishops and prominent Buddhist monks, as
well as prominent members of the Hindu and Muslim communities, are in
regular contact with the Embassy. The Embassy has been supportive of
efforts by interfaith religious leaders to promote a peaceful
resolution of the conflict in Sri Lanka.
A P P E N D I X E S
APPENDIX A
----------
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the
equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family
is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world;
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience
of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings
shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear
and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the
common people;
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to
have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny
and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the
rule of law;
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of
friendly relations between nations;
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the
Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal
rights of men and women and have determined to promote social
progress and better standards of life in larger freedom;
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve,
in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of
universal respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedoms;
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms
is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this
pledge;
Now, therefore, The General Assembly, proclaims this Universal
Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement
for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every
individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration
constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to
promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by
progressive measures, national and international, to secure
their universal and effective recognition and observance, both
among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the
peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.\1\
\1\ Hundred and eighty-third plenary meeting; Resolution
217(A)(III) of the United Nations General Assembly, December 10, 1948
(This material is in the public domain and may be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated.)
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Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in
this Declaration, without distinction of an kind, such as race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status.
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the
political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or
territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust,
non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and the security of
person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the
slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person
before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to
equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this
Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent
national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted
him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or
exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public
hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination
of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11
1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be
presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public
trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense.
2. No one shall be held guilty without any limitation due to
race, of any penal offence on account of nationality or religion, have
the any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under
national or international law, at the time when it was committed
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour
and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law
against such interference or attacks.
Article 13
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence
within the borders of each state.
2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his
own, and to return to his country.
Article 14
1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries
asylum from persecution.
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions
genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to
the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor be
denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race,
nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family.
They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and
at its dissolution.
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full
consent of the intending spouses.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of
society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
Article 17
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in
association with others.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and
religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief,
and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or
private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this
right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to
seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers.
Article 20
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and
association.
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the Government of his
country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
2. Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in
his country.
3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of
government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine
elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be
held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
1. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social
security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and
international cooperation and in accordance with the organization and
resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights
indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his
personality.
Article 23
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment,
to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against
unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal
pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable
remuneration insuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of
human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social
protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for
the protection of his interests.
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable
limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for
the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food,
clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and
the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness,
disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in
circumstances beyond his control.
2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and
assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall
enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26
1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free,
at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education
shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of
peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education
that shall be given to their children.
Article 27
1. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural
life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific
advancement and its benefits.
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and
material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic
production of which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which
the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully
realized.
Article 29
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free
and full development of his personality is possible.
2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be
subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for
the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and
freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality,
public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary
to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for
any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to
perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth herein.
APPENDIX B
----------
INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
and
THE DECLARATION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF INTOLERANCE AND OF
DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RELIGION OR BELIEF
______
INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
Preamble
The States Parties to the present Covenant, \1\
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\1\ Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by
General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966.
Entry into force 23 March 1976, in accordance with Article 49
Considering that, in accordance with the principles
proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of
the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
justice and peace in the world;
Recognizing that these rights derive from the inherent
dignity of the human person;
Recognizing that, in accordance with the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings
enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and
want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby
everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well as
his economic, social and cultural rights;
Considering the obligation of States under the Charter of
the United Nations to promote universal respect for, and
observance of, human rights and freedoms;
Realizing that the individual, having duties to other
individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under
a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of
the rights recognized in the present Covenant;
Agree upon the following articles:
PART I
Article 1
1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of
that right they freely determine their political status and freely
pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their
natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations
arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the
principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a
people be deprived of its own means of subsistence.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those
having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self-Governing and
Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self-
determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the
provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.
PART II
Article 2
1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect
and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to
its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion,
political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth
or other status.
2. Where not already provided for by existing legislative or
other measures, each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to
take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional
processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt
such laws or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the
rights recognized in the present Covenant.
3. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes:
(a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as
herein recognized are violated shall have an effective remedy,
notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by
persons acting in an official capacity;
(b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall
have his right thereto determined by competent judicial,
administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other
competent authority provided for by the legal system of the
State, and to develop the possibilities of judicial remedy;
(c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce
such remedies when granted.
Article 3
The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure
the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and
political rights set forth in the present Covenant.
Article 4
1. In time of public emergency which threatens the life of the
nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States
Parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their
obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required
by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not
inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and
do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour,
sex, language, religion or social origin.
2. No derogation from articles 6, 7, 8 (paragraphs I and 2), 11,
15, 16 and 18 may be made under this provision.
3. Any State Party to the present Covenant availing itself of the
right of derogation shall immediately inform the other States Parties
to the present Covenant, through the intermediary of the Secretary-
General of the United Nations, of the provisions from which it has
derogated and of the reasons by which it was actuated. A further
communication shall be made, through the same intermediary, on the date
on which it terminates such derogation.
Article 5
1. Nothing in the present Covenant may be interpreted as implying
for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or
perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms recognized herein or at their limitation to a greater extent
than is provided for in the present Covenant.
2. There shall be no restriction upon or derogation from any of
the fundamental human rights recognized or existing in any State Party
to the present Covenant pursuant to law, conventions, regulations or
custom on the pretext that the present Covenant does not recognize such
rights or that it recognizes them to a lesser extent.
PART III
Article 6
1. Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right
shall be protected by law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his
life.
2. In countries which have not abolished the death penalty,
sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in
accordance with the law in force at the time of the commission of the
crime and not contrary to the provisions of the present Covenant and to
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. This penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final
judgement rendered by a competent court.
3. When deprivation of life constitutes the crime of genocide, it
is understood that nothing in this article shall authorize any State
Party to the present Covenant to derogate in any way from any
obligation assumed under the provisions of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
4. Anyone sentenced to death shall have the right to seek pardon
or commutation of the sentence. Amnesty, pardon or commutation of the
sentence of death may be granted in all cases.
5. Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by
persons below eighteen years of age and shall not be carried out on
pregnant women.
6. Nothing in this article shall be invoked to delay or to
prevent the abolition of capital punishment by any State Party to the
present Covenant.
Article 7
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be
subjected without his free consent to medical or scientific
experimentation.
Article 8
1. No one shall be held in slavery; slavery and the slave-trade
in all their forms shall be prohibited.
2. No one shall be held in servitude.
3. (a) No one shall be required to perform forced or compulsory
labour;
(b) Paragraph 3 (a) shall not be held to preclude, in
countries where imprisonment with hard labour may be imposed as
a punishment for a crime, the performance of hard labour in
pursuance of a sentence to such punishment by a competent
court;
(c) For the purpose of this paragraph the term ``forced or
compulsory labour'' shall not include:
(i) Any work or service, not referred to in
subparagraph (b), normally required of a person who is
under detention in consequence of a lawful order of a
court, or of a person during conditional release from
such detention;
(ii) Any service of a military character and, in
countries where conscientious objection is recognized,
any national service required by law of conscientious
objectors;
(iii) Any service exacted in cases of emergency or
calamity threatening the life or well-being of the
community;
(iv) Any work or service which forms part of normal
civil obligations.
Article 9
1. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No
one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall
be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance
with such procedure as are established by law.
2. Anyone who is arrested shall be informed, at the time of
arrest, of the reasons for his arrest and shall be promptly informed of
any charges against him.
3. Anyone arrested or detained on a criminal charge shall be
brought promptly before a judge or other officer authorized by law to
exercise judicial power and shall be entitled to trial within a
reasonable time or to release. It shall not be the general rule that
persons awaiting trial shall be detained in custody, but release may be
subject to guarantees to appear for trial, at any other stage of the
judicial proceedings, and, should occasion arise, for execution of the
judgement.
4. Anyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention
shall be entitled to take proceedings before a court, in order that
court may decide without delay on the lawfulness of his detention and
order his release if the detention is not lawful.
5. Anyone who has been the victim of unlawful arrest or detention
shall have an enforceable right to compensation.
Article 10
1. All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with
humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person.
2. (a) Accused persons shall, save in exceptional circumstances,
be segregated from convicted persons and shall be subject to separate
treatment appropriate to their status as unconvicted persons;
(b) Accused juvenile persons shall be separated from adults
and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication. 3. The
penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of prisoners the
essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social
rehabilitation. Juvenile offenders shall be segregated from
adults and be accorded treatment appropriate to their age and
legal status.
Article 11
No one shall be imprisoned merely on the ground of inability to
fulfil a contractual obligation.
Article 12
1. Everyone lawfully within the territory of a State shall,
within that territory, have the right to liberty of movement and
freedom to choose his residence.
2. Everyone shall be free to leave any country, including his
own.
3. The above-mentioned rights shall not be subject to any
restrictions except those which are provided by law, are necessary to
protect national security, public order (ordre public), public health
or morals or the rights and freedoms of others, and are consistent with
the other rights recognized in the present Covenant.
4. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of the right to enter his
own country.
Article 13
An alien lawfully in the territory of a State Party to the
present Covenant may be expelled therefrom only in pursuance of a
decision reached in accordance with law and shall, except where
compelling reasons of national security otherwise require, be allowed
to submit the reasons against his expulsion and to have his case
reviewed by, and be represented for the purpose before, the competent
authority or a person or persons especially designated by the competent
authority.
Article 14
1. All persons shall be equal before the courts and tribunals. In
the determination of any criminal charge against him, or of his rights
and obligations in a suit at law, everyone shall be entitled to a fair
and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal
established by law. The press and the public may be excluded from all
or part of a trial for reasons of morals, public order (ordre public)
or national security in a democratic society, or when the interest of
the private lives of the parties so requires, or to the extent strictly
necessary in the opinion of the court in special circumstances where
publicity would prejudice the interests of justice; but any judgement
rendered in a criminal case or in a suit at law shall be made public
except where the interest of juvenile persons otherwise requires or the
proceedings concern matrimonial disputes or the guardianship of
children.
2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right
to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.
3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him,
everyone shall be entitled to the following minimum guarantees, in full
equality:
(a) To be informed promptly and in detail in a language
which he understands of the nature and cause of the charge
against him;
(b) To have adequate time and facilities for the
preparation of his defence and to communicate with counsel of
his own choosing;
(c) To be tried without undue delay;
(d) To be tried in his presence, and to defend himself in
person or through legal assistance of his own choosing; to be
informed, if he does not have legal assistance, of this right;
and to have legal assistance assigned to him, in any case where
the interests of justice so require, and without payment by him
in any such case if he does not have sufficient means to pay
for it;
(e) To examine, or have examined, the witnesses against him
and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on
his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him;
(f) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if he
cannot understand or speak the language used in court;
(g) Not to be compelled to testify against himself or to
confess guilt.
4. In the case of juvenile persons, the procedure shall be such
as will take account of their age and the desirability of promoting
their rehabilitation.
5. Everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his
conviction and sentence being reviewed by a higher tribunal according
to law.
6. When a person has by a final decision been convicted of a
criminal offence and when subsequently his conviction has been reversed
or he has been pardoned on the ground that a new or newly discovered
fact shows conclusively that there has been a miscarriage of justice,
the person who has suffered punishment as a result of such conviction
shall be compensated according to law, unless it is proved that the
non-disclosure of the unknown fact in time is wholly or partly
attributable to him.
7. No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an
offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in
accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country.
Article 15
1. No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account
of any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence,
under national or international law, at the time when it was committed.
Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable
at the time when the criminal offence was committed. If, subsequent to
the commission of the offence, provision is made by law for the
imposition of the lighter penalty, the offender shall benefit thereby.
2. Nothing in this article shall prejudice the trial and
punishment of any person for any act or omission which, at the time
when it was committed, was criminal according to the general principles
of law recognized by the community of nations.
Article 16
Everyone shall have the right to recognition everywhere as a
person before the law.
Article 17
1. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful
interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to
unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation.
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against
such interference or attacks.
Article 18
1. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to
adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either
individually or in community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and
teaching.
2. No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his
freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice.
3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject
only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to
protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental
rights and freedoms of others.
4. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have
respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal
guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children
in conformity with their own convictions.
Article 19
1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without
interference.
2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this
right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing
or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his
choice.
3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this
article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may
therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be
such as are provided by law and are necessary:
(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;
(b) For the protection of national security or of public
order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.
Article 20
1. Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.
2. Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that
constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall
be prohibited by law.
Article 21
The right of peaceful assembly shall be recognized. No
restrictions may be placed on the exercise of this right other than
those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a
democratic society in the interests of national security or public
safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health or
morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
Article 22
1. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of association with
others, including the right to form and join trade unions for the
protection of his interests.
2. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of this right
other than those which are prescribed by law and which are necessary in
a democratic society in the interests of national security or public
safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health or
morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This
article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on
members of the armed forces and of the police in their exercise of this
right.
3. Nothing in this article shall authorize States Parties to the
International Labour Organization Convention of 1948 concerning Freedom
of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize to take
legislative measures which would prejudice, or to apply the law in such
a manner as to prejudice, the guarantees provided for in that
Convention.
Article 23
1. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of
society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
2. The right of men and women of marriageable age to marry and to
found a family shall be recognized.
3. No marriage shall be entered into without the free and full
consent of the intending spouses.
4. States Parties to the present Covenant shall take appropriate
steps to ensure equality of rights and responsibilities of spouses as
to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. In the case of
dissolution, provision shall be made for the necessary protection of
any children.
Article 24
1. Every child shall have, without any discrimination as to race,
colour, sex, language, religion, national or social origin, property or
birth, the right to such measures of protection as are required by his
status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State.
2. Every child shall be registered immediately after birth and
shall have a name.
3. Every child has the right to acquire a nationality.
Article 25
Every citizen shall have the right and the opportunity, without
any of the distinctions mentioned in article 2 and without unreasonable
restrictions:
(a) To take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly
or through freely chosen representatives;
(b) To vote and to be elected at genuine periodic elections
which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be
held by secret ballot, guaranteeing the free expression of the
will of the electors;
(c) To have access, on general terms of equality, to public
service in his country.
Article 26
All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the
law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons
equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground
such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Article 27
In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic
minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be
denied the right, in community with the other members of their group,
to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion,
or to use their own language.
PART IV
Article 28
1. There shall be established a Human Rights Committee (hereafter
referred to in the present Covenant as the Committee). It shall consist
of eighteen members and shall carry out the functions hereinafter
provided.
2. The Committee shall be composed of nationals of the States
Parties to the present Covenant who shall be persons of high moral
character and recognized competence in the field of human rights,
consideration being given to the usefulness of the participation of
some persons having legal experience.
3. The members of the Committee shall be elected and shall serve
in their personal capacity.
Article 29
1. The members of the Committee shall be elected by secret ballot
from a list of persons possessing the qualifications prescribed in
article 28 and nominated for the purpose by the States Parties to the
present Covenant.
2. Each State Party to the present Covenant may nominate not more
than two persons. These persons shall be nationals of the nominating
State.
3. A person shall be eligible for renomination.
Article 30
1. The initial election shall be held no later than six months
after the date of the entry into force of the present Covenant.
2. At least four months before the date of each election to the
Committee, other than an election to fill a vacancy declared in
accordance with article 34, the Secretary-General of the United Nations
shall address a written invitation to the States Parties to the present
Covenant to submit their nominations for membership of the Committee
within three months.
3. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall prepare a
list in alphabetical order of all the persons thus nominated, with an
indication of the States Parties which have nominated them, and shall
submit it to the States Parties to the present Covenant no later than
one month before the date of each election.
4. Elections of the members of the Committee shall be held at a
meeting of the States Parties to the present Covenant convened by the
Secretary General of the United Nations at the Headquarters of the
United Nations. At that meeting, for which two thirds of the States
Parties to the present Covenant shall constitute a quorum, the persons
elected to the Committee shall be those nominees who obtain the largest
number of votes and an absolute majority of the votes of the
representatives of States Parties present and voting.
Article 31
1. The Committee may not include more than one national of the
same State.
2. In the election of the Committee, consideration shall be given
to equitable geographical distribution of membership and to the
representation of the different forms of civilization and of the
principal legal systems.
Article 32
1. The members of the Committee shall be elected for a term of
four years. They shall be eligible for re-election if renominated.
However, the terms of nine of the members elected at the first election
shall expire at the end of two years; immediately after the first
election, the names of these nine members shall be chosen by lot by the
Chairman of the meeting referred to in article 30, paragraph 4.
2. Elections at the expiry of office shall be held in accordance
with the preceding articles of this part of the present Covenant.
Article 33
1. If, in the unanimous opinion of the other members, a member of
the Committee has ceased to carry out his functions for any cause other
than absence of a temporary character, the Chairman of the Committee
shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall
then declare the seat of that member to be vacant.
2. In the event of the death or the resignation of a member of
the Committee, the Chairman shall immediately notify the Secretary-
General of the United Nations, who shall declare the seat vacant from
the date of death or the date on which the resignation takes effect.
Article 34
1. When a vacancy is declared in accordance with article 33 and
if the term of office of the member to be replaced does not expire
within six months of the declaration of the vacancy, the Secretary-
General of the United Nations shall notify each of the States Parties
to the present Covenant, which may within two months submit nominations
in accordance with article 29 for the purpose of filling the vacancy.
2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall prepare a
list in alphabetical order of the persons thus nominated and shall
submit it to the States Parties to the present Covenant. The election
to fill the vacancy shall then take place in accordance with the
relevant provisions of this part of the present Covenant.
3. A member of the Committee elected to fill a vacancy declared
in accordance with article 33 shall hold office for the remainder of
the term of the member who vacated the seat on the Committee under the
provisions of that article.
Article 35
The members of the Committee shall, with the approval of the
General Assembly of the United Nations, receive emoluments from United
Nations resources on such terms and conditions as the General Assembly
may decide, having regard to the importance of the Committee's
responsibilities.
Article 36
The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall provide the
necessary staff and facilities for the effective performance of the
functions of the Committee under the present Covenant.
Article 37
1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall convene the
initial meeting of the Committee at the Headquarters of the United
Nations.
2. After its initial meeting, the Committee shall meet at such
times as shall be provided in its rules of procedure.
3. The Committee shall normally meet at the Headquarters of the
United Nations or at the United Nations Office at Geneva.
Article 38
Every member of the Committee shall, before taking up his duties,
make a solemn declaration in open committee that he will perform his
functions impartially and conscientiously.
Article 39
1. The Committee shall elect its officers for a term of two
years. They may be re-elected.
2. The Committee shall establish its own rules of procedure, but
these rules shall provide, inter alia, that:
(a) Twelve members shall constitute a quorum;
(b) Decisions of the Committee shall be made by a majority
vote of the members present.
Article 40
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to submit
reports on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the
rights recognized herein and on the progress made in the enjoyment of
those rights:
(a) Within one year of the entry into force of the present
Covenant for the States Parties concerned;
(b) Thereafter whenever the Committee so requests.
2. All reports shall be submitted to the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, who shall transmit them to the Committee for
consideration. Reports shall indicate the factors and difficulties, if
any, affecting the implementation of the present Covenant.
3. The Secretary-General of the United Nations may, after
consultation with the Committee, transmit to the specialized agencies
concerned copies of such parts of the reports as may fall within their
field of competence.
4. The Committee shall study the reports submitted by the States
Parties to the present Covenant. It shall transmit its reports, and
such general comments as it may consider appropriate, to the States
Parties. The Committee may also transmit to the Economic and Social
Council these comments along with the copies of the reports it has
received from States Parties to the present Covenant.
5. The States Parties to the present Covenant may submit to the
Committee observations on any comments that may be made in accordance
with paragraph 4 of this article.
Article 41
1. A State Party to the present Covenant may at any time declare
under this article that it recognizes the competence of the Committee
to receive and consider communications to the effect that a State Party
claims that another State Party is not fulfilling its obligations under
the present Covenant. Communications under this article may be received
and considered only if submitted by a State Party which has made a
declaration recognizing in regard to itself the competence of the
Committee. No communication shall be received by the Committee if it
concerns a State Party which has not made such a declaration.
Communications received under this article shall be dealt with in
accordance with the following procedure:
(a) If a State Party to the present Covenant considers that
another State Party is not giving effect to the provisions of
the present Covenant, it may, by written communication, bring
the matter to the attention of that State Party. Within three
months after the receipt of the communication the receiving
State shall afford the State which sent the communication an
explanation, or any other statement in writing clarifying the
matter which should include, to the extent possible and
pertinent, reference to domestic procedures and remedies taken,
pending, or available in the matter;
(b) If the matter is not adjusted to the satisfaction of
both States Parties concerned within six months after the
receipt by the receiving State of the initial communication,
either State shall have the right to refer the matter to the
Committee, by notice given to the Committee and to the other
State;
(c) The Committee shall deal with a matter referred to it
only after it has ascertained that all available domestic
remedies have been invoked and exhausted in the matter, in
conformity with the generally recognized principles of
international law. This shall not be the rule where the
application of the remedies is unreasonably prolonged;
(d) The Committee shall hold closed meetings when examining
communications under this article;
(e) Subject to the provisions of subparagraph (c), the
Committee shall make available its good offices to the States
Parties concerned with a view to a friendly solution of the
matter on the basis of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms as recognized in the present Covenant;
(f) In any matter referred to it, the Committee may call
upon the States Parties concerned, referred to in subparagraph
(b), to supply any relevant information;
(g) The States Parties concerned, referred to in
subparagraph (b), shall have the right to be represented when
the matter is being considered in the Committee and to make
submissions orally and/or in writing;
(h) The Committee shall, within twelve months after the
date of receipt of notice under subparagraph (b), submit a
report:
(i) If a solution within the terms of subparagraph
(e) is reached, the Committee shall confine its report
to a brief statement of the facts and of the solution
reached;
(ii) If a solution within the terms of subparagraph
(e) is not reached, the Committee shall confine its
report to a brief statement of the facts; the written
submissions and record of the oral submissions made by
the States Parties concerned shall be attached to the
report. In every matter, the report shall be
communicated to the States Parties concerned.
2. The provisions of this article shall come into force when ten
States Parties to the present Covenant have made declarations under
paragraph I of this article. Such declarations shall be deposited by
the States Parties with the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
who shall transmit copies thereof to the other States Parties. A
declaration may be withdrawn at any time by notification to the
Secretary-General. Such a withdrawal shall not prejudice the
consideration of any matter which is the subject of a communication
already transmitted under this article; no further communication by any
State Party shall be received after the notification of withdrawal of
the declaration has been received by the Secretary-General, unless the
State Party concerned has made a new declaration.
Article 42
1. (a) If a matter referred to the Committee in accordance with
article 41 is not resolved to the satisfaction of the States Parties
concerned, the Committee may, with the prior consent of the States
Parties concerned, appoint an ad hoc Conciliation Commission
(hereinafter referred to as the Commission). The good offices of the
Commission shall be made available to the States Parties concerned with
a view to an amicable solution of the matter on the basis of respect
for the present Covenant;
(b) The Commission shall consist of five persons acceptable
to the States Parties concerned. If the States Parties
concerned fail to reach agreement within three months on all or
part of the composition of the Commission, the members of the
Commission concerning whom no agreement has been reached shall
be elected by secret ballot by a two-thirds majority vote of
the Committee from among its members.
2. The members of the Commission shall serve in their personal
capacity. They shall not be nationals of the States Parties concerned,
or of a State not Party to the present Covenant, or of a State Party
which has not made a declaration under article 41.
3. The Commission shall elect its own Chairman and adopt its own
rules of procedure.
4. The meetings of the Commission shall normally be held at the
Headquarters of the United Nations or at the United Nations Office at
Geneva. However, they may be held at such other convenient places as
the Commission may determine in consultation with the Secretary-General
of the United Nations and the States Parties concerned.
5. The secretariat provided in accordance with article 36 shall
also service the commissions appointed under this article.
6. The information received and collated by the Committee shall
be made available to the Commission and the Commission may call upon
the States Parties concerned to supply any other relevant information.
7. When the Commission has fully considered the matter, but in any
event not later than twelve months after having been seized of the
matter, it shall submit to the Chairman of the Committee a report for
communication to the States Parties concerned:
(a) If the Commission is unable to complete its
consideration of the matter within twelve months, it shall
confine its report to a brief statement of the status of its
consideration of the matter;
(b) If an amicable solution to the matter on tie basis of
respect for human rights as recognized in the present Covenant
is reached, the Commission shall confine its report to a brief
statement of the facts and of the solution reached;
(c) If a solution within the terms of subparagraph (b) is
not reached, the Commission's report shall embody its findings
on all questions of fact relevant to the issues between the
States Parties concerned, and its views on the possibilities of
an amicable solution of the matter. This report shall also
contain the written submissions and a record of the oral
submissions made by the States Parties concerned;
(d) If the Commission's report is submitted under
subparagraph (c), the States Parties concerned shall, within
three months of the receipt of the report, notify the Chairman
of the Committee whether or not they accept the contents of the
report of the Commission.
8. The provisions of this article are without prejudice to the
responsibilities of the Committee under article 41.
9. The States Parties concerned shall share equally all the
expenses of the members of the Commission in accordance with estimates
to be provided by the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
10. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be
empowered to pay the expenses of the members of the Commission, if
necessary, before reimbursement by the States Parties concerned, in
accordance with paragraph 9 of this article.
Article 43
The members of the Committee, and of the ad hoc conciliation
commissions which may be appointed under article 42, shall be entitled
to the facilities, privileges and immunities of experts on mission for
the United Nations as laid down in the relevant sections of the
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations.
Article 44
The provisions for the implementation of the present Covenant
shall apply without prejudice to the procedures prescribed in the field
of human rights by or under the constituent instruments and the
conventions of the United Nations and of the specialized agencies and
shall not prevent the States Parties to the present Covenant from
having recourse to other procedures for settling a dispute in
accordance with general or special international agreements in force
between them.
Article 45
The Committee shall submit to the General Assembly of the United
Nations, through the Economic and Social Council, an annual report on
its activities.
PART V
Article 46
Nothing in the present Covenant shall be interpreted as impairing
the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations and of the
constitutions of the specialized agencies which define the respective
responsibilities of the various organs of the United Nations and of the
specialized agencies in regard to the matters dealt with in the present
Covenant.
Article 47
Nothing in the present Covenant shall be interpreted as impairing
the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and utilize fully and freely
their natural wealth and resources.
PART VI
Article 48
1. The present Covenant is open for signature by any State Member
of the United Nations or member of any of its specialized agencies, by
any State Party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice,
and by any other State which has been invited by the General Assembly
of the United Nations to become a Party to the present Covenant.
2. The present Covenant is subject to ratification. Instruments
of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the
United Nations.
3. The present Covenant shall be open to accession by any State
referred to in paragraph 1 of this article.
4. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of
accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
5. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all
States which have signed this Covenant or acceded to it of the deposit
of each instrument of ratification or accession.
Article 49
1. The present Covenant shall enter into force three months after
the date of the deposit with the Secretary-General of the United
Nations of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or instrument of
accession.
2. For each State ratifying the present Covenant or acceding to
it after the deposit of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or
instrument of accession, the present Covenant shall enter into force
three months after the date of the deposit of its own instrument of
ratification or instrument of accession.
Article 50
The provisions of the present Covenant shall extend to all parts
of federal States without any limitations or exceptions.
Article 51
1. Any State Party to the present Covenant may propose an
amendment and file it with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall thereupon communicate
any proposed amendments to the States Parties to the present Covenant
with a request that they notify him whether they favour a conference of
States Parties for the purpose of considering and voting upon the
proposals. In the event that at least one third of the States Parties
favours such a conference, the Secretary-General shall convene the
conference under the auspices of the United Nations. Any amendment
adopted by a majority of the States Parties present and voting at the
conference shall be submitted to the General Assembly of the United
Nations for approval.
2. Amendments shall come into force when they have been approved
by the General Assembly of the United Nations and accepted by a two-
thirds majority of the States Parties to the present Covenant in
accordance with their respective constitutional processes. 3. When
amendments come into force, they shall be binding on those States
Parties which have accepted them, other States Parties still being
bound by the provisions of the present Covenant and any earlier
amendment which they have accepted.
Article 52
Irrespective of the notifications made under article 48,
paragraph 5, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform
all States referred to in paragraph I of the same article of the
following particulars:
(a) Signatures, ratifications and accessions under article
48;
(b) The date of the entry into force of the present
Covenant under article 49 and the date of the entry into force
of any amendments under article 51.
Article 53
1. The present Covenant, of which the Chinese, English, French,
Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in
the archives of the United Nations.
2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall transmit
certified copies of the present Covenant to all States referred to in
article 48.
______
DECLARATION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF INTOLERANCE AND OF
DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RELIGION OR BELIEF
The General Assembly \1\
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\1\ Proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 36/55 of 25 November
1981.
Considering that one of the basic principles of the Charter
of the United Nations is that of the dignity and equality
inherent in all human beings, and that all Member States have
pledged themselves to take joint and separate action in co-
operation with the Organization to promote and encourage
universal respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
sex, language or religion;
Considering that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the International Covenants on Human Rights proclaim the
principles of nondiscrimination and equality before the law and
the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion and
belief;
Considering that the disregard and infringement of human
rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular of the right to
freedom of thought, conscience, religion or whatever belief,
have brought, directly or indirectly, wars and great suffering
to mankind, especially where they serve as a means of foreign
interference in the internal affairs of other States and amount
to kindling hatred between peoples and nations;
Considering that religion or belief, for anyone who
professes either, is one of the fundamental elements in his
conception of life and that freedom of religion or belief
should be fully respected and guaranteed;
Considering that it is essential to promote understanding,
tolerance and respect in matters relating to freedom of
religion and belief and to ensure that the use of religion or
belief for ends inconsistent with the Charter of the United
Nations, other relevant instruments of the United Nations and
the purposes and principles of the present Declaration is
inadmissible;
Convinced that freedom of religion and belief should also
contribute to the attainment of the goals of world peace,
social justice and friendship among peoples and to the
elimination of ideologies or practices of colonialism and
racial discrimination;
Noting with satisfaction the adoption of several, and the
coming into force of some, conventions, under the aegis of the
United Nations and of the specialized agencies, for the
elimination of various forms of discrimination;
Concerned by manifestations of intolerance and by the
existence of discrimination in matters of religion or belief
still in evidence in some areas of the world;
Resolved to adopt all necessary measures for the speedy
elimination of such intolerance in all its forms and
manifestations and to prevent and combat discrimination on the
ground of religion or belief,
Proclaims this Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms
of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or
Belief:
Article 1
1. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have a
religion or whatever belief of his choice, and freedom, either
individually or in community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and
teaching.
2. No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his
freedom to have a religion or belief of his choice.
3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or belief may be subject
only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to
protect public safety, order, health or morals or the fundamental
rights and freedoms of others.
Article 2
1. No one shall be subject to discrimination by any State,
institution, group of persons, or person on the grounds of religion or
other belief.
2. For the purposes of the present Declaration, the expression
``intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief'' means
any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on religion
or belief and having as its purpose or as its effect nullification or
impairment of the recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights
and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis.
Article 3
Discrimination between human being on the grounds of religion or
belief constitutes an affront to human dignity and a disavowal of the
principles of the Charter of the United Nations, and shall be condemned
as a violation of the human rights and fundamental freedoms proclaimed
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and enunciated in detail
in the International Covenants on Human Rights, and as an obstacle to
friendly and peaceful relations between nations.
Article 4
1. All States shall take effective measures to prevent and
eliminate discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief in the
recognition, exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental
freedoms in all fields of civil, economic, political, social and
cultural life.
2. All States shall make all efforts to enact or rescind
legislation where necessary to prohibit any such discrimination, and to
take all appropriate measures to combat intolerance on the grounds of
religion or other beliefs in this matter.
Article 5
1. The parents or, as the case may be, the legal guardians of the
child have the right to organize the life within the family in
accordance with their religion or belief and bearing in mind the moral
education in which they believe the child should be brought up.
2. Every child shall enjoy the right to have access to education
in the matter of religion or belief in accordance with the wishes of
his parents or, as the case may be, legal guardians, and shall not be
compelled to receive teaching on religion or belief against the wishes
of his parents or legal guardians, the best interests of the child
being the guiding principle.
3. The child shall be protected from any form of discrimination
on the ground of religion or belief. He shall be brought up in a spirit
of understanding, tolerance, friendship among peoples, peace and
universal brotherhood, respect for freedom of religion or belief of
others, and in full consciousness that his energy and talents should be
devoted to the service of his fellow men.
4. In the case of a child who is not under the care either of his
parents or of legal guardians, due account shall be taken of their
expressed wishes or of any other proof of their wishes in the matter of
religion or belief, the best interests of the child being the guiding
principle. 5. Practices of a religion or belief in which a child is
brought up must not be injurious to his physical or mental health or to
his full development, taking into account article 1, paragraph 3, of
the present Declaration.
Article 6
In accordance with article I of the present Declaration, and
subject to the provisions of article 1, paragraph 3, the right to
freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief shall include, inter
alia, the following freedoms:
(a) To worship or assemble in connection with a religion or
belief, and to establish and maintain places for these
purposes;
(b) To establish and maintain appropriate charitable or
humanitarian institutions;
(c) To make, acquire and use to an adequate extent the
necessary articles and materials related to the rites or
customs of a religion or belief;
(d) To write, issue and disseminate relevant publications
in these areas;
(e) To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for
these purposes;
(f) To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other
contributions from individuals and institutions;
(g) To train, appoint, elect or designate by succession
appropriate leaders called for by the requirements and
standards of any religion or belief;
(h) To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays and
ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of one's religion or
belief;
(i) To establish and maintain communications with
individuals and communities in matters of religion and belief
at the national and international levels.
Article 7
The rights and freedoms set forth in the present Declaration
shall be accorded in national legislation in such a manner that
everyone shall be able to avail himself of such rights and freedoms in
practice.
Article 8
Nothing in the present Declaration shall be construed as
restricting or derogating from any right defined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenants on Human
Rights.
APPENDIX C
----------
TRAINING AT THE FOREIGN SERVICE INSTITUTE RELATED TO THE INTERNATIONAL
RELIGIOUS FREEDOM ACT
I. Summary of Major Developments
Since the first report on International Religious Freedom was
issued in September 1999, the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) has
worked continuously with the Office of International Religious Freedom
(Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor) in implementing H.R.
2431. The result of this cooperation has been the further integration
of religious freedom issues into the regular curriculum at FSI. During
the period covered by this report, members of the FSI training staff
took part in numerous conferences dealing with religious freedom,
persecution, conflict, and reconciliation hosted by academic
institutions, think tanks and nongovernmental organizations. In
addition, the Director of FSI's Political Training Division has worked
with the staff of the U.S. Commission on International Religious
Freedom to ensure that their insights are reflected in FSI's course
offerings. In all these ways, the staff at FSI have sought to bolster
their own skills on religious freedom issues.
II. Courses Offered
The School of Professional and Area Studies (SPAS) at FSI offers
training relevant to the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998
(IRFA) in a variety of courses. Following are brief descriptions of
courses offered by the divisions of Political Training, Orientation,
Consular Training, and Area Studies:
Foreign Service Officer Orientation (A-100)
Every new Foreign Service Officer takes a 7-week orientation course
to prepare for an initial assignment overseas and to obtain the
grounding needed for a successful foreign service career. For a wide
range of emerging policy issues the students are broken down into
groups of about five to six students to engage in research on the topic
and then make an hour-long presentation to classmates, which includes a
question and answer session. The Political Training Division briefs the
students who are selected to work on religious freedom issues,
identifies initial contacts for them to make, and provides them with
the research materials described in Section III below. These students
routinely visit the office of International Religious Freedom to
discuss its work, and the issue of religious freedom as an element of
U.S. foreign policy. The Political Training staff monitors the work of
the religious freedom group to ensure that key points related to IRFA
are covered appropriately.
Political Tradecraft (PP-202) and Political Economic Tradecraft (PG-
140)
Each of these two basic 3-week-long courses is offered three times
per year. The students are full time government employees (mostly State
Department Foreign Service officers) being assigned for the first time
to work in an embassy's or consulate's political, economic, or combined
political/economic section overseas. These are essentially required
courses, in that State Department officers are assigned to take these
courses by the personnel system and exceptions are rare. The State
Department expects that a large proportion of these officers/students
during their careers will be directly responsible for preparing their
post's human rights and religious freedom reports. Therefore, these two
courses provide training to one of the major classes of officers
identified in the IRFA.
In these courses, each student is provided with a course notebook
that contains the items listed in Section III. In addition the Bureau
of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor provides at least a halfday
session during which religious freedom issues are featured prominently,
together with other important human rights issues in a discussion led
by the office of International Religious Freedom. There is also usually
a segment that includes a discussion of religious persecution,
religious identity, and religious reconciliation as important factors
in contemporary international conflicts. Religious freedom issues also
are covered in a major segment of the course related to doing contact
work overseas.
Global Issues (PP-510)
This 3-day course is given twice a year and is geared toward mid-
level foreign affairs and national security professionals working for
the Department of State and other agencies. In the fall, this course is
combined with a separate module on human rights.
In these courses students are provided with a course notebook that
contains the items listed in Section III. As in the Tradecraft courses,
the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor provides a fullday
session during which Religious freedom issues are prominently featured
in a discussion led by the office of International Religious Freedom,
together with other aspects of U.S. human rights policy. The importance
of religious issues in the modern world also is raised in several of
the other segments, including one devoted to U.S. foreign policy
priorities and strategic planning.
International Conflict--Diplomacy (PP-517)
This 3-day course focuses on various aspects of international
conflict, especially the enhancement of skills needed to analyze the
causes of conflict and develop a plan for preventive diplomacy. This
course trains up to 25 mid-level foreign affairs and national security
professionals working for the Department of State and other agencies.
The students are provided with a course notebook that contains most
of the key documents listed in Section III. Multiple segments in this
course deal with religious persecution and identity as a factor in
ethnic conflict, and reconciliation as a potential preventive step.
Basic Consular Course (PC-530)
PC-530 serves as the prerequisite for obtaining a consular
commission. It is aimed at junior foreign services officers preparing
to go overseas to fill consular positions, dependents of U. S.
government employees who will work as consular associates overseas, and
domestic employees of the Bureau of Consular Affairs in order that they
may serve temporary duty as consular officers should the need arise.
The PC-530 schedule includes a lecture related to the U.S.
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), ``Working with INS,''
that incorporates discussion of refugee and asylum issues as these
pertain to consular officers. The subject also is covered in further
detail in the Self-Instructional Guide (SIG) on immigrant visa
processing, which includes a chapter on ``Refugees, Asylum, Walk-ins,
and Parole.'' This chapter describes the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) refugee criteria, the U.S. refugee
program, and processing requirements for refugees. Scenarios involving
religious minorities have been incorporated into the ``role play''
portion of the training on consular prison visits.
Advanced Consular Course (PC-532)
The Advanced Consular Course is a 3-week course aimed at mid-level
consular officers being assigned to overseas posts as first-time
managers, as well as Civil Service employees of the Bureau of Consular
Affairs.
This course continues routinely to include a session, organized by
the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM), on refugee
processing and policy and religious persecution; and a second session,
organized by representatives of the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor's office of Country Reports and Asylum (DRL/CRA) on U.S.
asylum law and processing. Emphasis is given to the role of a consular
officer in these areas, to include processing of refugee- and asylee-
following to join cases (based on approved I-730 petitions).
Area Studies
The Foreign Service Institute and the Appeal of Conscience
Foundation annually sponsor a major symposium focused on religious
freedom and the role of U.S. diplomats overseas. Following keynote
addresses, officers at FSI in language training and area studies
courses take part in day-long sessions together with outside experts on
religious issues in their region, to permit in depth exchanges and
discussions.
Throughout the year, the course chairs in the Area Studies
Division, in cooperation with the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights,
and Labor, take steps to ensure that their courses address both
regional and country specific issues of religion, religious freedom and
human rights. Participants receive substantial information encompassing
the full range of issues affecting particular regions, including
religious freedom and human rights, religious history and religious
traditions. Students also receive reading lists (and World Wide Web
guidance) that direct them to even more detailed material.
Ambassadorial and Deputy Chief of Mission Training
In these courses, students are provided with a course notebook that
contains the items listed in Section III. When possible the Under
Secretary of State for Global Affairs and/or the Assistant Secretary
for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor provide oral briefings on
religious freedom and related human rights issues to these senior
officials.
III. Background Material on Religious Freedom
The following background materials related to religious freedom are
made available to FSI students:
Remarks by the President to Religious Leaders (June 18,
1998)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
United States Constitution, Bill of Rights, and Declaration
of Independence
Text of the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998
Department Telegram explaining the International Religious
Freedom Act of 1998
Most current Department of State telegrams on how to
implement IRFA and prepare the Annual Report.
Text of briefing by Ambassador Robert Seiple and Assistant
Secretary Harold Koh on the 1999 Report on International
Religious Freedom, September 9, 1999
Appendix on Diplomatic Steps taken to implement IRFA
State Magazine article on U.S. Commission on International
Religious Freedom
Highlights from the text of the 1999 report, plus World Wide
Web site address for the entire report.
Current and planned actions related to outreach to the
domestic and worldwide Islamic community.
APPENDIX D
----------
INS AND THE INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS
FREEDOM ACT
The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) is committed to
ensuring that all claims for refugee and asylum protection are treated
with fairness, respect, and dignity. Shortly after passage of the
International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA), the INS began to assess
existing asylum and refugee training programs in order to address the
specific training topics required under IRFA. In 1999 the INS formed a
working group to coordinate compliance under the law, including
training, development of guidelines relating to potential hostile
biases, and enforcement of the new inadmissibility provision relating
to foreign government officials who have committed particularly severe
violations of religious freedom. This appendix summarizes the agency's
actions during FY 2000, as required under Section 102 (b)(1)(E) of
IRFA.
I. Section 602(a): Training of Refugee Adjudicators
Section 602(a)(1) of IRFA amends Section 207 of the Immigration and
Nationality Act by requiring the Attorney General, in consultation with
the Secretary of State, to provide ``all United States officials
adjudicating refugee cases under this section with the same training as
that provided to officers adjudicating asylum cases under section
208.'' This training must include ``country-specific conditions,
instruction on the internationally recognized right to freedom of
religion, instruction on methods of religious persecution practiced in
foreign countries, and applicable distinctions within a country between
the nature of and treatment of various religious practices and
believers.''
Prior to the passage of IRFA, no specific statute or regulation
governed the training of officers adjudicating refugee cases in the
overseas refugee program. Refugee adjudications traditionally have been
done by Immigration Officers stationed overseas who receive, in
addition to basic immigration law training, specialized training
consisting of a survey of refugee law and procedure, as well as in-
country training. In recent years, the majority of officers detailed
for specific short-term refugee-processing work have been Asylum
Officers, who receive approximately 5 weeks of specialized training
related to international human rights law, nonadversarial interview
techniques, and other relevant national and international refugee laws
and principles. \1\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Asylum Officers complete an initial 5-week Immigration Officer
Basic Training Course, and 5 additional weeks of the Asylum Officer
Basic Training Course (AOBTC). The AOBTC, which is held approximately
twice per year, includes international human rights law, asylum and
refugee law, interviewing techniques, decision-making and decision-
writing skills, effective country conditions research skills, and
computer skills. Compulsory in-service training for all asylum officers
is held weekly.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
In FY 2000, the Office of International Affairs, Asylum Division,
modified the 5-week AOBTC curriculum to accommodate the IRFA training
requirements for overseas officers processing refugee claims. The
Asylum Division conducted two AOBTC sessions, attended by 47 new Asylum
Officers and 20 overseas Immigration Officers. The overseas officers
received the same training and took the same exams required of Asylum
Officer with respect to asylum eligibility, fraud, credibility, and
interviewing. Asylum Division and Refugee Branch personnel conducted
separate trainings on job-specific aspects of asylum adjudication and
refugee processing. The course also included a specific lesson devoted
to IRFA and throughout the course additional emphasis was placed on
religious persecution issues.
All persons who adjudicate refugee requests will continue to
receive country conditions training provided primarily by the INS
Resource Information Center (RIC) in the Office of International
Affairs, as well as copies of the annual Department of State report on
religious freedom mandated by Section 102 of IRFA.
II. Section 603(b): Training of Asylum Officers Adjudicating Asylum
Cases, and Immigration Officers Performing Duties under Section 235(b)
of the INA (Expedited Removal)
Asylum
Asylum Officers have received focused training on claims involving
religious issues since the Asylum Division*s inception in 1991, and
this was augmented during the last year both with basic asylum training
and continuing training in the field offices. Two AOBTC classes were
conducted during FY2000 in which a total of 47 new Asylum Officers and
20 overseas Immigration Officers were trained.
Local Asylum Office trainers continue to follow the current policy
of including a discussion of religious persecution whenever relevant
during training on country conditions. In addition all offices in FY
2000 had training specifically on religious persecution, and many of
these sessions were presented by outside experts. During FY 2000 the
Asylum Division continued to promote online research. Each officer now
has access to the public Internet and to supplemental legal and country
conditions information databases. Training in the use of these
resources has been given in all offices, and examples of religious
groups and religious persecution in different countries were used as
exercises to conduct online research.
The RIC has published an online guide to web research on the INS
Intranet, and an area was created for and devoted to government and
non-government links to religious persecution websites.
The RIC in the INS Office of International Affairs serves both the
Asylum Division and the Refugee Unit, and is responsible for the
collection and/or production and distribution of materials regarding
human rights conditions around the world. During FY 2000 the RIC has
catalogued separately religious freedom periodicals and coded
separately RIC responses to field queries that involve religious
issues. A list of documents focused specifically on religious
persecution and distributed to the asylum field offices is attached.
There are also numerous reports distributed by the RIC that are
country- or region-specific that do not focus on religion but which
contain some information on religious persecution in that country or
region.
Expedited Removal/Credible Fear
Approximately 4,500 Immigration Inspectors and 2,500 Detention and
Deportation Officers may at some time be involved in the expedited
removal/credible fear process and therefore are subject to the training
provisions of Section 603(b). During FY 2001, the INS will conduct
training on religious persecution for these officers through a
combination of direct, video-taped, and computer-based instruction. The
working group is conducting negotiations with a media services company
to produce an IRFA training video.
During FY 2000, the INS also has presented information on IRFA and
religious persecution claims to outside agencies. The Asylum Division
cohosted a panel on understanding religious claims at the June 2000
national Immigration Judge conference, and provided instructional
materials on IRFA and useful religious persecution website addresses.
As part of that presentation, the INS presented an analysis of FY 1998
and FY 1999 statistics on new asylum requests in light of the country
of origin and whether there was a religious component to these cases.
This data has been used to develop additional training materials and
was shared with the Department of State and the Office of the Chief
Immigration Judge. The INS Office of General Counsel also has provided
training at the Department of State's Foreign Service Institute. This
training included an overview of asylum and refugee policy and legal
issues, and specifically addressed religious persecution issues and
IRFA.
Agency-Wide Training on IRFA
During FY 2000 all employees were notified of IRFA and its effect
on operations within the INS. The new inadmissibility provision of INA
Sec. 212(a)(2)(G) relating to foreign government officials who have
committed particularly severe violations of religious freedom was
explained, and website addresses for more IRFA information were
provided. All employees will continue to be notified concerning agency
implementation of IRFA and updates to procedures and regulations.
The INS IRFA working group has advised that the best approach for
providing initial training on religious freedom and persecution issues
is through the expansion of basic training on asylum and human rights
issues included in the officer basic training courses. Work continues
to be done with the Immigration Officer Academy and the Border Patrol
Academy to incorporate additional asylum and refugee training
materials, including information on religious persecution, into the
basic curriculum.
Section 602(c): Guidelines for Addressing Hostile Biases:
Employees Hired Abroad
Preliminary guidelines have been drafted for the hiring of
personnel abroad who work in refugee-related situations, and revisions
to these drafts are under discussion within the INS working group. The
INS has initiated discussions with the Department of State (DOS)
regarding inclusion of IRFA obligations in the standard DOS contract
entered into with non-governmental agencies involved in refugee
processing. We anticipate developing the guidelines more fully through
consultation with overseas personnel officers and the relevant DOS
components in the course of the following fiscal year.
Section 603(a): Guidelines for Addressing Hostile Biases: Interpreters
Guidelines for interpreters of conversations between aliens and
Immigration Inspectors/Asylum Officers are to be developed jointly by
the Department of State and the Department of Justice. In the asylum
field offices, applicants for asylum currently provide their own
interpreters. In the expedited removal/credible fear process, the INS
provides interpreters through the use of contracted services. Officers
at ports-of-entry currently employ various means of interpretation. The
ports may use an Immigration Officer or the INS Interpreters' Unit in
New York, if available, or they may use one of several commercial
services, if funding permits. All ports-of-entry employees have been
notified of the provisions of IRFA relating to use of interpreters with
hostile biases, and have been advised to avoid the use of any airline
interpreters whenever possible for secondary inspection. During FY 2000
officials at major ports-of-entry were queried by the INS IRFA working
group, and additional queries are being developed in order to complete
work on the guidelines.
A master contract between Language Services Associates and the INS
was approved in July 1999, and while it currently is used only by
Asylum Officers in the Asylum Pre-Screening program, the interpreter
services it provides are available to other INS components. The
contract has special provisions to ensure the security and
confidentiality of the credible fear process, and it can be modified to
include specific antibias provisions. In FY 2000 the INS procurement
office has aided the Asylum Division in developing a list of language
service providers contracted by the General Services Administration.
This list of contractors now may be used by any division of the INS to
obtain language translation and interpretation services.
Religious Persecution Articles Distributed by the INS Resource
Information Center
Below is a comprehensive, chronological list of the specialized
documents on abuses of religious freedom distributed by the INS
Resource Information Center (RIC) to the asylum offices and the Refugee
Branch since 1992. They were distributed at the time they came to the
attention of the RIC, which, in some cases, was one or more years after
the date of publication. This list does not include hundreds of
articles the RIC makes available to asylum field offices in the
biweekly News Summary for Asylum Adjudicators.
Immigration and Refugee Board Documentation Centre. Mohajirs: Issue
Paper (Ottawa: IRBDC, September 1990), 24 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board Documentation Centre. Ghana: Freedom of
Religion (Ottawa: IRBDC, May 1991), 9 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board Documentation Centre. The Ahmadiyya
(Ottawa: IRBDC, June 1991), 31 p.
Amnesty International. Pakistan: Violations of Human Rights of Ahmadis
(London: AI, ASA 33/15/91, September 1991), 11 p.
Asia Watch. Freedom of Religion in China (New York: Human Rights Watch,
January 1992), 77 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board Documentation Centre. Pakistan: Treatment
of Ahmadis Who Return (Ottawa, IRBDC, February 1992), 16 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, CIS, Baltic States and Georgia: Situation of Jews
(Ottawa: IRB DIRB, July 1992), 35 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Pakistan: The Mohajirs (Ottawa: IRB DIRB, September
1992).
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center. Information Packet Series. Syria: Syrian Jews:
Historical Perspective and Current Events (Washington, DC: INS
RIC, IP/SYR/92.001, August 1992).
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Israel: Jews from the Former Soviet Union (Ottawa: IRB
DIRB, February 1993).
Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, Syria, Persecution of Syrian Jews,
distributed by US Immigration and Naturalization Service,
Resource Information Center, Master Exhibit Series,
(Washington, DC: HIAS, ME/SYR/93.001, 1993)
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Nigeria: Religion and Conflict (Ottawa: IRB DIRB, March
1993).
Baha'i International Community, The Baha'i Question: Iran's Secret
Blueprint for the Destruction of a Religious Community (New
York: BIC Publications, 1993), 55 p.
Kenvin, Helene. Civil War, Ethnic Strife, and the Disintegration of
Jewish Life in Georgia January 1992 through March 1993 (Esopus,
NY: Caucasus Network, April 2, 1993), 15 p.
Amnesty International. Persecution of Christians in China: Appeal for
Zhang Lezhi, Yan Peizhi and Xu Zhihe (London: AI, ASA 17/23/93,
June 1993), 3 p.
Kenvin, Helene. Anti-Semitic Violence in Georgia (Esopus, NY: Caucasus
Network, July 22, 1993), 3 p.
Kenvin, Helene. Brutalization of Georgia's Jewish Community (Esopus,
NY: Caucasus Network, September 19, 1993), 4 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Nigeria: Christians in Kano, Query Response
(Washington, DC: INS RIC, NGA94-01.ZHN, October 8, 1993), 8 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Georgia: Treatment of Jews, Query Response (Washington,
DC: INS RIC, GEO94-01.ZNK, December 30, 1993), 8 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Ahmadis in Pakistan: Update December 1991 to October
1993, Question and Answer Series (Ottawa, Canada: IRB DIRB,
January 1994), 27 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Egypt: Coptic Christians, Query Response (Washington,
DC: INS RIC, EGY94-01.ZNK, February 10, 1994), 4 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Profile Series, Russia: The Status of Jews in the Post-
Soviet Era (Washington, DC, INS RIC, PR/RUS/94.001, September
1994), 39 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Lebanon: Status of Jews, Query Response (Washington,
DC: INS RIC, LBN94-01.ZNK, 7 March 7, 1994), 10 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Pakistan: Muslims Who Convert to Christianity, Query
Response (Washington, DC: INS RIC, PAK94-03.ZHN, March 10,
1994), 16 p.
Human Rights Watch/Middle East. Egypt: Violations of Freedom of
Religious Belief and Expression of the Christian Minority (New
York: HRW/Middle East, Vol.6, No. 2, November 1994), 36 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Russia: Jews, Query Response (Washington, DC: INS RIC,
RUS94-01.ZSF, April 14, 1994), 16 p.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Armenia: Baptists/Evangelicals, Query Response
(Washington, DC: INS RIC, ARM94-01.ZLA, April 19, 1994), 3 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Anti-Semitism in Latvia: The Current Situation,
Question and Answer Series (Ottawa, Canada: IRB DIRB, September
1994), 13 p.
Lambert, Anthony, P.B., What is the Size of the Chinese Church? Special
Report (Santa Ana, CA: News Network International Syndicate,
September 19, 1994), 23 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Anti-Semitism in Estonia: The Current Situation,
Question and Answer Series (Ottawa, Canada: IRB DIRB, November
1994), 9 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information, and Research
Branch, Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union: Chronology 1727 to
1 January 1992, Question and Answer Series (Ottawa, Canada: IRB
DIRB, November 1994), 23 p.
UNHCR, RE: Asylum Claim by Christian Woman from Syria, Letter from
Scott Busby, Associate Legal Counselor, United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees, with attachments (Washington, DC:
UNHCR, November 15, 1994), 16 p.
Gauhar, Altaf, ed., ``Letter from Gujranwala: A Short Course in
Blasphemy'', Index on Censorship (London, UK: Writers &
Scholars International Ltd, Vol. 24, No. 3, May 1995), p. 99-
105.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, China: Christians, Query Response (Washington, DC: INS
RIC, CHN95-01.ALL, March 8, 1995) 3 p.
Spiegel, Mickey. ``Religion in China'', China Rights Forum (New York:
Human Rights in China, Spring 1995), p. 14-17.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Resource Information
Center, Armenia: Pentecostals, Query Response (Washington, DC:
INS RIC, ARM95-02.ZLA, March 31, 1995) 5 p.
Amnesty International. China: Christians Arrested during Easter and
Others Serving Sentences (London: AI, May 12, 1995), 3 p.
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information and Research
Branch, India: Sikhs in Punjab 1994-95, Question and Answer
Series (Ottawa: IRB DIRB, February 1996), 31 p.
U.N. Commission on Human Rights. Implementation of the Declaration on
the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of
Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief: Report Submitted by
Mr. Abdelfattah Amor, Special Rapporteur: Addendum: Visit by
the Special Rapporteur to the Islamic Republic of Iran (Geneva:
UN, E/CN.4/1996/95, February 9, 1996), 24 p.
Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. On the Persecution of Jews around the
World: Hearing before the U.S. House of Representative
Subcommittee on International Operations and Human Rights
(Washington, DC: HIAS, February 27, 1996), 1 v. (various
pagings).
Immigration and Refugee Board, Documentation, Information and Research
Branch. Pakistan: Update on the Situation of Ahmadis, October
1993-June 1996 Question and Answer Series (Ottawa: IRB DIRB,
November 1996), 27 p.
Shea, Nina. In the Lion's Den (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman
Publishers, 1997), p. 27-84
Boyle, Kevin/Sheen, Juliet. Freedom of Religion and Belief : A World
Report (London: Routledge, 1997), 462 p.
The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press, 1997), 1,111 p.
Marshall, Paul. Their Blood Cries Out: The Worldwide Tragedy of Modern
Christians Who Are Dying for Their Faith (Dallas, TX: Word
Inc., 1997), 335 p.
Dumbaugh, Kerry and Johnson, Deborah. CRS Report for Congress: China's
Treatment of Religious Practices (Washington, DC: Congressional
Research Service, Library of Congress, November 17, 1997), 10
p.
Sikh Human Rights Group. Sikh Human Rights Group: Selected 1997 Asylum
Reports (United Kingdom: 1997) 50 p.
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APPENDIX E
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OVERVIEW OF U.S. REFUGEE POLICY
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates
the world's refugee population to be 11.5 million persons. Millions
more are displaced within their own countries by war, famine, and civil
unrest. The United States works with other governments and
international and nongovernmental organizations to protect refugees,
internally displaced persons, and conflict victims, and strives to
ensure that survival needs for food, health care, and shelter are met.
The United States has been instrumental in mobilizing a community of
nations to work through these organizations to alleviate the misery and
suffering of refugees throughout the world. During FY 2000, the United
States has supported major relief and repatriation programs throughout
the world.
In seeking durable long-term solutions for most refugees, the
United States gives priority to the safe, voluntary return of refugees
to their homelands. This policy, recognized in the Refugee Act of 1980,
is also the preference of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees and the international community of nations that support
refugees. If safe, voluntary repatriation is not feasible other durable
solutions are sought, including resettlement in countries of asylum
within the region and in other regions. Resettlement in other
countries, including the United States, is appropriate for refugees in
urgent need of protection and refugees for whom other durable solutions
are inappropriate or unavailable.
The United States considers for admission as refugees persons of
special humanitarian concern who can establish persecution or a well-
founded fear of persecution in their home country on account of race,
religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or
political opinion. The legal basis of the refugee admissions program is
the Refugee Act of 1980, which embodies the American tradition of
granting refuge to diverse groups suffering or fearing persecution. The
act adopted the definition of ``refugee'' contained in the 1951 United
Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967
Protocol.
Over the past decade, the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program has been
adjusting its focus away from the large refugee admissions programs
that had developed during the Cold War for nationals of Communist
countries and toward more diverse refugee groups that require
protection for a variety of reasons, including religious belief. The
following describes the program's efforts, by region, in meeting the
needs of refugees worldwide who have faced religious persecution.
Africa
For the majority of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, religious
freedom and peaceful coexistence are the rule, even where other
conflicts hold sway. The primary exception to the rule is Sudan, where
the long ongoing civil war has a religious dimension. Islam is the
state religion and Muslims dominate the Government. The Government
continues to restrict the activities of Christians, practitioners of
traditional indigenous religions and other non-Muslims. Security forces
reportedly harass and use violence regularly against persons based on
their religious beliefs. In areas controlled by the Government, access
to education as well as other social services, is far easier for
Muslims than for Christians and non-Muslims. The Government has
conducted or tolerated attacks on civilians, indiscriminate bombing
raids, and slave raids on the south, all with a religious as well as an
ethnic dimension.
The U.S. admissions program has in recent years increased its focus
in Egypt, Ethiopia, and Kenya on these Sudanese victims of religious
discrimination and repression. The refugee processing program in Cairo
was expanded in 1999 with Sudanese refugees as the primary
beneficiaries. Plans are well-developed to resettle in FY 2001 several
thousand young Sudanese refugees now in camps in Kenya, including over
100 unaccompanied minors.
East Asia
Most countries in the region permit freedom of worship. However,
the religious freedom situation in China is worsening. The Government
actively suppresses those groups that it cannot control directly, most
notably the Vatican-affiliated (underground) Catholic Church,
Protestant ``house churches,'' some Muslim groups, followers of the
Dalai Lama in Tibet, and members of the Falun Gong spiritual movement.
The Vietnamese constitution provides for freedom of worship; however,
the Government restricts those organized activities of religious
organizations that it defines as being at variance with state laws and
policies. Most independent religious activities either are prohibited
or restricted severely. For example, Buddhist monks are required to
work under a party-controlled umbrella organization. The situation for
some religious groups in Laos is similar. In Burma, the Government
actively suppresses most non-Buddhist religions (particular in the case
of minority ethnic groups such as the Karen and Chin). The religious
freedom situation in North Korea is particularly hard to gauge given
the extreme lack of access provided by the Government; however, most
indications are that religious freedom is circumscribed severely.
The U.S. admissions program for East Asia accepts refugee cases
referred by the UNHCR and U.S. embassies. Over the past several years,
we have worked closely with the UNHCR to strengthen the referral
process so those individuals in need of resettlement can have access to
the program.
Eastern Europe
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, freedom of religion
varies widely in the countries of the Newly Independent States and the
Baltics. Most states regulate religious groups and activities,
specifying a set of ``traditional'' religions with certain privileges
denied to other groups. Following the example of Russia in 1997, many
states responded with more restrictive legislation to govern the
activities of foreign missionaries. Registration in many cases is
required not only to establish a group as a legal entity, which allows
it to rent or own space, but even in some cases, to ensure a group's
right to hold services. In most countries, obstruction or delay of
registration, usually by local officials, continues to frustrate some
denominations perceived as ``foreign'' or as ``cults.'' In some
countries, one's faith may be associated with ethnicity, patriotism,
nationalism, or even with terrorism; in some cases authorities are
suspicious of religious groups perceived as having political agendas
and organizations.
The U.S. refugee admissions program provides resettlement
opportunities to religious minority members (as identified in the
Lautenberg Amendment) with close family ties to the United States. In
addition, UNHCR has recently increased the number of referrals to the
program.
Refugee admissions on religious grounds have been significant
factors in both the Bosnia and Kosovo resettlement efforts. The U.S.
refugee admissions program has provided protection to Muslims,
Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, as well as individuals of other
religious minorities. We will continue to work with the UNHCR, faith-
based nongovernmental organizations, human rights groups, and U.S.
missions to identify persons who qualify under the 1980 act on
religious grounds for whom resettlement is appropriate.
Latin America/Caribbean
In Latin America generally, religious freedom is widely recognized
and enjoyed. The key exception is Cuba, where the Government engages in
active efforts to monitor and control religious institutions, including
surveillance, infiltration, and harassment of clergy and members;
evictions from and confiscation of places of worship; and preventive
detention of religious activists. It also uses registration as a
mechanism of control; by refusing to register new denominations, it
makes them vulnerable to charges of illegal association. However,
despite these obstacles to religious expression, church attendance has
grown in recent years.
The U.S. refugee admissions program specifically includes religious
minorities and other human rights activists among the list of eligible
groups.
Near East and South Asia
Repression of religious minorities is common in some countries in
the Middle East and South Asia. In Pakistan discriminatory legislation
has encouraged an atmosphere of violence, which has led to acts by
extremists against religious minorities, including Christians, Hindus,
Ahmadis, and Zikris. In India state and local authorities' responses to
extremist violence were often inadequate. In Saudi Arabia public non-
Muslim worship is a criminal offense, as is conversion of a Muslim to
another religion. In Iran members of minority religions continue to
face arrest, harassment, and discrimination.
Iranian refugees who belong to religious minorities (Baha'is, Jews,
Zorastrians, Christians) are able to apply directly for U.S.
resettlement. In addition, the UNHCR and U.S. embassies in the region
facilitate access to the admissions program for individuals of other
nationalities who may qualify on religious grounds. We will continue
efforts to improve access to refugee processing through dialogue with
faith-based nongovernmental organizations and human rights groups who
may identify victims with valid claims based on grounds of religious
persecution. The UNHCR also has addressed religious persecution issues
in several regional workshops to increase the sensitivity of protection
and resettlement officers to victims of religious persecution.