[House Hearing, 117 Congress]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office]



                      AMERICA'S NATURAL SOLUTIONS:
                   THE CLIMATE BENEFITS OF INVESTING
                         IN HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS

=======================================================================

                                HEARING

                               BEFORE THE

                        SELECT COMMITTEE ON THE 
                             CLIMATE CRISIS
                        HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

                    ONE HUNDRED SEVENTEENTH CONGRESS

                             SECOND SESSION

                               __________

                              HEARING HELD
                             APRIL 1, 2022

                               __________

                           Serial No. 117-16




               [GRAPHIC(S) NOT AVAILABLE IN TIFF FORMAT]




                            www.govinfo.gov

   Printed for the use of the Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                                 ______
                                 

                   U.S. GOVERNMENT PUBLISHING OFFICE
48-152                     WASHINGTON : 2022









                 SELECT COMMITTEE ON THE CLIMATE CRISIS
                    One Hundred Seventeenth Congress

                      KATHY CASTOR, Florida, Chair
                      
SUZANNE BONAMICI, Oregon             GARRET GRAVES, Louisiana,
JULIA BROWNLEY, California             Ranking Member
JARED HUFFMAN, California            GARY PALMER, Alabama
A. DONALD McEACHIN, Virginia         BUDDY CARTER, Georgia
MIKE LEVIN, California               CAROL MILLER, West Virginia
SEAN CASTEN, Illinois                KELLY ARMSTRONG, North Dakota
JOE NEGUSE, Colorado                 DAN CRENSHAW, Texas
VERONICA ESCOBAR, Texas              ANTHONY GONZALEZ, Ohio

                                 ------                                

                Ana Unruh Cohen, Majority Staff Director
                Sarah Jorgenson, Minority Staff Director
                        climatecrisis.house.gov





                            C O N T E N T S


                              ----------                              

                   STATEMENTS OF MEMBERS OF CONGRESS

                                                                   Page
Hon. Kathy Castor, a Representative in Congress from the State of 
  Florida, and Chair, Select Committee on the Climate Crisis:
    Opening Statement............................................     1
    Prepared Statement...........................................     3
Hon. Garret Graves, a Representative in Congress from the State 
  of Louisiana, and Ranking Member, Select Committee on the 
  Climate Crisis:
    Opening Statement............................................     4

                               WITNESSES

Collin O'Mara, President and Chief Executive Officer, National 
  Wildlife Federation
    Oral Statement...............................................     7
    Prepared Statement...........................................    10
Nick Loris, Vice President, Public Policy, C3 Solutions
    Oral Statement...............................................    29
    Prepared Statement...........................................    31
Dr. Sherry L. Larkin, Director, Florida Sea Grant College 
  Program; and Professor, Food and Resource Economics, University 
  of Florida
    Oral Statement...............................................    39
    Prepared Statement...........................................    40
Dr. Cristina Eisenberg, Courtesy Faculty, College of Forestry, 
  Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State 
  University
    Oral Statement...............................................    45
    Prepared Statement...........................................    47

                       SUBMISSIONS FOR THE RECORD

Report from Developments in the Built Environment, Vol. 4, ``Wood 
  buildings as a climate solution,'' submitted for the record by 
  Mr. Westerman..................................................    75
Report from Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES), 
  ``Decarbonizing U.S. Buildings,'' submitted for the record by 
  Mr. Westerman..................................................    75
Report from the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works 
  (Minority Staff), The Chain of Environmental Command: How a 
  Club of Billionaires and Their Foundations Control the 
  Environmental Movement and Obama's EPA, submitted for the 
  record by Mr. Crenshaw.........................................    75
Article by Glenn Kessler in The Washington Post, ``The Bogus 
  `Allegation' that Putin is Funding a California Environmental 
  Charity,'' submitted for the record by Ms. Castor..............    75

                                APPENDIX

Questions for the Record from Hon. Kathy Castor to Sherry Larkin.    76
Questions for the Record from Hon. Kathy Castor to Cristina 
  Eisenberg......................................................    78



 
                      AMERICA'S NATURAL SOLUTIONS:
                   THE CLIMATE BENEFITS OF INVESTING
                         IN HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS

                              ----------                              


                         FRIDAY, APRIL 1, 2022

                          House of Representatives,
                    Select Committee on the Climate Crisis,
                                                    Washington, DC.
    RPTR MARTIN EDTR CRYSTAL STATE PERSPECTIVES ON CUTTING 
METHANE POLLUTION Tuesday, June 14, 2022 U.S. House of 
Representatives, Select Committee on the Climate Crisis, 
Washington, D.C.
    The committee met, pursuant to call, at 1:04 p.m., in Room 
1334, Longworth House Office Building, Hon. Kathy Castor 
[chairwoman of the committee] presiding.
    Present: Representatives Castor, Bonamici, Brownley, 
Huffman, McEachin, Escobar, Graves, Palmer, Carter, Miller, and 
Crenshaw.
    Ms. Castor. The committee will come to order.
    Welcome to the Select Committee on the Climate Crisis 
hearing on ``State Perspectives on Cutting Methane Pollution.''
    Without objection, the chair is authorized to declare a 
recess of the committee at any time.
    And as a reminder, members participating in a hearing 
remotely should be visible on the camera throughout the 
hearing.
    For members participating in person, masks are optional.
    As with in-person meetings, members are responsible for 
controlling their own microphones. Members can be muted by 
staff only to avoid inadvertent background noise.
    And as a reminder, statements, documents, or motions must 
be submitted to the electronic repository, to 
[email protected].
    Finally, members or witnesses experiencing technical 
problems should inform the committee staff immediately.
    Well, good afternoon, everyone, and thank you for joining 
this hybrid hearing.
    Before we begin, we are all deeply saddened by the loss of 
our dear colleague Representative Sean Casten's daughter Gwen 
yesterday. So I would like to ask for a moment of prayer or 
silent reflection to lift up Representative Casten and his 
family.
    [Moment of silence.]
    Ms. Castor. Thank you.
    So in the hearing today we will examine state perspectives 
on cutting harmful methane pollution from oil and gas 
infrastructure and how Federal standards, policies, and 
investments can complement state initiatives.
    I will now recognize myself for 5 minutes for an opening 
statement.
    We are so excited today to have two distinguished guests 
for this important hearing. We are going to learn directly from 
Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham, one of our former colleagues, 
the Governor of New Mexico, and Governor Mark Gordon of 
Wyoming.
    Thank you both for being here to share your unique 
perspectives on climate solutions.
    We often focus on carbon dioxide as the main driver of the 
climate crisis, but it is also critical that we address 
methane, the second-largest source of heat-trapping pollution. 
Methane is a potent greenhouse gas and is responsible for about 
30 percent of global warming in the modern era. And while it 
leaves the atmosphere faster than CO2, it traps 87 
times as much heat while it lingers.
    Last year, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
urged us to work to reduce this super-pollutant. And while the 
Biden administration, Congress, and many states have adopted 
policies to reduce methane pollution and energy waste, methane 
levels have jumped dramatically over the last decade and 
emissions remain at the highest levels on record.
    Fortunately, there are cost-effective ways to dramatically 
reduce methane pollution from the oil and gas sector, which 
remains the largest industrial methane source in the United 
States.
    Fossil fuels were responsible for approximately 80 percent 
of the increase in methane emissions between 2006 and 2017 
across North America, according to an analysis from NASA and 
Stanford, and methane can escape at nearly every stage during 
the production, transmission, and distribution of oil and gas.
    And all of these leaks add up. Producers could have sold an 
additional 180 billion cubic meters of natural gas, the 
equivalent of the entire European market, if all leaks from 
global fossil fuel operations had been captured last year, 
according to the International Energy Agency.
    And according to a separate analysis by the IEA, the oil 
and gas industry could slash its methane emissions in half at 
no net cost just by deploying existing technologies.
    So taking these actions has broad support. Last year, we 
voted to require companies to regularly find and repair methane 
leaks. Major oil and gas companies supported the measure--but 
only 12 House Republicans voted for it, unfortunately.
    Our friends across the aisle often call for expanding 
production of natural gas as a solution to the climate crisis. 
But unless harmful methane pollution is addressed, the climate 
impacts of gas can be worse than the coal it may replace.
    Plugging methane leaks is low-hanging fruit, and it is good 
for producers' bottom line as well. And because of Putin's 
invasion of Ukraine, it is now a security imperative. Capturing 
wasted methane could meet more than half of President Biden's 
LNG commitment to Europe.
    Stopping energy waste will help both everyday Americans and 
our allies abroad. It will also support good-paying jobs here 
in America. Those jobs include plugging and remediating 
abandoned wells, expanding leak detection and repair, and 
increasing maintenance and inspections.
    According to the BlueGreen Alliance, unleashing this 
potential could create 50,000-plus jobs over the decade. 
Repairing and replacing leaking natural gas distribution lines 
could create 300,000 more jobs.
    That win-win scenario is one of the reasons we invested 
$4.7 billion to help states and Tribes plug and remediate 
abandoned oil and gas wells in the Bipartisan Infrastructure 
Law.
    We also invested more for abandoned mine reclamation, for 
natural gas pipeline modernization, and to mitigate the 
environmental risks of undocumented orphan wells.
    We are excited about the progress at the state level, 
Governors.
    New Mexico now requires regular and frequent leak detection 
and repair, and a new measure will help eliminate routine 
venting and flaring across that state.
    And in Wyoming, state officials stepped up after the Trump 
administration weakened Federal methane safeguards. They 
created state-level emissions limits and required leak 
detection and repair on new and modified sources.
    But there is so much more to be done--and quickly--as the 
costly impacts of the climate crisis continue to grow and the 
window to act to avoid the worst impacts is rapidly closing.
    We need robust Federal rules to find and repair leaks from 
both new and existing sources, including marginal wells, and we 
need to end routine venting and flaring, which wastes energy 
and harms the public health.
    So we are looking forward to a robust discussion today.
    At this time, I will recognize the Ranking Member, Mr. 
Graves, for a 5-minute opening statement.
    [The statement of Ms. Castor follows:]

                Opening Statement of Chair Kathy Castor

                AMERICA'S NATURAL SOLUTIONS: THE CLIMATE

              BENEFITS OF INVESTING IN HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS

                             April 1, 2022

                        As prepared for delivery

    I'm excited to recognize our two distinguished guests for this 
important hearing so we can learn from them: Governor Michelle Lujan 
Grisham, of New Mexico, and Governor Mark Gordon, of Wyoming. Thank you 
for being here to share your unique perspectives on climate solutions.
    We often focus on carbon dioxide as the main driver of the climate 
crisis. But it's also critical that we address methane, the second-
largest source of heat-trapping pollution. Methane is a potent 
greenhouse gas and is responsible for about 30% of global warming in 
the modern era. And while it leaves the atmosphere faster than CO2, it 
traps 87 times as much heat while it lingers. Last year, the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change urged us to work to reduce 
this super-pollutant. And while the Biden administration, Congress, and 
many states have adopted policies to reduce methane pollution and 
energy waste, methane levels have jumped dramatically over the past 
decade and emissions remain at the highest levels on record.
    Fortunately, there are cost-effective ways to dramatically reduce 
methane pollution from the oil and natural gas sector, which remains 
the largest industrial methane source in the United States. Fossil 
fuels were responsible for approximately 80% of the increase in methane 
emissions between 2006 and 2017 across North America, according to 
analysis from NASA and Stanford. And methane can escape at nearly every 
stage during the production, transmission, and distribution of oil and 
gas. These leaks add up. Producers could have sold an additional 180 
billion cubic meters of natural gas--the equivalent of the entire 
European gas market--if all leaks from global fossil fuel operations 
had been captured last year, according to the International Energy 
Agency. And according to a separate IEA analysis, the oil and gas 
industry could slash its methane emissions in half at no net cost just 
by deploying existing technologies.
    Taking these actions has broad support. Last year, we voted to 
require companies to regularly find and repair methane leaks. Major oil 
and gas companies supported the measure, but only 12 House Republicans 
voted for it. Our friends across the aisle often call for expanding 
production of natural gas as a solution to the climate crisis, but 
unless harmful methane pollution is addressed, the climate impacts of 
gas can be worse than the coal it may replace.
    Plugging methane leaks is low-hanging fruit and it is good for 
producers' bottom line. And because of Putin's invasion of Ukraine, 
it's now a security imperative as well. Capturing wasted methane could 
meet more than half of President Biden's LNG commitment to Europe. 
Stopping energy waste will help both everyday Americans and our allies 
abroad. It will also support good-paying jobs across America. Those 
jobs include plugging and remediating abandoned wells, expanding leak 
detection and repair, and increasing maintenance and inspections. 
According to BlueGreen Alliance, unleashing this potential could create 
50,000-plus jobs over a decade. Repairing and replacing leaky natural 
gas distribution pipelines could create 300,000 more.
    That ``win-win'' scenario is one of the reasons we invested $4.7 
billion to help states and tribes plug and remediate abandoned oil and 
gas wells in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. We also invested more 
for abandoned mine land reclamation, for natural gas pipeline 
modernization, and to mitigate the environmental risks of undocumented 
orphaned wells.
    We're also excited about progress at the state level. New Mexico 
now requires regular and frequent leak detection and repair, and a new 
measure will help eliminate routine venting and flaring across the 
state. And in Wyoming, state officials stepped up after the Trump 
administration weakened federal methane safeguards, creating state-
level emissions limits and requiring leak detection and repair on new 
and modified sources.
    But there is so much more to be done--and quickly--as the costly 
impacts of the climate crisis continue to grow and the window to act to 
avoid the worst impacts is rapidly closing. We need robust federal 
rules to find and repair leaks from both new and existing sources, 
including marginal wells. And we need to end routine venting and 
flaring, which wastes energy and harms public health.
    I look forward to today's discussion.

    Mr. Graves. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    Madam Chair, today I would like to announce that my good 
friends and I have finally seen the light, that I am 100 
percent on board with you-all's efforts to move to renewable 
energy. I am going to switch parties and----
    Ms. Castor. You are in sync with most of America now. Thank 
you.
    Mr. Graves. So April Fool's.
    When I talked about switching--I know. Somebody is going to 
chop that. Somebody is going to chop that.
    And just to finish my statement, when I was talking about 
switching parties, I am going to switch from the Saturday night 
Mardi Gras Ball to the Sunday night Mardi Gras Ball.
    And when I tell you I have seen the light, I do want to 
clarify that. So we recently had the President, in fact, over 
the last 4 months announce that he is going to release a total 
of 260 million barrels from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. 
According to EIA, we have imported up to about 200,000 barrels 
a day of Russian oil. So you can do the math. The President is 
saying he is going to release a million barrels. Even if you 
had a refined product, then you are still significantly below 
that number. And to me, it verifies what we have expressed 
concern about previously is that the release of the Strategic 
Petroleum Reserve, our emergency reserves, are actually to 
mitigate for bad energy policy.
    Madam Chair, you just made reference to the Great American 
Outdoors Act. And you are right. Congress did pass that, and I 
know there are a lot of people in this room that supported it. 
But I also want to remind you that every penny of that money 
that goes toward funding the national parks and wildlife 
refuges and our BLM lands and forests and it goes to the 
maintenance, backlog maintenance, every single penny of that is 
derived from offshore energy production in the Gulf of Mexico.
    And so, over the past year, we have seen, just in one year, 
we have seen--and I can get the exact numbers but I was looking 
at some numbers just a minute ago. We have seen a reduction of 
over $1 billion, over $1 billion in revenue to the U.S. 
Treasury that would go to fund the Great American Outdoors Act, 
as well as funding things like coastal resiliency and hurricane 
protection in my home State of Louisiana.
    And so there is a relationship here. If we continue, as 
this administration has done, to say we are not going to 
produce any energy--we are not going to produce it, the only 
administration in modern history that has not had a single 
lease sale for onshore or offshore energy in the United States, 
and so you are having financial implications. It is causing 
environmental concerns. It is making the people that we 
represent in south Louisiana along the Gulf Coast more 
vulnerable, because we are not making investments into 
hurricane protection and coastal restoration at the same level 
as we would. And it is going to be a downward trajectory.
    And so some say, well, look, I don't want to use oil and 
gas. Well, even this administration's Energy Information Agency 
says we are going to have a 50-percent global increase, 50-
percent global increase in demand for energy, this 
administration's projections show an increase in oil and an 
increase in gas demand, as well as renewables and everything 
else we need to be doing. We have got to have a strategy moving 
forward.
    Madam Chair, you just talked about American support and the 
majority of Americans. You know what the majority of Americans 
have said? 92 percent of Americans, 92 percent have said that 
they don't want to import foreign oil, that they don't want to 
bring in oil from Russia. Yet this administration's policies 
are actually making us more dependent upon foreign resources.
    So what did the President do yesterday? He just says, well, 
we are going to employ the Defense Production Act and we are 
going to get these critical minerals. Well, just a few months 
ago, you actually banned critical minerals from being produced 
in the United States.
    The Defense Production Act really is designed for three 
things. It is designed for national defense. It is designed to 
respond to disasters. It is designed to respond to terrorism. 
It is really unfortunate that we are in a situation where we 
have to employ the Defense Production Act to address terrorism 
and disasters committed by our own administration.
    Look, we are talking about natural solutions today. And I 
really appreciate it. And I am looking forward to hearing from 
witnesses because I think, Madam Chair, this is an area where 
we agree.
    I am excited to have Congressman Bruce Westerman, the 
Ranking Member of the Natural Resources Committee, come in, in 
a little while. Bruce has been an incredible leader and very 
well-versed on natural solutions such as the role that trees 
can play in sequestering greenhouse gases. And as you may know, 
he has got this legislation, the Trillion Trees Act, that could 
sequester up to 205 gigatons of carbon through that initiative.
    But we also have other things that we ought to be talking 
about, and that includes our farms. Some of the largest 
landholders in conservation in the United States are farms. 
And, in fact, since 1948, their productivity has increased over 
280 times, the productivity of our agriculture. And so that is 
more efficient farming, providing food to the United States and 
the world and at much more efficient rates, in fact, some of 
the most efficient production in the world. In fact, I think it 
is the most productive in world.
    But we have additional opportunities to do better best 
practices and employ better--I don't know how to say that; let 
me try that again--employ best practices on a wider scale, and 
I think we can resolve to working with our farmers, other 
natural solutions.
    And one other thing, Madam Chair, that I want to make 
reference to that I think affects both of us is restoring or 
protecting our coastal areas, because when we have our coastal 
areas erode and are lost, it results in the emissions of 
greenhouse gases. And, in fact, when I was working for the 
State of Louisiana, we did one of the first clean development 
mechanisms in the world relating greenhouse gas emissions to 
wetlands restoration and protection. I think we have some 
opportunities there as well.
    So I look forward to hearing from our witnesses. And I 
yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Now I want to welcome our witnesses.
    Today we will hear from experts on the importance of 
investing in healthy and resilient habitats and communities. We 
have a great panel.
    Mr. Collin O'Mara is the President and Chief Executive 
Officer of the National Wildlife Federation. Mr. O'Mara leads 
the country's largest wildlife conservation organization with 
52 state and territorial affiliates and nearly 6 million 
hunters, anglers, birders, gardeners, hikers, paddlers, and 
wildlife enthusiasts. Prior to NWF, Mr. O'Mara led the Delaware 
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control as 
Cabinet Secretary from 2009 through 2014.
    Mr. Nick Loris is the Vice President of Public Policy at C3 
Solutions. Mr. Loris studies and writes about a wide range of 
energy and climate policies, including natural resource 
extraction, energy subsidies, nuclear energy, renewable power, 
and energy efficiency. He also studies ways in which markets 
will improve the environment, reduce emission, and better adapt 
to a changing climate.
    Dr. Sherry Larkin is the Director of the Florida Sea Grant 
College Program and Professor of Food and Resource Economics at 
the University of Florida. As a natural resource and 
environmental economist, Dr. Larkin leads work to conserve 
coastal and marine resources and enhance economic opportunities 
across Florida. She has served as an elected member of the 
Executive Committee for the International Institute of 
Fisheries Economics & Trade, as well as President of the North 
American Association of Fisheries Economists.
    The Chair now recognizes Representative Bonamici to 
introduce Dr. Cristina Eisenberg.
    Ms. Bonamici. Thank you, Chair Castor.
    It is my pleasure to introduce Dr. Cristina Eisenberg, an 
Oregon State University Courtesy Faculty Member at the College 
of Forestry and an outstanding alumna and alumni fellow. Dr. 
Eisenberg is a Native American and Latinx conservation 
biologist and the principal investigator on two multiyear 
projects within indigenous communities. She served as a 
Smithsonian Research Associate and as the Chief Scientist at 
Earthwatch Institute, where she was responsible for overseeing 
a global research program focused on ecological restoration, 
climate resiliency, social justice for indigenous peoples, and 
sustainability.
    Dr. Eisenberg has authored numerous journal articles, 
books, and book chapters. She serves on several boards and 
advisory councils. She works to build government-to-government 
partnerships with Tribal Nations and Federal agencies in a 
manner that respects the sovereignty, upholds treaty rights, 
and advances social and environmental justice.
    I look forward to hearing more from Dr. Eisenberg, and I 
thank her for being here today.
    And I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Rep Bonamici.
    And I would also like to welcome a number of students who 
are in the audience today, graduate students. They are in town 
for the National Association of Graduate Professional Studies' 
Spring Legislative Action Days. It is a pleasure to have 
University of Florida Graduate Student Rock Aboujaoude, who 
serves as Legislative Director of the association and as 
Director of the Campus Climate Corps in Gainesville.
    Welcome also to Dr. John Capece, who has spent his career 
supporting graduate students and clean water in the great State 
of Florida.
    With that, Mr. O'Mara, you are going to start us off. You 
are recognized for 5 minutes for your presentation.

  STATEMENTS OF COLLIN O'MARA, PRESIDENT AND CHIEF EXECUTIVE 
    OFFICER, NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION; NICK LORIS, VICE 
   PRESIDENT, PUBLIC POLICY, C3 SOLUTIONS; SHERRY L. LARKIN, 
  DIRECTOR, FLORIDA SEA GRANT COLLEGE PROGRAM, AND PROFESSOR, 
    FOOD AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA; AND 
  CRISTINA EISENBERG, COURTESY FACULTY, COLLEGE OF FORESTRY, 
   DEPARTMENT OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS AND SOCIETY, OREGON STATE 
                           UNIVERSITY

                   STATEMENT OF COLLIN O'MARA

    Mr. O'Mara. Thank you, Chair Castor and Ranking Member 
Graves, for holding this hearing and for having me, giving me 
the opportunity to testify before you all.
    To achieve net zero emissions, we are going to need to 
reduce net greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. by about 6 
gigatons and, you know, domestically and about 44 gigatons 
around the globe. We often think about natural climate 
solutions and natural solutions as a resilience play. But I 
want to talk today about how this could actually be--these 
investments could actually be a quarter of the overall 
solution.
    They are kind of the ultimate win-win-win. They are a win 
on safety. They make communities more resilient. The healthy 
forests are less likely to experience megafires, helping 
wetlands and grasslands help reduce damage from hurricanes and 
inland flooding. They are a win on carbon. They are a multiple-
gigaton solution for sequestering carbon.
    There are economic wins. They create a ton of good jobs, 
about more than 17 to 25 jobs per million dollars invested. 
They both direct restoration jobs, as well as supporting jobs 
on working landscapes in the outdoor economy.
    Number four, the fourth win is that they are--they make 
communities healthier. For example, urban trees, you know, 
filter out pollution out of the air and the water. They reduce 
urban heat island effects.
    And the fifth one is that there is this huge savings. They 
save a ton of money. Every dollar we spend on pre-storm 
disaster preparedness saves us $6 to $8 in avoided costs, and 
that is an incredible ROI that is a great way to reduce our 
long-term debt.
    Yet, despite all of this, climate conversations rarely 
focus as much on natural solutions as they do on technology. 
And it is less than 5 percent of overall climate spending. And 
when you consider that really the only emission reduction 
strategy that also provides resilience benefits that can cost-
effectively save lives, it even becomes more absurd that we 
don't focus on it more.
    You know, last year alone we had twenty climate-fueled 
disasters that caused at least $1 billion in damages. These 
disasters resulted in $145 billion of total damages and the 
tragic loss of nearly 700 lives in the U.S. Now, imagine how 
many of those lives could have been saved. And, you know, when 
disasters, whether it is Hurricane Katrina or Sandy or Harvey 
or Maria, or the horrific fires out West, I mean, they 
disproportionately affect communities of color, low-income 
communities, frontline communities first and worst.
    Now when we think about natural climate solutions, we are 
talking about a few types of key systems. So we are talking 
about forests. We are talking about wetlands. We are talking 
about grasslands and shrublands. We are talking about coasts 
and the marine environment.
    Healthy forests are less likely to burn uncontrollably. 
Right? They help clean water. They help restore water. They 
reduce drought conditions. They provide key habitat for 
wildlife, and they serve as our greatest terrestrial carbon 
sink. Wetlands and repairing corridors, the average acre of 
wetlands can hold more than 1 million gallons of water, 1 
million gallons. I mean, the absorption capacity is huge. So, 
when communities face a hurricane or a flash flood, those 
wetlands reduce both the volume and the velocity of water, 
protecting all those either inland or downstream.
    Grasslands and shrublands, native grasses and shrubs have 
long, deep roots that sequester a lot of carbon, improve soil 
health, reduce soil erosion, all of which helps reduce flooding 
and improve productivity, especially when invasive plants like 
cheatgrass and buffalo grass aren't allowed to spread and get 
that tender on the landscape.
    Coasts and marines also huge opportunities for resilience 
in carbon abatement on living shorelines, planted dunes, tidal 
wetlands, mangroves, kelp, seagrass, and other native 
vegetation. Each of these systems can mean the difference 
between life and death, homes in better standing, or 
communities that are washed away, life that is carrying on or 
lives that are upended.
    Now, fortunately, as Chair Castor said, over the last 
several Congresses and thanks to many of you, we have made 
great progress on natural climate solutions, especially 
resilience. You know, we have gone from these niche products to 
actually mainstream solutions. We have seen this in WRDA, the 
Farm Bill, the Great American Outdoors Act, America's 
Conservation Enhancement Act.
    We have seen natural infrastructure prominently focused in 
disaster supplementals. We have seen it in enhancements to the 
hazard mitigation programs. The Infrastructure and Jobs Act had 
historic investments, and the reconciliation package had $105 
billion proposed for restoration resilience. We can and must 
build on these investments and do so in ways that leave no 
community behind and ensure that communities of color and 
frontline communities are never an afterthought ever again.
    Now the good news is there is a whole range of bipartisan 
solutions that are before you right now. I would argue that the 
biggest single action that Congress could take just for private 
investment in natural solutions is replicating the success of 
the 45Q tax credit for carbon capture technology and with a 
complementary credit that is actually focused on the 
sequestration of carbon naturally.
    Sending a clear market signal that is predictable, 
accessible, additional, permanent, and ecologically 
appropriate, we could catalyze innovation and private 
investment onto public-private Tribal lands, while providing 
policy parity for natural solutions and their technological 
counterparts.
    If you want more greater public investment in--through the 
Congress and also reduce long-term debt, we could update the 
way we budget these projects, the way we score these projects. 
You know, CBO right now score the dollar we spend on mitigation 
without the fixed dollars in spending--in savings that we would 
enjoy. And we are spending a lot on supplementals that, 
frankly, are kind of that pound of cure where the ounce of 
prevention would have been a lot cheaper.
    We also need to continue to prioritize natural solutions in 
things like WRDA, things like the next Farm Bill, all the 
ecological restoration programs, and not just like the estuary 
programs in the Great Lakes and the Chesapeake and the Delaware 
but coastal Louisiana, the Everglades, coastal communities up 
and down the coast, and also the working waterways like the 
Mississippi, the Ohio, the Missouri, the Colorado, the Rio 
Grande, some of the resources that don't get the attention.
    And, finally, I would be remiss, of course, if I didn't 
mention the Recovering America's Wildlife Act and other great 
efforts like the North American Grasslands Conservation Act, 
Wildlife Corridors Act. And hopefully there is a bipartisan 
path on the Trillion Trees initiative.
    So these present a huge opportunity. And investing in 
natural infrastructure allows us to center the health and 
safety of people, as well as advancing our climate, 
conservation, and economic goals. That is a pretty good win-
win-win-win-win.
    Thanks for letting me be with you today.
    [The statement of Mr. O'Mara follows:]

                 Written Testimony of Mr. Collin O'Mara

            President and CEO, National Wildlife Federation

   Hearing on ``America's Natural Solutions: The Climate Benefits of

                   Investing in Healthy Ecosystems''

           U.S. House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                             April 1, 2022

Introduction
    Thank you, Chairwoman Castor, Ranking Member Graves, and members of 
the select committee for holding this hearing. Natural infrastructure 
is a proven, life-saving, and fiscally responsible solution to 
sequester carbon and protect communities from the increasingly severe 
effects of the climate crisis in every state and territory.
    Healthy rivers, forests, grasslands, wetlands, shrublands, and 
shorelines are each essential for resilient communities, carbon 
sequestration, thriving populations of fish and wildlife, and a vibrant 
outdoor economy. These natural systems also reduce the need for costly 
structural flood and storm damage reduction projects and improve the 
effectiveness and resilience of other critical infrastructure assets. 
As we confront climate change and anticipate increasingly more frequent 
and severe storms and weather events, it is essential that we consider 
all tools at our disposal, including the use of natural systems to help 
buffer and protect communities.
    As we work to confront the immense threats that the changing 
climate poses to communities today, natural solutions are essential to 
protecting communities. Climate-fueled hurricanes, heatwaves, fires, 
floods, and storms are here and their impacts are very real. Last year 
alone, there were 20 climate-fueled disasters that have each caused at 
least $1 billion in damages and collectively resulted in $145 billion 
in damage and the tragic loss of 688 lives. Natural systems--ranging 
from healthy forests to coastal wetlands and dunes to healthy 
floodplains--can mean the difference between life and death, homes 
still standing or a community washed away, life carrying on or lives 
upended.
    Natural solutions that sequester carbon should also be central to 
any plan to achieve net-zero emissions--and, through the right 
incentives and investments, can account for more than 30 percent of the 
emission reductions needed.
    Fortunately, over the past several Congresses, natural 
infrastructure has emerged as a bipartisan solution to the challenges 
millions of Americans are facing. We've seen supportive policies and 
increased investment through the Water Resources Development Act, the 
Farm Bill, Storm Recovery Supplemental Appropriations, reform of Hazard 
Mitigation Programs, the Land and Water Conservation Fund, America's 
Conservation Enhancement Act, annual appropriations, and most 
significantly, the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. 
And there are many more bipartisan opportunities to do even more.
    By continuing to leverage the protective value of nature, we can 
implement approaches that break the destructive and devastating cycle 
of climate-fueled unnatural disasters. Resilient natural systems can 
withstand changing conditions and readily recover from extreme floods, 
storms, and droughts. They also provide cost-effective and self-
sustaining protections and benefits, including reducing flood risks, 
sustaining fish and wildlife, improving water quality, regulating 
sediment loading, stabilizing soil, sequestering carbon, and providing 
recreational opportunities.
    Natural infrastructure and nature-based solutions should be a 
mainstream choice for our infrastructure investments. We know, based on 
years of evidence, that this approach saves lives and taxpayer dollars. 
Conserving, restoring, and investing in natural and nature-based 
features makes communities safer and more resilient by absorbing 
floodwaters, buffering storm surges, and giving rivers room to spread 
out without harming homes and businesses. Studies show that restoration 
can create from around 10 to 40 jobs per $1 million invested. Natural 
infrastructure reduces the need for new, often expensive structural 
projects, and provides an important extra line of defense when levees 
or other structures are required. Natural infrastructure also avoids 
unintended adverse impacts such as diverting floodwaters onto other 
communities and inducing development in high risk areas.
    For too long, Congress and conservation-focused organizations 
looked past people when focusing on wildlife, public lands, clean 
waterways, forests and headwaters, coastal dunes and wetlands, mountain 
peaks and pristine coasts. This approach has left behind communities of 
color and treated environmental justice and frontline communities as 
afterthoughts. We should center the health and safety of people when we 
prioritize the conservation and restoration of natural systems, while 
also advancing our goals to recover wildlife, provide clean water and 
air, reduce erosion, and promote outdoor recreation -- all while 
sequestering large amounts of the excess carbon dioxide currently in 
the atmosphere.
    On behalf of the National Wildlife Federation, our 52 state and 
territorial affiliates, and our nearly 7 million members and 
supporters, we are grateful for the leadership of this Committee in 
laying out thoughtful policy recommendations for natural climate 
solutions, including conserving and restoring forests, grasslands, 
floodplains, and ocean and wetland ecosystems; boosting federal 
spending for new and existing conservation programs to help farmers and 
ranchers adopt practices that help wildlife and stabilize the climate; 
helping wildlife adapt to climate change by establishing wildlife 
corridors and implementing landscape-scale conservation plans; and 
ensuring equitable access and benefits from natural climate solutions.
A Highly Cost-Effective Solution
    For every $1 that we spend on pre-disaster mitigation, we will save 
$6 to $8 in avoided damages and taxpayer costs. Because of our archaic 
budget rules, it's easier to spend hundreds of billions of dollars 
after a disaster through a supplemental appropriation than it is to 
invest in the ounce of prevention that could have mitigated the damage 
in the first place. While we score the immediate cost of $1 of 
mitigation, we fail to account for the long-term cost avoidance on 
disaster relief and recovery. This just doesn't make sense. As a 
result, we've spent nearly $300 billion in disaster supplementals over 
the past decade and that number will only grow. And we urge the 
committee to consider working with the Senate to amend both rules and 
statutes like PAY-GO to account for the net-savings that such 
investments will achieve, while not undercounting the increased 
expenditures that will accrue without action.
    There is a wide and growing body of literature demonstrating how 
investing in nature before and after natural disasters reduces costs to 
taxpayers, landowners, and insurers while also saving lives and 
protecting property.[1] For 
instance, coastal ecosystems represent a critical buffer against 
hurricanes and other storms. One acre of wetlands can typically store 
1-1.5 million gallons of floodwater.[2] According to a 2008 study, coastal wetlands in the United 
States provide an estimated $23.2 billion per year in storm protection 
services, or as much as $5 million per square kilometer of 
wetland.[3]
    Living shorelines, such as marshes enhanced with oyster reef 
breakwaters, hold up better than bulkheads during major storm 
events.[4] This protection also 
comes at lower cost than traditional protective infrastructure. For 
example, reviving reefs and mangroves can be an order of magnitude more 
cost-effective than installing seawalls or breakwaters.[5] Moreover, residents with bulkheads in 
coastal North Carolina report paying double the cost to repair their 
property and four times the cost for annual shoreline maintenance when 
compared to residents with more natural shorelines.[6] Living shorelines also protect 
against coastal erosion on a day-to-day basis, while maintaining 
connectivity of shoreline habitat.[7]
    In coastal Louisiana, investments in wetland restoration generated 
28 times as much flood protection, dollar-for-dollar, than a similar 
investment in six-meter high dikes.[8] In Florida, it has been estimated that comprehensive 
restoration of the Everglades would yield a four-to-one return on 
investment.[9] And, wetlands can 
also help industry meet regulatory requirements at lower cost than by 
constructing costly water treatment facilities.[10]
    Beach restoration and dune nourishment can provide protection from 
major storm events, boost the local economy through increased 
recreation, and provide habitat for migratory birds. When Superstorm 
Sandy hit the East Coast in 2012, Cape May Point, New Jersey, had 
recently completed a project to widen two miles of the beach, build an 
18-foot tall dune, and restore nearby freshwater wetlands. Cape May 
Point suffered virtually no damage, while surrounding areas sustained 
$640 million in losses. A host of birds have flocked to the restored 
wetlands and beach, and ecotourism from birders is estimated to add 
more than $310 million per year to the county's revenue.[11]
    Floodplain acquisition projects have been effective in reducing 
flood risk, bringing down flood insurance premiums, and creating green 
spaces for recreation. Along Mingo Creek in Tulsa, Oklahoma, local 
property owners and businesses have not suffered property losses due to 
flooding since a voluntary buyout program was implemented in 1984. 
Additionally, residents have received up to a 35% discount on their 
flood insurance premiums, which reflects their reduced flood 
risk.[12]
    Inland, reforestation, climate-smart forest management, and 
watershed restoration all have the potential to bolster natural carbon 
sequestration, benefit wildlife, and provide economic benefits 
including job creation. In Oregon, each dollar of public investment in 
forest and watershed restoration is multiplied in economic activity 
between 1.7 and 2.6 times as it cycles through Oregon's 
economy.[13] Similarly, it was 
estimated that the first year of the Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation 
Economic Development Pilot Program, alone, would cost less than $30 
million but generate more than $140 million in revenue while creating 
3,000 jobs and attracting more than 600,000 visitors to the region in 
Kentucky.[14]
    The need to address greater risks from wildfires in many grasslands 
and forested areas has also grown considerably in recent years due to 
climate-related increases in extreme heat and drought, combined with 
higher fuel loads due to nearly a century of over-reliance on fire 
suppression. Indeed, the cost of wildfire impacts has grown 
considerably as more people have moved in to the so-called ``wildland 
urban interface.'' [15] A 2015 
study estimated that at least 1.1 million homes are at the highest risk 
from wildfire in the western United States, with a reconstruction cost 
of $268 billion dollars.[16] In 
turn, land management agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service have had 
to spend significantly larger portions of their budgets on fire 
suppression, eroding their ability to fund restoration and management 
activities to improve ecosystem health and resilience.[17]
    Ecological forest management has emerged as an important concept 
for addressing wildfire risks as well as enhancing the health of forest 
systems. Specifically, ecological forest management may include a 
combination of strategic thinning, prescribed fire, and managed 
wildfire to reduce the risk of high-severity wildfire and promote 
healthier, more-resilient forests. Done thoughtfully, the approach can 
help balance tradeoffs between short-term costs and impacts of 
treatment with long-term benefits of reduced risks of large, high-
severity fires. For example, a combination of thinning and prescribed 
fire in eastern and southern California was found to have significantly 
reduced burn severity in trees during 12 wildfires that occurred 
between 2005 and 2011.[18]
    Further, improved community planning and collaborative risk 
management efforts, including both targeted codes and ordinances and 
voluntary, incentive-based approaches, have significantly reduced risks 
from wildfires. For example, the Firewise USA  recognition program, a 
collaborative effort between state and federal agencies and 
nongovernmental organizations, has been working with communities across 
the country to reduce wildfire risks by encouraging homeowners to 
improve defensible space in their neighborhoods. Recent fires have 
demonstrated the program's success. For example, two consecutive fires 
in the community of Indian Lakes Estates, Florida, spared numerous 
homes and structures due to risk reduction preparations that homeowners 
made under the program.[19] Such 
programs are likely to be increasingly important as insurance companies 
continue to assess the risks from worsening wildfires and adjust rates 
and coverage accordingly.[20]
    By updating our scoring rules to account for the net savings we can 
both increase investment in these life-saving projects, while reducing 
the long-term national debt projections.
Increasingly Severe Weather Events Are Wreaking Havoc on Communities
    Natural climate solutions are essential to our ability to adapt to 
unavoidable climate impacts, build resilience, and meet net-zero goals. 
Adaptation is an essential partner to climate mitigation, and nature-
based solutions can play a major role for both and provide significant 
co-benefits for water, air, recreation, hazard reduction, and many 
other services to society. However, natural climate solutions must 
value biodiversity and be ecologically appropriate to ensure no harmful 
unintended consequences.
    The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a 
report in February that warned climate change is already severely 
impacting people and the ecosystems we depend on in every region of the 
world, with the poorest and most vulnerable at greatest risk, and one 
million animal and plant species facing the threat of extinction -- 
more than any other time in human history. The IPCC also reported that 
despite an increase in adaptation activities by governments, 
businesses, and civil society, far more is needed to help people and 
wildlife prepare for a changing world.
    America is facing increasingly severe storms and floods, extreme 
droughts, massive wildfires and record high temperatures, fueled by a 
rapidly changing climate.[21] We 
have suffered more billion-dollar inland flood disasters in the last 
decade than in the prior three decades combined. We have endured more 
billion-dollar hurricane disasters in the last five years than in the 
decade before.[22] The human 
suffering caused by these and many smaller disasters is incalculable, 
with low-income and frontline communities bearing a disproportionate 
share of the harm.
    The ever-mounting toll of human suffering and economic loss from 
natural disasters shows no sign of abating and every sign that it will 
continue to grow. Research shows that both the intensity and number of 
extreme storms will continue to increase appreciably as our climate 
warms. In some locations, future extreme events could be twice as 
intense as historical averages.[23] By 2100, previously rare extreme rainstorms could happen 
every two years.[24] By 2050, 
high tides could cause ``sunny day'' flooding in coastal communities 25 
to 75 days a year.[25] By the 
end of the century, homes and commercial properties currently worth 
more than $1 trillion could be at risk of chronic flood 
inundation.[26]
    Storms and floods in the United States disproportionately harm 
Black, Latinx, Indigenous, low-income, and frontline communities. For 
example, the neighborhood that suffered the worst flood damage during 
Hurricane Harvey was in an area of southwest Houston where 49 percent 
of the residents are people of color. Similarly, damage from Hurricane 
Katrina was most extensive in the region's Black neighborhoods. In 
fact, in four of the seven ZIP codes that suffered the costliest flood 
damages from Hurricane Katrina, at least 75 percent of residents were 
Black.[27] Over the next 30 
years, the ``risk of coastal floods damaging or destroying low-income 
homes will triple'' resulting in the flooding of more than 25,000 
affordable housing units each year.[28]
    In addition, ``while severe storms fall on the rich and poor alike, 
the capacity to respond to and recover from flooding is much lower in 
socially vulnerable populations that even in the best of times are 
struggling to function.''[29] 
Even low levels of flooding can wreak havoc on buildings and the 
residents who live in them, damaging belongings, disrupting electrical 
equipment, contaminating water sources and septic systems, and 
generating mold. These impacts can ``cause profound disruptions to 
families already struggling to make ends meet'' and can be particularly 
challenging to remedy in affordable housing units, which are often in 
poor repair to begin with.[30]
Nature-based Solutions to Address Community Climate Risks
    As the impacts of climate change accelerate, exposing the 
limitations of relying only on conventional gray infrastructure, the 
value of nature-based solutions to address community climate risks is 
becoming increasingly evident. Known by a variety of terms--including 
natural infrastructure, natural defenses, natural climate solutions, 
ecosystem-based adaptation, and natural and nature-based features--
nature-based solutions can effectively deliver both climate mitigation 
and climate adaptation outcomes. In 2016, the International Union for 
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) published a global standard for the 
use of these approaches, defining nature-based solutions (NbS) as 
``actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural and 
modified ecosystems in ways that address societal challenges 
effectively and adaptively, to provide both human well-being and 
biodiversity benefits.''
    The use of natural and nature-based systems to address climate 
risks can encompass a wide range of options, from the protection and 
conservation of still-intact natural systems, to the restoration of 
degraded ecosystems, to the use of engineered systems designed to 
emulate natural system functions. Importantly, nature-based approaches 
can also be used in concert with structural options to form hybrid or 
``green-gray'' systems for risk reduction. In practice, these 
approaches can be as simple as planting trees in urban neighborhoods to 
provide shade and stormwater management benefits or as complex as 
reengineering riverine systems to restore natural floodplains and 
lessen flood risks and restore natural ecosystem functioning and 
biodiversity integrity.
    The National Wildlife Federation recently conducted a review and 
synthesis of nature-based solutions as a contribution to the U.S. 
Climate Resilience Toolkit's Steps to Resilience planning framework. 
This review highlighted the following seven key considerations for 
incorporating nature-based approaches into community-based climate 
adaptation planning:
      Recognize natural systems and processes as critical 
infrastructure
      Consider climate impacts on priority natural assets
      Consider equity implications in the design and 
application of nature-based solutions
      Ensure that nature-based solutions yield net positive 
biodiversity benefits
      Seek to protect or restore critical natural 
infrastructure
      Give natural features and processes space to function
      Integrate nature-based solutions into existing planning 
processes
    The Changing Climate and Massive Habitat Losses Have Pushed 
Wildlife to the Brink
    The changing climate, combined with historic and ongoing 
destruction, fragmentation, and degradation of vast swaths of habitat, 
have pushed America's wildlife into crisis, helping to drive the 
planet's ongoing sixth mass extinction of species.[31] As many as one-third of America's 
plant and wildlife species are vulnerable, with one in five imperiled 
and at high risk of extinction.[32]
    America's freshwater species have been particularly hard hit. 
Approximately 40 percent of the nation's freshwater fish species are 
now rare or imperiled.[33] 
Nearly 60 percent of the nation's globally significant freshwater 
mussel species are imperiled or vulnerable, and an additional 10 
percent are already extinct.[34]
    Our wildlife crisis extends well beyond rare and endangered 
species, and now affects many widespread and previously abundant 
creatures, such as the little brown bat, monarch butterfly, and many of 
our most beloved songbirds. State fish and wildlife agencies have 
identified more than 12,000 species nationwide in need of conservation 
action, and fully one-third of North America's bird species require 
urgent conservation attention.[35] The best way to spur collaborative, proactive recovery 
efforts to save these thousands of species of greatest conservation 
need is for Congress to pass the bipartisan Recovering America's 
Wildlife Act (H.R.2773).
    The historic loss and degradation of aquatic wildlife habitat 
across the country makes each additional acre of wetland lost or 
natural stream segment channelized even more consequential for the 
long-term viability of our nation's fish and wildlife. At least ten 
states have lost more than 70 percent of their wetlands, which provide 
essential fish and wildlife habitat, while 22 states have lost 50 
percent or more of their original wetland acreage.[36] The construction of levees to reduce 
the frequency and duration of flooding in the lower Mississippi River 
Valley is the single largest contributor to wetland losses in the 
country, according to the Department of the Interior.[[37] Fish and wildlife have also been 
severely harmed through the pervasive alteration of natural stream 
flows, including from reservoirs and locks and dams, which have 
occurred in 86 percent of the almost 3,000 streams assessed by the U.S. 
Geological Survey.[38] It is 
past time that we turn to the most ingenious engineer on the planet, 
Mother Nature, to help protect people and wildlife alike with natural 
infrastructure.
Ecosystem Restoration Provides Multiple Environmental, Health, and 
        Economic Benefits
    From the Coastal Louisiana to the Everglades and the Great Lakes to 
the Puget Sound, many iconic ecosystems across the country have 
associated restoration plans that, with enough support, could enhance 
the many co-benefits ecosystem restoration provides for communities and 
wildlife alike. These watershed-wide ecosystem restoration programs and 
plans were carefully crafted based upon the best available science and 
with extensive public input. They enjoy broad, bipartisan support, and 
their success hinges on the construction and maintenance of shovel-
worthy infrastructure projects, including natural infrastructure 
projects. Implementing these plans creates thousands of good-paying 
jobs through the on-the-ground work needed to restore our nationally 
significant lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Many federal and state 
agencies -- including the Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental 
Protection Agency, Department of Interior, Department of Agriculture, 
and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration -- have a critical 
role to play in supporting a robust restoration economy by developing 
and implementing these watershed-wide restoration plans and programs.
    There are also critical watersheds -- such as the Ohio River, the 
Mississippi River, the Delaware River, and coastal Louisiana -- where 
restoration plans exist or are currently under development at the state 
or regional level. These working watersheds are also home to many low-
income and vulnerable communities, who suffer firsthand as a result 
from the degradation and pollution of these rivers and surrounding 
floodplains.
    The recently passed bipartisan infrastructure law recognizes the 
multitude of benefits of investing in watershed-wide approaches that 
utilize natural infrastructure to restore and protect our aquatic 
ecosystems across the country. For example, it invested more than $1.7 
billion in the Environmental Protection Agency's ecosystem restoration 
programs, including $1 billion to clean up toxic pollution, restore 
fish and wildlife habitat, reduce farm and city runoff pollution, and 
confront invasive species through the federal Great Lakes Restoration 
Initiative and $238 million for the Chesapeake Bay Program, which 
coordinates Chesapeake Bay watershed restoration and protection 
efforts. The law also provided nearly $1 billion for coastal 
restoration and resilience investments through NOAA and through the 
National Coastal Resilience Fund, as well as $1.9 billion for Army 
Corps of Engineers' aquatic ecosystem restoration efforts across the 
country, including a historic $1 billion for efforts to restore the 
Everglades. It contains a historic amount of funding for water 
infrastructure, including over $11.7 billion for the Clean Water State 
Revolving Fund (CWSRF), of which at least 10 percent of each state's 
capitalization grants will go toward Green Project Reserve eligible 
projects, including natural infrastructure projects like wetland 
restoration and reforestation efforts.
    These investments, coupled with annual federal appropriations, will 
help achieve comprehensive, watershed-wide restoration, enhancing 
drinking water quality, safeguarding nearby communities from floods and 
sea level rise, sustaining local and regional economies, protecting 
wildlife habitat, and creating jobs.
    Restored watersheds improve our quality of life, increase property 
values, provide clean water, support fish and wildlife and enhance 
outdoor recreation for our families. The on-the-ground work to restore 
our coasts, lakes, rivers, and estuaries produces jobs and utilizes 
skills and machinery available in the local workforce, benefiting local 
economies. These cost-saving, job-creating, and resilience-building 
investments will also help advance the administration's goals to 
conserve and restore 30 percent of America's lands and waters.
    Continuing to direct federal resources toward these widely-
supported and thoughtfully-crafted regional restoration programs are 
among the smartest and most strategic investments we can make as a 
nation to create jobs, support regional economies, protect natural 
resources, enhance fish and wildlife habitat, and make our roads, 
bridges, water systems, and communities more resilient. These 
ecologically and culturally-important natural places are nationally-
significant hubs of tourism, and many support and protect other 
critical industries including fisheries, shipping, and energy 
production. Restoration implementation also supports a $25 billion 
``restoration economy'' that directly employs 126,000 people and 
supports 95,000 other jobs, mostly in small businesses. Restoring these 
great watersheds helps sustain our nation's $887 billion outdoor 
recreation economy. Through federal and state restoration we have an 
opportunity to stimulate growth and produce jobs in regional economies, 
and to support the national outdoor economy for years to come. Some 
specific examples of the benefits of investing in ecosystem 
restoration, and opportunities to expand ecosystem restoration efforts, 
include:
      Coastal Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta: Large-
scale restoration of coastal Louisiana presents a significant 
opportunity to protect existing infrastructure and industries of 
national importance, while growing a restoration economy that can be a 
model for other coastal communities around the world. Resources should 
be directed to implement critical large-scale restoration projects in 
coastal Louisiana, drawn from the state's Coastal Master Plan. These 
investments would protect vulnerable communities, sustain critical 
wildlife habitat, and create jobs. Additionally, lifting the existing 
cap on shared Gulf of Mexico Energy Security Act (GOMESA) revenues 
would increase resources available to sustain a restoration economy.
      Mississippi River Restoration and Resilience Initiative: 
Congress should pass H.R. 4202, the Mississippi River Restoration and 
Resilience Initiative (MRRRI) Act, to establish a non-regulatory EPA 
geographic program for the Mississippi River mainstem states. The MRRRI 
Act centers natural infrastructure solutions that have co-benefits for 
flood risk reduction, water quality improvements, wildlife habitat, 
recreation, and other services to communities. It would enhance federal 
coordination with the Army Corps and other agencies around a shared 
agenda to improve the overall health and resilience of the Mississippi 
River, through collaboration with states, Tribes, local governments, 
and other river stakeholders.
      Chesapeake Bay Restoration: The Chesapeake Bay watershed 
is home to more than 18 million people and spans 64,000 square miles 
across parts of Delaware, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
and West Virginia and the entire District of Columbia. Over the past 
decade, the states and the federal government have jointly committed to 
a massive restoration program in the Bay watershed to restore the Bay 
and its tributaries by 2025. The COVID-19 pandemic has set back 
progress -- from delayed implementation of conservation practices on 
farms to the implementation of stormwater practices in urban areas. 
None of the watershed's restoration goals can be met without the 
leadership, guidance and accelerated funding support provided by 
various federal agencies, especially the Environmental Protection 
Agency.
      Delaware River Basin Restoration Program: More than 13 
million people rely on clean drinking water from the Delaware River 
watershed, including residents of New York City, Philadelphia, Trenton, 
Camden, and Wilmington. The Delaware River Basin Restoration Program, 
administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, develops a 
coordinated approach to identify and implement restoration and 
conservation activities across the Delaware River watershed, including 
natural infrastructure projects that help restore water quality, 
enhance water management efforts, improve wildlife habitat, and create 
public access through the entire Delaware River watershed.
      Everglades: The bipartisan plan to restore America's 
Everglades involves constructing a suite of resilience-building water 
infrastructure projects designed to remove barriers to water flow and 
to clean, store, and send water south. Completing the restoration 
milestones outlined in the Army Corps' Integrated Delivery Schedule for 
Everglades restoration will create over 65,000 jobs, protect drinking 
water supplies of more than 9 million Floridians, and enhance wildlife 
habitat. It will also make Florida more resilient in the face of 
climate change by defending against saltwater intrusion, strengthening 
shorelines, protecting coastal and inland communities from flooding, 
and sequestering carbon through restoring seagrass, mangrove, and 
wetland habitat. Congress should appropriate $725 million to the Army 
Corps of Engineers in FY 23 to maintain critical recent momentum to 
accomplish keystone projects within the Comprehensive Everglades 
Restoration Plan.
      Great Lakes Restoration Initiative: Investing in the 
Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, which helps protect, restore, and 
maintain the Great Lakes ecosystem, will protect the drinking water for 
over 30 million Americans, create jobs, and safeguard public health. 
Advancing the implementation of such projects in this region creates a 
3-to-1 return on investment in local communities, from new real estate 
and commercial development, to boosting outdoor recreation and tourism, 
and more housing options and higher home values.
      National Estuary Programs: The EPA's National Estuary 
Programs help protect and restore water quality and habitat in 28 
estuaries of national significance in the United States. These 
estuaries provide important ecosystem services, create wildlife 
habitat, support economically significant fisheries, and generate 
billions of dollars in tourism revenues for the country. This program 
leverages $22 on average in local, state and private sector investment 
for every $1 of federal funds appropriated to the program.
      Ohio River Basin: The Ohio River supplies drinking water 
to more than 5 million people, and millions more depend on the river 
for their health, jobs, and quality of life. Unfortunately, the Ohio 
River basin faces the worst water pollution in the nation that 
threatens drinking water quality, wildlife habitat, and human health. 
Resources should be invested in developing and implementing a plan to 
restore and protect the Ohio River basin ecosystem.
      Texas Coastal Resiliency Master Plan: Resources should 
support ecosystem restoration projects described in the Texas Coastal 
Resiliency Master Plan, an inclusive stakeholder and community-driven 
plan that identifies nature-based solutions spanning the entire nearly 
400 miles of coastline to help the state shore up its coast and 
withstand accelerating erosion rates, sea level rise, and increasingly 
intense Gulf storms.
    However, ecosystem restoration and the deployment of natural 
infrastructure doesn't have to be at the watershed scale to make a 
meaningful impact. Local and regional restoration efforts around the 
nation are creating important benefits for people and wildlife. For 
example, long-term partnerships between the National Wildlife 
Federation and local communities have led to innovative resilience 
projects around the country, including in the Great Marsh of 
Massachusetts, and along the Eastern Shore of Maryland, in the town of 
Oxford, where a project will incorporate living breakwaters into a 
design that works with nature to protect coastal communities threatened 
by increased sunny day flooding and coastal storms.
    Additionally, as part of the Resilient Schools Consortium (RiSC) 
program for middle and high schools in New York City, public school 
students aged 12 to 20 are planting and caring for native trees on 
their school grounds to help mitigate urban heat island and absorb 
stormwater. They're planting thousands of American beach grass plants 
to stabilize dunes in the frontline community of Coney Island, 
Brooklyn. Once mature, these vegetated dunes will help to mitigate 
flooding and property damage from coastal storms, and help to prevent 
the migration of sand into shoreline roads. These education efforts are 
foundational to addressing the multi-generational threat of climate 
change and the need for adaptation.
An Ounce of Prevention is Worth a Pound of Cure
    The value of natural systems for protecting communities has long 
been recognized. In a 1972 study evaluating options to reduce flooding 
along the Charles River in Massachusetts, the Army Corps of Engineers 
concluded:
    ``Nature has already provided the least-cost solution to future 
flooding in the form of extensive [riverine] wetlands which moderate 
extreme highs and lows in streamflow. Rather than attempt to improve on 
this natural protection mechanism, it is both prudent and economical to 
leave the hydrologic regime established over millennia 
undisturbed.''[39]
    Wetlands prevented an estimated $625 million in flood damages in 
the 12 coastal states affected by Hurricane Sandy, and reduced damages 
by 20 to 30 percent in the four states with the greatest wetland 
coverage.[40] Coastal wetlands 
reduced storm surge in some New Orleans neighborhoods by two to three 
feet during Hurricane Katrina, and levees with wetland buffers had a 
much greater chance of surviving Katrina's fury than levees without 
wetland buffers.[41] The forest 
and other conservation lands that make up the 28,000 acre Meramec 
Greenway along the Meramec River in southern Missouri contribute about 
$6,000 per acre in avoided flood damages annually. Wetlands in the 
Eagle Creek watershed of central Indiana reduce peak flows from 
rainfall by up to 42 percent, flood area by 55 percent, and maximum 
stream velocities by 15 percent.
    Evidence of the effectiveness of natural climate solutions in 
reducing flood and storm damages continues to mount, as highlighted in 
the National Wildlife Federation's report, The Protective Value of 
Nature[42] and in the examples 
provided as an appendix to this testimony. As aptly noted by the 
Reinsurance Association of America: ``One cannot overstate the value of 
preserving our natural systems for the protection of people and 
property from catastrophic events.''[43]
    Natural infrastructure is also often more cost-effective than 
structural measures. A recent study documents that using natural 
infrastructure solutions to reduce coastal flood risks in Texas, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida would have a benefit-cost ratio of 
3.5 compared to just 0.26 for levees and dikes. Restoring wetlands in 
this region could prevent $18.2 billion in losses while costing just $2 
billion to carry out. Natural infrastructure also has the significant 
added benefits of being self-sustaining and avoiding the risk of 
catastrophic structural failures. Importantly, natural infrastructure 
can work both alone and in combination with more traditional gray 
infrastructure to reduce flood and storm risks. And while gray 
infrastructure deteriorates over time, particularly when exposed to 
climatic conditions that exceed their design parameters, natural 
infrastructure often has significant adaptive capacity and an ability 
for self-repair.
    A new approach that prioritizes nature-based pre-disaster 
mitigation and resilience will save taxpayers money and make our 
communities safer. Far too often, we approach resilience planning 
through the lens of disaster response and recovery rather than through 
proactive efforts to increase the resilience of vulnerable communities 
and water resources before disaster strikes.
    One clear example of this is evidenced by the Army Corps' history 
of supplemental appropriations. From 2005 to 2016, the Corps received 
$31.4 billion in supplemental funding, which amounts to almost half of 
the agency's annual discretionary appropriations over that same period. 
Of those supplemental funds, 87 percent ($27.2 billion) was provided to 
respond to flooding and other disasters. With ever increasing effects 
from storms, these emergency supplemental appropriations have also 
dramatically increased over time, with the Corps receiving ``$1.1 
billion in the 1990s, $19.2 billion in the 2000s, and $29.0 billion in 
the 2010s.'' Many of these expenditures could have been avoided, if we 
had invested in the necessary resilience projects. Even though we know 
that for every $1 invested in pre-disaster mitigation, we save $6 in 
avoided costs, Congressional budgetary rules continue to make it much 
easier to fund an emergency supplemental appropriation after a disaster 
than to invest in the ounce of prevention that could have saved money 
and reduced damage in the first place.
Nature Can Help Mitigate Climate Change
    Natural ecosystems also have the ability to sequester and store 
large amounts of atmospheric carbon, the primary driver of accelerating 
climate change. Indeed, natural climate solutions have the potential to 
remove and store more than an additional gigaton of carbon dioxide 
annually. Such nature-based solutions should be a central component of 
the nation's climate mitigation strategy.
    Forests and other wooded areas represent one of the best 
opportunities to remove carbon from the atmosphere quickly, reliably, 
and relatively cheaply. In 2017, the combination of forest land, 
harvested wood products, and urban trees in the United States accounted 
for an estimated net uptake of 730.9 million metric tons of carbon 
dioxide equivalent (MMT CO2 eq.)[44] -- the equivalent of 15 percent of our economy-wide 
CO2 emissions (Domke et al., 2020). Forested ecosystems also 
provide an abundance of ecosystem services and societal benefits: they 
create habitat for wildlife, produce clean water, provide space for 
recreation, regulate temperatures, and much more. Between 1990 and 
2017, ``forest land remaining forest land'' was the nation's largest 
net carbon sink, and conversions of forest land were the largest source 
of land-based emissions.[45] 
However, these benefits depend on careful policy and program design and 
implementation. The combined pressures on forests from development, 
introduced pests and diseases, aberrant patterns of precipitation, 
fragmentation, and extreme fire can hamper forest growth and even 
prevent successful regeneration after disturbance.
    It is important, however, to optimize rather than maximize carbon 
in implementing natural solutions. Strategies that focus strictly on 
maximizing carbon sequestration -- such as converting natural habitat 
to plantations of rapidly growing tree species -- may run counter to 
important ecological and social values. Avoiding conversion of existing 
forests, especially carbon-rich old growth, increasing reforestation of 
historically forested areas, and focusing afforestation on severely 
degraded lands can all balance ecological and climate needs. Management 
of the nation's forests should also take account of the changing 
climate, while also restoring natural patterns of fire and other 
ecological processes. Urban forestry also deserves significantly more 
attention for its multiple benefits to air quality, reduction in energy 
use and the urban heat island effect, absorbing stormwater, and 
providing wildlife habitat.
    Forest and watershed restoration not only increase the climate 
benefits of forests by increasing their ability to store carbon, but 
also reduce emissions from fire and decay. A rapidly changing climate, 
including more severe drought and changing weather patterns, coupled 
with more than a century of fire exclusion and excessive fuels, has 
increased the size and intensity of wildfire.
    Mitigating the size, severity, and effects of forest fires, and 
reconnecting forest systems, is essential to ensure watershed health 
and function, and to optimize the climate benefits forests provide. We 
can and must better manage our forests, as ecologically appropriate, to 
increase the capacity for our forests to store carbon and produce clean 
water. The National Wildlife Federation is grateful that the proposed 
reconciliation package included $27.5 billion for forest restoration, 
and we urge the committee to help ensure it remains in any final 
version that is signed into law.
    At the same time, fire is an essential component of many of our 
forest ecosystems. Prescribed burns can mimic natural processes and 
reduce fuel loads, unlock nutrients, and reduce the intensity of future 
wildfires. Furthermore, embracing traditional ecological knowledge and 
practices and forming authentic partnerships with Indigenous peoples in 
forest management can be another tool to help to restore the 
fundamental role fire played in many forested ecosystems, while 
simultaneously supporting traditional cultural practices and 
livelihoods (Marks-Block et al., 2021).
    Good forest and watershed management is about more than just fire. 
For example, we need to restore forests at the landscape level and 
consider their management over longer lengths of time, but also be 
nimble to account for uncertainty. The U.S. Forest Service estimates 
that 75-82 million acres of our nation's forests need restoration, 
including nearly 2 million acres where changes in climate have thwarted 
nature's ability to reseed and grow forests.
    With more than 50 percent of the nation's forestlands under private 
ownership, it's clear that partnering with landowners will be an 
essential part of any strategy to increase the climate, wildlife, and 
community benefits these ecosystems provide. Tax credits for carbon 
capture accomplished through natural climate solutions could play a key 
role in halting deforestation, increasing restoration and thereby 
accelerating greenhouse gas reductions, while providing a host of 
valuable co-benefits, including increased soil productivity and 
resilience, water quality and quantity, wildlife habitat and landowner 
economics. Such a provision could promote additional carbon storage in 
the soils and vegetation of our nation's private grasslands, wetlands, 
forests and agricultural lands. Modeling such a tax credit on the 45Q 
provision for direct air capture could provide parity among natural and 
technological carbon storage in terms of incentives. In addition, there 
is a need for incentives to promote responsible, long-term stewardship 
of forestlands and ensure that the public goods they provide will be 
enjoyed for years to come. Programs such as those of the Healthy 
Forests Reserve Program and the collaborative Regional Conservation 
Partnership Program, which has been used to restore critical longleaf 
pine (Pinus palustris) habitat in the Southeastern United States are 
critically underfunded.
    Since the time of European colonization, we have lost millions of 
acres of biodiverse bottomland hardwood forests, primarily to 
conversion for agricultural uses -- and when these forests are lost, so 
are the invaluable services they provide to adjacent communities, 
including flood water retention and water quality protection (Allen et 
al., 2004). Investing in restoration of these ecosystems can reduce 
burdens on gray infrastructure while simultaneously providing habitat 
where waterfowl and other wildlife can thrive, especially in regions 
with imperiled wetland forests, such as the coastal plains of the 
Southeast.
    We also have abundant opportunities to improve the productivity and 
resilience of agricultural land through targeted forest restoration. In 
formerly forested areas, restoring tree cover can block wind to reduce 
erosion, create habitat for pollinators and other beneficial 
biodiversity, or even help to diversify farmer's income with timber 
products (USDA, Agroforestry). We should not, however, encourage 
afforestation and tree planting in native grasslands and other 
historically non-forested ecosystems, as this can have dire negative 
consequences on biodiversity and carbon reservoirs (e.g., Tolgyesi et 
al., 2022).
    As extreme climate events increase in frequency, some agricultural 
lands may begin to flood so frequently that they transform from asset 
to liability. Restoring riparian forest buffers (30 meters, or about 
100 feet) and reforesting floodplains with bottomland hardwoods 
represents another enormous opportunity to increase climate mitigation 
while providing a suite of ecosystem benefits, including flood 
attenuation, erosion prevention, and habitat conservation for aquatic 
species (Cook-Patton et al., 2020).
    Open urban areas have been identified as another high priority area 
for reforestation and forest restoration (Cook-Patton et al., 2020). 
And with around 80 percent of the nation's residents inhabiting cities, 
increasing access to nature and ecosystem service provisioning for 
urban residents may be one of the most impactful actions at our 
fingertips.
    Urban trees in the United States store an estimated 643 million 
metric tons of carbon, and sequester an estimated 25.6 million tons 
annually.[46] Urban forests 
offer an incredible array of other benefits: they moderate the urban 
heat island effect, lowering energy bills and providing shade and 
relief from extreme heat; they intercept rainfall, reducing the 
intensity of storm impacts on urban gray infrastructure; they can be 
strategically used to enhance air quality -- in other words, they can 
help us to adapt to many of the challenges of climate change (Pataki et 
al., 2021). Urban forest patches can provide spaces for recreation, 
reflection, and wildlife observation not available elsewhere in the 
urban landscape. Their presence can even provide benefits to physical 
and mental health (Wolf et al., 2020). The Forest Service estimates 
these services are valued at more than $18 billion annually (Nowak et 
al., 2018).
    Yet at the present, we know that urban forest canopy cover is often 
inequitably distributed among racial groups and income levels (Gerrish 
and Watkins, 2018; Watkins and Gerrish, 2018; Tree Equity, American 
Forests). This exacerbates disparities in exposure, for example, to the 
urban heat island effect and in related health risks or financial 
burdens related to cooling. Historical discriminatory policies such as 
redlining have shaped these patterns of inequity, with formerly 
redlined communities often containing less than half the tree canopy 
(Locke et al., 2021) and experiencing elevated temperatures in compared 
to their counterparts, by an average 2.6+C and up to 7+C (Hoffman et 
al., 2020).
    We can and should take advantage of the benefits urban forests can 
provide. But interventions must be community-led. Attempts to ``green'' 
communities or increase tree plantings without authentic community 
engagement, consultation, and involvement at all stages can result in 
unintended and harmful consequences, including displacement resulting 
from changes in property values, maintenance costs shouldered by 
residents, and even negative effects on health (Wolch et al., 2015; 
Jelks et al., 2021). On the other hand, investment in workforce 
development to support climate-informed urban forest restoration and 
reforestation presents yet another opportunity to stimulate local 
economies and create jobs.
Restoring America's Grasslands for Resilience and Carbon Sequestration
    As important as our nation's forests are, its grasslands and 
sagebrush steppe ecosystems cannot be forgotten. They are as critical 
to climate success, wildlife habitat, and clean water, as they are 
iconic. They are working lands, relied upon by ranchers, farmers, 
energy developers, hikers, campers and hunters. They are also home to 
hundreds of species of wildlife, from mule deer to snowshoe hare to 
meadowlark. Yet, investments in their restoration and management are 
needed to ensure their role as an important tool in combating climate 
change.
    A 2018 University of California at Davis study surmised that 
grasslands could be a greater and more reliable carbon sink than 
forests, because they are less ``climate-vulnerable.'' Forests store 
most of their carbon in the soil, but less than grasslands, so when 
forests, which are more susceptible to climate conditions, burn they 
release more carbon into the atmosphere relative to grasslands. Jim 
Blackburn, professor at Rice University and co-director of its Severe 
Storm Prediction, Education and Evacuation from Disasters Center 
estimates that grasslands could potentially capture 1 billion metric 
tons of carbon each year -- more than 14 percent of U.S. annual 
emissions.
    Unfortunately, grasslands are the fastest declining ecosystem in 
the United States, disappearing at rates exceeding those of the Amazon 
rainforest.[47] As a result, 
grassland birds have suffered the steepest losses of all bird species, 
with populations declining 53 percent since 1970.[48] At least 60 percent of historical 
grasslands have been converted to cropland and other land uses, with 
some areas having lost upward of 90 percent over the last two centuries 
(Brennan and Kuvlesky 2005). The loss and degradation of these habitats 
have had, and will continue to have, dire consequences for biodiversity 
and provisioning of ecosystem services, including their ability to 
store carbon and contribute to climate change resilience.
    These losses are also especially troubling for the thousands of 
species of pollinators who rely on grasslands as habitat. One out of 
every three bites of food we eat is supported by pollinators, including 
wild bees and other species -- adding more than $15 billion to the 
nation's crop values.
    Grasslands and sagebrush steppe are threatened by invasive grasses 
that outcompete native grasses and carry fire, and development and 
cropland conversation. Invasive cheatgrass covers as much as 100 
million acres of land in the United States, a serious problem for 
wildlife and an accelerant for catastrophic fire on both public and 
private land. On private land, we lose a football field's worth of 
grasslands every four seconds to development and cropland conversion. 
We've lost 40 percent of grassland birds in our lifetimes, and some 
indicator species, like the Greater Sage-grouse, are teetering on the 
edge of listing under the Endangered Species Act. We must invest in 
restoration on our public lands, and find new tools for collaboration 
to conserve and restore private land.
    The highly successful North American Wetlands Conservation Act 
(NAWCA) provides a model for this type of collaborative work on private 
lands. It was signed into law in the 1980s when waterfowl numbers were 
in sharp decline. Because of collaborative action sparked by the act, 
waterfowl have since increased by 56 percent. Not only do we need to 
invest in protecting and restoring our federal grasslands, we need to 
authorize a program for private lands modeled after NAWCA, the North 
American Grasslands Conservation Act.
    To slow continued losses of grasslands to crop production, Congress 
should make national, the Farm Bill's Sodsaver provision -- a common-
sense crop insurance reform currently effective in six states 
(Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Montana) 
that reduces crop insurance rates on newly converted agricultural acres 
for the first three years of production. This reform corrects a policy 
incentive to convert marginal land to crop production.
    Significant investments in grasslands and sagebrush steppe 
restoration and passage of the North American Grasslands Conservation 
Act would increase these ecosystems' ability to store and retain 
carbon, reduce grassland and rangeland wildfire, increase water 
resources, and improve technology to control cheatgrass and other 
invasive species.
Making Agricultural Lands More Profitable and Resilient
    U.S. farmers and ranchers are uniquely productive compared to the 
rest of the world. Popular and oversubscribed USDA conservation 
programs can further enhance and make producers, and their agro-
ecosystems, more resilient to extreme weather events exacerbated by 
climate change. Programs like the Conservation Stewardship Program, 
Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, 
and Regional Conservation Partnerships Program, among others, are 
examples of public-private partnerships that are in high demand from 
producers and conservationists but lack the funding to meet that 
demand. In the past decade nearly 1 million applicants have been 
rejected by the Environmental Quality Incentives Program, alone (Happ, 
Michael. 2021. ``Closed out: How U.S. Farmers Are Denied Access to 
Conservation Programs.'' Institute for Agriculture & Trade Policy. 
https://www.iatp.org/documents/closed-out-how-us-farmers-are-denied-
access-conservation-programs (March 28, 2022)).
    Agricultural conservation has many co-benefits for farmers, 
communities, and the climate (Henneron, L., et al. 2015. ``Fourteen 
Years of Evidence for Positive Effects of Conservation Agriculture and 
Organic Farming on Soil Life.'' Agronomy for Sustainable Development 
35: 169-81.). Cover crops enhance soil health by reducing erosion and 
providing natural weed suppression, reducing unintended consequences of 
overusing increasingly expensive pesticides and herbicides. Diverse 
crop rotations can also improve a farm's mitigation and adaptation to 
climate change by naturally cycling nutrients, reducing pests and 
disease, and while providing a diversified income stream to producers. 
Reduced or no-till farming rapidly sequesters carbon in the soil and 
reduces agricultural runoff and erosion of precious topsoil. Further, 
producers with livestock and cropping systems can increase soil carbon 
while reducing costs on feed and fertilizer (Khalil, Mohammad Ibrahim 
et al. 2019. ``Strategic Management of Grazing Grassland Systems to 
Maintain and Increase Organic Carbon in Soils.'' CO2 Sequestration. 
https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/strategic-management-of-
grazing-grassland-systems-to-maintain-and-increase-organic-carbon-in-
soils (June 10, 2020). Fully implementing these practices could remove 
as much as 100- 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide annually by 
2050.[49]
    Technical assistance, research, and extension provided by USDA 
conservation programs are essential for increased adoption of cover 
crops, diversified crop rotations, decreased tillage, and livestock 
grazing integration with row crops, among others. The United States' 
topsoil is disappearing at twice the rate as it was during the Dust 
Bowl (DeLonge, Marcia, and Karen Perry Stillerman. 2020. Eroding the 
Future: How Soil Loss Threatens Farming and Our Food Supply. Union of 
Concerned Scientists. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep28410 (August 
9, 2021)). Unfortunately, USDA conservation programs are greatly 
oversubscribed and unable to meet the demand from producers and need 
for conservation practices on the land that can address climate and 
ensure healthy soil, water and wildlife resources into the future. A 
doubling of conservation funding would begin to address this demand and 
need.
Reclamation of Degraded Lands
    Investments in reclamation of degraded lands such as abandoned mine 
lands, orphaned oil and gas wells, brownfield sites, and Superfund 
sites are also an integral part of the climate solution. With proper 
management, these lands can be turned into forests, grasslands, prairie 
lands and soils that have the potential to sequester millions of tons 
of carbon dioxide annually while mitigating other harmful emissions 
like methane, protecting biodiversity, improving air and water quality, 
and revitalizing local economies through job creation and increased 
property value and tax revenues.
Blue Carbon
    Oceans and coastal ecosystems also play a valuable role in 
mitigating climate change, particularly through the ability of 
wetlands, mangroves, and seagrasses to capture and store carbon, as 
well as buffer the effects of sea-level rise and increasingly severe 
storms. These repositories of ``blue carbon'' sequester more carbon per 
unit area than forests, and store carbon for a longer period of 
time.[50] Therefore, maintenance 
and enhancement of these ecosystems are a critical part of a successful 
climate strategy -- for mitigation, climate adaptation, and community 
resilience objectives.
Key Bipartisan Opportunities for Congress
LEVEL THE PLAYING FIELD FOR NATURAL CLIMATE SOLUTIONS
      Replicating the Success of 45Q for Natural Climate 
Solutions: The broadly supported and bipartisan 45Q federal tax credit 
for carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration currently provides a 
much-needed financial incentive for reducing carbon dioxide emissions 
from industrial sources, power plants, and through direct air capture 
technologies. An opportunity exists to replicate this successful model 
to also spur innovation and deployment of capital into natural climate 
solutions that sequester additional carbon through restoration of our 
grasslands, forests, wetlands, waters, and agricultural lands.
    Creating a 45X tax credit for natural climate solutions would 
catalyze private investment onto private, public, and Tribal lands, 
while providing greater policy parity for natural solutions with their 
technological counterparts. It would be a game changer. In addition to 
accelerating GHG sequestration, such investments would improve the 
economics of investing in natural carbon sinks, while also increasing 
soil productivity, boosting resilience (reducing erosion, etc.), 
improving water quality/quantity, and providing wildlife habitat.
    A 45X tax credit provision could be modeled upon 45Q, providing a 
per ton credit for additional carbon storage in natural systems at a 
cost point that's a fraction of the 45Q incentive levels ($20-$30/ton 
on average natural solutions compared to $50-$130/ton for CCUS). While 
the IRS would implement the tax credit, as it does for 45Q, USDA could 
manage the measurement/practices side for private lands (this could 
build upon the carbon accounting protocols envisions by the Growing 
Climate Solutions Act), DOI could manage protocols for investments in 
public lands (in conjunction with USDA for National Forests), and NOAA 
could manage protocols for blue carbon. Tax credits could either be 
refundable (as proposed by the enhanced 45Q) or transferable for when 
the value of the tax credit is greater than the taxpayer's tax 
liability. We believe such an approach would enjoy bipartisan support 
across the political spectrum.
Key principals for program integrity:
      Predictability/simplicity: The credit must be easily 
understandable and accessible for all communities, especially 
Indigenous communities, people of color, small landowners, veterans, 
etc. to ensure equitable distribution of the benefits of the program;
      Additionality: Investments must produce new reductions 
above and beyond the baseline and do not ``double pay'' for tons 
already accounted for through carbon offset programs/purchases;
      Permanence: Investments must sequester carbon over the 
long-term; and,
      Ecologically appropriate: Restoration/reforestation 
investments must be ecologically consistent for the project's location 
(e.g. native plants) and should provide co-benefits of resilience, 
habitat, clean water, etc., as documented through a credible, but 
simple, management plan.
    A 45X tax credit could include multiple options for participation:
      Practice-based option for small landowners: Tax credit 
would be determined by approved practices on the land implements 
(selected from an approved USDA list of practices with well-documented 
and predictable results that meet standards of additionality, 
permanence, and ecologically-appropriateness). This approach would 
allow smaller landowners to participate and could be easily implemented 
by USDA.
      Performance-based option for large landowners: Tax credit 
is determined by carbon sequestration performance above a baseline as 
documented by a carbon registry, approved by USDA. This approach would 
work better for larger landowners, offers opportunities at scale, and 
encourages innovation.
      Natural sequestration on public lands and waters: Tax 
credit opportunities should also exist for private investment on public 
lands (BLM, USFS) and waters (NOAA, etc.) to sequester carbon in 
ecologically-appropriate ways and provide addition public co-benefits. 
This would drive significant investment into states with significant 
public lands, while expanding opportunities for job creation and 
revenues.
    Encourage Conservation of Lands with High Carbon Sequestration, 
Resilience, and Habitat Values: Just as the Congress came together to 
create Opportunity Zones to encourage private investment in 
economically distressed communities, similar opportunities exist to 
improve the economic incentives for conserving lands that have high 
carbon sequestration, resilience, or wildlife habitat values. Such an 
approach would recognize the higher public value of these lands and 
compensate landowners accordingly with a higher incentive level than 
the one-size-fits all traditional approach that does not consider 
ecological value.
    Pass the Growing Climate Solutions Act: The bipartisan Growing 
Climate Solutions Act would direct USDA to standardize protocols for 
measuring carbon sequestration on agricultural lands. This would create 
new revenue opportunities for America's farmers through voluntary 
actions and participation in private and public carbon markets.
ENSURE RESILIENCE INVESTMENTS ACCOUNT FOR NET-SAVINS IN CBO SCORING
      Modernize CBO scoring rules: Through the House Rules 
package and other vehicles, ensure that investments in resilience that 
would achieve clear and demonstrable net-savings score as debt-
reducing. This would free up resources for proactive investments, end 
the cycle of ever-growing disaster supplemental appropriations, and 
reduce long-term debt.
PASS BIPARTISAN CONSERVATION INVESTMENTS
      Bipartisan Recovering America's Wildlife Act: This 
landmark piece of bipartisan legislation will restore essential 
wildlife habitat in all 50 states and territories to recover the more 
than 12,000 species of greatest conservation need through proactive, 
collaborative and voluntary actions. This will restore natural systems 
across the country that will also provide critical resilience services 
for communities and additional carbon sequestration capacity.
      North American Grasslands Conservation Act. Grasslands 
are the fastest declining ecosystem in the United States, but they are 
also underappreciated powerhouses of carbon sequestration and storage. 
Authorizing a program modeled after NAWCA should be a top priority.
      Wildlife corridors: Helping wildlife adjust to changing 
and shifting habitat conditions by facilitating wildlife movements is a 
critical climate adaptation strategy. Congress took a major step 
forward by passing a comprehensive wildlife crossings program, 
including the first funding committed to wildlife crossings, as part of 
the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Wildlife corridors must 
also be maintained away from roads and highways. We appreciate that the 
House of Representatives passed the full Wildlife Corridors 
Conservation Act as part of the INVEST in America Act and encourage 
continued work on wildlife corridors legislation and the Tribal 
Wildlife Corridors Act.
      Trillion Trees: The idea of accelerating the pace of 
forest restoration is a critical climate solution. We're encouraged by 
the bipartisan, bicameral negotiations that could result in a consensus 
bill to achieve essential ecologically-appropriate reforestation, 
resilience, and carbon sequestration goals.
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT ACT
    There are key opportunities that Congress can pursue to enhance the 
ability of natural ecosystems to provide climate mitigation, 
resilience, and other benefits to communities in the context of the 
Water Resources Development Act of 2022, which is currently under 
development. More specifically, in the 2022 bill Congress should:
      Increase Organizational Capacity Through a Resilience 
Directorate. Congress should establish a Resilience Directorate within 
the Office of the Chief of Engineers at the Corps of Engineers to 
improve the Corps' ability to reduce flood risks, promote coordinated 
planning across districts and Corps business lines and among Federal 
agencies, and better leverage the benefits of natural infrastructure. 
The Directorate should be tasked with ensuring that existing programs, 
authorities, and operations take full advantage of natural 
infrastructure and adopt modern, comprehensive planning approaches. 
Critically, the Directorate should have the resources and budgetary 
authority needed to work and coordinate across Corps business lines to 
infuse resilience into every aspect of the Corps' work. Congress should 
also establish ``community and natural systems resilience'' as a co-
equal project purpose for each water resources project to eliminate a 
perceived barrier to comprehensive resilience planning. These reforms 
will help the Army Corps -- one of our nation's most influential 
resilience agencies -- take full advantage of its programs and 
authorities to improve community and water resources resilience and 
avoid piecemeal planning that can increase flood risks and recovery 
costs.
      Utilize Federal and State Expertise. Congress should 
ensure that the Corps utilizes the expertise of federal and state fish 
and wildlife experts when planning projects. Congress should direct the 
Corps to utilize recommendations made pursuant to mandatory Fish and 
Wildlife Coordination Act reviews that derive from the special 
expertise of federal and state fish and wildlife experts (e.g., methods 
and metrics for assessing fish and wildlife impacts and mitigation 
opportunities). The Corps often ignores these critically important 
recommendations, leading to projects that cause unnecessary harm and to 
mitigation plans that do not work. Utilizing these carefully developed 
state and federal expert recommendations is a common sense, cost-
effective way to make projects better and improve planning efficiency.
      Employ Voluntary Easements to Improve Resilience. 
Congress should ensure the Corps has the tools it needs to develop and 
implement resilient solutions. Congress should: (a) direct the Corps to 
map all flood easements, conservation easements, and permanently 
protected lands and waters in the project area when assessing the 
impacts and benefits of a water resources project; (b) direct the Corps 
to map the many flood easements already purchased by the Corps across 
the country to facilitate consideration of those easements when 
planning projects and updating operating plans; and (c) direct 
consideration of Corps purchased permanent flood easements as an 
appropriate natural infrastructure solution. Increasing reliance on 
voluntary flood and other conservation easements will facilitate 
development of resilient solutions.
FARM BILL
      Bolster Working Lands Conservation Programs. Congress 
should double the funding levels for these popular and successful 
programs to ensure they can continue to provide benefits to producers, 
wildlife, and adjacent communities. The historic funding increases 
proposed in the House-passed reconciliation bill would accomplish this 
goal.
      Develop Workforce and Capacity to Meet Reforestation and 
Restoration Goals. With additional stocking of our nation's lands, 
forest ecosystems could uptake nearly 20 percent more CO2 
than they already do (Domke et al., 2020). Whether on public and 
private forestlands, successful reforestation and active forest 
restoration depends upon the capacity of nurseries to collect seeds and 
produce healthy growing stock, as well as the availability of a 
workforce for nursery production, site preparation, planting, and 
maintenance (Fargione et al., 2021). And with a rapidly changing 
climate, we need to ensure that nurseries cultivate and supply robust 
seedlings, suited for local site conditions and -- as much as possible 
-- the conditions of the future. According to a survey of nurseries, 
labor shortages create the largest bottleneck in the ``reforestation 
pipeline'' (Fargione et al., 2021). Investing in a 21st-century 
Civilian Conservation Corps that puts millions of young Americans to 
work, in a manner that benefits all communities and provides high-
quality workforce development to prepare participants for jobs in the 
private sector, remains one of our best options to address this 
bottleneck. Investments in infrastructure, innovation, and research in 
this space are also badly needed. Expanding both public and private 
nursery capacity via Farm Bill programs and other targeted funding will 
provide jobs and stimulate rural economies.
Other Key Opportunities:
      Increase Green Project Reserve Funding Through the Clean 
Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF): Since its inception in 1987, the 
CWSRF has provided over $153 billion in low-cost financing to water 
quality projects across the nation. In 2009, Congress passed the 
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, which required that states 
allocate at least 20 percent of their annual CWSRF capitalization grant 
for green infrastructure, water efficiency, energy efficiency, and 
other environmentally innovative projects. It successfully helped shift 
federal and state wastewater investment toward projects that utilize 
green and natural infrastructure and promote holistic approaches to 
wastewater treatment systems. The Green Project Reserve requirement has 
been extended via appropriations bills every year, but was reduced in 
Fiscal Year 2012 to 10 percent annually. In order to create additional 
certainty and incentive for projects that utilize green and natural 
infrastructure, Congress should permanently require states to use at 
least 20 percent of their annual CWSRF capitalization grants for the 
Green Project Reserve. This will help communities finance green 
infrastructure projects that address climate change, enhance access to 
green space, protect wildlife habitat, and improve water quality.
      Ensure Hazard Mitigation Programs Support Natural 
Solutions: Hazard mitigation programs at FEMA, HUD, and through the 
National Flood Insurance Program are significant potential sources of 
resources for nature-based hazard risk reduction. Although natural 
infrastructure projects are eligible for many of these programs, 
challenges exist that impede successful applications for nature-based 
projects, including in the context of Benefit Cost Analyses and 
feasibility demonstration requirements. FEMA should continue work to 
ensure that the Benefit Cost Analysis toolkit is supportive of 
different nature-based project types, and allows communities to capture 
the full array of their benefits. The agency should also work to 
provide communities with additional detailed guidance on designing and 
successfully applying for funding for nature-based projects. These 
improvements should be accompanied by additional technical assistance 
and capacity building support to ensure that all communities benefit 
from this solution set to improve health and safety. Congress should 
support expanded consideration of natural solutions for hazard 
mitigation by requiring at least 15% of funding through the Building 
Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC) program to be 
designated for nature-based projects, and/or by authorizing and 
directing FEMA to partner with the National Fish and Wildlife 
Foundation (NFWF) to establish a demonstration grant program designed 
to fund nature-based projects through FEMA hazard mitigation dollars. 
By encouraging FEMA to partner with NFWF, Congress can bring NFWF's 
unique expertise to efforts to promote nature-based mitigation 
projects, build capacity at all levels of government, and help to 
further demonstrate the efficacy and multiple benefits delivered by 
these types of projects. Additionally, NFWF has flexibility to build 
public private partnerships to support natural infrastructure projects 
and to leverage private sector funding to support added investment. 
Finally, Congress can support natural solutions by fully reauthorizing 
and reforming the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) to ensure 
NFIP premiums communicate accurate levels of risk, with means-tested 
assistance for those who cannot afford actuarial rates; expanding pre-
disaster mitigation efforts, including through nature-based solutions; 
and increasing funding available for updated and climate-informed 
floodplain maps.
      Increase Funding Available for Gulf Coast Restoration and 
Resilience: Congress should increase offshore energy revenues shared 
with Louisiana and other states under the Gulf of Mexico Energy 
Security Act (GOMESA), including by lifting the current cap on revenues 
shared. The State of Louisiana, through a constitutional amendment, has 
committed these revenues to restoration and resilience efforts, 
including implementation of the state's Coastal Master Plan. With no 
time to lose in the battle against sea level rise and coastal land 
loss, additional GOMESA revenues are vital to continue the essential 
and urgent work that this funding stream has enabled.
      Mississippi River Restoration and Resilience Initiative: 
Congress should pass H.R. 4202, the Mississippi River Restoration and 
Resilience (MRRRI) Act, to establish a non-regulatory EPA geographic 
program for the Mississippi River mainstem states, following the 
successful model in the Great Lakes. The MRRRI Act centers natural 
infrastructure solutions that have co-benefits for flood risk 
reduction, water quality improvements, wildlife habitat, recreation, 
and other services to communities. It would enhance federal 
coordination around a shared agenda to improve the overall health and 
resilience of the Mississippi River, through collaboration with States, 
Tribes, local governments, and other river stakeholders.
      Enhance the Capacity of Federal Agencies to Access Needed 
Climate Adaptation Science: Over the past decade federal agencies have 
made important advances in developing their capacity to provide support 
and climate science to natural resource managers and others charged 
with the conservation and restoration of the nation's lands, waters, 
and wildlife. Congress should provide robust budget support to such 
programs as the U.S. Geological Survey Climate Adaptation Science 
Center Network, the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments 
(RISA) Program, and the USDA Climate Hubs. In order to assure the 
availability of such climate science for natural resource managers, 
Congress should pass H.R. 6654, the ``Climate Adaptation Science 
Centers Act,'' which would permanently authorize the U.S. Geological 
Survey's National and Regional Climate Adaptation Science Centers.
      Support Ocean-Based Climate Solutions: Congress should 
advance solutions that leverage and support the immense climate 
mitigation and adaptation potential of ocean and coastal ecosystems, 
which can make coastal communities more resilient and can provide for 
the conservation and restoration of ocean and coastal habitats, 
biodiversity, and marine mammal and fish populations. This includes 
efforts to advance the protection and restoration of blue carbon 
ecosystems including wetlands, mangroves, kelp, and seagrass, to 
address challenges with ocean acidification impacts, and to protect and 
restore coral reef ecosystems that buffer communities.
      Appropriations and other Spending Packages: As Congress 
considers how to fund priorities in Fiscal Year 2023 and beyond, the 
National Wildlife Federation strongly urges you to ensure that 
America's lands, waters, and wildlife are not left out of any future 
investment package. With hurricane and wildfire seasons fast 
approaching, communities around the country are bracing for another 
record-breaking year of extreme weather and natural disasters that 
devastate local economies, ecosystems, and families. Congress has an 
opportunity to prevent lost lives and livelihoods with proactive, 
robust investment in natural infrastructure and natural climate 
solutions.
    During the COVID pandemic, Americans sought refuge outdoors -- from 
neighborhood parks to hiking trails to the most remote wilderness spots 
in our nation. Families and friends were able to connect safely 
outside, and millions rediscovered or newly adopted lifelong hobbies 
like hunting, fishing, and bird watching. However, this increased use 
-- coupled with decades of neglect and underfunding -- has strained our 
forests, wetlands, grasslands, and rivers, as well as the wildlife 
inhabiting them. It is critical that Congress invest in the restoration 
and resilience of these shared spaces so that future generations may be 
able to enjoy them.
    Our outdoor heritage is part of the fabric of our society, and it 
supports an $887 billion outdoor recreation economy. In addition to the 
economic and societal benefits, these natural landscapes provide a 
significant opportunity to address the climate crisis, both in 
adaptation and mitigation. Healthy forests sequester carbon and filter 
regional water supplies. Resilient shorelines protect communities from 
storm and flood damage. Removal of invasive species like cheatgrass 
helps prevent catastrophic fires. Restoration and resilience projects 
can be tailored to every community in America, improving safety and 
putting people to work. That's why we're encouraged that the bipartisan 
IIJA included more than $50 billion for resilience and restoration 
projects and that the proposed reconciliation package recommends 
investing an additional $100 billion in on-the-ground work like forest 
restoration and conservation programs at USDA; public lands, national 
parks, wildlife habitat, and species recovery through the Department of 
the Interior; funding for Tribal nations; and coastal resilience 
initiatives at the Department of Commerce. These resources can flow to 
communities quickly and make an immediate impact, so long as there is 
sufficient consultation and permitting staff to efficiently process the 
project proposals.
Conclusion
    Thank you again for the opportunity to testify at this important 
hearing. Natural infrastructure has the potential to mitigate the 
threats facing millions of Americans while also conserving and 
restoring the landscapes and waterways essential to our wildlife 
heritage and way of life.
    The good news is that bipartisan investments in natural 
infrastructure have already started under your leadership. The 
bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act made historic 
investment in natural landscapes essential to our water, wildlife, and 
way of life -- as well as natural infrastructure. The law includes $492 
million for the National Coastal Resiliency Fund, a program established 
in 2018 that invests in restoration and resilience projects that expand 
natural infrastructure like wetlands and barrier islands. The bill also 
included $350 million to support the development and construction of 
wildlife crossings that will improve habitat connectivity and reduce 
wildlife-vehicle collisions. These investments, from our coasts to our 
highway system, will save lives.
    These investments show Congress has already started to transition 
toward natural solutions. On behalf of the National Wildlife 
Federation, our members, supporters, and affiliates, I would urge you 
to continue down this path. Natural infrastructure is a proven strategy 
to save lives, protect homes and businesses, conserve and restore our 
public lands and waters, and practice fiscal responsibility. Thank you 
and I look forward to your questions.
Endnotes
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Schlesinger, J. Ritter, B.A. Stein, A. Fuller. 2020. The Protective 
Value of Nature: A Review of the Effectiveness of Natural 
Infrastructure for Hazard Risk Reduction. Washington, DC: National 
Wildlife Federation: 8-27.
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Varela, and CMAP Technical Committee. 2014. Green infrastructure vision 
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value of coastal wetlands for hurricane protection. Ambio 37: 241-248.
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Popowich, J. F. Bruno, and C. H. Peterson. 2014. Marshes with and 
without sills protect estuarine shorelines from erosion better than 
bulkheads during a Category 1 hurricane. Ocean & Coastal Management 
102: 94-102.
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C. Storlazzi, F. Micheli, C. Shepard, and L. Airoldi. 2014. The 
effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and 
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I. Neylan, S. Scyphers, J. P. Morton, F. J. Fodrie, J. Grabowski, and 
C. H. Peterson. 2017. Hurricane damage along natural and hardened 
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Ryan-Henry, E. Powell, A. Fuller, B. Stein, and B. Watson. 2020. 
Softening Our Shorelines: Policy and Practice for Living Shorelines 
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Beck, D. N. Bresch, J. Calil, and I. Meliane. 2018. Comparing the cost-
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Predicts Minimum 4-1 Return on Restoring the Everglades Ecosystem.
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Nature Conservancy, Dow Chemical, Swiss Re, Shell, Unilever.
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C. Moseley. 2010. Economic and employment impacts of forest and 
watershed restoration in Oregon. Ecosystem Workforce Program Briefing 
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Activities in the Wildland-urban Interface. Madison, WI: Forest 
Stewards Guild.
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CoreLogic.
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2017. Fiscal Year 2018 Budget Justification. Washington, DC: U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
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Stevens, K. Merriam, M.D. Meyer, and A.M. Latimer. 2012. Fuel treatment 
effectiveness in California yellow pine and mixt conifer forests. 
Forest Ecology and Management 274: 17-28.
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Protection Association. 2018. Firewise  USA site in Florida takes on 
two wildfires and survives. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection 
Association.
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Elliott, and T.K. Lehtonen. 2021. Climate change and insurance. Economy 
and Society 50: 158-172.
    [21] For example, a recent 
study concludes that climate change-induced sea level rise accounted 
for 13 percent of the damage caused by Hurricane Sandy (approximately 
$8.1 billion of the $62.5 billion in total damages) and 54 percent of 
the people affected (71,000 people out of the total of 131,000 people 
affected). Strauss, B.H., Orton, P.M., Bittermann, K. et al Economic 
damages from Hurricane Sandy attributable to sea level rise caused by 
anthropogenic climate change. Nat Commun 12, 2720 (2021). https://
doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22838-1.
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for Environmental Information (NCEI) U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and 
Climate Disasters (2021) (https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/), DOI: 
10.25921/stkw-7w73 (inland flooding ``caused by billion-dollar 
hurricanes (i.e., Harvey, Florence, Matthew) has also increased'').
    [23] E&E News, Anne C. 
Mulkern, Climate drives rise in global damage from storms -- study, 
July 12, 2021; Madakumbura, G.D., Thackeray, C.W., Norris, J. et al. 
Anthropogenic influence on extreme precipitation over global land areas 
seen in multiple observational datasets. Nat Commun 12, 3944 (2021). 
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24262-x.
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News, New Study Shows Global Warming Intensifying Extreme Rainstorms 
Over North America, June 2, 2020; Megan C. Kirchmeier-Young, Xuebin 
Zhang, Human influence has intensified extreme precipitation in North 
America, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Jun 2020, 117 
(24) 13308-13313; DOI:10.1073/pnas.1921628117.
    [25] NOAA High Tide Flooding 
Report, 2021 State of High Tide Flooding and Annual Outlook.
    [26] Union of Concerned 
Scientists. Underwater: Rising Seas, Chronic Floods, and the 
Implications for US Coastal Real Estate (2018).
    [27] Thomas Frank, Flooding 
Disproportionately Harms Black Neighborhoods, Scientific American (June 
2, 2020).
    [28] Maya K Buchanan et al, 
Sea level rise and coastal flooding threaten affordable housing, 
Environ. Res. Lett., 15 124020/(2020).
    [29] National Academies of 
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2019. Framing the Challenge of 
Urban Flooding in the United States. Washington, DC: The National 
Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25381.
    [30] Buchanan et al, Sea 
level rise and coastal flooding threaten affordable housing (see 
footnote 8).
    [31] Gerardo Ceballos, 
Ehrlich Paul, Raven Peter, Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of 
biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction. Proceedings of 
the National Academy of Sciences Jun 2020, 117 (24) 13596-13602; DOI: 
10.1073/pnas.1922686117 (``The ongoing sixth mass extinction may be the 
most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, 
because it is irreversible . . . . the sixth mass extinction is human 
caused and accelerating . . . . species are links in ecosystems, and, 
as they fall out, the species they interact with are likely to go also 
. . . . Our results reemphasize the extreme urgency of taking massive 
global actions to save humanity's crucial life-support systems.'')
    [32] Stein, B. A., L. S. 
Kutner, J. S. Adams eds. 2000. Precious Heritage: The Status of 
Biodiversity in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.
    [33] Jelks, H. L., S.J. 
Walsh, N.M. Burkhead, et al. 2008. Conservation status of imperiled 
North American freshwater and diadromous fishes. Fisheries. 33: 372-
407.
    [34] Williams, J. D., M. L. 
Warren, K. S. Cummings, J. L. Harris, and R. J. Neves. 1993. 
Conservation status of freshwater mussels of the United States and 
Canada. Fisheries 18: 6-22; Lydeard, C., R. H. Cowie, W. F. Ponder, et 
al. 2004. The global decline of nonmarine mollusks. BioScience 54 321-
330.
    [35] Stein, B. A., N. 
Edelson, L. Anderson, J. Kanter, and J. Stemler. 2018. Reversing 
America's Wildlife Crisis: Securing the Future of Our Fish and 
Wildlife. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.
    [36] T.E. Dahl and S.M. 
Stedman. 2013. Status and trends of wetlands in the coastal watersheds 
of the Conterminous United States 2004 to 2009. U.S. Department of the 
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and National Oceanic and 
Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. (46 pp); 
Dahl, T.E. 2006. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous 
United States 1998 to 2004. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. (112 pp); Dahl, T.E. 2000. Status 
and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. 
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, 
D.C. (82 pp); Dahl, T.E., and Johnson, C.E., 1991, Status and trends of 
wetlands in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's to mid-1980's. 
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, 
D.C. (28 pp).
    [37] Report to Congress by 
the Secretary of the Interior, The Impact of Federal Programs on 
Wetlands, Volume II, at 145 (1994). Approximately 80 percent of the 
bottomland hardwood wetlands in the lower Mississippi River basin have 
already been lost approximately. Report to Congress by the Secretary of 
the Interior, The Impact of Federal Programs on Wetlands, Volume I at 
39.
    [38] U.S. Geological Survey, 
Ecological Health in the Nation's Streams, Fact Sheet 2013-3033 (July 
2013); Carlisle, D.M., Meador, M.R., Short, T.M., Tate, C.M., Gurtz, 
M.E., Bryant, W.L., Falcone, J.A., and Woodside, M.D., 2013, The 
quality of our Nation's waters--Ecological health in the Nation's 
streams, 1993-2005: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1391 (120 pp).
    [39] American Rivers, 
Unnatural Disasters, Natural Solutions: Lessons From The Flooding Of 
New Orleans (2006) (quoting USACE, from Massachusetts Department of 
Fish and Game, Functions of Riparian Areas for Flood Control, http://
www.mass.gov/dfwele/river/pdf/riparian_factsheet_1.pdf.
    [40] Narayan, S., Beck, 
M.B., Wilson, P., et al., The Value of Coastal Wetlands for Flood 
Damage Reduction in the Northeastern USA. Scientific Reports 7, Article 
number 9463 (2017), doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09269-z. Available at 
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-09269-z.
    [41] Bob Marshall, Studies 
abound on why the levees failed. But researchers point out that some 
levees held fast because wetlands worked as buffers during Katrina's 
storm surge, The New Orleans Times-Picayune (March 23, 2006).
    [42] Glick, P., E. Powell, 
S. Schlesinger, J. Ritter, B.A. Stein, and A. Fuller. 2020. The 
Protective Value of Nature: A Review of the Effectiveness of Natural 
Infrastructure for Hazard Risk Reduction. Washington, DC: National 
Wildlife Federation, https://www.nwf.org/protective-value-of-nature.
    [43] Restore America's 
Estuaries, Jobs & Dollars BIG RETURNS from coastal habitat restoration 
(September 14, 2011), http://www.estuaries.org/images/81103-
RAE_17_FINAL_web.pdf.
    [44] Domke, G.M., B.F. 
Walters, D.J. Nowak, J Smith, S.M. Ogle, and J.W. Coulston. 2019. 
Greenhouse gas emissions and removals from forest land, woodlands, and 
urban trees in the United States, 1990-2017. Resource Update FS-178. 
Newtown Square, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 
Northern Research Station.
    [45] U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA). 2019. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas 
Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2017. EPA 430-R-19-001. U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency: Washington, D.C.
    [46] Nowak, D.J., E.J. 
Greenfield, R.E. Hoehn, and E. Lapoint. 2013. Carbon storage and 
sequestration by trees in urban and community areas of the United 
States. Environmental Pollution 178, pp. 229-236.
    [47] Wright, Christopher K., 
and Michael C. Wimberly. 2013. ``Recent Land Use Change in the Western 
Corn Belt Threatens Grasslands and Wetlands.'' Proceedings of the 
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(10): 
4134-39.
    [48] Cornell Laboratory of 
Ornithology, State of the Birds 2019, https://www.stateofthebirds.org/
2019/download-pdf-report/
    [49] National Academies of 
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Coastal Blue Carbon 
Approaches for Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration: 
Proceedings of a Workshop-- in Brief. Washington, DC: The National 
Academies Press. doi.org/10.17226/24965.
    [50] Mulligan, J., et al. 
2020. CarbonShot: Federal Policy Options for Carbon Removal in the 
United States. Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Resources 
Institute.

    Ms. Castor. And good job on getting--summarizing your 30-
page----
    Mr. O'Mara. Voluminous.
    Ms. Castor [continuing]. Testimony in 5 minutes. Thank you 
very much.
    Mr. Loris, you are now recognized to give a 5-minute 
presentation of your testimony.

                    STATEMENT OF NICK LORIS

    Mr. Loris. Thank you. I think Collin said double what I can 
say in the same amount of time, but I echo a lot of his 
sentiments. So I appreciate that.
    Chair Castor, Ranking Member Graves, and distinguished 
members of the Select Committee, thanks for this opportunity to 
testify this morning. My name is Nick Loris, and I am the Vice 
President of Public Policy at the Conservative Coalition for 
Climate Solutions.
    C3 Solutions is a think tank that focuses on policy reforms 
to empower entrepreneurs and innovators to solve our greatest 
energy and environmental challenges. And with my time, I would 
like to make two brief observations.
    The first is to underscore the economic, environmental, and 
climate benefits of investing in America's natural ecosystems. 
Active management of America's forests, grasslands, and 
wetlands will improve air and water quality, restore wildlife 
habitat, and capture and sequester more carbon dioxide. Forest 
restoration and eradicating invasive species will also reduce 
the risk of wildfires, floods, and droughts.
    Furthermore, innovative agricultural technologies and 
practices enable farmers and ranchers to produce more with 
less. The result is higher yields, cost savings, and healthier 
soils that prevent erosion and sequester more CO2. 
Without active care and investment, however, the mismanagement 
of America's ecosystems can increase greenhouse gas emissions 
and pollution, exacerbate the risks of extreme weather, and be 
an economic drain on communities.
    For instance, the 2020 wildfires in California emitted more 
carbon dioxide than the entire State's fossil fuel emissions 
that year. Addressing the fuel load through controlled burns 
and timber harvesting will reduce the size and intensity of 
wildfires and improve the health of America's forests.
    Another major challenge is invasive species, which devalue 
properties, damage infrastructure, devastate ecological 
systems, and threaten economic livelihoods. Whether it is 
cheatgrass increasing wildfire risks, or zebra mussels 
compromising water infrastructure, invasive species impose 
significant economic and environmental harm. Allocating 
resources toward prevention, early detection, and rapid 
response are the most cost-effective solutions, as they prevent 
the invasive species from becoming too invasive.
    Harnessing the power of incentives is also an effective 
mechanism to reduce invasive species. For instance, the nutria 
is a semiaquatic rodent that adversely affects wetlands and 
vegetation in Louisiana and several other states. Through a 
federal-state program, participants can hunt and trap nutria 
and receive $6 per nutria delivered to a collection center.
    Another example is a resource incentive where Florida's 
Fish and Wildlife Service provides a permit to harvest one 
additional spiny lobster for every 25 lionfish captured. The 
State also held a contest to see who could capture the most 
lionfish, and last year participants collected more than 3,400 
in total. These collaborative relationships that utilize 
incentives are an effective tool to reduce and ideally 
eradicate invasive species.
    The second point I would like to underscore is the 
importance of reducing or removing barriers that obstruct or 
delay investments in healthy ecosystems. These projects 
frequently run into burdensome, time-consuming permitting 
challenges. In addition, conservation projects can be held up 
for years in litigation. The significant loss of time to 
actively thin forests or eradicate invasive species often 
causes much worse environmental and climate outcomes. Rather 
than have pragmatic evaluation of risks and tradeoffs, 
environmental reviews have too often devolved into a tool to 
stunt the development of cleaner infrastructure and delay 
projects that will restore America's ecosystems.
    To be clear, environmental reviews are a critical part of 
any project, as is the participation of the public and the 
communities affected by that project. Modernizing permitting is 
not about removing environmental safeguards but increasing 
accountability and improving efficiency.
    Permitting reforms will allow preventative and restorative 
ecosystem investments to occur more resourcefully. Streamlined 
permitting will stretch taxpayer dollars further and inject 
more private capital into natural climate solutions. Federal 
agencies, States, the private sector, and nonprofits will be 
able to tackle our backlog of environmental priorities with 
more urgency and efficiency.
    With respect to agriculture, pro-growth tax policies will 
incentivize investment in new farming technologies and 
equipment. And leveraging Department of Agriculture programs to 
provide technical assistance for farmers and ranchers who want 
to pursue regenerative and precision agriculture will improve 
soil health and better optimize seed planting and treatment 
application, which will reduce the use of fertilizers, 
pesticides, fuel, and water.
    In conclusion, investment in healthy ecosystems is smart 
economic and climate policy. Rehabilitating forests, preventing 
and eradicating invasive species, promoting sustainable 
agriculture, and encouraging responsible land and water use 
practices will result in better ecological health, will reduce 
emissions, and will build up natural resiliencies to a changing 
climate.
    Natural climate solutions and healthy ecosystems will not 
come from treating America's lands and waters as if they should 
be stored behind glass in a museum. Instead they require active 
attention, investment, and management. Policies and regulations 
should reflect those needs.
    Thank you, and I look forward to your questions.
    [The statement of Mr. Loris follows:]

                     America's Natural Solutions: 
        The Climate Benefits of Investing in Healthy Ecosystems

              House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                 United States House of Representatives

                             April 1, 2022

                               Nick Loris

                    Vice President of Public Policy

      Conservative Coalition for Climate Solutions (C3 Solutions)

    My name is Nick Loris, and I am the Vice President of Public Policy 
at the Conservative Coalition for Climate Solutions (C3 Solutions). 
Thank you for this opportunity to appear before the select committee to 
discuss the climate benefits of investing in healthy ecosystems.
    My written testimony consists of the following two sections:

      The economic, environmental, and climate benefits of 
investing healthy ecosystems. Natural solutions are integral to 
reducing the risks of climate change. Conservation, restoration, and 
better land practices create more opportunities for forests, 
grasslands, and wetlands to capture and store carbon dioxide. Active 
land management that promotes healthy forests and eradicates invasive 
species will also reduce the risk of wildfires, floods and droughts. 
Various farming and ranching practices such as regenerative agriculture 
and precision agriculture will result in healthier soils and higher 
yields while sequestering more emissions and reducing the risk of 
flooding. In addition, integrating natural climate solutions for 
remediating abandoned mine sites would minimize environmental 
liabilities make these sites more economically attractive.

      Expanding opportunities for investments for healthier 
ecosystems. Policymakers should reduce barriers to healthy ecosystem 
investment, improve incentives for productive federal-state and private 
partnerships to prevent and eradicate invasive species. Furthermore, 
Congress and the administration should provide pathways to expand the 
use of regenerative and precision agriculture and implement reforms 
that generate alternative funding sources for natural climate 
solutions.

Section I. The economic, environmental, and climate benefits of 
        investing healthy ecosystems

    Investing in America's natural ecosystems will expand economic 
opportunities and reduce environmental liabilities. Moreover, healthier 
ecosystems will produce climate benefits by reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions and reducing the risks of extreme weather events. Creating 
positive incentive structures among private property owners, the 
federal government, tribes, and state and local governments will 
improve the environmental health of America's land and water systems. 
Whether it is healthy forests or regenerative farms, empowering 
landowners to deploy local and specialized knowledge will best deliver 
economic, environmental, and climate benefits. Landowners have the most 
to gain from responsible stewardship and the most to lose from 
mismanagement. Natural climate solutions and healthy ecosystems will 
not come from treating America's forests, farmland, grasslands, and 
watersheds as if they should be stored in a museum. Instead, they 
require active attention, investment, and management.

Active forest management

    Healthy forests are vital for America's environmental health and 
are an essential natural climate solution. Forests in the United States 
sequester about 16 percent of annual carbon dioxide emissions.\1\ 
Reducing deforestation and increasing tree cover will protect and 
enhance a sound natural climate solution to sequester carbon dioxide. 
Fully restoring understocked, productive forestland in the U.S. could 
increase carbon sequestration by 20 percent.\2\ That is not to suggest 
a complete stop to logging, mining, building roads or other economic 
reasons why private property owners may cut down trees. Rather, 
policymakers should eliminate illegal deforestation, establish defined 
and legally protected property rights, and increase the availability of 
compensation for conservation.\3\
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    \1\ Penn State Extension, ``How Forests Store Carbon,'' September 
24, 2020,
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https://extension.psu.edu/how-forests-store-
carbon#::text=According%20to%20the%20US%20Forest,mainly%20in%20trees%20
and%20soil.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \2\ Grant M. Domke, et al., ``Tree planting has the potential to 
increase carbon sequestration capacity of forests in the United 
States,'' PNAS, Vol 117. No 40, October 6, 2020, https://www.pnas.org/
doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.2010840117
    \3\ Brad Plumer, ``A Cheap Fix for Climate Change? Pay People Not 
to Chop Down Trees,'' 
The New York Times, June 20, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/20/
climate/a-cheap-fix-for-climate-change-pay-people-not-to-chop-down-
trees-uganda.html
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    If improperly managed, however, America's forests are an economic, 
environmental, and public safety liability. Wildfires threaten 
communities, endanger lives and reduce productivity. They spew 
exorbitant amounts of pollutions and carbon dioxide emissions into the 
atmosphere. In 2020, California's wildfires emitted more carbon dioxide 
than the entire state's fossil fuel emissions.\4\ Wildfires can also 
cancel out carbon offset projects, where companies purchase carbon 
dioxide credits to offset their own emissions. Decomposing trees also 
release carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. While global 
decarbonization will help minimize human-induced warming's impact on 
wildfires and wildfire seasons, a more immediate and effective solution 
to reduce the size of wildfires is to address the fuel load. The fuel 
load exacerbates the size and intensity of wildfires. Fuel includes 
grass, shrubs and small trees as well as dead leaves and materials on 
the forest floor.\5\ Prescribed or controlled burns and timber 
harvesting will significantly reduce the fuel load, while regulatory 
morass, litigation, and funding challenges prohibit or impede these 
activities.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \4\ Elizabeth Claire Alberts, `` `Off the chart': CO2 
from California fires dwarf state's fossil fuel emissions,'' Mongabay, 
September 18, 2020, https://news.mongabay.com/2020/09/off-the-chart-
co2-from-california-fires-dwarf-states-fossil-fuel-emissions/
    \5\ U.S. Department of Interior, ``Fuels Management,'' https://
www.doi.gov/wildlandfire/fuels
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Internationally, establishing defined and legally protected 
property rights is critical to encourage landowners, including 
indigenous populations, to reduce global deforestation.\6\ Governments, 
businesses, and private organizations are dedicating more resources (a 
combined $19 billion pledged at the Glasgow climate summit) \7\ to 
combatting international deforestation. Through domestic rehabilitation 
efforts and international cooperation, the United States should 
continue to be an international leader in curbing illegal deforestation 
and in increasing afforestation efforts.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \6\ Kathryn Baragwanath and Ella Bayi, ``Collective property rights 
reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon,'' PNAS, Vol 117., No 34., 
August 11, 2020,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://www.pnas.org/content/117/34/20495
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \7\ Catrin Einhorn and Chris Buckley, ``Global Leaders Pledge to 
End Deforestation by 2030,'' The New York Times, November 10, 201, 
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/02/climate/cop26-deforestation.html

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Address invasive species

    Invasive species are an economic and environmental menace for 
private property owners, communities, and for public lands and waters. 
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) explains that the widespread 
``economic and social impacts of invasive species include both direct 
effects of a species on property values, agricultural productivity, 
public utility operations, native fisheries, tourism, and outdoor 
recreation, as well as costs associated with invasive species control 
efforts. A 2021 study estimated that invasive species have cost North 
America $2 billion per year in the early 1960s to over $26 billion per 
year since 2010.'' \8\ Rising global temperatures make invasive species 
worse, and invasive species can also increase the threat of extreme 
weather. A problematic example of an invasive species worsening the 
size and intensity of wildfires is the pervasion of cheatgrass and 
buffelgrass.\9\ Invasive species also deteriorate the health of 
forestland and grassland, which increases erosion and reduces 
opportunities to sequester more carbon dioxide.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \8\ Ed Arnett, ``This Invasive Species Is Fueling Western 
Wildfires,'' Theodore Roosevelt Conservation Partnership, August 28, 
2020, https://www.trcp.org/2020/08/28/invasive-species-fueling-western-
wildfires/
    \9\ Colorado State University, ``Cheatgrass and Wildfire''
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/natres/06310.pdf
    Private property owners have a direct incentive to eradicate 
invasive species, but those incentives are weaker if eradication 
requires active planning, coordination and action from multiple 
landowners. Federal, state, and local government policies and 
regulations can further complicate coordination.\10\ The Infrastructure 
Investment and Jobs Act allocates $100 million each to the Department 
of Interior and Department of Agriculture to address invasive 
species.\11\ Prevention and early detection are the most cost-effective 
ways to deal with invasive species.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \10\ Hannah Downey, ``What are Invasive Species? A Q&A with Chris 
Costello,'' The Property and Environment Research Center, September 12, 
2016, https://www.perc.org/2016/09/12/what-are-invasive-species-a-qa-
with-chris-costello/
    \11\ Laura Bies, ``Senate infrastructure bill includes wildlife 
funding,'' The Wildlife Society, August 18, 2021, https://wildlife.org/
senate-infrastructure-bill-includes-wildlife-funding/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Furthermore, federal and state governments should consider 
expanding incentive programs to reduce invasive species. For instance, 
the nutria is a semi-aquatic rodent that adversely affects wetlands and 
vegetation in Louisiana. Through a federal-state program, participants 
can trap and hunt nutria and will receive $6 per nutria delivered to a 
collection center.\12\ Another example is a resource incentive, where 
Florida's Fish and Wildlife Service provides a permit to harvest one 
additional spiny lobster for every 25 lionfish (the invasive species) 
captured. The state also had a contest to see which diver can capture 
the most lionfish and awards prizes for participants that capture the 
most. In 2021, the participants collected more than 3,400 lionfish.\13\ 
Different types of incentive programs (bounty, contractor, community, 
recreation) are effective and can vary depending on the region and 
species.\14\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \12\ Nutria.com, ``Coastwide Nutria Control Program,''
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://nutria.com/nutria-control-program/coastwide-nutria-control-
program/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \13\ Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, ``Lionfish 
Challenge 2021 Update--June 29,'' June 29, 2021, https://myfwc.com/
news/all-news/lionfish-update-621/
    \14\ U.S. Department of Interior Invasive Species Advisory 
Committee, ``Harvest Incentives: A Tool for Managing Aquatic Invasive 
Species,'' May 15, 2014,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/
isac_harvest_incentives_white_paper.pdf
    Additionally, non-profits are stepping up in a big way. Friends of 
Tonto National Forest in Arizona, for example, is removing invasive 
grasses from the national forest after a heavy monsoon season resulted 
in aggressive growth.\15\ Through collaborative relationships with 
landowners, non-profits and state and local governments, the federal 
government should continue to prioritize invasive species prevention, 
early detection systems, and eradication.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \15\ Jen Wahl, ``Preventing Arizona wildfires: Non-profit removes 
invasive plants from desert
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
landscape,'' 12 News, February 21, 2022, https://www.12news.com/
article/news/local/wildfire/preventing-wildfires-arizona-non-profit-
removes-invasive-plants-from-desert-landscape/75-a3789cb1-2f9c-45e8-
94e1-1f489759120d

Expand regenerative and precision agriculture and invest in innovative 
        agricultural technologies

    Regenerative agriculture can diversify farmers' and ranchers' 
income and produce many environmental benefits. Those benefits include 
improved soil health and carbon sequestration, cleaner air and water, 
and diversified, healthier wildlife habitats. Improved soil health also 
reduces soil erosion and creates land that is more flood and drought 
resistant.\16\ With access to more data, better information, and newer 
equipment, producers can improve yields while reducing emissions and 
unwanted environmental byproducts. Automated technologies, GPS, and 
enhanced imagery better optimizes seed planting and treatment 
application, which reduces the use of fertilizers, pesticides, fuel, 
and water.\17\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \16\ The Noble Research Institute, 
``Regenerative Agriculture Is About Direction Over Perfection,''
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
March 2020, https://www.noble.org/news/publications/ag-news-and-views/
2020/march/regenerative-agriculture-is-about-direction-over-perfection/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \17\ Association of Equipment Manufacturers, American Soybean 
Association, CropLife America, and National Corn Growers Association, 
``The Environmental Benefits of Precision Agriculture in the United 
States,'' https://app.box.com/s/3s8x8xq1olm2ygmsguo8iu56mgaowl4l
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    One study has shown that precision agriculture adoption increased 
corn and soybean yields on existing lands and avoided cultivating 
another 10.2 million acres of new cropland, the size of 4.5 Yellowstone 
National parks.\18\ Another case study examined the adoption of 
precision agriculture on a family farm in Illinois and found the family 
reduced its per acre costs by $67 and reduced greenhouse gas emissions 
more than 15 percent.\19\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \18\ Ibid.
    \19\ Ibid.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Although not a natural solution, continued innovation and 
investment in new technologies will drive efficiency, increase output, 
reduce emissions. Other innovative companies are turning waste into 
valuable products. For instance, Sedron Technologies processes liquid 
and solid wastes to useable products for soil nutrition, fertilizer, 
and drinking water.\20\ Pro-growth economic policies that open pathways 
for more agricultural innovation and investment will maintain American 
leadership in farming and ranching and deliver natural climate 
benefits.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \20\ Sedron Technologies, https://www.sedron.com/varcor/

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voluntary carbon offset and removal markets

    Voluntary carbon markets can be a cost-effective way for companies 
and individuals to reduce their climate footprint. In effect, 
landowners would receive compensation for preventing and reducing 
greenhouse gas emissions or for sequestering carbon. This could include 
activities such as planting trees or farming and ranching practices 
that increase carbon sequestration. For companies that have set their 
own net-zero targets, especially in hard-to-decarbonize sectors, 
offsets provide a market-based mechanism to reduce or avoid emissions 
at lower costs. For others, voluntary partnerships provide 
opportunities for carbon removal. For instance, Shopify's 
Sustainability Fund has committed $32 million to carbon removal climate 
entrepreneurs, many of which are delivering natural climate solutions 
(for forests, soils, and mineralization).\21\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \21\ Shopify, ``Going All In To Get Carbon Out: Shopify's 
Commitment to Climate Entrepreneurs Reaches $32M,'' March 28, 2022, 
https://news.shopify.com/going-all-in-to-get-carbon-out-shopifys-
commitment-to-climate-entrepreneurs-reaches-32m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    These markets are not without their challenges. In some instances, 
offset projects did not materialize in the ways expected. For example, 
satellite imagery has shown that forest preservation or reforestation 
projects covered only a fraction of the land they were intended to 
cover.\22\ Another challenge is accurately measuring the emissions 
avoided or reduced. Soil samples taken to measure carbon stored can 
vary depending on which methods samplers use. Renewable power output 
can change from day-to-day. A reforestation project could be wiped out 
by a wildfire. The greatest challenge in verifying offsets is proving 
additionality. In other words, how can we be sure that farmers or 
businesses aren't getting paid for something they were going to do 
anyway? For example, if a company makes an investment in a new energy 
savings technology for financial reasons, but that technology also 
reduces emissions, those emissions reductions are not additional. For 
many reasons, proving or disproving that counterfactual is difficult to 
do.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \22\ Lisa Song, ``An Even More Inconvenient Truth: Why Carbon 
Credits for Forest Preservation may be Worse Than Nothing,'' 
ProPublica, May 22, 2019, https://features.propublica.org/brazil-
carbon-offsets/inconvenient-truth-carbon-credits-dont-work-
deforestation-redd-acre-cambodia/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    These markets, however, have made dramatic improvements in 
collecting accurate data, improving carbon accounting methodologies, 
and having transparent, proper oversight. Third-party verifiers are 
improving methods to demonstrate the veracity of emissions reductions. 
For instance, one verifier tests soil at the beginning of an offset 
project, collects samples over the years and then inputs the data 
``into an agricultural carbon model that estimates the sequestration 
that's taken place.'' \23\ Other companies, including Nori, are using 
blockchain technology to create a voluntary, verifiable carbon removal 
market for buyers and sellers.\24\ The Environmental Defense Fund, 
World Wildlife Fund and Oeko-Institut (Germany) are setting up a carbon 
credit quality initiative.\25\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \23\ Jim Giles, ``Digging into the complex, confusing and 
contentious world of soil carbon offsets,'' GreenBiz, February 26, 
2021, https://www.greenbiz.com/article/digging-complex-confusing-and-
contentious-world-soil-carbon-offsets
    \24\ Nori, ``The Nori Carbon Removal Marketplace,'' https://
nori.com/
    \25\ Environmental Defense Fund, ``Carbon Credit Quality 
Initiative: Assessing the quality of carbon credits,'' August 3, 2021, 
https://www.edf.org/climate/carbon-credit-quality-initiative
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Like other methods to rehabilitate ecosystems that produce climate 
benefits, incentives matter. Jonathan Wood, research fellow at the 
Property and Environment Research Center (PERC), writes that carbon 
markets will work best when they ``incentivize compliance, rather than 
relying on enforcement.'' \26\ Wood writes, ``If offsets are only 
purchased to comply with the regulation, neither the purchaser nor the 
seller necessarily has the incentive to ensure that the offsets provide 
results. Instead, those incentives depend on how closely the regulator 
scrutinizes transactions and monitors long-term compliance.'' \27\ With 
the right incentive structure and through weeding out fraudulent 
credits, voluntary carbon markets can make meaningful gains in reducing 
emissions and reducing risks of climate change.\28\ The federal 
government could be a hub of information, offer technical 
assistance,\29\ and provide any necessary verification for the 
inclusion of carbon markets in international agreements.\30\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \26\ Jonathan Wood, ``A Role for Carbon Markets?'' The Property and 
Environment Research Center, May 29, 2019, https://www.perc.org/2019/
05/29/a-role-for-carbon-markets/
    \27\ Ibid.
    \28\ Steve Schwartzman, et al., ``What ProPublica's forest carbon 
credits story still gets wrong--and right (with update),'' 
Environmental Defense Fund, May 23, 2019, http://
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
blogs.edf.org/climate411/2019/05/23/what-propublicas-forest-carbon-
credits-story-gets-wrong-and-right/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \29\ See, for instance, Senator Mike Lee's amendment to the Growing 
Climate Solutions Act, https://www.lee.senate.gov/2021/6/growing-
climate-solutions-act
    \30\ Frank Watson, ``COP26: Nations strike deal on international 
carbon markets at Glasgow
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
summit,'' S&P Global, November 14, 2021, https://www.spglobal.com/
commodity-insights/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/
111421-cop26-nations-strike-deal-on-international-carbon-markets-at-
glasgow-summit

Embrace sound science on genetically modified crops and genetically 
        engineered animals

    Genetically modified (GMs) crops have been paramount to feeding 
American households and enabling farmers to produce higher yields with 
fewer resources. Genetically modified crops such as golden rice have 
been instrumental in combatting global hunger and malnutrition.\31\ 
These crops are safe, tested and approved by regulatory agencies in the 
U.S. (Food and Drug Administration) and around the world. By improving 
output on existing cropland and reducing the use of herbicides and 
insecticides, GMs have significant environmental and climate benefits 
(both for emissions reductions and climate resiliency).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \31\ Daniel Norero, ``Unfairly demonized GMO crops can help fight 
malnutrition,'' Alliance for Science, June 20, 2018, https://
allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2018/06/unfairly-demonized-gmo-
crops-can-help-fight-malnutrition/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    A June 2020 study found that, in 2018, GM crops raised farm income 
nearly $19 billion and raised farm income $225 billion from 1996-2018. 
The same study found that in 2018 the ``combined GM crop-related carbon 
dioxide emission savings from reduced fuel use and additional soil 
carbon sequestration were equal to the removal from the roads of 15.3 
million cars.'' \32\ Similarly, genetically engineering animals has 
proven to make them healthier, more productive, and more 
environmentally friendly. For example, genetically engineered cows have 
more disease-resistant milk, which reduces the emissions per gallon of 
milk produced.\33\ Moreover, researchers have inserted a gene into cows 
to produce more male offspring, which weigh more but eat less.\34\ 
Again, the result is greater output with a small environmental 
footprint.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \32\ Graham Brookes & Peter Barfoot, ``GM crops: global socio-
economic and environmental impacts 1996-2018,'' PG Economics, Ltd, 
United Kingdom, June 2020,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://pgeconomics.co.uk/pdf/globalimpactfinalreportJuly2020.pdf
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \33\ Robert Wall et al., ``Genetically enhanced cows resist 
intramammary Staphylococcus aureus infection,'' Nat Biotechnol. April 
2005, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15806099/
    \34\ Kristin Houser, ``This genetically modified cow could 
transform beef production,'' Freethink, July 26, 2020, https://
www.freethink.com/science/gmo-food

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section II. Expanding opportunities for healthy ecosystem investment

    There is no shortage of opportunities to invest in America's 
natural ecosystems and reap the economic, environmental and climate 
benefits that come with it. To capitalize on those opportunities, 
policymakers should reduce the regulatory barriers that obstruct or 
delay ecosystem investment. Congress and the administration should also 
explore ways to improve incentives for constructive partnerships and 
generate alternative funding sources for natural climate solutions.
    Such reforms offer several noteworthy advantages. Permitting 
reforms will allow preventative and restorative ecosystem investments 
to occur more resourcefully. Efficient permitting and collaboration 
will stretch taxpayer dollars further, inject more private capital into 
natural ecosystem rehabilitation, and incentivize investments in 
stewardship. The outcome will be a cleaner environment, more protection 
from extreme weather and greater reductions in greenhouse gas 
emissions. To that end, policymakers should:

      Streamline forest and invasive restoration projects, 
expedite judicial review, and expand opportunities for timber 
development. An April 2021 PERC report highlights the environmental and 
climate benefits of forest restoration. The report details many 
pragmatic recommendations to expedite forest restoration processes and 
encourage collaborative partnerships.\35\ Notable policy solutions 
include making categorical exclusions easier to apply for, excluding 
prescribed burns from state emissions calculations, requiring lawsuits 
to be filed quickly and resolved quickly, narrowing the scope of the 
Endangered Species Act to on-the-ground impacts of endangered species, 
opening timber markets for export, and allowing the Forest Service to 
be a ``Good Neighbor'' with states, tribes, and counties.\36\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \35\ Holly Fretwell and Jonathan Wood, ``Fix America's Forests: 
Reforms to Restore National Forests and Tackle the Wildfire Crisis,'' 
The Property and Environment Research Center, 
April 12, 2021, https://www.perc.org/2021/04/12/fix-americas-forests-
reforms-to-restore-national-forests-and-tackle-the-wildfire-crisis/
    \36\ Ibid.

      Maximize funding and flexibility for wildfire prevention, 
reforestation, and afforestation efforts. Bipartisan legislative 
proposals including the Emergency Wildfire and Public Safety Act \37\ 
and the Trillion Trees and Natural Carbon Storage Act \38\ have many 
sensible provisions to improve wildfire prevention and enhance natural 
climate solutions. The bills would provide funding and accelerate the 
use of fire detection equipment (including the use of satellites), 
matching grant programs for tree planting, seed and sapling funding, 
and small tweaks to federal agency technical assistance for carbon 
sequestration and forest management activities. Congress should also 
explore mechanisms to solve budgeting challenges of long-term forest 
restoration projects. As the PERC report underscores, ``Under the 
Antideficiency Act and appropriations rules, the Forest Service cannot 
obligate funds in advance of appropriations or after funding has 
expired. This constrains its ability to participate as an equal 
financial partner when states, tribes, or private groups are willing to 
contribute funds to forest restoration.'' \39\ PERC recommends the 
creation of a restoration fund that would provide the funding certainty 
and commitment toward long-term projects.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \37\ S.4431--Emergency Wildfire and Public Safety Act of 2020, 
https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/
4431#::text=This%20bill%20addresses%20wildfire%20preparedness, 
wildfire%20due%20to%20climate%20change
    \38\ S.4985--Trillion Trees and Natural Carbon Storage Act, https:/
/www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/4985/text
    \39\ Holly Fretwell and Jonathan Wood, ``Fix America's Forests: 
Reforms to Restore National Forests and Tackle the Wildfire Crisis,'' 
The Property and Environment Research Center, 
April 12, 2021, https://www.perc.org/2021/04/12/fix-americas-forests-
reforms-to-restore-national-forests-and-tackle-the-wildfire-crisis/

      Reform the National Environmental Policy Act. Investments 
in healthy ecosystems and natural climate solutions often run into 
burdensome, time-consuming permitting challenges. In addition, 
conservation practices can be held up for years in litigation. The 
consequence has been missed opportunities to thin forests or eradicate 
invasive species, resulting in much worse environmental and climate 
outcomes. A common obstacle that can block or delay investments in 
projects that enhance ecosystems, reduce emissions, and provide natural 
resilience for communities is the National Environmental Policy Act 
(NEPA). President Nixon signed NEPA into law more than 50 years ago. 
Since then, many federal, state, and local environmental laws have been 
enacted, creating a confusing web of unclear, overlapping, and complex 
requirements. As columnist Ezra Klein recently wrote in the New York 
Times, NEPA is ``part of a broader set of checks on development that 
have done a lot of good over the years but are doing a lot of harm now. 
When they were designed, these bills were radical reforms to an 
intolerable status quo. Now they are, too often, powerful allies of an 
intolerable status quo, rendering government plodding and ineffectual 
and making it almost impossible to build green infrastructure at the 
speed we need.'' \40\ Green infrastructure also encompasses investments 
in natural climate solutions. Rather than have pragmatic evaluations of 
risk and trade-offs, NEPA has too often devolved into a tool to stunt 
the development of cleaner infrastructure and to delay projects that 
will restore America's ecosystems.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \40\ Ezra Klein, ``Government Is Flailing, in Part Because Liberals 
Hobbled It,'' The New York Times, March 13, 2022, https://
www.nytimes.com/2022/03/13/opinion/berkeley-enrollment-climate-
crisis.html

       While the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act included and 
codified some important reforms, a more systemic overhaul is necessary. 
Two legislative proposals that would properly narrow the scope of NEPA 
are the Undoing NEPA's Substantial Harm by Advancing Concepts that 
Kickstart the Liberation of the Economy Act (UNSHACKLE Act) \41\ and 
the Building United States Infrastructure through Limited Delays and 
Efficient Reviews Act of 2021 (BUILDER Act).\42\ Environmental reviews 
are a critical part of any project, as is the participation of the 
public and communities affected by the project. NEPA reform is not 
about removing environmental safeguards but increasing accountability, 
improving efficiency, and curbing excessive litigation.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \41\ H.R.3814--UNSHACKLE Act, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-
congress/house-bill/3814?q=%7B 
%22search%22%3A%5B%22UNSHACKLE+Act%22%2C%22UNSHACKLE%22%2C%22Act%22%5D%7
D &s=2&r=1
    \42\ H.R.2515--Building United States Infrastructure through 
Limited Delays and Efficient Reviews Act of 2021, https://
www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/
2515?q=%7B%22search%22%3A 
%5B%22BUILDER+ACT%22%2C%22BUILDER%22%2C%22ACT%22%5D%7D&s=1&r=1

      Provide efficient and flexible pathways for invasive 
species prevention, detection, and eradication. Congress should 
expedite permitting for any invasive species eradication plans (see 
NEPA reform bullet), and the Department of Interior and Department of 
Agriculture should have the flexibility to use federal funds to 
experiment with different prevention and detection methods (within the 
confines of statutory requirements). The federal government should also 
explore opportunities to collaborate with the private sector and state 
and local governments to expand the use of incentive programs (bounty, 
contractor, community, recreation). Many of these programs, which vary 
by region and species, have proven to be effective.\43\ The Interior 
Department Invasive Species Advisory Committee should continue and 
expand its outreach and provide recommendations and technical 
assistance on program implementation and how to avoid unintended 
consequences.\44\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \43\ U.S. Department of Interior Invasive Species Advisory 
Committee, ``Harvest Incentives: A Tool for Managing Aquatic Invasive 
Species,'' May 15, 2014,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/
isac_harvest_incentives_white_paper.pdf
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \44\ Ibid.

      Integrate natural climate solutions into abandoned mine 
site cleanups. There are hundreds of thousands of abandoned mine sites 
on federal lands, and policymakers should turn these environmental 
liabilities into opportunities. Establishing better incentives for 
abandoned mine clean up can turn health, safety, and environmental 
dangers into productive, cleaner lands and waters.\45\ The Good 
Samaritan Remediation of Abandoned Hardrock Mines Act \46\ would be an 
important step forward that helps reduce the liability risk of 
remediating abandoned mine sites.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \45\ Jonathan Wood, ``Prospecting for Pollution: The Need for 
Better Incentives to Clean Up Abandoned Mines,'' The Property and 
Environment Research Center, February 2020, https://www.perc.org/wp-
content/uploads/2020/02/prospecting-for-pollution-abandoned-mines.pdf
    \46\ S.3571--Good Samaritan Remediation of Abandoned Hardrock Mines 
Act of 2022, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/
3571/text

      Explore alternative funding pathways. Increase user fees 
and charge international visitors higher fees. To address invasive 
species at federal and state parks or waters including the Great Lakes 
(where 25 invasive species of fish and numerous invasive plants have 
entered the lakes since 1880),\47\ parks should charge market rates for 
entrances.\48\ That revenue could be used to address deferred 
maintenance at parks but also to address environmental concerns such as 
invasive species. Charging international visitors to federal parks by 
increasing visa fees or for out-of-state visitors to state parks (as 
many do) will generate additional revenue for conservation efforts. 
Vouchers could be offered to low-income communities to ensure all 
Americans have access to U.S. parks.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \47\ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ``Invasive Species in 
the Great Lakes,'' February 3, 2022, https://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/
invasive-species-great-lakes
    \48\ Nicolas Loris, ``Tackling the Enormous Deferred Maintenance 
Backlog for America's National Parks,'' The Heritage Foundation, June 
9, 2020,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://www.heritage.org/environment/report/tackling-the-enormous-
deferred-maintenance-backlog-americas-national-parks

      Expand opportunities for investment in more efficient 
agricultural equipment, and for investment in precision and 
regenerative agriculture. Innovative agricultural technologies and more 
efficient practices enable farmers and ranchers to produce more with 
less. Congress should reform laws to encourage investment in new 
equipment by making immediate expensing a permanent fixture of the tax 
code. Immediate expensing will allow farmers and ranchers to deduct the 
cost of automated, more efficient equipment in the year the cost is 
incurred rather than over years using cumbersome depreciation 
schedules. Congress could also consider leveraging existing USDA 
programs to incentivize precision agriculture and regenerative 
agriculture practices. For instance, the Producing Responsible Energy 
and Conservation Incentives and Solutions for the Environment Act 
(PRECISE Act) would expand USDA conservation loans and programs to 
include precision agriculture investments and provide technical 
assistance for farmers and ranchers who want to pursue soil health 
planning.\49\ Furthermore, the Naturally Offsetting Emissions by 
Managing and Implementing Tillage Strategies (NO EMITs Act) \50\ would 
compensate farmers for lost revenue for a period that farmers and 
ranchers switch to a healthier soil cropping system. Funds could also 
be available for technical assistance for farmers and ranchers that 
transition to regenerative practices in which they could consult with 
USDA's conservation service experts, non-profits, or other farmers.\51\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \49\ Producing Responsible Energy and Conservation Incentives and 
Solutions for the Environment, https://republicans-
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
agriculture.house.gov/uploadedfiles/
04.14.2021_preciseacthinsonsummary.pdf?utm_campaign=2760-396
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \50\ H.R.2508--Naturally Offsetting Emissions by Managing and 
Implementing Tillage Strategies Act of 2021, https://www.congress.gov/
bill/117th-congress/house-bill/2508/text?r=95&s=1
    \51\ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 
Service Technical Service Providers, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/
portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/technical/tsp/

      Provide accurate accounting of the environmental and 
climate effectiveness of conservation programs. Voluntary USDA 
conservation programs provide important assistance to farmers and 
ranchers, protect the environment, and increase carbon sequestration in 
soil and trees. Conservation programs help protect drinking water, 
preserve wildlife habitat, prevent soil erosion, and protect and 
restore forests and wetlands.\52\ Data collection, transparency, and 
evaluation will maximize the efficiency of these initiatives and 
safeguard the taxpayers from waste, fraud, and abuse. The bipartisan, 
bicameral Farmer-Driven Conservation Outcomes Act of 2020 would 
authorize the USDA to identify goals, metrics, and assessment processes 
to measure the effectiveness of conservation programs.\53\ Developing 
goals, metrics, and monitoring programs and modifying the programs as 
necessary will provide sound scientific data to maximize conservation 
efforts. Data collection, monitoring, and evaluation will also better 
inform efforts to capture and sequester carbon.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \52\ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Conservation Programs, https:/
/www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/conservation-programs/
    \53\ H.R.6182--Farmer-Driven Conservation Outcomes Act of 2020,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6182/text

      Keep GM labeling voluntary and promote the economic and 
environmental benefits of GM crops and animals. Mandatory labeling 
could create a negative stigma about genetic engineering, which would 
undermine the evidence that GM crops and animals are scientifically 
safe and beneficial for farmers, consumers, and the environment. 
Evidence also suggests that non-GMO labels may reveal enough 
information to consumers to deem mandatory labels unnecessary.\54\ 
Additionally, USDA should consider reinstating its GM checkoff program 
to convey the minimal risks and economic and environmental benefits of 
GM crops and animals. While the USDA should not be in the business of 
picking winners and losers, public perception, acceptance, and 
communication of sound science and data is key to legitimizing GMs 
where widespread skepticism still exists.\55\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \54\ Aaron Adalja et al., ``Direct and Indirect Effects of 
Mandatory GMO Disclosure with Existing Voluntary Non-GMO Labeling,'' 
March 2022, https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID= 
674066092020080070126007004087016101038046007020059034127065092110126100
099074031 
028056033058006042055014031029109121124084098053082054001060121119079000
100104073 
006061053066087025064088072020125013070024065027124087029031088097081069
022122103 072028104&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE
    \55\ Brian Kennedy and Cary Lynne Thigpen, ``Many publics around 
world doubt safety of genetically modified foods,'' Pew Research 
Center, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/11/11/many-publics-
around-world-doubt-safety-of-genetically-modified-foods/

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conclusion

    Investment in healthy ecosystems is smart economic and climate 
policy. Eradicating invasive species, rehabilitating forests, promoting 
sustainable agriculture, and encouraging responsible land and water use 
practices are pragmatic natural climate solutions. Stronger ecological 
health and biodiversity in the United States and around the world will 
reduce emissions and build up natural resiliencies to a changing 
climate. To expand natural climate solutions, policymakers should 
remove barriers to ecosystem investments and encourage collaborative 
partnerships that harness the power of positive incentives.

    Ms. Castor. Thank you very much.
    Next, Dr. Sherry Larkin, you are recognized for 5 minutes 
to summarize your testimony.
    Welcome.

               STATEMENT OF DR. SHERRY L. LARKIN

    Dr. Larkin. Thank you.
    Good morning, Chair Castor, Ranking Member Graves, and 
members of the Select Committee.
    Thank you for your willingness to hear of new solutions to 
address the impacts of climate change, solutions that improve 
our coastal habitats, strengthen our communities' ability to 
withstand sea level rise, and increase America's blue economy 
that NOAA estimates affects 127 million people that live in 
coastal counties, municipalities, and parishes, or 40 percent 
of the U.S. population.
    In 2018, America's blue economy supported 2.3 million jobs 
and contributed $373 billion to the nation's gross national 
product. In Florida, the share of the economy that is driven by 
our coastline is well above 40 percent. It is over 75 percent, 
making climate resilience intertwined with our state's future.
    My name is Sherry Larkin, and I am a professor in the Food 
and Resource Economics Department at the University of Florida 
and am the Director of the Florida Sea Grant College Program. 
Florida is one of 34 university-based programs in states that 
border the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Great Lakes, Gulf 
of Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
    Science helps us understand how much our environment 
reduces the economic impact of climate change. It is now time 
for us to partner fully with that environment to improve the 
resilience of our coastal areas. In fact, in the recent 
bipartisan Infrastructure and Jobs Act, NOAA was awarded $1.5 
billion for coastal resilience-related work. And FEMA was 
awarded $3.5 billion for flood mitigation assistance. This is 
just 1.3 percent of the annual contribution of our coastline to 
our economy.
    Sea grant programs are charged with not just funding 
science relevant to local stakeholders but ensuring that those 
findings are communicated to the public and used by resource 
managers in coastal communities. Every dollar of Federal 
investment in sea grant must be matched with non-Federal funds 
which is a model that fosters collaboration.
    The Blue Carbon Initiative indicates that 83 percent of 
global carbon cycle is circulated through the ocean, and 
coastal habitats account for half of the carbon that is stored 
sediments. That means there is an opportunity to invest in 
coastal habitats, which account for less than 2 percent of the 
total ocean area. Just think of how big our blue economy can 
grow.
    In Florida, some of our activities in this space include 
restoring coastal sea grasses, mangroves, sponges, corals, and 
sea oats habitats; improving coastal water quality by helping 
divert boats in which to clean marinas, and removing plastics 
from oyster restoration projects; building the capacity of 
local agencies, institutions, and associates to apply for 
Federal funding; and improving FEMA's community ratings system 
force to reduce flood insurance premiums. We train shellfish 
aquaculture farmers and offer certifications for marine 
contractors to build living shorelines. We create public 
education programs like Climate Smart Floridians, Seagrass Safe 
Boating, and Mangrove Trimming Best Management Practices that 
help residents live more sustainably.
    Investigating regulatory revisions that would allow 
shellfish growers to supply seafood and be used for coastal 
restoration is particularly needed in Florida. We are building 
climate alliances in the Gulf of Mexico region and to improve 
justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion with respect to 
health outcomes in the Southeastern U.S. and Caribbean.
    The reality is, to generate societal benefits, a lot of 
pieces need to be in place other than just habitat restoration, 
namely, number one, site-specific research that quantifies the 
net carbon benefits, estimates the feasibility and value of 
alternative solutions, and evaluates proposed policies; number 
two, education to encourage careers in natural coastal 
solutions and for homeowners, policymakers, and relevant 
industry sectors; and, number three, training and workforce 
development to grow a new blue economy that benefits all 
Americans.
    As Sea Grant supports students and connects to the public 
through boots-on-the-ground outreach, we believe we can create 
a grassroots movement, which is why I was delighted to learn 
that several graduate student leaders with the Campus Climate 
Corps were planning to be in front of you today. And if we 
don't embrace the opportunity now, the blue economy could leave 
America behind and especially the underserved even perhaps 
further behind.
    Finally, I wish to thank the network of Sea Grant programs 
nationwide and all of our unrecognized government and NGO 
partners, since we really do none of this alone. I appreciate 
the opportunity to share our collective vision regarding 
nature-based solutions and look forward to our discussions.
    Thank you.
    [The statement of Dr. Larkin follows:]

     Testimony for the House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                                   on

                     America's Natural Solutions: 
        The Climate Benefits of Investing in Healthy Ecosystems

                        April 1, 2022 (updated)

                        Sherry L. Larkin, Ph.D.

            Professor, Food and Resource Economics, UF/IFAS

              Director, Florida Sea Grant College Program

    Chair Castor, Ranking Member Graves, and members of the Select 
Committee:
    Thank you for inviting me to testify today and your willingness to 
listen and learn of new solutions to address the impacts of climate 
change--solutions that improve our coastal habitats, strengthen our 
communities' ability to withstand adverse environmental conditions, and 
increase America's Blue Economy. My name is Sherry Larkin, and I am a 
professor in the Food and Resource Economics Department at the 
University of Florida and serve as the Director of the Florida Sea 
Grant College Program. In my testimony I will describe several ongoing 
projects and conclude with an identification of the suite of tools and 
skills that can help ensure natural solutions are effective at helping 
mitigate the negative environmental and economic effects of climate 
change.
    I would like to begin by providing some context. As an economist 
specializing 
in ways to measure the value of natural resources, I am thrilled to see 
the growing scientific literature that estimates the economic value of 
our nation's natural capital--and a genuine interest from resource 
managers and policy makers committed to ensure those values are 
sustained, and perhaps even grow with targeted investments. Our nation 
benefits greatly from our natural environment--from our watersheds that 
start high in the mountains, across the plains, and out to the end of 
our Exclusive Economic Zone 200 miles offshore. These environments have 
consistently worked to protect our shorelines, diffuse and dilute our 
wastes, remove excess nutrients from our land-based activities, and 
excess carbon from our atmosphere, but we are outgrowing the capacity 
of these environments to protect us and clean up after us. As our 
growing scientific literature is helping us understand just how much 
our natural environment has helped us to adjust to climate change, it 
is now time for us to partner fully with that environment to improve 
the resilience of our coastal areas moving forward.
    As the Director of the Florida Sea Grant College Program, which is 
one of 34 university-based programs nationwide, our network generates 
solutions for the issues affecting our Nation's coastal communities 
throughout the Atlantic and Pacific (including the Great Lakes and Gulf 
of Mexico), yielding quantifiable economic, social, and environmental 
benefits. The National Sea Grant College Program Act of 1966 authorizes 
our funding for research, education, and advisory services in any field 
related to the conservation and development of marine resources. Sea 
Grant is a unique program within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 
Administration (NOAA) under the Department of Commerce. We are charged 
with not just funding research but ensuring that those findings are 
communicated to the public and used by resource managers and coastal 
communities and businesses. We operate across line offices in NOAA and 
across state and federal agencies in support of our broad mission. A 
joint federal, state, and county investment, Sea Grant competitively 
awards over 90% of appropriated funds to coastal states through issues 
identified locally with boots-on-the-ground extension specialists and 
science communicators who live in the communities they serve. You can 
find more information on Sea Grant in the Sea Grant Association's 
Programmatic Request for FY2023 (https://bit.ly/sgaprogrammaticask), 
including planned efforts to extend and upscale efforts to improve 
coastal resilience that we are discussing today. Every dollar of 
federal investment in Sea Grant must be matched with $0.50 of non-
federal investment, which is a model that fosters cost-effective and 
collaborate efforts. As a network, we have documented investments of 
more than six times the required match.
    In 2020, the Sea Grant program helped generate an estimated $520 
million in economic benefits, created or supported 11,044 jobs, created 
or sustained 1,332 businesses, assisted 285 communities improve their 
resilience, helped restore or protect an estimated 4.2 million acres of 
habitat, and supported the education and training of 2,027 
undergraduate and graduate students (NSGO, Fall 2021). Aside from 
metrics of accomplishment, Sea Grant programs are trusted sources of 
scientific information and occupy a neutral, partner-building space at 
the community level; we are neither regulatory nor fundraising-focused 
and have a 50-year track record. That consistent presence and support, 
often in conjunction with our Land Grant partner institutions, provides 
an invaluable link between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that 
help us be particularly effective.
    Today, I appreciate the opportunity to speak about the climate 
benefits of investing in healthy ecosystems, with a focus on coastal 
and marine ecosystems. While discussing the ecosystem services 
associated with forest or agricultural lands is understood by many, the 
physical processes of the ocean are not as observable--and yet, our 
oceans are undeniably our biggest asset in the fight against climate 
change. Coastal marine ecosystems--mangroves, tidal marshes, and 
seagrasses \1\--sequester and store large quantities of carbon in both 
the plants and the sediment below. In fact, all carbon in seagrass 
meadows is stored in the soils, which is why the mounting concern over 
loss of seagrasses in Florida is more than just for manatees.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \1\ Seagrasses are not grasses, they are flowering plants more akin 
to land-growing lilies or ginger. Their leaves are thin but strong and 
flexible, which allows the plant to withstand constant movement from 
waves and currents; the same movement also disperses their seeds and 
pollen (like land-based plants use bees and wind for pollination). 
Seagrasses have evolved to grow on the soft, sandy seafloor through a 
vast network of roots and specialized branching stems that act as 
anchors and stabilize the sediment.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    According to The Blue Carbon Initiative (http://
thebluecarboninitiative.org) 83% of global carbon cycle is circulated 
through the ocean, and coastal habitats account for approximately half 
of the total carbon that is deposited and stored (i.e., sequestered) in 
ocean sediments. This means there is opportunity to invest in coastal 
habitats, which currently only account for less than 2% of the total 
ocean area. That is the ideal scenario, that we only need to invest in 
more habitat and rely on photosynthesis and the potential that all 
plants have to regenerate and support sustainable industries, including 
plants from the ocean. Which is why Sea Grant has ``Healthy Coastal 
Ecosystems'' as one of four National Focus Areas and has invested in 
habitat restoration as mentioned with the metric previously. Florida is 
no exception; we have grown and replanted new seagrasses, mangroves, 
and shoreline sea oats, and we have even invested in genetic studies to 
create more effective plant varieties. Plant breeding is not just for 
food and fiber crops, and could become a more important tool as we 
learn that not all marine vegetation is a net carbon sink because the 
reality is that respiration releases carbon dioxide. Moreover, if these 
areas natural areas are disturbed--such as scarring by boat motors or 
excessive trimming by oceanfront homeowners--these coastal ecosystems 
will release the carbon they have stored (which could have been for 
centuries for native habitat), and that carbon returns to the 
atmosphere and contributes to greenhouse gasses that are responsible 
for global warming, rising seas and ocean acidification.
    As this example shows, we also need research on plant biology and 
breeding to maximize the carbon uptake and growth potential. We also 
need public education programs, like our ``Seagrass Safe Boating'' 
that has recreational boaters take a pledge (http://beseagrasssafe.com/
) and ``Mangrove Trimming Best Management Practice'' videos that show 
the how and why (https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR448). In these 
programs, we are not only seeking that the public gain knowledge, we 
are also providing the education to make them act and change their 
behaviors. And that education extends to other efforts that will help 
maintain the integrity of natural systems, such as removing invasive 
species (e.g., beach vitex is a wonderful ornamental, but kills native 
sea oats and is without the root structure needed to stabilize 
shoreline dunes; https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/escambiaco/2018/06/24/an-
unwanted-invasive-plant-beach-vitex/). For some communities, the 
urgency has led to local ordinances where violations result in fines. 
Thus, sound policy and regulation could be another mechanism to help 
maximize atmospheric carbon removal.
    But there is more good news. In addition to the carbon 
sequestration generated from photosynthesis, our oceans help us remove 
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through calcification; that is, as 
carbon is absorbed from the ocean, the shellfish secretes calcium 
carbonate to form its shell (http://oceanacidification.wordpress.com/
2008/04/24/can-seashells-save-the-world/), which means a percentage of 
shells contain carbon. The calcification process thus provides a 
permanent conversion of carbon dioxide into an insoluble mineral. In 
other words, the calcium carbonate from shellfish and in particular 
bivalves like oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels can persist 
indefinitely as limestone. This is promising: molluscan shellfish 
aquaculture has two products--food for humans and long-term storage of 
greenhouse gases. In contrast, the carbon contained in most plant and 
animal tissues return to carbon dioxide in a few years. Moreover, 
shellfish aquaculture practices do not produce merely the shell-bearing 
animals (such as oysters and clams with commercial value), but there 
are additional hard materials associated with external growth (often 
known as ``biofouling'') that is costly for farmers to remove but 
beneficial for society due to its carbon capture properties. The post-
consumption shells are an industry byproduct with value in 
construction, restoration, and potentially even for making decorative 
tiles like a partner institution in South America. However, just 
because there are carbon sink properties, and other societal benefits, 
does not mean that research is no longer needed. The lead author of a 
recent study concluded that, ``If you want to create jobs and income, 
grow oysters to feed people and provide habitat for other species, and 
that can be done anywhere that's suitable to oyster reef development. 
But if you want to sequester carbon, near shore is the best bet.'' 
(Fodrie et al. 2017). In short, location matters.
    Sea Grant, especially in Florida, has long provided outreach 
support to individuals that want to become shellfish growers, but from 
the perspective of support- 
ing a financially sustainable and profitable industry. This support 
includes the provision of habitats, in part through assisting in the 
permitting and licensing 
process, and potentially the need to protect the juvenile shellfish 
from predation. We are now seeing the opportunity to manage growing 
operations with environmental benefits in mind. Farming in the sea 
doesn't require irrigation, food, or fertilizer, but does require 
planning, permitting, and education that is not readily available or 
passed down between generations. And for new crops and shellfish 
products (https://shellfish.ifas.ufl.edu/sunray-venus-clams/project-
venus/), Sea Grant has also helped introduce consumers and chefs to 
these new supplies so marketing can also be a tool to promote growth in 
carbon sequestering shellfish production.
    So far, I have focused on the potential carbon sequestration 
benefits of shellfish aquaculture, but I would be remiss to not share 
that these systems also provide equal promise in removing excess 
nutrients, like nitrogen, and there is tremendous potential to foster a 
nutrient credit training program. To that end, Florida Sea Grant 
recently used COVID-19 relief funding to purchase market sized clams 
that have sized out of retail markets for their nutrient management 
functions and monitor those functions under a research experiment 
(https://www.flseagrant.org/clams/and https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/
2019/12/09/uf-researchers-team-up-with-florida-aquarium-for-noaa-
project-part-of-coral-reef-restoration-initiative/). While this 
practice--of having multiple and complementary markets for hard clams--
would seem the ideal solution, current regulations prohibit this 
practice, which is a long way of saying that permitting and regulatory 
revisions could be a prudent investment as efforts like the new ``All 
Clams on Deck'' (https://www.allclamsondeck.org/) develop. The 
development of such programs would mimic efforts proposed by USDA for 
land-based agriculture, such as the Partnerships for Climate-Smart 
Commodities (https://www.usda.gov/climate-solutions/climate-smart-
commodities) or those of Solutions for the Land (https://
www.solutionsfromtheland.org/flcsa/), dubbed a ``renaissance'' in 
production with a focus on innovation, entrepreneurship, and advanced 
environmental sustainability objectives.
    Now you might be thinking, what about other invertebrates such as 
corals, sponges, and sea urchins? In fact, Florida Sea Grant is 
investing in all three with a focus on restoration (e.g., https://
www.flseagrant.org/wp-content/uploads/
SGEF_215_SpongeRestoration_web.pdf and https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/
2019/12/09/uf-researchers-team-up-with-florida-aquarium-for-noaa-
project-part-of-coral-reef-restoration-initiative/). At first glance, 
it would seem obvious that other invertebrates also might serve as 
carbon ``sinks'' (i.e., net consumers of carbon). In fact, like 
shellfish and seagrasses, the benefits are driven by a multitude of 
factors that justify the need for both theoretical and applied (site-
specific) research to identify, measure, and ultimately document the 
net carbon effects of habitat restoration efforts (especially in 
regards to current water quality conditions).\2\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \2\ The scientific evidence is clear on the value of preserving and 
restoring coral reefs aside 
from carbon sequestration (https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms4794, 
and https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00706-6). Benefits 
include reducing coastal flooding and associated damage to 
infrastructure and loss of human life, and there are several promising 
innovations that could translate to other invertebrates.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Augmenting and extending habitats through targeted species-specific 
restoration, incentivizing, and promoting the growth of shellfish that 
absorb atmospheric carbon can only take us so far, which is why we've 
moved toward the development, training, and practice of ``Living 
Shorelines'' or LSLs. A ``Living shoreline'' (https://
floridalivingshorelines.com/) is a broad term used to describe a range 
of nature-based approaches to stabilize a shoreline. In suitable 
environments, living shorelines can be used instead of seawalls or 
bulkheads to reduce erosion and 
protect property. Living shoreline projects are made up of mostly 
natural mate- 
rials, such as native wetland vegetation, natural fiber logs, or oyster 
reef break- 
waters, thus maintaining natural shoreline features--and utilizing the 
carbon 
sequestration properties of the plants and shellfish. In Florida, these 
configura- 
tions predominantly utilize salt marshes, mangroves, and oysters 
(http://floridalivingshorelines.com/types-of-living-shorelines/). 
According to NOAA, a living shoreline is:

        ``A shoreline management practice that provides erosion control 
        benefits; protects, restores, or enhances natural shoreline 
        habitat; and maintains coastal processes through the strategic 
        placement of plants, stone, sand fill, and other structural 
        organic materials (e.g. biologs, oyster reefs, etc.).'' 
        (https://shoreline.noaa.gov/glossary.html#partj)

    As you have likely surmised, every LSL should be the result of 
thoughtful, careful consideration of each project site and strategic 
placement of natural components along the shoreline profile. As a 
result, coastal property owners have a menu of potential solutions 
available for solving erosion problems--it's not just seawalls anymore! 
And, in fact, every site needs a ``green-to-grey'' assessment to 
determine the range of vegetation, edging, sills, breakwater 
structures, revetment and bulkheads that are most suitable. Sea Grant 
has attempted to foster the adoption of this technique (and seawall 
replacement) by both educating homeowners \3\ and by developing a 
workforce training module--dubbed the Marine Contractors training 
(https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/ncbs/2021/01/07/living-shorelines-for-
marine-contractors-virtual-course-this-month/) to foster development of 
a new industry and upscale efforts to combat atmospheric carbon.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \3\ The FMNP includes two courses, each with 24 contact hours, 
developed by Florida Sea Grant Extension agents that increase education 
of restoration (https://masternaturalist.ifas.ufl.edu/become-a-master-
naturalist/master-naturalist-courses/): (1) Coastal Shoreline 
Restoration, and 
(2) Marine Habitat Restoration.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    This homeowner education program was recently recognized at the 
national level by the Association of Natural Resource Extension 
Professionals (ANREP) and received the Gold Award in the Outstanding 
Educational Materials category for a Book or Comprehensive Program 
Curriculum for the FMNP Marine Habitat Restoration Special Topics 
Course. The program provides detailed information on the ecology, 
benefits, restoration methods, and monitoring of marine habitats in 
Florida. A team of six faculty created the course curriculum, focused 
on restoration of seagrasses, coral reefs, sponges, and marine 
enhancement through artificial reefs. The companion video series 
consisting of four videos, each between 10 and 26 minutes long also 
garnered the Silver Award for the TV and Video category.
    With the goal of shoreline restoration, it might be easy to 
overlook that the methods and materials matter. Sea Grant is committed 
to also helping clean nearshore and offshore aquatic systems, including 
from plastics. We have a long-standing micro plastics awareness program 
(https://flseagrant.ifas.ufl.edu/microplastics/) 
and strive to reduce the use of plastics in our own programs. One 
examples is 
PROS--a Partnership for Plastic-free Restoration of Oyster Shorelines 
(https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/ncbs/2021/09/03/a-partnership-for-pros-
plastic-free-restoration-of-oyster-shorelines/
#::text=This%20project%20is%20called%20the,free%20material 
%20called%20reef%20prisms.). This partnership resulted from faculty 
research project that sought to improve upon the most common LSL 
configuration, that is, creating reefs by stacking up rows of ``shell 
bags'' (oyster shell contained in plastic nylon mesh sacks). Given that 
the bags can release microplastics into the marine environment, 
researchers sought a new design and Reef Prisms were born. This new 
design uses jute fiber instead of plastic and an adhesive that is free 
of additives and readily available from local big box stores; an 
outcome that reduces costs, increases availability of materials and 
helps local economies--in addition to providing an alternative career 
path. You see, the development of a Blue Economy is also an 
unprecedented opportunity for workforce development and mechanism to 
help address diversity, equity and inclusion objectives at the 
community level; if we don't consider the opportunity now, the Blue 
economy could leave the underserved even further behind.
    I hope you are beginning to see the value of LSLs for both the 
environment, coastal property owners, and coastal economies. 
Investments in habitat restoration improve the health of coastal 
ecosystems and reduce coastal waves and erosion that mitigate the 
economic impacts of sea level rise--and they do it at a much lower 
cost. But to make those projects come to fruition, we need local 
programs, communities, and planners to learn about their potential. Sea 
Grant has worked hard, through its boots-on-the-ground outreach, to 
engage with the public and local planners. For example, we have a 
Climate Smart Floridians program (https://sites.google.com/ufl.edu/
climatesmartflorida/climate-smart-floridians-program) to provide 
citizens research-based information about climate change and engage 
them as volunteers to help reduce household expenses and personal 
greenhouse gas emissions; topics include landscaping, water resources, 
transportation, home energy, food and waste and highlights the impacts 
of individual choices on climate change. And one of our agents works 
closely with the Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council and is a member of 
their Technical Advisory Committee; those efforts have resulted in the 
development of a shoreline suitability model for the siting of LSLs. 
Working directly with communities has also been the objective of 
projects designed to develop flood resilient upgrades to natural 
buffers around transportation corridors near the Space Coast. Such 
projects change the aesthetics of an area and, as such, need local 
resident support and policy makers willing to invest in new designs. 
Finally, the Gulf Sea Grant programs have partnered with local 
organizations and agencies for more than a decade in hosting an annual 
climate ``community of practice'' meeting where we bring together 
scientists, outreach professionals, and local leaders and decision 
makers to identify solutions to climate related challenges facing 
communities today and anticipated to impact them tomorrow.
    So, this is a great story of a win, win, win scenario for the 
environment (and all its natural dependents), the pubic that lives on 
or near coastal areas, and the entire nation's economy as costs (and 
lives) are saved. The reality is that to generate societal benefits, a 
lot of pieces need to be in place--other than just funding the growth 
and replanting or stocking of plants and animals--namely:

      Site specific research on the physical and biological 
sciences behind carbon capture, storage, and release--for living 
shorelines and its component species such as seagrasses and shellfish 
to inform the development of interventions that includes:

        quantifying the net carbon effects,
        estimating the feasibility and economic values of 
alternative solutions, and
        advises on the needed policies and or regulations.

      Education to students to encourage careers in natural 
coastal solutions to climate change and homeowners, policy makers, and 
relevant industry sectors with the goal of behavioral change.
      Training and workforce development to upscale our 
capacity to grow and support a new Blue economy that benefits all 
Americans, and especially the underserved.

    Thank you for allowing me the opportunity to share the 
accomplishments, priorities, and ongoing activities of our Sea Grant 
program. You can find more information on many of the projects I 
described through links in the written testimony, but if you should 
have more questions or desire more information, please feel free to 
contact me directly. As a final caveat, as a program that is charged 
with (and embraces) developing partnerships to leverage resources, I 
speak on behalf of not just Florida Sea Grant, or the network of Sea 
Grant programs nationwide, but for all of our partners in these efforts 
since we do none of this alone. And I thank all of our unrecognized 
partners at this time.

References

    Fodrie, J. F., A. B. A. B. Rodriguez, R. K. Gittman, J. H. 
Grabowski, N. L. Lindquist, C. H. Peterson, M. F. Piehler and J. T. 
Ridge, 2017. ``Oyster reefs as carbon sources and sinks.'' Proceedings 
of the Royal Society B. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1098/
rspb.2017.0891.
    Kault, J. F. Jacob, and O. Detourney. 2022. ``Carbon Balance in 
Corals.'' Coral Garden, https://www.coralguardian.org/en/carbon-
balance-in-corals/. Downloaded March 29, 2022.
    National Sea Grant Office. Fall 2021. Sea Grant: A Smart Investment 
in our Coastal Economy. Fact Sheet. U.S. Department of Commerce. 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association. Silver Spring. MD. 
Available at:
https://seagrant.noaa.gov/Portals/0/Documents/Handouts/Seagrant-
MainFactsheet-Oct2021-508.pdf.
    Moore, D. 2020. ``Shellfish motivation: the climate crisis could be 
solved with seas, not trees''. The Fish Site. Downloaded 2/28/21.
    The Fish Site. 2004. ``Carbon Sequestration Potential of 
Shellfish.'' Available at https://thefishsite.com/articles/carbon-
sequestration-potential-of-shellfish. Downloaded 2/28/21.
    Sea Grant. 2021. ``Living Shorelines in Gulf Coast States: Florida 
Resource Catalog''. Updated 10/20/2021. Available at
https://masgc.org/assets/uploads/documents/
FL_Living_Shorelines_Singles.pdf.

    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Dr. Larkin.
    Next, Dr. Cristina Eisenberg, you are recognized for 5 
minutes to present your testimony. Welcome.

              STATEMENT OF DR. CRISTINA EISENBERG

    Dr. Eisenberg. I want to thank Chair Castor, Ranking Member 
Graves, and the others members of the Select Committee on 
Climate Crisis for this opportunity to speak.
    To create ecosystems more resilient to climate change 
including drought and other stressors, it is essential to 
partner with Tribal Nations and braid traditional ecological 
knowledge with Western science. Our Fort Belknap Indian 
Community Grassland Restoration Project in Montana exemplifies 
such work. Taking place on BLM land and Aaniiihnen and Nakoda 
Tribal lands, funded by the conservation and restoration 
program lead Peggy Olwell, using Seeds of Success protocols, 
this project is sponsored by Oregon State University and the 
Society for Ecological Restoration.
    I am the lead Principal Investigator and Thomas H. DeLuca, 
Dean of the Oregon State University College of Forestry, is the 
co-PI. The Fort Belknap Tribal Council, Tribal Historical 
Preservation Office, BLM Montana/Dakotas botanist Wendy Velman 
oversees our project.
    TEK is knowledge and practices generate and passed down by 
indigenous people across generations. We are applying TEK on 
the Northern Great Planes to improve ecological resiliency and 
restore degraded lands with native plants to increase wildlife 
habitat, productivity, and carbon sequestration potential.
    Incorporating TEK in ecocultural restoration empowers 
Tribal Nations. This matters because Tribal Nations in America 
are underserved communities with unemployment, poverty, and 
suicide rates far higher than U.S. rates. Ours is also a high-
priority project because this prairie is a critical carbon sink 
and endangered by anthropogenic climate change.
    We deploy a Tribal conservation corps of at-risk youth to 
collect the seeds of ecologically and culturally significant 
plants strictly protected by Tribal data-sovereignty. We are 
implementing the National Seed Strategy and Plant Conservation 
and Restoration Program by following SOS protocols to ensure a 
stable economical supply of native plant materials for public 
land restoration. We are collecting data for BLM Assessment, 
Inventory and Monitoring protocols to assess public lands. 
Maintaining healthy, sustainable ecosystems supports diverse 
land uses and benefits the national public lands trust.
    Over the first 2 years of the project, fiscal year 2020 and 
2021, outcomes include 45 jobs created, 94 percent of them for 
Native Americans, 39 of which were for Tribal youth, totaling 
15,000 hours of employment. We raised $200,000 in external and 
in-kind funding and collected 25 pounds of seeds for 
ecocultural restoration. Youth on our projects have stayed 
alive and in school and some have begun college.
    Beyond these tangible outcomes, during a Category 4 drought 
in 2021, I received a major lesson. On BLM land, I found ankle-
height grasses. In few places where plants had bloomed, their 
seedpods were hollow because the plants had suppressed growth 
because of the drought to survive.
    On Tribal land, in the same ecological conditions, the 
grasses grew 4 feet tall with an abundance of seed. The stark 
difference was unattributable to cattle. Both Tribal and BLM 
lands were multiple-use lands subject to cattle raising 
documented by our trail cameras.
    Co-PI Tom DeLuca, a soil scientist, and I will be looking 
at fire and other land management practices and their impacts 
on soils. Charcoal in the soil, created by low-severity fires 
set by indigenous people, sustains soil carbon capital and 
increases nutrient availability and drought resiliency. When 
Tribal lands were stolen and settled throughout the U.S., fires 
were suppressed. Indigenous burning is a key TEK practice and 
used globally to improve soil health.
    The next step is to create an ecocultural restoration plan 
with Fort Belknap that includes native seed collection, 
ethnobotany, and pollinator and soil health studies. The plan 
will contribute to the Fort Belknap climate change program. We 
have applied for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Grassland 
Conservation Program funding for this work.
    Ecocultural restoration partnerships can advance our 
national climate resiliency agenda. This requires building 
capacity with education and jobs in botany, soil science, 
entomology, forestry, and ecological restoration for Native 
Americans.
    OSU can deliver the necessary education and in partnership 
with Federal agencies, Tribal Nations, and non-Tribal 
landowner. Together we can empower Tribal Nations and help 
America meet the climate challenge.
    Thank you.
    [The statement of Dr. Eisenberg follows:]

                 Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                    Dr. Cristina Eisenberg Testimony

                         April 1, 2022 Hearing

                     America's Natural Solutions: 
         The Climate Benefit of Investing in Healthy Ecosystems

    My name is Cristina Eisenberg. I am Native American and Courtesy 
Faculty at Oregon State University (OSU) in the College of Forestry 
(CoF). The views expressed in this testimony are my own and should not 
be construed as representing any official position of the CoF or any of 
my research partners. I want to thank Chair Castor, Ranking Member 
Graves, and the other members of the Select Committee on the Climate 
Crisis for this opportunity to speak.
    To create ecosystems more resilient to climate change, including 
drought and other stressors, it is essential to partner with Tribal 
Nations and braid Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) with Western 
Science. Our Fort Belknap Indian Community (FBIC) Grassland Restoration 
Project in Montana exemplifies such work. Taking place on Bureau of 
Land Management (BLM) and Aaniiihnen and Nakoda Tribal lands, funded by 
the BLM Seeds of Success (SOS) Program led by Peggy Olwell, this 
project is sponsored by OSU and the Society for Ecological Restoration. 
I am the Lead Principal Investigator (PI), and Thomas H. DeLuca, Dean 
of the OSU CoF, is the co-PI. The FBIC Tribal Council, Tribal 
Historical Preservation Office, and BLM Montana/Dakotas botanist Wendy 
Velman oversee our project.
    TEK is knowledge and practices generated and passed down by 
Indigenous people across generations. We are applying TEK on the 
Northern Great Plains to improve ecological resiliency and restore 
degraded lands with native plants to increase wildlife habitat, 
productivity, and carbon sequestration potential. Incorporating TEK in 
ecocultural restoration empowers Tribal Nations. This matters, because 
Tribal Nations in America are underserved communities with 
unemployment, poverty, and suicide rates far higher than U.S. rates. 
Ours is also a high priority project because this prairie is a critical 
carbon sink endangered by anthropogenic climate change.
    We deploy a Tribal conservation corps of at-risk youth, who collect 
the seeds of ecologically and culturally significant plants, strictly 
protected by Tribal data-sovereignty. We are implementing the National 
Seed Strategy and Plant Conservation and Restoration Program by 
following SOS protocols, to ensure a stable, economical supply of 
native plant materials for public land restoration. We are collecting 
data per BLM Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring (AIM) protocols, to 
assess public lands. Maintaining healthy, sustainable ecosystems 
supports diverse land uses and benefits the national public lands 
trust.
    Over the first two years of the project (FY20-FY21), outcomes 
include: 45 jobs created, 94% of which were for Native Americans, 39 of 
which were for Tribal youth, totaling 15,000 hours of employment. We 
raised $200,000 in external and in-kind funding and collected 25 pounds 
of seeds for ecocultural restoration. Youth on our project have stayed 
alive and in school, and some have begun college (https://www.hcn.org/
issues/53.10/north-prairies-collecting-seeds-to-restore-prairie-
grasslands).
    Beyond these tangible outcomes, during a Category 4 drought in 
2021, I received a major lesson. On BLM land I found ankle-height 
grasses. In the few places where plants bloomed, their seed pods were 
hollow, because the plant had suppressed growth to survive. On Tribal 
land, in the same ecological conditions, the grasses grew four feet 
tall, with an abundance of seeds. This stark difference was 
unattributable to cattle; both Tribal and BLM lands are multiple-use 
lands, subject to cattle grazing, documented by trail cameras. Co-PI 
Tom DeLuca, a soil scientist, and I will be looking at fire and other 
land-management practices and their impacts on soil health. Charcoal in 
the soil, created by the low-severity fires set by Indigenous people, 
sustains soil carbon capital and increases nutrient availability and 
drought resiliency. When Tribal lands were stolen and settled 
throughout the U.S., fires were suppressed. Indigenous burning is a key 
TEK practice used globally to improve soil health.
    The next step is to co-create an ecocultural restoration plan with 
FBIC that includes native seed collection, ethnobotany, and pollinator 
and soil health studies. The plan will contribute to the FBIC Climate 
Change Program. We have applied for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
Grassland Conservation Program funding for this work.
    Ecocultural restoration partnerships can advance our national 
climate resiliency agenda. This requires building capacity with 
education and jobs in botany, soil science, entomology, forestry, and 
ecological restoration for Native Americans. OSU can deliver the 
necessary education, in partnership with Federal agencies, Tribal 
Nations, and non-Tribal landowners. Together we can empower Tribal 
Nations and help America meet the climate challenge.

    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Dr. Eisenberg.
    And thanks to all of our witnesses for your insightful 
testimony.
    And, without objection, all of the witness testimony will 
be incorporated into the record.
    Now we will turn to member questions, and I will recognize 
myself for the first 5 minutes.
    Well, we know that wetland and forest and ecosystem 
restoration and conservation is critical to adaptation and 
mitigation over time. But it is also, as many of you 
highlighted, it is also vitally important to capturing carbon 
and sequestering carbon. Just a few weeks ago, the world's top 
scientists said we must act urgently to reduce carbon 
pollution. There is a rapidly closing window for us to avoid 
catastrophic impacts and the rising costs of the climate 
crisis.
    So I want to know: How do we do that? What is working right 
now? The Federal level, helping states and local communities, 
all in partnership, how do we make sure that we are getting the 
best bang for the buck, the Federal dollar that we are 
investing in natural solutions to sequester carbon? And how do 
we prioritize?
    Mr. O'Mara.
    Mr. O'Mara. I mean, over the last several--especially in 
the wake of several hurricane seasons in the last several 
years, I mean, at this point, we have such great evidence in 
kind of the projects that have been successful and the projects 
that haven't.
    There is a lot of--back in the Sandy package, you know, a 
decade ago, there is a whole bunch of mountain monitoring that 
was done to kind of look at the health of these systems, to 
kind of make the case that they are truly achieving the 
resilience goals and some of the, you know, carbon goals that 
we have.
    And I think it is just a matter of, you know, doing that 
deep research in the early investments that are made. There is 
huge opportunities in the bipartisan infrastructure package to 
look at the forest restoration projects, look at some of the 
grasslands projects, look at some of the flood abatement 
programs, and make sure that they are actually achieving the 
goals.
    And what we are finding is that they are cheaper, they are 
more durable, and achieve more co-benefits than a lot of the 
traditional manmade solutions. And there are some solutions 
where the natural makes sense. There is some places where the 
structural makes sense. There is some places where a blend 
does.
    But there is a lot of good data now to kind of show us the 
types of public infrastructure investments that really should 
prioritize natural investments maybe over some of the last 
century solutions.
    Ms. Castor. And, Dr. Larkin, you are well-versed in those 
partnerships. There are so many funding streams that come from 
Federal initiatives, down to State and localities.
    How are we being the most efficient and making sure at this 
urgent moment in time that those dollars really are going to 
the best projects to sequester carbon and to make our 
communities more resilient?
    Dr. Larkin. Thank you, Congresswoman Castor. That is a 
great question.
    And I think we have, like the previous speaker said, we 
have a lot of mechanisms to follow up and track. I think we do 
a much better job now of tracking and quantifying outcomes. The 
science has helped us progress to the point where we can 
actually get to the economic value of those outcomes.
    I do see a trend in terms of making more impact in these 
integrated calls for proposals where you are tasked to go out 
and have local groups on the ground, and you are tasked to 
bring different parts of the Federal Government together. So we 
often work not just within NOAA--but within projects with the 
Department of Defense and the EPA, and I think those funding 
mechanisms and those language that really charge us to go out 
and develop a network of partnerships are where you see a lot 
of the impact happening.
    Ms. Castor. So we see it in partnership, for example, with 
farmers through agricultural extension. We see it in some of 
the land conservation programs.
    But, Dr. Larkin, there are so many communities that just do 
not have the capacity to go and fight for the Federal grants. 
What do we need to be doing to make sure that lower income 
communities, rural areas understand that they are--they have a 
partnership and can access the investments and tools they need?
    Dr. Larkin. That is really good.
    First, I would say, you know, I think we are lucky that we 
sit with our Land Grant partners, Land and Sea Grant. We have 
those boots on the ground.
    I think in developing partnerships, well, so one thing, we 
go where the problems are. And we are not big enough to go out 
and reach out to every company. No agency is--or every 
organization. So we have to rely on ``training the trainer'' 
program almost, like, where if we help one community, we help 
that community develop another community.
    I think when you look at the force multiplier effect, for 
instance, or organic--the notion of organic growth is we set 
some models in motion. That success breeds more success, and I 
think that is one area that we are most excited in because 
applying for Federal money is not easy. So helping that 
capacity is definitely right. But when we help that capacity, 
help them with one grant, they will then have the capacity to 
go after the next one. So we really hope that that grassroots 
will pay off in the long run.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you very much.
    Next we will go to Mrs. Miller.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mrs. Miller. Thank you, Chair Castor and Ranking Member 
Graves. And thank you to our witnesses for being here today.
    West Virginia is a--it is just so well-known to be one of 
the most beautiful locations in the country, if not the world.
    In southern West Virginia, we highly prize our environment. 
And we know that the beauty of our State lies both in our 
geography and in our abundant natural resources. I was proud to 
be a sponsor of the bill to designate the New River Gorge as 
our nation's newest national park.
    My community has seen a huge increase in the attention and 
in the tourism from so many Americans, as well as visitors from 
around the world, who have had the opportunity to encounter 
West Virginia for the very first time. In fact, 600,000 more 
people visited the New River Gorge National Park this year than 
the year before. That is over 1.7 million people.
    I am so proud of the abundant resources, the natural 
resources that my state has to offer. From the clean coal to 
the high-quality oil and natural gas, we power the nation and 
the world. And we have provided a livelihood for so many people 
in our state.
    And I am really proud of my neighbors who, they are kind, 
loving, hardworking Americans who have been doing their best to 
get by no matter what our government tries to throw at them.
    Unfortunately, West Virginians know all too well that the 
government doesn't always offer the best solution. That is why 
I think it is so important to empower the private sector to get 
to work. Streamlining permitting processes across a variety of 
sectors is something Congress could do right now to expand 
energy deliverability, expand opportunities of the timber 
development, and produce more right here at home while we are 
providing jobs and opportunities for many of my constituents.
    Mr. Loris, can you explain how the National Environmental 
Policy Act, known as the NEPA process, has become so burdensome 
over the last 50 years? And what can Congress do to help 
streamline the process?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah, thank you for the question.
    You know, the National Environmental Policy Act, you know, 
is more than 50 years old. And, you know, it is certainly well-
intentioned and served its purpose. I think, since then, we 
have seen a number of Federal environmental laws passed and 
amended, a number of State environmental laws passed and 
amended.
    And I think what the problem with NEPA is that it has 
become a tool to obstruct and delay or to challenge projects in 
court. And there has been a number of documented cases, 
particularly with forest restoration. For instance, a Property 
and Environment Research Center report in April of 2021 
documented some really troubling ones where projects took years 
and years and are still held up in courts.
    And so the more we can have, again, an efficient permitting 
process that, again, still engages stakeholders, still engages 
communities, still allows, you know, litigation to happen but 
be challenged and resolved more quickly will allow for more of 
these projects to happen efficiently.
    I think there is several legislative ideas out there. 
Representative Graves with the BUILDER Act, Senator Mike Lee 
with the UNSHACKLE Act, that would still have this 
environmental accountability and safeguards but allow projects, 
again, not just for forest restoration and timber development, 
but also it will help with clean energy projects, more 
transmission lines, more liquefied natural gas exports, which 
are cleaner than Russian piped gas.
    This is one issue in which I have heard from, you know, 
people who are working on forest restoration, energy 
developers, manufacturers all run into these challenges. And 
the quicker we can resolve this issue, I think the more we can 
work with urgency to provide economic and environmental 
benefits.
    Mrs. Miller. I agree.
    In your testimony, you mention the possibilities that 
carbon offsets can provide to companies who are looking to 
reduce their carbon footprint.
    Can you explain in more detail some of the opportunities 
and challenges that are presented by the carbon offsets, along 
with their effectiveness?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah, I think these voluntary carbon offset 
markets, you can provide flexibility to engage with companies 
and nonprofits and entrepreneurs, a lot of climate 
entrepreneurs, who are motivated by reducing emissions to 
ultimately reduce their environmental footprint and reduce 
emissions. And the people who are doing that will then get paid 
for it. So it is certainly a win-win.
    And I think there have been concerns about carbon offsets, 
primarily the validity of them, as well as, you know, if a 
restoration project for forests or a forestation project 
happens and it burns down, what does that mean for the offsets 
or--and there has been some challenges with validity.
    But those concerns, I think a lot them have been alleviated 
by the work of the private sector by nonprofits in terms of we 
have better technology now. We can use drones and satellite 
imagery and better data to verify that these offset projects 
are happening.
    I think another concern is the concept of additionality 
which, you know, are people getting paid for something they 
were going to do otherwise? And it is very difficult to prove a 
counterfactual there.
    But that said, I think the fact that carbon offsets provide 
this flexibility and market-based mechanism for some companies 
who have a very challenging task ahead to reduce emissions is 
something that results in more productive relationships.
    The more we can have the private sector taking the lead on 
that, which I think is what has happened, I think the better 
off we are going to be. I think the role for the Federal 
Government should be limited in ensuring that these are 
verifiable carbon credits and to prevent things like the 
Chinese flooding the markets with fake credits. There is a role 
there, but I think it should be pretty limited.
    Mrs. Miller. Thank you.
    I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Rep Bonamici, you are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Ms. Bonamici. Thank you so much, Chair Castor and Ranking 
Member Graves, for holding this important hearing. And thank 
you to the witnesses for your expertise.
    In November, this committee held a hearing, examining 
Tribal perspective on the climate crisis. I asked a question 
about the announcement from the White House Council on 
Environmental Quality and the Office of Science and Technology 
Policy about the administration's commitment to elevating 
indigenous traditional ecological knowledge the Federal 
policymaking process.
    Early last month, the White House announced that the 
administration will be developing guidance to lift up 
traditional ecological knowledge in Federal decisionmaking.
    So, Dr. Eisenberg, you have substantial experience with 
traditional ecological knowledge. What are the lessons learned 
and the best practices that should inform the development of 
this guidance?
    Dr. Eisenberg. Thank you for that question, Representative 
Bonamici.
    I was actually present at some of the meetings that you 
just mentioned. And I am very actively involved with the 
process of providing guidance on how to use indigenous 
traditional ecological knowledge, or TEK as it is referred to 
by the scientific community.
    We need to have government-to-government relationships. 
That means Tribal Nations are not stakeholders. A stakeholder 
is a member of the public. Tribal Nations are nations, and so 
that means honoring sovereignty rights in all aspects of our 
partnerships with them.
    Tribal Nations very much, all the Tribal Nations I have 
worked with around the world, want to partner with federal 
governments and nonprofits. But it needs to be decolonized, 
this process. So we need to all sit at the table as equals.
    TEK is--it is our native science, but it is also a world 
view, and it includes ethics and so that everyone is equal and 
the living world needs to be respected equally. And this is 
within the context of multiple uses.
    So one of the things that can help advance this is to 
integrate our cultures, our elders in all the conversations. 
And the White House is really leading with this. The White 
House Council on Environmental Quality, some of those meetings 
have been held by Secretary Haaland. And she really embodies 
these principles in how--in her leadership style.
    Ultimately what we want is a conservation corps of 
indigenous people out on the landscape. Our TEK, our ecological 
knowledge, is the way our Nation's lands, what is today the 
United States of America, have been managed for millennia. So 
all of our grasslands, all of our forests, all of our coastal 
ecosystems co-involved with a large population of Indigenous 
people very actively managing those lands.
    And the grasslands----
    Ms. Bonamici. I am sorry. I don't mean to cut you off, but 
I really want to get another question in. We will continue 
conversation at another time, and I may ask to you submit more 
for the record because we have a lot to learn.
    Dr. Larkin, I am the co-chair of the House Oceans and 
Estuary Caucus. I have long advocated for elevating the role of 
marine and estuarial ecosystems in adapting and mitigating the 
effects of climate change, because we know of the potential 
which you, of course, have recognized to reduce flooding, 
reduce the intensity of storms, sequester carbon, and generate 
good-paying jobs.
    I do want to invite all of my colleagues on the committee 
and beyond to sign onto my bipartisan Blue Carbon for Our Plant 
Act.
    So, Dr. Larkin, in your testimony, you cite training and 
workforce development as necessary components of an effective 
natural climate solutions toolkit. So what are the current 
workforce challenges you and your colleagues have experienced, 
and how can Congress help you close the gap?
    Dr. Larkin. Well, thank you. Thank you.
    So you are absolutely right. The training and workforce 
development is the key to our future as we try to draw new 
students in and develop new programs.
    I think one of our challenges is finding our partners. But 
the good news is, because these solutions can be implemented at 
the local level all the way up to the State level, the fact 
that we do have partnerships at every one of those levels and 
with our state organizations. For us, it is the Florida 
Department of Environmental Protection and the Fish and 
Wildlife Service.
    And, even as we try to develop programs that can be 
incorporated into our curricula, start training students to 
think about these as careers moving up, how do we do that? 
Well, in high schools in Florida there is a curriculum process, 
and it is not necessarily easy to break into.
    So right now we are working on trying to help support the 
development of an aquaculture curriculum, because aquaculture--
several different types of aquaculture, and how do we develop a 
curriculum around that so that the STEM courses in high school 
and those AP courses can use these examples as part of their 
learning tool, and maybe plant a seed that, after high school, 
this is something I can do, or maybe I will want to be a 
researcher and go on in my education.
    So I think it is interesting, because that does take our 
State partners, it takes our local partners, and it takes the 
folks that are working in the area to really see what is that 
type of that project?
    You know, these projects are so site specific, so we need 
theoretical and applied research at the site level. Because 
what happens in one bay is so different than what happens in 
another in terms of the outcomes that we are going to receive.
    And that should really resonate with our workforce. So, as 
we share our communications around the State, we really need to 
tailor them around the State to get the folks and the table to 
figure out which one of these workforce programs might work 
best for you. We can't----
    Ms. Bonamici. Thank you, Dr. Larkin. I see my time has 
expired, and I really appreciate your response as a member of 
the Education Committee as well.
    Ms. Castor. Your time has expired.
    Ms. Bonamici. I yield back. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    Ms. Castor. Next up, Mr. Carter.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Carter. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    And thank all of the witnesses for being here.
    I know it is going to be a surprise to my colleagues on 
this committee, but I want to talk about forestry. And the 
reason I want to talk about forestry is because Georgia is the 
number one forestry state in the nation.
    Georgia has over 22 million acres of commercially available 
private timberland, more than any other state. And each of 
those acres serves as a carbon sink. You see here? Trees are 
the answer. Trees are the answers. Because forests serve as 
carbon sinks. They serve as a water filter, as an air filter, 
as well as a habitat for wildlife.
    In fact, Mr. Loris, in your testimony, you said that fully 
restoring understocked productive forestland in the U.S. could 
increase carbon sequestration by 20 percent--by 20 percent.
    Bruce Westerman, Representative Westerman, the Ranking 
Member on Natural Resources, has a bill called the Trillion 
Trees Act. We are trying to make sure that we plant a trillion 
trees. It is a great, great bill, a great effort.
    And one of the problems that we are facing is ensuring that 
forests remain forests, because landowners can use their land 
for just about anything to make a living, and they do. But, 
unfortunately, due to natural disasters, hurricanes, fires, a 
lot of times after they have this natural disaster, they don't 
put it back into forestland. And that is what we need to 
encourage them to do.
    So I have got legislation that is cosponsored by 
Representative Sewell from Alabama. It is called the Disaster 
Reforestation Act. And this will help fix a portion of the Tax 
Code that makes it difficult for forest landowners to continue 
using their land for forest.
    I want to ask you, Mr. Loris, what are some other barriers 
to expanding and maintaining our forests, both public and 
private forestland?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah. Yeah. I think that the two challenges are 
we need to protect the ones we have got. And there are a number 
of policy fixes that I think could help with timber 
harvesting--removing export bans on timber harvesting that 
occurs on Federal lands; expanding acreage limits for 
categorical exclusions for controlled or prescribed burns; 
excluding State-level air quality emission standards for 
prescribed burns as well, which would just be a temporary fix.
    But to allow a prescribed burn to happen on a good day 
where it is not windy is a temporary fix to ensuring that we 
don't have worse environmental and climate outcomes as a result 
of a more intense natural disaster in a wildfire.
    And then I think to your other point is planting more. 
There is a number of provisions within the Trillion Trees Act--
matching grant programs to provide seeds and saplings for 
States, for nonprofits, for Tribes to continue to plant more 
trees.
    And I think the more we could also expand afforestation 
efforts as part of remediation of abandoned mine sites. There 
are thousands of mine sites that need environmental 
remediation. And the more we could inject natural climate 
solutions into that remediation--and there is some good 
legislation that will remove some of the environmental 
liability risk associated with environmental mine land cleanup, 
the better off we are going to be.
    Mr. Carter. Good. Well, thank you.
    Well, one thing I know that we can do is to expand the use 
of wood and the wood products as a renewable resource. And that 
would both ensure that there is always a market for working 
forests, keeping them economically viable, and that we continue 
to grow trees that pull CO2 out of the atmosphere.
    Mr. Loris, can you speak very quickly to the environmental 
benefits of using wood and forest products and how we could 
further incentivize this, specifically about the lifecycle of 
emissions?
    This is one thing that I think we miss that point. When 
people talk about biomass, they think, ``Oh, you are burning 
something, therefore it is putting carbon in the atmosphere. No 
way it can be environmentally friendly.'' But, if you look at 
the whole lifecycle, it indeed is.
    Mr. Loris.
    Mr. Loris. Yeah, that is right. I think we can expand the 
use of wood projects to continue to utilize wood as a safe, 
environmentally sustainable product.
    And, again, that is where I think some of the legislative 
opportunities to enhance the availability of wood projects, 
whether that is through ARC legislation that would enhance 
opportunities for these kind of new, more efficient types of 
wood, and even harvesting younger trees is still going to be 
better off from an environmental standpoint.
    And, if you would look at what the alternative might be in 
terms of using cement or other products that are more emissions 
intense, you are still going to be better off from an 
environmental and climate standpoint.
    So not only does it provide economic opportunities, but it 
provides environmental benefits.
    Mr. Carter. Okay. Well, good.
    Again, trees are the answer. Remember what they say back 
home, Madam Chair. When you breathe fresh air, get down on your 
knees and thank the farmer who planted the trees.
    God bless America. And I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Mr. Carter, you are giving me visions of The 
Lorax and Thneeds and Truffula trees and the Once-ler. And I 
know--what did they say? Unless someone cares a whole awful 
lot, nothing is going to get better, it is not. So let's all 
take that to heart today.
    And now we will go to Rep. Levin for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Levin. I am not sure if I can follow my friend, Buddy 
Carter. But thank you, Chair Castor.
    As a Representative for California, I want to highlight how 
natural solutions can and must play a key role in addressing 
some of the pressing environmental challenges, particularly 
those facing California.
    First, let me start off with natural solutions to address 
wildfire risk. Over the last 4 years, California communities 
have suffered from seven of the largest fires in State history. 
Again, that is just over the last 4 years.
    These fires have collectively burned over 2.5 million acres 
and destroyed or damaged over 30,000 structures. With climate 
change, we know that we can't just prepare for a fire season, 
but must now deal with this threat year round.
    And we know that wildfire risk will likely only continue to 
increase with the U.N. Environment Programme recently finding 
that the likelihood of extreme wildfires is expected to 
increase by up to 14 percent by 2030 and up to 50 percent by 
2100 as a result of climate change and changes in land use.
    Mr. O'Mara, thanks for your testimony. You highlighted how 
natural solutions can minimize the impacts and severity of 
wildfires, and you noted how, due to ever-increasing wildfire 
risk, Federal land management agencies, such as the U.S. Forest 
Service, have had to spend significantly larger portions of 
their budgets on fire suppression, limiting their ability to 
fund restoration and management activities to improve ecosystem 
health and resilience.
    This hearing, I hope, is making it abundantly clear that an 
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.
    Mr. O'Mara, can you share why the significant investments 
in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, specifically for wildfire 
risk reduction, are so important in reducing long-term wildfire 
risk?
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. Thank you for that question, and thanks 
for your incredible leadership on this difficult issue.
    As you said, I mean, healthy forests, making sure that you 
have ecologically appropriate reforestation practices, making 
sure you are removing invasives, making sure you are trying to 
get at things like disease, or trying to make sure that you 
have--moving, in some cases, small-diameter trees and some of 
the tinder that leads to these massive fires, is all part of 
having systems that are much more resilient to the kind of fire 
spread that we have seen.
    I think a lot of folks talk about the acreage of the fires. 
It is the intensity, too. It is the level of heat. There is not 
enough soil moisture in some of these cases. So all of a sudden 
fires that may have had a couple--tens of thousands of acres 
all of a sudden are in the hundreds of thousands of acres or 
millions of acres because these systems are not sufficiently 
resourced.
    And, like, for most of the last decade, the Forest Service 
is spending more than 60 percent of the budget fighting fires, 
not actually restoring forests. The bipartisan infrastructure 
package is going to help reverse that. The 27 billion that is 
proposed in the reconciliation package would very much fix 
that, so hopefully that can be part of the ongoing 
negotiations.
    Mr. Levin. Exactly. Well, you pointed out that 27.5 billion 
for forest restoration that was included in the House-passed 
reconciliation bill, that would be transformational for the 
West. And I think we will all continue to fight for a strong 
reconciliation package, and specifically for that funding.
    Shifting gears, I wanted to speak about another challenge 
we are facing in southern California. That is water scarcity. 
We know that droughts, wildfires, rising temperatures, and the 
degradation of natural ecosystems are exacerbating this water 
crisis that we are facing.
    Can you expand on how protecting natural ecosystems on a 
watershed-wide scale can protect access to reliable clean 
water, and also how restoration projects in upper watersheds 
benefit users downstream?
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. I mean, having healthy ecosystems, 
whether that is healthy forests or healthy grasslands, do 
provide an absorption value to keep kind of water where you 
need it and not having the high rates of evaporation that we 
are seeing in southern California, for example, some of the 
challenges we are facing in the Sacramento Delta up north, and 
really kind of making sure you are kind of holding the water 
where you need it so you have the access to it as the demand in 
the right places.
    And so, again, I mean, folks don't always think about 
forests as not just a carbon sink, but kind of a water sink, as 
a way to have these healthy watersheds, but it is a critical 
part of the solution. And I would much rather see that than 
some of the manmade conveyances that aren't nearly as effective 
as what Mother Nature created.
    Mr. Levin. Thank you for that.
    Dr. Eisenberg, I would like to turn to you, staying on the 
topic of water, I was excited to hear about your work with 
Tribal communities in Montana restoring degraded lands with 
native plants, and was glad to hear about the positive 
ecosystem health benefits you have seen through these 
restoration partnerships with Tribal communities.
    Can you discuss how these restoration practices can improve 
water resilience on an ecosystem-wide scale? And, also, how can 
restoring grasslands be a key natural solution to the West's 
water scarcity challenges?
    Dr. Eisenberg. Well, this has to do with fire and soil. So 
fire is part of traditional practices done by Native people in 
forests and grasslands throughout the United States for 
millennia. And what this does is it puts more carbon into the 
soil and in the prairie rangelands. And what that does is it 
greatly increases, has the potential to greatly increase the 
capacity of the soils to store water.
    Prairie soils, there are roots that go down up to three 
meters from these prairie grasses. And so the combination--
Native people used fire to create the sort of resiliency that 
you have been expressing concern about and to help retain 
moisture in both forest and grassland ecosystems. So fire is a 
critical piece of it.
    And so the restoration programs that we are working on, 
right now we have a proposal to the BLM for a large program in 
Oregon, in the forests of Oregon, in the dry forests, to look 
at these things. So it is not just about grasslands.
    Thank you.
    Mr. Levin. Thank you, Dr. Eisenberg.
    I am out of time, but I look forward to working with you 
and all of our witnesses and hopefully across the aisle on this 
very important issue.
    And I will yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Rep. Levin.
    Next up is Rep. Crenshaw.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Thank you, Madam Chair, thank you to the 
Ranking Member for holding this hearing, and thank you to the 
witnesses for being here.
    I absolutely think the work of conservation efforts and 
forest management and protection of our natural resources is 
extremely important, and I am sure the work done by many of our 
witnesses has contributed positively to that effort.
    I do have some concerns, as you might imagine. I have 
concerns that many environmental groups do not understand that 
critical balance between energy development and 
environmentalism. I fear that many do not understand that you 
can indeed do both. After all, it was natural gas fracking in 
America that led to historic reductions in CO2 
emissions.
    And I don't think this is a goal of many environmental 
groups. Unintentionally, intentionally, whatever it may be, 
there has been a serious undermining of American energy 
development in United States, which has geopolitical 
implications, as we are seeing now with Russia and Ukraine and 
Europe's dependence on Russian oil and gas.
    So my questions are going to be for Mr. O'Mara.
    You stated in your 990 that you are currently supporting 
litigation against Enbridge Line 5, which, if successful, would 
remove half a million barrels per day, causing yet another 
serious supply shortage of petroleum products in an environment 
where there is already extreme shortages, increasing gas prices 
in an environment where gas prices are already very high.
    Are you using Federal grant money to do this for your 
efforts, recognizing, given the context, that that money is 
indeed fungible?
    Mr. O'Mara. No. No. We receive very little Federal money.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Okay. But money is fungible.
    So you are taking grant money, and just a quick count of 
Federal grant money from the last few 990s is over $4 million.
    Mr. O'Mara. For projects on the ground.
    Mr. Crenshaw. But it is fungible.
    Mr. O'Mara. It is not.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Outside of grant money from the United States 
Government, what other sources fund your organization?
    Mr. O'Mara. So we receive--we have 6 million members, so 
folks that are sending $15. We have Ranger Rick Magazine, which 
folks subscribe to. We have some foundations that support us.
    Mr. Crenshaw. What about Sea Change Foundation, how much 
have you received from Sea Change?
    Mr. O'Mara. Nothing in years.
    Mr. Crenshaw. The number is in front of me. In the past, 
your organization has received $3.4 million in funding from Sea 
Change.
    Mr. O'Mara. Nothing in the last 6 years, though. I have 
only been CEO for the last 5 or 6 years. I think that was 
before.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Okay. So it was before. So it has happened in 
the past. It is good to know.
    The reason I am concerned about this is because it is well 
documented that Sea Change is, in part, funded by a Russian 
shell company based in Bermuda called Klein Ltd. Vladimir Putin 
funnels money through Klein to organizations for obvious 
reasons: to undermine American oil and gas and keep the world 
dependent on Russian oil and gas.
    And I will submit these reports for the record.
    But you were never aware of this or aware of this 
organization?
    Mr. O'Mara. No. And, Congressman, I mean, I think, if you 
talk to some of your colleagues, we are considered like one of 
the most moderate, pragmatic organizations, actually trying to 
find solutions for domestic production and conservation at the 
same time. So I am a little surprised by this line of 
questioning, frankly.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Well, it is because of these talking points 
that Russia puts out and that some of our environmental groups 
put out that are anti-American energy, they tend to coincide, 
they tend to be the same. And it is concerning when you start 
to follow the money.
    I appreciate the fact that it hasn't happened in 6 years. 
That is good news. But the talking points haven't changed and 
the efforts haven't changed.
    And here is another question. So if you get rid of this 
pipeline, you get rid of more American production, do you think 
that affects worldwide demand or worldwide emissions?
    Mr. O'Mara. Well, I think--I mean, if you want to talk 
about Line 5 specifically, it is coming from Canada. It is 
going across the Great Lakes. It is a 63-year-old pipe that is 
under both Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. If it ruptures, it 
will be a catastrophic impact that is greater--it is going to 
make the BP oil spill look like child's play.
    I do think that is different. I mean, there are other 
pipeline projects we have not opposed. I mean, we are not in 
kind of the pipeline business generally.
    If the Great Lakes become contaminated, especially when 
there are other alternatives--there is the Sarna (ph) Line, 
there is the 17th Line, there is a bunch of other options in 
that region. Having the Great Lakes be contaminated on our 
watch would be one of the greatest environmental disasters in 
our history.
    We are not in the middle of all these other pipeline fights 
that you hear from other different groups, but that is one 
where it is the most important freshwater source of water in 
the world. And having that happen--and, frankly, Enbridge, 
given their history of the Kalamazoo spill and others, I mean, 
it is just one of those cases where we need a better solution, 
because you have a pipe that was supposed to last for 50 years, 
and we are at 60-something and counting.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Okay. Look, the reason I am concerned about 
this--I am not the only one who has ever brought this up, that 
Russian propaganda has made its way into a lot of 
environmentalist talking points. You have done a good job 
defending your organization today, and I appreciate that.
    But I am not the only one who has said this. Hillary 
Clinton has stated this is true. NATO's Secretary General has 
stated this is true. Our ODNI has stated this is true. Our 
National Security Council members have come out and testified 
for this.
    So it is an important piece of the puzzle when we talk 
about American production and how to balance that with 
environmentalism. Believe it or not, we are all on the same 
page on a lot of these efforts to increase our conservation 
efforts and protect the environment.
    But we also have to protect people's ability to make a life 
for themselves and bring themselves out of poverty. You can 
only do that through energy security and in an environment 
where inflation isn't skyrocketing. And so some of these 
efforts directly contribute to that and benefit Russia. And I 
think that is the broader point that I am making.
    Mr. O'Mara. Well, I mean, Congressman, to that plan, I 
mean, look, I would much rather have clean American energy 
displacing Russian oil and gas. I would much rather have clean 
supplies. Let's make sure it is as clean as possible. Let's 
make sure the rhetoric is real.
    Mr. Crenshaw. Glad to hear that.
    Mr. O'Mara. Let's use American energy and clean energy, 
[inaudible] pumps, renewable energy. But let's export all of 
our technologies to fight----
    Mr. Crenshaw. Fully agree. Forty-one percent higher 
emissions if you use Russian gas over American gas. So thank 
you. I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Gentleman from Texas yields back.
    Next, we will go to Rep. Brownley.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Ms. Brownley. Thank you, Madam Chair. Thank you for holding 
this hearing. And I thank the witnesses today.
    I can't help but to take the opportunity to brag about a 
project in the district that I will soon represent, after the 
2022 election. It is a project in a little town called Agoura 
Hills between the Simi Hills and the Santa Monica Mountains. 
And, on Earth Day of this month, April 22nd, there will be a 
groundbreaking in terms of building a bridge over the 101 
Freeway.
    It is a bridge that is billed as the world's largest 
wildlife crossing. It is a bridge that will be the first of its 
kind near a major metropolitan area. And, as I mentioned, the 
largest in the world, stretching over ten highway lanes on a 
very, very, very, very, very busy freeway.
    And so, Mr. O'Mara, I know that the National Wildlife 
Federation has been involved in this project. It is a very, 
very exciting thing that is happening in my area of the Conejo 
Valley, the Santa Monica Mountains, the Simi Hills.
    The partnership on this project is really inspiring. I 
think it is extraordinary. It is a partnership with the Santa 
Monica Mountains Conservancy, the California Department of 
Transportation--as we call it, Caltrans, in California--the 
Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority, the National 
Park Service, and the National Wildlife Federation.
    So, Mr. O'Mara, I just wanted you to comment on this 
project. I wanted you to talk a little bit about the benefits 
of this project. And, if you could, talk a little bit about how 
this whole public-private partnership came to be.
    Mr. O'Mara. Thank you so much for the questioning. And we 
are looking forward to seeing you on Earth Day. It is going to 
be a great event out there in just a few weeks.
    So this is a great project. It will be the largest wildlife 
crossing in the world. The mountain lion population of southern 
California across the Agoura Hills and into San Gabriel, kind 
of thinking like the 101 and 5, has been completely bisected by 
massive highways.
    And so this is the project to try to reconnect some of that 
habitat in a very smart ecological way. It was started by some 
amazing research by the National Park Service that was looking 
at fatalities of these amazing mountain lions that were dying 
as they were trying to get across the 101 as a way to find 
mates and find food.
    And so Beth Pratt, who I am sure you know, Congresswoman, 
has been a dynamo on this project, pulling together all the 
partners. Amazing leaders, like philanthropists like Wallis 
Annenberg, and the Governor, as well as so many other partners 
that you mentioned.
    But this is a project, and I think, if we can show that we 
can go across a ten-lane highway in California, we should be 
able to have wildlife crossings and connectivity all across the 
country.
    And we were grateful for your leadership and others on this 
committee for making that crossings program part of the 
infrastructure package. There is about $50 million a year to do 
these kind of projects.
    And the interesting thing, too, is that the insurance 
companies love it because one of the biggest sources of payouts 
are wildlife collisions. And so it is a way to actually reduce 
vehicle accidents and make streets--make roads a little safer 
and help wildlife at the same time.
    Ms. Brownley. Thank you so much for that.
    And, just with another minute or so left, in your 
testimony, you talked about nature solutions only being about 5 
percent of climate spending altogether. So that sort of makes 
me--I think this might go back to somewhat of what the chair of 
the committee was asking originally in her questions.
    But if it is only 5 percent of the climate spending, are we 
really--and I think this hearing is really about an ounce of 
prevention is worth a pound of a cure. The benefits are so 
great. Are we really prioritizing correctly, I guess is the 
question, in terms how we are spending dollars to mitigate 
climate?
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. No, I appreciate the question. And, I 
mean, of course I want to see more investment on the natural 
climate solutions. I think it is bipartisan. I think it is 
incredibly smart, both for resilience and for carbon abatement. 
And, at the same time, we also need the technological 
solutions.
    So I don't want to position it as an either/or. I think we 
have been a little light on that side. But as we are 
electrifying the grid and thinking about transportation and all 
the other investments on the climate side, I just want to make 
sure that something that could be a quarter of the solution 
isn't left so far behind, especially when it can be so 
bipartisan in this current environment.
    Ms. Brownley. Thank you so much.
    Thank you, Madam Chair. I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you.
    Next up, Rep. Palmer, you are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Palmer. Thank you, Madam Chairman.
    I want to go back to a question that my colleague, Mr. 
Crenshaw, asked about your funding. You did receive $2.1 
million from the MacArthur Foundation between 1991 and 2021 
that would fall under the time frame for climate solutions and 
environmental work. Is that correct?
    Mr. O'Mara. The MacArthur Foundation?
    Mr. Palmer. Yes.
    Mr. O'Mara. Yes. I think we received maybe half a million 
dollars last year.
    Mr. Palmer. How about the Hewlett?
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah.
    Mr. Palmer. Okay. Thank you.
    Mr. Loris, there was a report from the Little Hoover 
Commission entitled ``Fire on the Mountain: Rethinking Forest 
Management in the Sierra Nevada'' that was the topic of a San 
Francisco Chronicle article. And the lede of the article said, 
``A century of mismanaging Sierra Nevada forests has brought an 
unprecedented environmental catastrophe that impacts all 
Californians.''
    The Commission goes on to say, ``Plans for prescribed 
burning to rid the forests of dense ground cover often clash 
with regional air quality regulations, even as emissions from 
catastrophic wildfires nullify hard-fought carbon reduction 
accomplishments.''
    I just want to know your opinion in regard to the misguided 
ideas about prescribed burns which have led to unhealthy 
forests, more carbon emissions, and unnecessary wildfire damage 
and deaths, and particularly the intense heat that is created 
by wildfires because of the failure to properly manage the 
forests.
    Would you comment on that?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah. And Collin was exactly right when he said 
it is not just about the size of these wildfires, it is also 
about the intensity and the heat.
    And prescribed burns and controlled burns is something that 
the U.S. has been doing for a long time. And, unfortunately, in 
places where there has been more bureaucratic hurdles, it has 
been happening less frequently than it otherwise should.
    I mean, you could look at a place like Florida juxtaposed 
to California, and the rate of controlled burns in a place like 
Florida is so much more efficient than what happens in 
California.
    And so I think this is something that has been time and 
proven again where forest managers at the Federal level, at 
State level, nonprofits, private organizations, private 
landowners, all understand the environmental importance of 
controlled burns. And when an overly bureaucratic environmental 
review process happens, when these projects are held up in 
years of litigation, we see what happens.
    Mr. Palmer. Okay. I also have an article from Mother Jones 
News. It is a favorite publication of leftists. And it is about 
the pine beetles that are ravaging western forests. It has been 
an issue in southern forests for decades, for years, as long as 
I can remember.
    And in the article--I will read what it says. They are 
often described as pesky invaders, bark beetles have been a key 
part of conifer ecosystems for ages, ensuring that the groves 
don't get overcrowded.
    Is this a leftist--I don't even know how to describe this. 
Is this some idea of how to log forests through beetles, to 
manage forests? I mean, to allow pine beetles to continue to 
decimate these forests and actually create even more fuel for 
forest fires?
    Mr. Loris. Not to my knowledge. And, again, preventing and 
eradicating invasive species should be a bipartisan issue, and 
I think there are a lot of pragmatic groups who believe that to 
be so. And the infrastructure bill provides $100 billion each 
to the Department of Agriculture and Department of Interior.
    Again, I think the more we can get people on the ground 
doing the work to eradicate the invasive species, and the more 
we can provide and harness collaborative relationships between 
private landowners, Federal and state agencies, and the Federal 
agency, the better off we are going to be.
    Mr. Palmer. Okay. Let me move on to that.
    One of the ways to prevent this destruction of the forests 
is to log these forests. And that is a way of sequestering 
carbon. When you cut the timber and you turn it into wood 
products, you sequester carbon. But that is also a way to 
mitigate the infestation of the pine beetles. You can cut the 
infested trees, peel off the bark, and burn them, which that 
creates some emissions issues, or cut the trees and then spray 
with toxic sprays.
    Doesn't it make more sense to engage in sensible logging 
practices and forest management than to allow the pine beetles 
to continue to destroy the forests and, again, create this 
massive amount of deadwood fuel that create these intensely hot 
fires?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah. And part of that speaks to permitting and, 
again, environmental review challenges. I don't mean to sound 
like a broken record. You could lift the export ban on 
unprocessed timber on Federal lands.
    You know, I mentioned the ARC legislation, the America's 
Revegetation and Carbon Sequestration Act, that would allow for 
some of this development to occur and, again, for more mass 
timber development. And, again, I think we need to look at the 
tradeoffs.
    When you use more timber, when you promote healthier 
forests, rather than using concrete and rather than losing 
these forests to extremely intense and large wildfires, the 
better off we are going to be from an economic standpoint, but 
also from a pollution and a greenhouse gas emissions 
standpoint.
    Mr. Palmer. My time has expired. I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Next up, Rep. Casten.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Casten. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    I want to talk about natural solutions as the theme of 
this, but I do just want to start, I feel compelled to respond 
to some of the comments that have been made.
    Tomorrow will be the 2-year anniversary of President Trump 
calling the Saudi Arabian Government and saying that we are 
going to withhold, we are going to take our troops out, unless 
you cut OPEC production, and in his words, because of a strong 
desire to protect the U.S. oil industry.
    I am delighted that in the 2 years since my colleagues 
across the aisle are now opposed to Vladimir Putin. I am 
delighted that my colleagues across the aisle now support 
providing defensive weapons to Ukraine. That is a genuine 
transition. It is welcome, overdue, and I think it is genuine.
    I am also extremely disappointed that they continue to 
oppose every policy that would reduce fossil fuel demand while 
simultaneously opposing anything that would increase fossil 
fuel supply, as the ranking member did today in his opening 
statement. You cannot oppose demand reduction and oppose supply 
reduction and claim to be in support of lowering fossil fuel 
costs.
    I get that that provides a lot of money to the fossil fuel 
industry. I get the fossil fuel would like to charge more for 
their product. Please do not represent that ever again as being 
in the interest of consumers.
    I am sure you will have some responses.
    Let me now move to--I want to thank Mr. Carter for his 
comments on trees, and I think that the benefits of trees 
sequestering carbon are welcome.
    Urban trees are a really interesting thing. And the Morton 
Arboretum does some fascinating work in Chicago showing that 
urban areas with trees, because of evapotranspiration, because 
of shade, are five to ten degrees cooler, less load on the air 
conditioning.
    It was my pleasure to provide them with $750,000 to help 
further their research, because these trees are actually 
increasingly unable to survive in urban environments because of 
warming and pollution.
    And, Mr. O'Mara, I am wondering if you have any thoughts on 
what we can do federally to enhance our urban tree canopy and 
help the viability of those forests?
    Mr. O'Mara. Thanks so much, and thanks for your leadership 
on this.
    I think it is a huge opportunity. And it is not just the 
urban heat island effect. It is also the health benefits. I 
mean, folks that have healthy tree canopies have lower rates of 
asthma. You see less upper respiratory illnesses. I mean, the 
public health benefits are massive.
    Some of the best work in the country is actually being done 
in Louisville, Kentucky, where they are actually doing a lot of 
work--it has been fairly segregated, the wealthier areas had a 
lot of trees, other areas didn't--and looking at, like, the 
benefits.
    On the policy side, I think making sure that, like, urban 
tree canopies are just an eligible use for a lot of these 
programs. A lot of times they are an afterthought, because you 
think of private lands or State lands or Federal lands.
    I think there is an issue with, like, technical assistance, 
making sure there is enough capacity to actually do the care 
and feeding, and making sure the trees survive, because, as you 
said, warmer temperatures are leading to higher death rates of 
trees in different communities.
    But I think there are big opportunities to do some existing 
pots as well as some things we could kind of tuck into other 
authorizations.
    Mr. Casten. I would love to work on that.
    Moving from the urban to the much broader, I have seen 
estimates that getting back to the agricultural--the soil 
carbon contents that we had a hundred years ago--I have seen as 
much as 30 to 80 parts per million that we could pull out of 
the atmosphere if we could bring that back. Now, some of that 
is easier said than done.
    But there is a really interesting program that Illinois has 
rolled out to enhance the use of cover crops and couple that to 
reductions in crop insurance for farmers, to sort of use 
currency that the farmer understands, but add cover crops that 
not only increase soil carbon retention, but increase topsoil 
retention, a whole host of other--I see you are nodding your 
heads.
    We are working on trying to find ways to sort of federalize 
that really good state policy. And I am wondering if you have 
any comments on what we might factor in as we think about 
maximizing the use of cover crops, not just in terms of the 
climate benefits, but also doing it in ways that will resonate 
with the farmers who are going to deploy this and address any 
concerns that they might have.
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. I mean, it is interesting. We are seeing 
the uptick of cover crops going up in many parts of the country 
right now, and Illinois is a great example, some good work in 
Wisconsin as well.
    It is not for climate reasons. I mean, it is because it 
reduces soil erosion. It improves productivity, because the 
soils are richer and they are more fertile. It also is a way to 
reduce kind of flooding impacts and just make sure that topsoil 
isn't kind of blowing off.
    And I also think that we should be compensating farmers for 
some of the carbon benefits as well if they are willing to do 
it.
    And so, I mean, I would love to be in a world where farmers 
are paid for the commodity, but also for some of the other 
benefits they are providing. And the incentive of crop 
insurance is a perfect one, where all of a sudden we know we 
are going to have to pay out less. If the soils are healthier 
and there is less erosion, you are going to have less damage 
from the next catastrophic storm.
    So I think getting those incentives right but not making it 
a climate program, there is a climate co-benefit, which is 
great, but let's do it because it improves the economics, 
improves the soil health.
    Mr. Casten. Okay. And I know we are about out of time, but 
if you have further comments for the record, one of the things 
that we have been struggling with is different regions of the 
country, depending on the planting season and when the cover 
crop goes in, farmers think about it in different ways.
    And trying to find a way to do this not with a one size 
fits all, but something that works for the different kinds of 
agricultural environments in the country.
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. And there is some great thinking going on 
right now actually at the University of Illinois, Champaign 
around making sure that some of the cover crops have markets 
and not thinking of them just as like a byproduct, but actually 
as another economic driver. So I would love to work with you on 
that.
    Mr. Casten. Thanks so much. Yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Next up, Ranking Member Graves.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Graves. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    It is not often that I have a chance to speak after Mr. 
Casten, so I am going to go ahead and enjoy this for just a 
minute.
    Look, we can sit here all day long, and I would be happy to 
stay here as long as you want and go through all the facts. The 
facts are that under the Biden administration we saw a 161 
percent increase in dependence upon Russian crude oil, number 
one, period. That is a fact.
    Number two, you and your colleagues not only have opposed 
domestic energy production, just as this administration is 
doing--and I am going to quote this President when he said, 
``We are going to ban all oil and gas.'' I am going to quote 
his Interior Secretary when I say that she said, ``We are going 
to ban drilling on public lands and fracking everywhere.''
    I am going to talk about the SEC ESG initiatives. I am 
going to talk about the executive order that said we are not 
going to do any new production on Federal lands.
    And then talk about how we are going to go out there and we 
are going to use renewables, but then stop the Twin Metals mine 
and other efforts to actually produce critical minerals in the 
United States that are required for renewable energy. Your 
energy policy is none of the above, not all of the above.
    Every single thing that we are experiencing right now is a 
result of the failed or just say the lack of an energy strategy 
by this administration. And I hate to say this, Mr. Casten, but 
you and your colleagues have been complicit in this.
    We have offered amendments. I have offered amendments over 
and over again to ban Russian oil, to prohibit it, and you know 
who has voted against it? That side of the aisle.
    You all want to have this discussion? I will have this 
discussion all day long. Let me say it again. The President 
yesterday said a million barrels of oil, a million barrels of 
oil a day. You know how much he was importing from Russia? Two 
hundred thousand barrels. That is five times the amount, five 
times the amount every single day. You know why? Because it is 
mitigating for stupid energy strategies.
    I am all for all of the above. I will sit down with any of 
you all and talk through it. No policy and objecting to 
everything is not a strategy, and the American people that we 
all represent are paying for it right now, and it is 
ridiculous.
    I want to thank you all for being here.
    I want to say, Mr. O'Mara--I have got to tell you, I have 
worked with him for a while when he was in Delaware, and I have 
found him to be an honest man, and I have found him to be a 
good partner to work with, although I do want to say, to 
protect your reputation, we don't always agree.
    Mr. O'Mara, I want to make sure I understand something that 
you said, and just give me a yes or no. You said in your 
extensive testimony a lot of things, but one of them is that 
you believe that sequestration is a part of a--should be part 
of a net zero strategy. Is that right?
    Mr. O'Mara. Absolutely.
    Mr. Graves. Okay. Thank you. And you advocate for natural 
solutions, such as trees and other natural uptake. Something I 
think you and I have worked on in the past is engineered oyster 
reefs, living shorelines, and things like that as a way to kind 
of get your win-win-win-win-win scenarios. That is accurate?
    Mr. O'Mara. Absolutely.
    Mr. Graves. Okay.
    So 45Q, which is enacted, is that an okay policy?
    Mr. O'Mara. Absolutely.
    Mr. Graves. But we need to make improvements?
    Mr. O'Mara. But let's--and I think let's make it inclusive. 
Let's include----
    Mr. Graves. Right. So you believe that 45Q is good, but 
that we should expand its scope to include natural or biogenic 
sources?
    Mr. O'Mara. Exactly.
    Mr. Graves. Okay.
    Mr. O'Mara. And it is cheaper. It is a lot cheaper.
    Mr. Graves. Which I totally agree with you. Totally on 
board. And I think that that does make sense.
    And then, lastly, in regard to efforts to restore coastal 
ecosystems or wetlands or help to prevent the loss of those, 
you agree that that--both of those are strategies to either 
sequester or to prevent the release of greenhouse gas?
    Mr. O'Mara. Absolutely.
    Mr. Graves. Okay. Thank you very much. I appreciate it.
    Mr. Loris, Ezra Klein did an op-ed in The New York Times a 
while back, and he was talking about how NEPA, National 
Environmental Policy Act, while well-intentioned perhaps, over 
the years and much case law that has, in my opinion, very much 
deviated from the actual focus or purpose of NEPA, that it has 
actually contributed to the impediments, I guess, in terms of 
our efforts to try to carry out projects such as renewable 
energy projects.
    Do you care to respond or comment on that?
    Mr. Loris. Yeah. I think you are seeing a movement from a 
lot of folks kind of on the center-left aisle who are 
recognizing that some of the biggest impediments to clean 
energy infrastructure, to natural climate solutions is onerous 
and bureaucratic environmental reviews and litigious 
organizations who prevent these projects from happening in a 
timely manner.
    Ezra Klein did it. Matt Yglesias, another center-left 
economist, talked about the importance of cost reduction, but 
also of deployment. And you can't deploy technologies, you 
can't deploy transmission lines, you can't deploy new nuclear 
power plants, you can't deploy natural climate solutions 
without efficient environmental reviews and permitting.
    And so I think if you are talking about a silver bullet, 
this is certainly not it. There is a lot of things we need to 
do for American leadership and for global decarbonization.
    But in terms of helping with all of these solutions to 
decarbonize the energy sector, the manufacturing sector, and 
the agriculture and environmental sector for more carbon 
uptake, this is something that can really accomplish all of 
those things.
    Mr. Graves. Thank you, Mr. Loris.
    I am out of time. But, Madam Chair, just one line. There is 
a quote from a 2016 private speech that Hillary Clinton gave 
that says, quote, ``We were even up against phony environmental 
groups, and I am a big environmentalist, but these were funded 
by the Russians.''
    Yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Okay.
    Next up, we will go to Representative Huffman.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Huffman. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    You know, I thought we started off on a fairly hopeful note 
in terms of finding one of those rare issues in the climate 
conversation where we could have common ground and try to solve 
problems. And, unfortunately, some of the recent comments have 
taken us pretty deep down the rabbit hole.
    A few moments ago, I actually thought we were going to hear 
that Bill Gates was implanting microchips into pine beetles. 
And then, more recently, we hear this preposterous narrative 
that major national environmental groups are somehow under the 
influence of Vladimir Putin, as if he wants clean energy, the 
one thing that would render him powerless and irrelevant on the 
world stage.
    Look, the truth is there is a glass house problem when our 
colleagues across the aisle start suggesting that environmental 
groups are parroting Putin talking points. It is the fossil 
fuel industry that for decades has had a very lucrative 
bromance with Vladimir Putin. It was the Trump administration 
for 4 years that had the greatest collection of Putin fanboys 
outside of the Kremlin anyone has ever seen, and our colleagues 
thought that was just wonderful. It was making America great 
again.
    Look, we should not be looking to the fossil fuel industry 
that has been writing their talking points on these subjects 
for solutions to this mess. We should be sending them the bill 
for the war in Ukraine, because the fossil fuel industry has 
always been interested and today is still interested in only 
one thing, and that is keeping as many people as possible 
hooked on their fossil fuel so that they can keep making lots 
and lots of money. It is not very complicated.
    And maybe I should put it in terms that my colleagues could 
understand in light of last week's revelations. If you have got 
a colleague that is doing key bumps of cocaine, whatever that 
is, and you tell them, ``Gee, that is really bad for you, that 
is hurting you, let me hook you up with this other dealer who 
has got better stuff,'' that is not a very good answer to the 
problem.
    And replacing dirty Putin natural gas with more dirty 
natural gas is not an answer to the energy crisis, the climate 
crisis, or the fact that we continue to experience fossil fuel-
driven wars.
    So let's just get real about all of this stuff, and let's 
try to bring the conversation back to things that were actually 
agendized where we might be able to find some solutions 
together.
    Mr. O'Mara, restoring and better managing our U.S. lands 
and waters can mitigate a fifth of our carbon emissions. We can 
create hundreds of thousands of jobs. That is something we 
ought to be interested in talking about.
    Can you talk a little more about how natural solutions not 
only protect communities--and I represent a coastal community 
like Mr. Graves--but also increase the resiliency of ecosystems 
in the face of our climate crisis?
    Mr. O'Mara. Thank you for all the work that you have done.
    I think we are seeing both obviously huge sequestration 
benefits, but the ecological resilience of these systems, it is 
just increasingly important. We are seeing, whether it is from 
a wildlife perspective, given the stressors that we are seeing 
on a whole range of species for communities that are adjacent, 
whether that is coastal communities that are suffering from 
some kind of coastal storm or a fire, and these healthy 
systems, that basically every dollar we have spent, whether it 
is in your district or out east, in restoring these systems 
returns about $6 to $8 of avoided damage.
    And the places where we have invested have been able to 
come through these kind of horrific events much more whole than 
other communities that haven't had those same benefits. And so 
I think it really is just that win-win-win where it is safer, 
healthier, and better for the economy.
    Mr. Huffman. Terrific. And then we haven't heard from Mr. 
Westerman yet, but he does have a bill with a wonderful title, 
Trillion Trees Act. If good titles made a great bill, we would 
be off to the races with that legislation.
    And he and I have had lots of conversations about this, but 
the science is pretty clear that not all forests are alike, not 
all treatments are the same in terms of their carbon 
sequestration capacity.
    Could you talk about the importance of protecting old 
growth trees? I don't know about Georgia and Mr. Carter's 
trees, but I know that, on the West Coast and in lots of places 
in California, we have trees that can keep growing up to 800 
years.
    And I think the science is fairly clear that it is that old 
growth phenomenon that most powerfully sequesters carbon. So we 
have got to protect those things while we talk about other 
types of forest management strategies.
    Please.
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. No, absolutely. And I think some of the 
amazing sequoias and redwoods are spectacular from a carbon 
point of view.
    I think one of the cases we tried to make is that if we 
were actually compensating, whether it is landowners or others, 
for the carbon value, all of a sudden you change the incentives 
around cutting earlier or, like, having these different 
economic drivers. Because I really don't want forest owners 
growing houses either, right? I want them to stay in forests.
    But I do think some of the economic incentives, especially 
given some of the trade policy issues the last several years, 
have been pushing folks to cut earlier, and so we are not 
getting the carbon benefits. We are also not getting the long-
term benefits that you are talking about.
    And so the question is, how do you realign those 
incentives? That is why I think that that 45Q idea is kind of 
interesting, because all of a sudden, if I know I am going to 
make more by allowing it to grow longer, because all of a 
sudden those incentives start aligning, and you can have robust 
markets at the same time.
    Mr. Huffman. Thanks, Madam Chair. I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you.
    Next up, Rep. Escobar.
    You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Ms. Escobar. Thank you, Madam Chair.
    And many thanks to our panelists as well. Really appreciate 
the opportunity to talk about these issues.
    Frequently when we talk about protecting ecological 
treasures, we talk about the oceans, we talk about forests. We 
rarely talk about the desert.
    I represent El Paso, Texas, a vibrant and safe, wonderful 
community on the U.S.-Mexico border that is in the Chihuahuan 
Desert. And in my community, in the middle of it is the 
Franklin Mountains. And, at the base of the Franklin Mountains 
is this incredible treasure known as Castner Range.
    Castner Range is about 7,000 acres that belongs to the 
Federal Government. And, for generations, for at least 50 
years, El Pasoans have been trying to preserve Castner Range 
and try to convince the Federal Government to preserve it for 
open space purposes.
    I have filed legislation to designate Castner Range a 
national monument in the hopes that it can at some point be 
utilized for trails and for educational opportunities for young 
people, because there were many ancestors who came before us 
who lived on that land, lots of archeological treasure, and 
also lots of endangered species.
    The challenge for us is that it was an artillery range, and 
so there is unexploded ordnance on the property. And so we have 
been trying to collaborate with the Federal Government about 
how to approach it.
    But, in the meantime, the area around Castner, or at the 
foot of it on the other side of our freeway, there has been 
lots of development. We know that there is always, especially 
in urban areas, a desire to have the best view and to build as 
much as possible on the side of the mountain, and El Paso is no 
different. Unfortunately, we have seen a lot of that happen.
    But one of the things I would actually like to ask you, Mr. 
O'Mara and Dr. Eisenberg, about we were talking about damage 
done to our ecological treasures. Castner Range is also home to 
lots of arroyos. And, for folks who don't know what an arroyo 
is, it is a water channel basically. And, even though El Paso 
is in the Chihuahuan Desert and we, unfortunately, have dealt 
with long-term drought, we also have monsoon seasons.
    And we have now seen hundred-year flooding. We have seen 
unprecedented damage done to property and people, literally 
hundreds of millions of damage. And with the ongoing drought, 
the soil just is not ready or equipped for rapid and large 
amounts of rainfall.
    So if both of you could speak to helping me get the Federal 
Government to understand preserving open space in a desert 
where there is drought and flooding, that it protects people 
and property.
    Can you speak to the importance of that?
    Mr. O'Mara. Yeah. No, thank you, Congresswoman. And thanks 
for your work on that, and it was great to see the Secretary 
there the other day.
    I think there is a huge opportunity, and there is this 
assumption that, because it is a desert environment, that it is 
not a living environment. And there are challenges with 
invasive species, there are challenges with restoring native 
vegetation. There are issues in some cases in part of that 
range with, like, salt cedar and turmeric and some of the other 
invasive species that suck up so much water there isn't enough 
for kind of the native vegetation.
    And I think the conservation of the area is kind of the 
starting point. But, like, what we would like to work on with 
yourself and others in the valley, kind of more broadly, is the 
restoration of these assets.
    I mean, I think when you look at the water levels in the 
Rio Grande, in particular, a little further south, the 
challenges that we have with not having enough water, with the 
river running dry, is because it is actually absorbing billions 
of dollars, 25 billion gallons of water between the salt cedar.
    And there is a huge restoration opportunity there. It 
doesn't get the same kind of attention because folks don't 
think of it the same way. But I would love to work on it with 
you.
    Ms. Escobar. Thank you so much.
    Dr. Eisenberg, in the final 40 seconds of my time, would 
you like to add anything?
    Dr. Eisenberg. Yes. Ecocultural restoration is critically 
important here, and restoration practices that take into 
consideration the processes of--the practices of the ancestors. 
And, actually, that is the part of North America that my 
ancestors are from, northern Mexico.
    And so tapping into Tribal wisdom about this is essential, 
and restoring those practices which addresses invasive species, 
reintroducing fire if it was used regionally, which it probably 
was, and that then enables the soil to retain more moisture.
    Fire was used throughout the Southwest by Native people.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Dr. Eisenberg. I am sorry. We have a 
vote, and we have another member.
    Thank you, Rep. Escobar.
    And next we will go to Mr. Westerman.
    Thank you for your interest in the Climate Crisis 
Committee. Welcome. You are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Westerman. Thank you, Madam Chair, and thank you for 
allowing me to join today. A lot to cover here, so I am going 
to just jump right into it.
    I was pleased when I read the majority's memo on the 
hearing, and especially the part where they reference climate 
and ecological data. And just to be brief, I want to make sure 
that our witnesses are on the same page.
    As I read these bullet points, if you disagree with it, 
please raise your hand. If not, we will just go to the next 
one.
    The first point says: A 2020 report published in the 
journal Nature found that if 15 percent of identified priority 
areas are restored 60 percent of expected extinctions could be 
avoided and around 465 billion tons of CO2 could be 
sequestered, equal to 30 percent of the total amount of 
CO2 emitted in the atmosphere since the industrial 
revolution.
    Anybody disagree?
    A 2019 report published in the journal Environmental 
Science and Technology found that restoring tree canopy cover 
can lead to a 27 percent further reduction in air pollution.
    Anybody disagree?
    A 2021 study in Environmental Research Letters found that 
forests provide the highest quality water supplies among all 
land uses and that more than 150 million Americans depend on 
forested lands for their drinking water.
    Anybody disagree?
    A 2021 study published in the journals Frontier and Plant 
Science found that the restoration of degraded grasslands from 
severe to moderate degradation stage improved grassland 
vegetation by more than 38 percent and soil water storage by 
almost 42 percent.
    Anybody disagree?
    A 2021 study published in the journal Science found that 20 
years after replanting tropical forests, numerous measures, 
including soil fertility, carbon storage, and tree diversity, 
returned to nearly 80 percent of the levels of old growth 
forest.
    Finally: A 2019 study published in the journal Science 
found that adding 2.2 billion acres of tree cover would capture 
205 billion metric tons of carbon from the atmosphere, which is 
equivalent to nearly two-thirds of the carbon emitted since the 
industrial revolution.
    Anybody disagree?
    I have read most of the reports that are behind these 
statements, and I agree. And that last one is actually the 
basis for the Trillion Trees Initiative, the global Trillion 
Trees Initiative.
    Madam Chair, for the record, I would also like to submit 
this paper called ``Decarbonizing U.S. Buildings'' by the 
Center for Climate and Energy Solutions.
    And it has a statement: Residential and commercial 
buildings account for roughly 29 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas 
emissions.
    Anybody disagree?
    Here is another one. It is a published journal article on 
mass timber, global warming, carbon, and CLT. It is talking 
about using buildings to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
    And it says: ``The building sector is a major source of 
global greenhouse gas emissions. Construction related 
CO2 emissions equal 5.7 billion tons, accounting for 
23 percent of the emissions resulting from global economic 
activities.''
    It goes on to say: ``The building sector takes on even 
greater significance when considering the approaching wave of 
2.3 billion new urban residents.''
    And it says energy-related CO2 emissions from 
buildings is 39 percent globally.
    Anybody disagree?
    Next, do you support planting trees at home and abroad and 
using natural regeneration methods to increase forest cover so 
that we can grow more wood to store more carbon?
    Anybody disagree?
    Do you support management activities to make our existing 
forests more resilient and healthy to grow more wood and store 
more carbon?
    Nobody disagrees.
    Do you support sustainable building practices to reduce 
carbon emissions during manufacturing and transporting building 
materials, reducing carbon emissions from building operations, 
and increasing the amount of carbon stored in the built 
structure?
    Everybody support that?
    Do you support using low-grade woody biomass material from 
our forests to make renewable biofuel and biochar that could be 
used as a soil additive for grasslands and agriculture that 
increases soil water efficiency and would be a long-term carbon 
storage solution?
    Everybody supports that.
    Madam Chair, it appears that there is unanimous, 
overwhelming support from this panel for the Trillion Trees 
Act, and this committee should fully embrace it, because that 
is exactly what the Trillion Trees Act does.
    Next, I want to talk about giant sequoias. Mr. Huffman, I 
think, mentioned that.
    This chart shows fires in the giant sequoias. From 1898 to 
2014, we averaged three fires per century. Previous to that, 
going back centuries and centuries, we averaged 31 fires per 
century, one every 3 years.
    Starting in 2015 to 2021, the number of fires and the 
intensity of the fires has greatly increased. We lost 20 
percent of our giant sequoias to wildfires because of 
mismanagement leading up to this time.
    Does the panel think we should save our giant sequoias?
    I agree, and there is a way to do it, and too bad we are 
out of time or I would tell you.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Mr. Westerman.
    And next we will go to Rep. Neguse, who, unfortunately, is 
all too familiar with wildfire destruction.
    Rep. Neguse, you are recognized for 5 minutes.
    Mr. Neguse. Well, thank you, Madam Chair, for your 
leadership and for hosting this important hearing today.
    The timing of this hearing couldn't be better. Just 
yesterday, my staff and I had the opportunity to visit with the 
Colorado Forest Restoration Institute, which is located at 
Colorado State University in my district, to learn more about 
the great work that they and the Southwest Ecological 
Restoration Institutes are doing to restore our lands and our 
forests, particularly after wildfires.
    For communities in my district, as you mentioned, Madam 
Chair, the threat of wildfires, of drought, and deteriorating 
air quality is only worsening. Wildfire seasons are turning 
into wildfire years, with fires burning in August, in December, 
and in March.
    In the last 18 months alone, the largest, second largest, 
and most destructive fires in Colorado history all occurred in 
my district, with the devastating Marshall Fire in December 
destroying over a thousand homes. And just last weekend we had 
another wildfire, the NCAR Fire, in South Boulder.
    The cost of climate change for my community could not be 
more clear. We need bold, decisive action to address these 
impacts and to tackle these existential threats.
    Earlier this month, I was proud to join with my colleague, 
Representative Matsui from California, to launch the Nature and 
Oceans Task Force of the House Sustainable Energy and 
Environmental Coalition. Thank you to my select committee 
colleagues, Representative Huffman and Representative Bonamici, 
for joining us in this effort as members of the task force, and 
I certainly look forward to the important work on those 
matters.
    It is time for Congress to take action to mitigate the 
impacts of these climate-fueled disasters, and I am so glad 
that we are holding this hearing today to explore some of the 
ways that we can use natural climate solutions to do just that.
    Mr. O'Mara, you used one of my favorite phrases in your 
written testimony, that an ounce of prevention is worth more 
than a pound of cure. I have certainly found this to be true in 
wildfire and forest restoration efforts and in preparing for 
natural disasters more broadly.
    I wonder if you might be able to share or perhaps expound 
more on some of the examples of the cost savings resulting from 
forest restoration and ecosystem protection efforts and how 
those efforts strengthen our lands, our forests, and our oceans 
against future natural disasters.
    Mr. O'Mara. Thank you, Congressman.
    And in the forest space, we see at least like a 3:1 cost 
savings. For every dollar we spend on forest restoration we can 
avoid $3 to $4 of damage. Some estimates are even much higher 
than that.
    And so we are incredibly bullish and grateful for your 
leadership on the bipartisan infrastructure package, as well as 
the forestry package and reconciliation, to drive a lot of 
these investments.
    I think it is not a one size fits all. It has got to be 
ecologically appropriate. It has got to be done in ways that 
kind of work on the local landscape and work with the local 
communities.
    But it is a huge cost savings. And it is much cheaper--as, 
unfortunately, folks in Boulder have experienced repeatedly--to 
have healthier systems earlier as opposed to trying to pick up 
the pieces afterwards.
    So I just think, again, one of the things I would like to 
work with all of you on is actually scoring this appropriately, 
because right now you have to figure out how to pay for that $1 
of prevention, where what we don't count for the supplemental 
appropriation, you have to pay after the fact, when we could 
avoid a lot of that damage.
    So there has got to be a way to fix that with CBO because 
these are savings that are attributing--we are spending, I 
don't know, a hundred, two hundred billion dollars a year on 
supplemental appropriations. None of that is in the forward-
looking debt projection. But it is definitely there, it is 
definitely real. And we should be investing now because we know 
we can save those costs tomorrow.
    Mr. Neguse. I couldn't agree with you more. And I think the 
point that you raise is a salient one with respect to being 
cognizant of finding ways to incorporate the costs on the back 
end as we are making these considerations here in the Congress.
    The fact that it is a 1:3 cost savings is just--it is a 
fact that I think we lose sight of here in Congress and that we 
shouldn't. And certainly my community has not lost sight of 
that fact in light of the natural disasters that we have 
experienced in just the last 18 months.
    So I thank you for the testimony.
    I thank all of the witnesses for their testimony today.
    Cognizant perhaps of the votes that have been called, I 
will yield the balance of my time, but, again, will thank the 
witnesses and the chair for her leadership.
    And I yield back.
    Ms. Castor. Thank you, Rep. Neguse.
    And thank you to all of our witnesses for your very 
insightful testimony today.
    All members have 10 business days within which to submit 
additional written questions for the witnesses, without 
objection. And I will ask the witnesses to respond promptly.
    Mr. Westerman has asked for unanimous consent to submit 
into the record two reports, one entitled, ``Developments in 
the Built Environment,'' November 2020, and, ``Decarbonizing 
U.S. Buildings,'' from Climate Innovation from July 2018.
    I believe Rep. Crenshaw also asked for a 2014 staff report 
from the Senate Republicans, Environment and Public Works.
    So, without objection, we will enter that into the record.
    [The information follows:]

                       Submissions for the Record

                     Representative Bruce Westerman

                 Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                             April 1, 2022

ATTACHMENT: Himes, A. and Busby, G., 2020, ``Wood buildings as a 
climate solu-
        tion,'' Developments in the Built Environment, Volume 4.

The report is retained in committee files and available at:
        https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2020.100030.

ATTACHMENT: Leung, J., July 2018, Center for Climate and Energy 
Solutions,
        ``Decarbonizing U.S. Buildings.''

The report is retained in committee files and available at:
        https://www.c2es.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/innovation-
        buildings-background-brief-07-18.pdf

                       Submission for the Record

                      Representative Dan Crenshaw

                 Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                             April 1, 2022

ATTACHMENT: Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works (Minority
        Staff), 30 July 2014, The Chain of Environmental Command: How a 
        Club of Billionaires and Their Foundations Control the 
        Environmental Movement and Obama's EPA.

The report is retained in committee files and available at:
        https://www.influencewatch.org/app/uploads/2020/10/chain-of-
        environmental-command-2014-report.pdf

    Ms. Castor. And I will also ask unanimous consent for a 
March 2022 article from The Washington Post titled ``The bogus 
`allegation' that Putin is funding a California environmental 
charity.''
    [The information follows:]

                       Submission for the Record

                      Representative Kathy Castor

                 Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                             April 1, 2022

ATTACHMENT: Kessler, G., 17 March 2022, ``The Bogus `Allegation' that 
Putin is
        Funding a California Environmental Charity,'' The Washington 
        Post.

The article is retained in committee files and available at:
        https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/03/17/bogus-
        allegation-that-putin-is-funding-california-environmental-
        charity/

    Ms. Castor. It concludes, ``For years it has been clear 
that Sea Change Foundation has no connection to secret Russian 
money.''
    With that, I want to thank everyone. We will remain 
committed to natural climate solutions to benefit the planet 
and make sure that we can give our kids and future generations 
a livable planet to live in.
    So thank you all. The hearing is adjourned.
    [Whereupon, at 11:30 a.m., the committee was adjourned.]

                 United States House of Representatives

                 Select Committee on the Climate Crisis

                        Hearing on April 1, 2022

                    ``America's Natural Solutions: 
       The Climate Benefits of Investing in Healthy Ecosystems''

                        Questions for the Record

                           Dr. Sherry Larkin

              Director, Florida Sea Grant College Program

                 Professor, Food and Resource Economics

                         University of Florida

                       the honorable kathy castor
    1. Ecosystem restoration and conservation are key tools in adapting 
to and mitigating the risks from climate change, but we must ensure 
these types of projects are designed and implemented in a way that 
secures the needed results for climate, biodiversity, and communities. 
What are the main challenges and lessons learned from engaging with 
communities, especially underserved communities, when developing 
projects to respond to climate change?

    There are several challenges and lessons that have been learned 
from engaging with communities, especially underserved communities, in 
adapting to and mitigating the risks from climate change. As a result, 
and to be effective, projects need to consider the following:

    1. Working with communities is labor intensive due to the need to 
develop relationships and ascertain capacity, needs, and constraints. 
This creates a need for capacity building for engagement to get local 
projects approved and secure funding. Taking time to understand a 
community's issues and learning how to dialogue and discuss contentious 
issues (both with disadvantages and advantaged sectors). Having 
dedicated personnel to meaningfully engage over the long-term and 
translate the science and advancements would catalyze mitigation 
actions. This is especially important for climate initiatives to gain 
stronger support.

    2. Time horizons of projects needs to be long enough to develop 
meaningful partnerships. Community-based interventions/projects can 
often be too small (2-5 years long) and sporadic (i.e., one-off 
projects) in an uncoordinated manner. Movement towards ``phased'' 
projects is a prudent strategy.

    3. Interventions often do not take into consideration the cultural, 
political, and economic conditions of local communities. Holistic 
approaches are needed for identification and valuation of benefits in 
terms of community health and well-being, carbon mitigation, green 
infrastructure, etc.

    4. Critical examination of existing finance and funding mechanisms 
is needed to understand who benefits (and who does not), how and why.

    5. Racial zoning and redlining have creating pockets of 
disadvantage for some and prosperity for others. Planning and 
development processes/policies/practices need to be linked to 
environmental justice and social vulnerability to dismantle systemic 
inequities and redistribute power and privilege.

    6. There are often mismatches in locations where marine system 
restoration is permitted versus locations that actually need the 
ecosystem service. While more relevant for nutrient storage and removal 
as opposed to carbon, it is still important when thinking about value 
to an individual community as opposed to worldwide value.

    7. Climate resilience is about more than physical safety. Projects 
should ensure that they are looking at all adaptation measures within a 
holistic vision of what is needed, wanted and how to get there. Then 
they can determine how NNBF's (Natural & Nature-Based Features) fit 
into adaptation plans.

Publications

     https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s13280-022-01723-
1?sharing_token=Qbbs
      klk_AHjsOx2G0VYTAfe4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY5-7v4OXTL-91pP_yLEd9vxp9
      W23e9Cyb55Kir0ElbW1GZdRPek2yHux2-OQk3ATZ_f-hexVWQ4gBsCk1RoM2C
      qa9yUNZbnc4_4XzYB8X3YrAWKBxMIw7isY_xGSFlnLcQ%
   https://cdn.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/spotlight-on-
        social-equity-finance-and-scale-nbs-2021.pdf
     https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/
rstb.2019.0120
     https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0301479720306812
     https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-022-00047-z
     https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/env.2020.0054

Websites

   https://www.aaas.org/events/community-and-organization-
        panel-discussion-green-infrastructure
     https://n-ewn.org

Related Sea Grant Projects

      Southeast and Caribbean Climate Alliance, funded by 
NOAA's Climate Program, Regional Integrated Science and Assessments 
(RISA):
    https://gacoast.uga.edu/outreach/programs/coastal-hazards/
        southeast-caribbean-climate-alliance/
      PLACE:SLR (Program for Local Adaptation to Climate 
Effects: Sea-Level Rise), a partnership between Sea Grant programs in 
the northern Gulf of Mexico has:

        Provided several tools for climate mitigation at the 
local level:
        www.GulfTREE.org, www.localslr.org, www.bit.ly/Future-Flooding
        Assembled best practices on stakeholder engagement and 
testing the findings:
        https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/training/underserved-
communities.html
        Described their experience in putting tools into 
practice (video):
        https://youtu.be/V2-wJWSD9Rc

      Climate Smart Floridians helps an individual identify 
what they can do to reduce their own greenhouse gas emissions. 
Demonstrating that there are small, actionable, steps, one can do to 
address climate change makes it seem more approachable, and could help 
overcome the general distrust of science (especially when it comes to 
climate change research).

    2. Certain habitats, including forests, grasslands, and wetlands, 
can provide needed carbon sequestration. However, different habitats 
provide different benefits. What are the similarities and differences 
between terrestrial and marine carbon sequestration? What additional 
research on blue carbon is needed and why?

    The quest for carbon storage strategies should be addressed through 
both terrestrial and marine projects because we are going to have to 
find and use every mechanism to have to sequester and store excess 
carbon. That said, finding the most efficient and least expensive ways 
to sequester carbon over the long run is important. There are at least 
three contexts in which marine and terrestrial carbon storage differ:
    The first primary difference between marine and terrestrial carbon 
storage is that in marine systems, carbon is typically buried in the 
soil instead of in plant biomass (like forests), which makes marine 
carbon storage less susceptible to many hazards (e.g., forest fires). 
While that is true, marine carbon storage remains susceptible to things 
like resuspension due to plant loss and hurricanes, and to the 
disruption of the sediment that might increase rates of decomposition. 
There is some debate on what happens if plants die; the living plants 
with a healthy root system keep the sediments in place so if they die, 
the long-term storage may be lost. Direct measurements of this loss 
though are rare and vary probably depend on the scale of the loss and 
on site-specific wave energy (see Aoki 2021 and references there in). 
The Fourqurean paper estimated carbon stocks for seagrasses and 
discusses some of those differences. The classic paper is McLeod 2011.
    The second primary difference in marine and terrestrial carbon 
storage is that we have the ocean, which can absorb carbon. A 
consequence of this is acidification. Recent work suggests that coastal 
blue carbon habitats might not be as efficient at carbon storage as 
originally thought because of dissolved inorganic carbon export (Santos 
et al. 2021).
    The third primary difference in marine and terrestrial carbon 
storage is with respect to shellfish where carbon is sequestered from 
photosynthesis, storage as biomass, and through calcification (shell 
growth). Fodrie et al. 2017 found that reefs next to marshes were 
carbon sinks while reefs isolated on mudflats were carbon sources. It 
is also important to remember that calcification produces 
CO2. Grabowski et al. discusses the ecosystem services of 
oysters. But, the location of these habitats really matters, not only 
for carbon storage (Fodrie et al) but also nutrient removal (Smyth et 
al.).

Research needs should seek to determine:

     1.  the sources and magnitude of variability in estimates of 
carbon sequestration;
     2.  a common system of assessment and measurement in support of 
the development of payment systems and trading programs;
     3.  the importance of size and scope of restoration projects on 
the trajectory or timeline of carbon sequestration; better 
understanding the role of alkalinity, organic and inorganic carbon and 
the carbon cycle in general in coastal systems;
     4.  interactions between multiple stressors like acidification and 
eutrophication;
     5.  drivers of greenhouse gas emissions and burial rates from 
coastal habitats to move beyond sequestration and look at the balance 
between services and disservices;
     6.  the contribution of outwelling of dissolved carbon as well as 
carbon sequestration;
     7.  how blue carbon habitats in tropical and subtropical 
ecosystems differ from other climates and land-based systems;
     8.  the extent of permanent carbon storage (net carbon balance) 
from shell growth;
     9.  the role and importance of macroalgae as a carbon sink; and
    10.  what management approaches promote carbon sequestration.

References

    Aoki: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/
fmars.2020.576784/full
    Bezerra: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo4578
    Dencer-Brown: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-022-
01723-1
    Fodrie et al: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/
rspb.2017.0891
    Fourqurean: https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1477
    Grabowski et al: https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/62/10/
900/238172
    McLeod: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/
10.1890/110004
    Needleman: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12237-018-
0429-0
    Oldfield: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.abl7991
    Santos et al:
      https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0272771421002146#fig1
    Smyth et al:
      https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/
1365-2664.12435
    Van Dam et al: https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/
sciadv.abj1372

                        Questions for the Record

                         Dr. Cristina Eisenberg

                 Courtesy Faculty, College of Forestry

              Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society

                        Oregon State University

                       the honorable kathy castor
    1. In your testimony you referred to ``ecocultural'' restoration. 
Can you define what this means and say a little more about the impact 
you are seeing on how your ecological restoration work is also 
generating cultural and climate resilience for the Fort Belknap 
community? How can Congress ensure ecocultural restoration is 
integrated in Federal decision-making?

Definition of Ecocultural Restoration:

    Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of 
an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.\1\ 
Ecocultural restoration acknowledges and honors Indigenous peoples' 
contributions and traditional wisdom. Defined as the process of 
restoring key historic pre-contact, pre-industrial ecosystem 
structures, processes, and functions, and the Indigenous cultural 
practices that helped shape ecosystems, ecocultural restoration (also 
referred to as biocultural restoration) increases resiliency to climate 
change and other stressors, while supporting Indigenous ecosystems and 
their cultures.\2\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \1\ Gann, et al. 2019.
    \2\ Kimmerer 2011; Zedler, and Stevens 2018; Martinez 2019; 
Dickson-Hoyle, et al. 2021.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Ecocultural restoration is based on Traditional Ecological 
Knowledge (TEK; also known as Indigenous Traditional Knowledge--ITEK), 
defined as knowledge and practices passed from generation to generation 
informed by cultural memories, sensitivity to change, and values that 
include reciprocity. TEK land-care practices include using prescribed 
fire and seasonal flooding to modify vegetation, conserving culturally 
significant species such as beaver (Castor canadensis) and bison (Bison 
bison bison), or adjusting timber use to create more sustainable 
communities of traditional plants that provide wildlife habitat, and in 
turn, food for humans. These processes increase biodiversity and 
ecological resilience by creating fine-grained, landscape mosaics that 
function within an ecosystem's range of natural variability. Further, 
TEK acknowledges that change is constant in an ecosystem. Because 
Indigenous people see the world as always changing, their TEK is 
designed to observe and acknowledge these changes, and act on them 
rapidly by adjusting Indigenous land stewardship and subsistence 
practices. In this manner, TEK can optimize climate resiliency, as a 
form of adaptive management that has been use for millennia 
globally.\3\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \3\ Kimmerer 2000; Roos, et al. 2018; Eisenberg, et al. 2019; 
Reyes-Garcia et al. 2019.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ecocultural Restoration and Cultural and Climate Resilience:

    Established in 1888, the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation (FBIR) is 
homeland of the Nakoda (Assiniboine) and Aaniiihnen (Gros Ventre) 
Tribes. It lies in north-central Montana, north of the Missouri River, 
on the Northern Great Plains, comprising 263,000 ha. FBIR lands are 
primarily used for grazing, agriculture, ceremonies, hunting, gathering 
traditional plants for food and medicine, recreation, natural resource 
extraction, and conservation. Adjacent Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 
lands are used for grazing, natural resource extraction, hunting, 
recreation, and conservation.
    On the FBIR, the ecocultural restoration work we are doing will 
help generate cultural and climate resilience for Fort Belknap Indian 
Community (FBIC) and BLM. Specifically, in partnership with BLM, Oregon 
State University (OSU), and Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), 
we are developing an ecocultural restoration plan based on FBIC TEK, 
with the guidance and participation of the Tribal Council, the Tribal 
Historical Preservation Office, Tribal elders, youth, natural resources 
staff, and educators, applicable to multiple-use FBIR and BLM lands in 
this region. Because the plan will be built on Indigenous stewardship 
practices in this grassland used for millennia (e.g., prescribed 
burning, conserving culturally significant plants that also function as 
soil-stabilizing plants and carbon sinks) that have always included 
adaptation to changes in the climate, it will build climate resilience 
and increase what today we refer to as the ecosystem services on which 
humans rely for survival, such as fertile soil, plants, pollination, 
and clean water.\4\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \4\ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. 
2021.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Additionally, because we are engaging the FBIC with jobs and 
training for youth, including creating a Tribal youth conservation 
corps that provides income and natural resource training, and because 
the youth involved in this program will be the lead authors of the 
ecocultural restoration plan we are developing, this work is also very 
directly building capacity within FBIC. By engaging Tribal youth, we 
are creating a STEM pathway for them in higher education at 
institutions such as OSU, helping them develop into future leaders in 
natural resource management and conservation. Collectively this is 
generating cultural resiliency--by empowering youth to use their 
culturally traditional relationships with the natural world to find 
nature-based climate solutions that are also firmly grounded in Western 
science. This strategy is called Two-Eyed Seeing. By combining the 
empirical strengths and logic of Western science and the insights and 
wisdom of TEK, one gains binocular vision that enables people to find 
solutions to challenging natural resource problems, such as global 
warming. The ecocultural restoration plan we are co-creating will be 
based on cultural competency (e.g., understanding the FBIC culture), 
and will go beyond that to cultural humility (e.g., self-assessment and 
accountability, openness, and equitable relationships with all 
involved).\5\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \5\ Bartlett, et al. 2012.

How Congress Can Ensure Integration of Ecocultural Restoration into 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Federal Decision-Making:

    According to the White House Office of Science and Technology 
Policy, TEK could and should improve understanding of climate change 
and environmental sustainability. TEK also could help in the 
development of comprehensive climate adaptation and natural resources 
management strategies, aimed at achieving mutually beneficial outcomes 
for Tribal Nations and U.S. Federal agencies.\6\ However, the U.S. 
Federal government tends to implement top-down strategies using one-
size-fits-all approaches. Such approaches will not be effective in 
incorporating ecocultural restoration into Federal decision-making. 
This is because ecocultural restoration, which is informed by TEK, is 
strongly place-based, and comes from Indigenous cultures, with each 
Tribal Nation having a unique culture.\7\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \6\ White House Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ); 2021a. 
White House Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). 2021b.
    \7\ Reyes-Garcia 2019.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Co-management is a partnership whereby the government shares power 
with resource users, with clearly specified rights and responsibilities 
for each actor relating to management and decision-making. In the U.S., 
Federal co-management efforts that incorporate ecocultural restoration 
via TEK and uphold treaty rights are one of the foundational principles 
in addressing initiatives such as Presidential Executive Order 14008 on 
Climate Change.
    With Tribal Nations, co-management typically includes a Memorandum 
of Understanding (MOU). Such partnerships convey economic benefits to 
Tribes and government agencies, with mutual respect and reciprocity, 
and can function as stepping-stones to self-determination. However, in 
practice, co-management can be an imperfect alliance, because its roots 
lie in settler colonialism. Successful co-management acknowledges and 
supports self-determination and natural resources treaty rights, with 
clear understanding of what TEK means to the specific Tribal Nation 
involved in the partnership.
    Ecocultural restoration has huge potential for co-management of 
public lands. In order for it to succeed in its application, it must be 
place-based and part of a partnership based on inclusive, equitable, 
and respectful interactions. It must include relationship building that 
leads to government-to-government policy actions that honor Tribal 
sovereignty and self-determination rights, via formal agreements (e.g., 
MOUs).\8\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \8\ Usher 200; Houde 2007; Nadasdy 2007; Nie 2008; Kenney 2012; 
Casson 2015; Reid et al. 2018; Grey and Kuokkanen 2019.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Congress can ensure that ecocultural restoration is incorporated 
into Federal decision-making by implementing policies and providing 
secure, dedicated funding to enable development of the trust-based 
relationships described above. In doing so, it is important to consider 
that it takes time to build relationships between Tribal Nations and 
Federal agencies that lead to collaboration to partner in natural 
resource ecocultural restoration. Building this trust means beginning 
to overcome 175 years of genocide, breaches of treaties, and 
exploitation of Tribal Nations. Note that the Indian Self-Determination 
and Education Assistance Act of 1975, 25 U.S.C. Sec. Sec. 450 et seq. 
and the 1994 Tribal Self-Governance Act, 25 U.S.C. Sec. 458aa et seq. 
passed fairly recently. These acts acknowledged and reinstated 
Indigenous peoples' sovereignty rights and empowered them to manage 
their lands. Nevertheless, securing such rights in practice continues 
to challenge many Tribal Nations, particularly regarding natural 
resource and subsistence treaty rights.\9\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \9\ U.S. Congress. 1975. Indian Education and Self-Determination 
Act of 1975; Deloria, and Lytle 1983; U.S. Congress. 1994. Tribal Self 
Governance Act of 1994; Wilkins, and Lomawaima 2001; Treuer 2012; 
Treuer 2019.

    2. In your testimony, you noted the differences you saw in the 
condition of the grasslands on Tribal lands as compared to the BLM 
lands. Please describe what these differences indicate, and why healthy 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
grasslands are so important.

Differences between FBIC Tribal lands and BLM lands:

    Global warming is leading to increasingly frequent severe and 
extensive drought and wildfires. Warmer temperatures, below-average 
winter precipitation, earlier snowmelt, and drier summers are creating 
longer wildfire seasons. Ecosystems managed for agriculture often lack 
the resiliency to recover from these disturbances and other 
environmental stressors (e.g., insect outbreaks), because such 
management involves plowing the soil, planting non-native agronomic 
species for harvest, and eliminating or disrupting processes with which 
these ecosystems co-evolved, such as intermittent intensive grazing by 
herds of bison, low-severity fires set by Indigenous people, and mixed-
severity wildfires.\10\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \10\ Bond, et al. 2004; Fuhlendorf, et al. 2008; Allred, et al. 
2011; Grimm, et al. 2013; Polley, et al. 2013; Lark, et al. 2020; 
Hessburg, et al. 2021.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    We are working to address the above issues in our grassland 
restoration project, which began in 2019 in the Northern Great Plains 
Biome of Montana, on BLM and FBIR lands. I am the Lead Principal 
Investigator (PI) of this project, and Dr. Thomas H. DeLuca is the co-
PI. In addition to the FBIC and BLM, project partners consist of OSU 
and SER. Our grassland restoration project goals are to:

      a)  Help the BLM Plant Conservation and Restoration Program 
(PCRP) ensure a stable commercial supply of native plant materials for 
restoration and rehabilitation efforts on public lands.
      b)  Help BLM inventory and quantitatively assess the condition 
and trend of natural resources on the nation's public lands.

    We are meeting these goals by surveying U.S. Federal and adjacent 
Tribal lands using Assessment, Inventorying and Monitoring (AIM) 
protocols, and then applying BLM Seeds of Success (SOS) protocols to 
collect the seeds of target species for conservation. Target species 
include those known to stabilize soils after a severe fire or other 
disturbance, such as Junegrass (Koelaria macrantha), which can rapidly 
resprout and help prevent erosion. Seeds go to the National Seed 
Repository to eventually be used for ecological restoration of public 
lands that have been degraded by catastrophic fire, drought, or 
intensive conventional agriculture.\11\ An additional goal is to co-
create an ecocultural restoration plan with the FBIC, based on TEK 
(described in the response to Q1), to increase resiliency to drought 
and other environmental stressors.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \11\ BLM 2021a; BLM 2021b.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    During the summer of 2021, much of the Western U.S. experienced an 
extreme drought. Per National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
(NOAA) and State of Montana data, our study site on the FBIR and 
surrounding BLM lands was in D3 (Extreme) and D4 (Exceptional) drought. 
In D3 conditions, crops are not harvestable, winter pasture is opened 
for grazing, the soil has large cracks in it, and the fields are bare. 
Cattle have very little water and producers must import water and 
supplemental feed. Fire restrictions increase. In D4 conditions, 
pasture loss is widespread, crops are destroyed, fire risk is extremely 
high, and fires are widespread.\12\ Given that most of our study site 
(both FBIC and BLM land) is used primarily for some form of 
agriculture, and that for residents of north-central Montana, 
agriculture is a leading occupation and income source, D3 and D4 
drought can have devastating economic impacts on human communities in 
this region.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \12\ NOAA, NRCS, State of Montana 2022.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    In June-August, 2021, when we surveyed FBIR and BLM lands, which 
consist of mixed-grass prairie communities, I received one of the most 
powerful lessons of my career as an ecologist. In keeping with expected 
D3-D4 drought conditions, our field crew and I found that in late 
spring on BLM lands, which were dominated by exotic (e.g., non-native/
invasive) grass species (primarily crested wheatgrass, Agropyron 
cristatum), with some native grasses (Sandberg bluegrass, Poa secunda, 
and Western wheatgrass, Pascopyrum smithii), these grasses grew 
approximately six inches tall. On adjacent FBIC land that had the same 
drought conditions, climate, elevation, geomorphology, and other 
ecological characteristics, but contained mostly native plant species 
(primarily Western wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, and green 
needlegrass, Nassella viridula), the same grasses grew up to four feet 
tall. On BLM land, in the few places where native plants, such as 
bluegrass, had bloomed, their seed pods were hollow, lacking a 
cotyledon, because the plant had suppressed growth to survive. This 
stark difference in plant drought resiliency was unattributable to 
cattle; both Tribal and BLM lands are multiple-use lands, subject to 
cattle grazing, which we documented with trail cameras. Further, 
because of the drought response described above, on FBIR land we were 
able to collect 23 pounds of seeds of target species for conservation. 
On neighboring BLM land we were only able to collect 3 ounces (0.19 
pounds or 0.8%) of seeds of target species, despite scoping those 
Federal lands really thoroughly for several weeks, working in Blaine 
and Phillips Counties.
    Dr. DeLuca, an eminent soil scientist, and I hypothesize that this 
difference between FBIR and BLM land is at least partly related to 
differences in soil ecology between the two systems. Charcoal (also 
known as pyrogenic carbon, PyC) legacies in the soil created by the 
low-severity fires historically set by Indigenous people were deposited 
in mineral soils on a frequent and in some cases annual basis. The 
recalcitrant nature of PyC results in its accumulation over time, 
thereby increasing the scale and function of the soil carbon pool, 
resulting in increased nutrient availability and drought 
resiliency.\13\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \13\ DeLuca et al., 2020.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Indigenous burning is a key TEK land stewardship practice used 
globally to improve soil health.\14\ In what is today the U.S., 
Indigenous use of fire to improve habitat for wildlife and productivity 
of culturally significant species of plants harvested as part of the 
hunter-gatherer lifeway has been widely documented. On the Northern 
Great Plains, Indigenous people used fire to manage plant communities 
to improve availability of culturally significant plants used for 
medicine and subsistence, such as Indian turnip (Pediomelum 
esculentum), and improve bison habitat. These prescribed fires were 
typically of low severity.\15\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \14\ Bond, et al. 2005; Kimmerer, and Lake 2001.
    \15\ Boyd 2022; Lake, et al. 2017; Roos, et al. 2018.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    In the 1800s, when Tribal lands were stolen and settled by Euro-
Americans throughout the U.S., fires were suppressed. As part of 
colonization, the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 placed Native 
Americans on Indian Reservations and ended Tribal sovereignty 
rights.\16\ Yet, despite strong encouragement to assimilate into Euro-
American culture, Native American people did not completely cease their 
cultural traditions regarding grassland, forest, and wildlife 
stewardship. On reservation lands, in keeping with TEK, Native 
Americans continued to set some prescribed fires, even though they were 
discouraged from doing so by the U.S. Federal government. On non-Tribal 
lands, fire exclusion post-Euro-American colonization changed soil 
biogeochemical properties significantly, in ways that created plant 
communities far less resilient to drought and other environmental 
stressors.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \16\ Indian Appropriations Act of Mar. 3, 1871.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Pyrogenic carbon (PyC) is a fire legacy formed through the thermal 
decomposition of organic matter during fires. PyC can increase nutrient 
cycling in soils and the carbon budget in an ecosystem. PyC is highly 
stable and can be preserved in mineral soils for decades to centuries. 
Recent studies have shown that the presence and content of soil PyC 
explains a significant amount of variation in soil function (e.g., 
water infiltration, carbon microbial cycling, nutrient availability and 
dynamics).\17\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \17\ Bird 2015; Bowring, et al. 2022.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    The quantity and quality of PyC in soils is related to fire 
severity and frequency. Low- and mid-severity fire improves soil 
properties and processes, by stimulating nutrient release and 
depositing PyC in the topsoil (O and A soil layers, called 
``horizons''). Low- to mid-severity fire will retain much of the soil 
seedbank and nutrient capital, simply losing some of the topsoil to 
volatilization. After such events, microbial activity rebounds quickly 
and nutrient availability actually increases. In contrast, the sort of 
high-severity wildfires we have been experiencing globally, linked to 
climate change, result in complete combustion of the topsoil, loss of 
key species from the seedbank, mortality of shallow plant roots, 
reduced resprouting of herbs, and loss of carbon and nitrogen from 
surface mineral soil.\18\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \18\ DeLuca, et al. 2020; Gao, and DeLuca 2018; Gao, and DeLuca 
2020; Michelotti, and Miesel 2015; Adkins, and Miesel 2021; Landry, and 
Matthews 2017; Hart, et al. 1994; Merino, et al. 2019.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Soils on the FBIR and adjacent BLM lands are predominantly 
moderately fertile, high-clay soils derived from glacial till.\19\ 
Surface soils are susceptible to wind erosion and loss of soil organic 
matter under conditions of limited vegetative cover. Frequent fire and 
deposition of degradation-resistant PyC created a more fertile and 
higher tilth soil condition, which is more resilient to drought. On BLM 
lands, exclusion of fire and decades of heavy grazing pressure by 
cattle likely led to slow, consistent loss of soil carbon due to 
mineralization and erosion losses, with only modest returns of fresh 
organic matter from the resident plant community. Differences in plant 
community composition also influence ecosystem carbon stocks, with 
exotic plant species often resulting in a net decline in soil 
carbon.\20\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \19\ Hilts 1986.
    \20\ Lesica, and DeLuca 1996; Zouhar 2021.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Understanding how different management practices and fire history 
influence soil PyC stock, dynamics, and soil biogeochemical properties 
at various spatial scales will be of great importance in designing 
nature-based solutions and strategies to improve the resilience of all 
grasslands. To be effective, such solutions must incorporate TEK, 
including ethnobotany.\21\ While soil characterization (e.g., measuring 
the depth of the various soil horizons) is part of AIM protocols, in 
2022 and beyond, we will be taking a more detailed look at soils. It is 
possible that the difference we observed between BLM and FBIR lands may 
be related to the legacy of PyC on FBIR lands, a legacy that as part of 
TEK cultural burning practices on this grassland created the landscapes 
and plant communities more resilient to climate change we observed in 
summer of 2021. Nevertheless, relationships in the natural world are 
far from simple, which Indigenous people have acknowledged since time 
immemorial as part of their TEK. We also expect that a variety of site-
specific environmental factors will have bearing on the drought 
resilience of FBIR and BLM lands.\22\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \21\ Lake 2021; Gann, et al. 2019; Turner 2015.
    \22\ Roos, et al. 2018.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Many factors have degraded grasslands and continue to threaten 
them, including increasing agricultural development and drought. 
Restoring grasslands for the ecosystem services they provide is a 
global priority. Maintaining ecologically resilient, productive 
grassland and forest ecosystems that can reliably and sustainably 
supply the ecosystem services on which humans rely for survival will 
help us address the climate crisis and create a more sustainable future 
for humanity.\23\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \23\ Havstad, et al. 2007; Bedunah, et al. 2012; Augustine, et al. 
2021.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Why Healthy Grasslands Are so Important:

    Grasslands are critically important to humanity as we respond to 
the climate crisis because they are one of the most stable and reliable 
terrestrial carbon sinks, providing 12% of terrestrial carbon stocks 
globally. During photosynthesis, plants draw carbon dioxide from the 
atmosphere and store it in their leaves, stems, and roots. Unlike 
forests, grasslands store the majority of their carbon (81%) 
belowground, in their roots and soil. In fact, the roots of prairie 
grasses such as Western wheatgrass often extend belowground as far as 
twelve feet. Because most of a grassland's carbon is stored in the 
soil, when a grassland burns, it does not release much carbon into the 
atmosphere, the way a forest does when it burns. Additionally, prairie 
grasses typically grow as ``bunchgrasses,'' sprouting from near-surface 
root crowns or rhizome mats. These grasses are highly adapted to fire, 
because they co-evolved with regular Indigenous cultural burning. When 
burned lightly, they can resprout within 48 hours, and grow back with 
increased vigor.
    Overgrazing combined with introduction of exotic species reduces 
soil organic matter storage. Our data suggest that BLM lands have a far 
higher proportion of exotic species such as crested wheatgrass and 
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) than Tribal lands. Part of this is an 
artifact of the Homestead Era, during which semi-arid lands in the 
Northern Great Plains were settled and developed for agriculture. 
Attempts to stabilize soils in the 1920s involved planting exotic grass 
species. Many of these lands have not recovered from the ecological 
degradation caused by over a decade of drought that culminated in the 
1930s Dust Bowl. Even with reintroduction of prescribed low-severity 
fire that replicates Indigenous traditional burning, on BLM lands these 
exotic species will influence fire behavior and post-fire responses. In 
grassland ecosystems comprised primarily of native grass species, with 
a small proportion of exotic species, prescribed burning and mixed-
severity wildfire do not cause a sharp increase (known as an irruption) 
in exotics. However, as the proportion of exotics increases in a 
prairie, some, such as cheatgrass, will irrupt in response to fire, 
out-competing native grass species.\24\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \24\ Briggs, et al. 1995; Strassburg, et al. 2000; Libecap, and 
Hansen. 2002; Ontl, and Janowiak 2017; Dass, et al. 2018; Eisenberg, et 
al. 2019; Lark, et al. 2020; Nagy, et al. 2021.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    All of this means that as the climate continues to warm and 
wildfires continue to increase in frequency, size, and severity, 
grasslands provide a highly stable and important carbon sink that is 
more resilient than forests as a source of carbon. In general, native 
grass species, which are perennial, long-lived plants, are the most 
effective at sequestering carbon. This is because many of the exotic 
agronomic species, which come from Europe or the Middle East, do not 
grow roots as deeply into the soil as North America's native grasses. 
Since Montana's Northern Great Plains provide a unique combination of 
grasses and forbs of high conservation value, establishing and 
maintaining a native seed conservation program here that incorporates 
TEK and ecocultural restoration is crucial to meeting U.S. Federal 
plant conservation and climate resiliency objectives.\25\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \25\ Lavin, and Seibert 2011. Oldfield, et al. 2019.

    3. Can you describe the importance of a stable, economical supply 
of native plants and seeds? What programs are needed to ensure this 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
supply is available to local communities and local landscapes?

Importance of Supply of Native Plants and Seeds:

    As wildfires and other climate-driven disasters continue to 
devastate the U.S., ecological restoration has become a national and 
global priority. Having a stable, economical supply of native plants 
and seeds is critical to restore ecosystems in the aftermath of these 
crises. Currently the availability of native seed of a sufficient range 
of species and of appropriate genetic provenance for ecological 
restoration does not match the need locally, regionally, or nationally. 
Federal agencies, such as the BLM, U.S. Forest Service (USFS), U.S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), National Park Service (NPS), Tribal 
nations, and the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) are the largest 
purchasers of native plant seeds in the U.S.\26\ The use of 
genetically-appropriate native plants (rather than non-native species 
or native species from a different locality) in restoration is required 
or encouraged in policy documents by some agencies, like the NPS and 
USFS. BLM policy strongly encourages the use of native plants used for 
restoration on federal land, and BLM alone buys hundreds of thousands 
of pounds of seed annually in response to wildfires.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \26\ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 
2020.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Although BLM and other agencies have large stores of native seeds, 
and are actively working to increase their supply, large disasters 
create a reactive demand on what is already a limited supply, driving 
up the cost of native seeds, and in some cases, leading to the use of 
non-native species in plantings and seed mixes. State and local 
authorities are also users of native seeds, frequently sourcing them 
for roadside revegetation, invasive species control, landscape 
beautification, soil and water conservation, and pollinator and 
wildlife habitat restoration. However, these proactive state and local 
restoration efforts contend with the same supply chain limitations as 
the Federal agencies that dominate the market. This lack of appropriate 
native plant material generally strongly constrains ecological 
restoration. To that end, there exist several programs which, with 
additional support, are well positioned to address this increasing 
need, as well as opportunities to create new programs.

Existing Programs and Needs:

    The BLM Plant Conservation and Restoration Program (PCRP) is 
working to ensure that land managers across our nation can buy the 
native seed that will work to restore native plant communities that 
provide wildlife habitat, ecosystem services, and recreational 
opportunities for all Americans to enjoy. Seed collection is the first 
step in native plant materials development.\27\ Seeds of Success (SOS; 
https://www.blm.gov/programs/natural-resources/native-plant-
communities/native-plant-and-seed-material-development/collection) is 
the national native seed collection program housed under the BLM's 
PCRP. The mission of SOS is to collect wildland native seed for 
research, development, germplasm conservation, and ecosystem 
restoration. Established in 2002, SOS has made over 26,000 seed 
collections of over 5,800 unique taxa, from 43 states. Additional SOS 
accomplishments include:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \27\ Oldfield 2019.

      Over 2,500 seed collectors trained in over 140 collecting 
teams
      In 2015, the DOI awarded BLM a $3.5 million grant through 
the Hurricane Sandy Supplemental Mitigation Fund for seed collection in 
coastal habitats from Virginia to Maine. As of 2018, over 125 SOS East 
collections have been used for Hurricane Sandy restoration projects.

    To continue the success of the PCRP, we need more:

      Botanical Expertise--As of 2021, there were 32 botanists 
in the BLM. The BLM manages 245 million acres. This means, there is 
only one botanist for every 7.656 million acres of public lands.
      Restoration Ecologists--As the availability of locally 
adapted native seed increases, we need restoration practitioners who 
know how to best leverage this national investment back onto the 
landscape.
      Seed cleaning and testing facilities--In the 20 years 
that the PCRP has existed, the infrastructure available to clean, test, 
and store 20 years' worth of seed collections has remained stagnant. 
More seed cleaning facilities like the USFS Bend Seed Extractory are 
needed for the PCRP and SOS to continue to grow and provide a stable 
supply of native seeds for increase and use on public lands.

    To address the urgent need for native plant materials for 
restoration, the Plant Conservation Alliance Federal Committee (https:/
/www.blm.gov/programs/natural-resources/native-plant-communities/
national-seed-strategy/pca), which includes representatives from twelve 
Federal agencies, developed the National Seed 
Strategy (NSS; https://www.blm.gov/programs/natural-resources/native-
plant-communities/national-seed-strategy). The vision of NSS is to 
provide the right seed in the right place at the right time. Successful 
establishment and survival of seedlings depends on where and how seeds 
are collected. Research suggests that it is important to use locally 
adapted seeds. Local populations often show a home-site advantage and 
non-local genotypes may be maladapted to local environmental 
conditions. Furthermore, intraspecific hybridization of local and non-
local genotypes may have a negative impact on the genetic structure of 
local populations through mechanisms such as outbreeding depression. 
Additionally, many species show a strong, small-scale genetic 
differentiation between different habitats so that matching habitats of 
the restoration and donor site can be more significant than minimizing 
geographical separation. In sum, locally adapted seeds have a far 
higher germination and survival rate, leading to more effective 
ecological restoration efforts, than do seeds obtained from other 
geographical areas.\28\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \28\ Vander, et al. 2010; Baughman, et al. 2019.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    The mission of NSS is to ensure the availability of appropriate 
seed to 
provide healthy and productive plant communities in a changing climate. 

2015-2020 NSS accomplishments (https://www.blm.gov/sites/blm.gov/files/
docs/2021-02/NSS%20Progress%202020%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf) include:

      17 Federal Agencies, 20+ Tribal Nations, 52 States & 
Territories, 380 total partners, $167 million invested
      Almost 9,000 seed collections
      170+ scientific reports & articles on native seed 
research and development
      National Academies of Science national seed needs study 
underway
      1000s of native seed crops developed by local and 
regional efforts in over 32 ecoregions
      65+ nurseries, farms, growers, and botanic gardens 
engaged, 21+ regional seed partnerships
      2 facilities increased seed storage capacity to 2.1 
million pounds
      250+ types of seed available for large-scale restoration
      10+ million acres impacted

    Largely because of global warming, wildfires and storms are 
becoming increasingly frequent and severe. Warmer temperatures, below-
average winter precipitation, earlier snowmelt, and drier summers are 
creating longer wildfire seasons.\29\ Hurricanes are also becoming 
increasingly frequent and severe, also linked to global warming. These 
natural disasters increase our need for native plant materials for 
restoration. Accordingly, next steps for the NSS are:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \29\ Grimm, et al. 2013; Polley, et al. 2013; Hessburg, et al. 
2021.

      Expand economic opportunities for farmers to grow locally 
adapted native seed
      Actively engage with Native American Tribes and Alaska 
Native villages to honor their Indigenous knowledges and ensure 
culturally important plants are conserved
      Increase botanical expertise in federal agencies to 
inform all restoration, rehabilitation and reclamation projects
      Develop regional ``Seed Hubs'' with partners who develop, 
store, and deliver locally adapted native seeds
      Increase research to enhance decisions based on science 
for every step, from seed collection to restoration
      Increase public education and awareness on the importance 
of locally adapted native seed in ecological restoration

    Continuing to support the above programs in a manner that can meet 
our nation's needs for native plant material for restoration requires 
stable, dedicated Federal funding. Such support would fund:

      SOS seed collecting efforts, and analysis of such efforts 
under the Justice40 Initiative, of which SOS is a pilot program
      Genomic studies on seeds to be used for restoration
      Education of specialists (e.g., botanists) and employment 
opportunities, particularly from underserved communities such as Tribal 
Nations
      Seed-growing enterprises and training and opportunities
      Community and public outreach

Future Programs:

    A stable, enduring native seed supply must include a diversity of 
voices and autonomy of community groups that builds equitable 
participation in social, economic, and environmental benefits. In the 
U.S., supporting Tribal Nations in developing seed-growing enterprises 
will create a participatory, community-based seed supply approach that 
will:

      Address social and environmental justice
      Honor TEK, because seeds are sacred in most Indigenous 
cultures
      Help achieve the goals of the U.S. Federal government in 
creating ecosystems more resilient to fire, drought, and other 
ecological disasters
      Address the goals of the UN Decade for Ecosystem 
Restoration

    Meeting large-scale restoration goals requires connection between 
local seed production and collaborative platforms to negotiate roles, 
rights, and responsibilities between all partners. When partnering with 
Tribal Nations, this will require government-to-government negotiations 
that fulfill sovereignty and self-determination rights.\30\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    \30\ Reyes-Garcia 2019; Fernandez, et al. 2021; Urzedo, et al. 
2022.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

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