[Analytical Perspectives]
[Other Technical Presentations]
[20. Off-Budget Federal Entities and Non-Budgetary Activities]
[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
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20. OFF-BUDGET FEDERAL ENTITIES AND NON-BUDGETARY ACTIVITIES
The unified budget of the Federal Government is divided by law between
on-budget and off-budget entities. The off-budget Federal entities
conduct programs that result in the same kind of spending and receipts
as on-budget entities. Despite its off-budget classification, this
spending channels economic resources toward particular uses in the same
way as on-budget spending. Off-budget spending and receipts are
discussed in the following section on off-budget Federal entities.
The budget does not include activities that are related to the Federal
Government but that are non-budgetary by their inherent nature. In some
cases this is because the activities are not conducted by the
Government, such as the financial intermediation provided by the
Government-sponsored enterprises; and in other cases this is because the
activities are not costs to the Government itself, such as regulation.
Nevertheless, some of these activities are important instruments of
Federal policy. Some are discussed in the budget documents, and in
certain cases the amounts involved are presented in conjunction with
budget data. They are discussed in the section of this chapter on non-
budgetary activities.
Off-Budget Federal Entities
The Federal Government has used the unified budget concept as the
foundation for its budgetary analysis and presentation since the 1969
budget. This concept was developed by the President's Commission on
Budget Concepts in 1967. It calls for the budget to include all the
Federal Government's programs and all the fiscal transactions of these
programs with the public.
TABLE 20-1. COMPARISON OF TOTAL, ON-BUDGET, AND OFF-BUDGET TRANSACTIONS \1\
(In billions of dollars)
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Receipts Outlays Surplus or deficit (-)
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Fiscal Year Off- Off- Off-
Total On-budget budget Total On-budget budget Total On-budget budget
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1975................................................ 279.1 216.6 62.5 332.3 271.9 60.4 -53.2 -55.3 2.0
1976................................................ 298.1 231.7 66.4 371.8 302.2 69.6 -73.7 -70.5 -3.2
TQ.................................................. 81.2 63.2 18.0 96.0 76.6 19.4 -14.7 -13.3 -1.4
1977................................................ 355.6 278.7 76.8 409.2 328.5 80.7 -53.7 -49.8 -3.9
1978................................................ 399.6 314.2 85.4 458.7 369.1 89.7 -59.2 -54.9 -4.3
1979................................................ 463.3 365.3 98.0 504.0 404.1 100.0 -40.7 -38.7 -2.0
1980................................................ 517.1 403.9 113.2 590.9 476.6 114.3 -73.8 -72.7 -1.1
1981................................................ 599.3 469.1 130.2 678.2 543.0 135.2 -79.0 -73.9 -5.0
1982................................................ 617.8 474.3 143.5 745.7 594.3 151.4 -128.0 -120.0 -7.9
1983................................................ 600.6 453.2 147.3 808.4 661.3 147.1 -207.8 -208.0 0.2
1984................................................ 666.5 500.4 166.1 851.9 686.0 165.8 -185.4 -185.6 0.3
1985................................................ 734.1 547.9 186.2 946.4 769.6 176.8 -212.3 -221.7 9.4
1986................................................ 769.2 569.0 200.2 990.4 806.9 183.5 -221.2 -237.9 16.7
1987................................................ 854.4 641.0 213.4 1,004.1 810.2 193.8 -149.7 -169.3 19.6
1988................................................ 909.3 667.8 241.5 1,064.5 861.8 202.7 -155.2 -194.0 38.8
1989................................................ 991.2 727.5 263.7 1,143.6 932.7 210.9 -152.5 -205.2 52.8
1990................................................ 1,032.0 750.3 281.7 1,253.2 1,028.1 225.1 -221.2 -277.8 56.6
1991................................................ 1,055.0 761.2 293.9 1,324.4 1,082.7 241.7 -269.3 -321.5 52.2
1992................................................ 1,091.3 788.9 302.4 1,381.7 1,129.3 252.3 -290.4 -340.5 50.1
1993................................................ 1,154.4 842.5 311.9 1,409.5 1,142.9 266.6 -255.1 -300.4 45.3
1994................................................ 1,258.6 923.6 335.0 1,461.9 1,182.5 279.4 -203.3 -258.9 55.7
1995................................................ 1,351.8 1,000.8 351.1 1,515.8 1,227.1 288.7 -164.0 -226.4 62.4
1996................................................ 1,453.1 1,085.6 367.5 1,560.5 1,259.6 300.9 -107.5 -174.1 66.6
1997................................................ 1,579.3 1,187.3 392.0 1,601.3 1,290.6 310.6 -22.0 -103.3 81.4
1998................................................ 1,721.8 1,306.0 415.8 1,652.6 1,336.0 316.6 69.2 -30.0 99.2
1999................................................ 1,827.5 1,383.0 444.5 1,701.9 1,381.1 320.8 125.6 1.9 123.7
2000................................................ 2,025.2 1,544.6 480.6 1,788.8 1,458.0 330.8 236.4 86.6 149.8
2001................................................ 1,991.2 1,483.7 507.5 1,863.9 1,517.1 346.8 127.3 -33.4 160.7
2002................................................ 1,853.2 1,337.9 515.3 2,011.0 1,655.3 355.7 -157.8 -317.5 159.7
2003 estimate....................................... 1,836.2 1,304.7 531.6 2,140.4 1,772.3 368.1 -304.2 -467.6 163.5
2004 estimate....................................... 1,922.0 1,365.9 556.2 2,229.4 1,847.9 381.5 -307.4 -482.1 174.7
2005 estimate....................................... 2,135.2 1,545.7 589.5 2,343.4 1,953.1 390.3 -208.2 -407.4 199.2
2006 estimate....................................... 2,263.2 1,648.4 614.8 2,463.7 2,060.1 403.6 -200.5 -411.7 211.2
2007 estimate....................................... 2,398.1 1,753.6 644.4 2,576.2 2,159.7 416.5 -178.1 -406.1 227.9
2008 estimate....................................... 2,520.9 1,847.7 673.2 2,710.5 2,280.4 430.1 -189.6 -432.7 243.1
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\1\ Off-budget transactions consist of the social security trust funds for all years and the Postal Service fund as of 1989.
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Every year since 1971, however, at least one Federal entity has been
off-budget. Off-budget Federal entities are federally owned and
controlled, but their transactions are excluded from the on-budget
totals by law. When a Federal entity is off-budget, its receipts,
outlays, and surplus or deficit are not included in the on-budget
receipts, outlays, and surplus or deficit; and its budget authority is
not included in the totals of budget authority for the on-budget Federal
entities. The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 excluded off-budget
entities from general enforcement provisions (except for the
administrative expenses of Social Security), although it had special
enforcement provisions for Social Security.
The off-budget Federal entities conduct programs of the same type as
the on-budget entities. Most of the tables in the budget documents
include the on-budget and off-budget amounts both separately and in
combination, or show them only as a total amount, in order to arrive at
the unified budget totals that show Federal outlays and receipts
comprehensively.
The off-budget Federal entities currently consist of the two Social
Security trust funds, old-age and survivors insurance and disability
insurance, and the Postal Service fund. Social Security was classified
off-budget as of 1986 and the Postal Service fund in 1989. A number of
other entities were off-budget at different times before 1986 but were
classified on-budget by law in 1985 or earlier.
The preceding table divides the total Federal Government receipts,
outlays, and surplus or deficit between the on-budget and off-budget
amounts. Within this table Social Security is classified as off-budget
for all years, in order to provide consistent comparison over time. The
much smaller Postal Service transactions are classified as off-budget
starting in 1989. Entities that were off-budget at one time but are now
on-budget are classified as on-budget for all years.
The off-budget entities are a significant part of total Federal
spending and receipts. In 2004, the off-budget receipts are an estimated
28 percent of total receipts, and the off-budget outlays are a
moderately smaller percentage of the total. The unified budget deficit
in that year is $307 billion--a $482 billion on-budget deficit partly
offset by a $175 billion off-budget surplus. The off-budget surplus is
virtually the same as the Social Security surplus. Social Security had a
deficit in the latter 1970s and early 1980s, but since the middle 1980s
it has had a large and growing surplus. This surplus is expected to
continue to grow throughout the period of this table and for some years
thereafter. However, it is estimated to subsequently decline, turn into
a deficit, and never reach balance again under present law. The long-
term challenge to Social Security is discussed in a chapter in the main
Budget volume, ``The Real Fiscal Danger,'' and is analyzed with much
greater detail in chapter 3, ``Stewardship,'' of this volume.
Non-Budgetary Activities
Federal credit: budgetary and non-budgetary transactions.--The Federal
Credit Reform Act of 1990 refined budget concepts by distinguishing
between the costs of credit programs, which are budgetary in nature, and
the other transactions of credit programs, which are not. For 1992 and
subsequent years, the costs of direct loans and loan guarantees are
calculated as the present value of estimated cash outflows from the
Government less the present value of estimated cash inflows to the
Government. These costs are equivalent to the outlays of other Federal
programs and are included in the budget as outlays of credit program
accounts when the Federal Government makes a direct loan or guarantees a
private loan.
The complete cash transactions with the public--the disbursement and
repayment of loans, the payment of default claims on guarantees, the
collection of interest and fees, and so forth--are recorded in separate
financing accounts. The financing accounts also receive payments from
the credit program accounts for the costs of direct loans and loan
guarantees. The net transactions of the financing accounts--i.e., the
cash transactions with the public less the amounts received from the
program accounts--are not costs to the Government. Therefore, the net
transactions of the financing accounts are non-budgetary in concept, and
the Act excludes them from the budget. \1\ Because they are non-
budgetary in concept, they are not classified as off-budget Federal
entities. Their effect on the Government's borrowing requirement is
explained in chapter 13 of this volume, ``Federal Borrowing and Debt.''
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\1\ See sec. 505(b).
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The budget outlays of credit programs thus measure the cost of
Government credit decisions, and they record this cost when the credit
assistance is provided. This enables the budget to more effectively
fulfill its purpose of being a financial plan for allocating resources
among alternative uses: comparing the cost of a program with its
benefits, comparing the cost of credit programs with the cost of other
spending programs, and comparing the cost of one type of credit
assistance with the cost of another type. \2\
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\2\ For more explanation of the budget concepts for direct loans and
loan guarantees, see the sections on Federal credit and credit financing
accounts in chapter 24 of this volume, ``Budget System and Concepts and
Glossary.'' The structure of credit reform is further explained in
chapter VIII.A of the Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal
Year 1992, Part Two, pp. 223-26. The implementation of credit reform
through 1995 is reviewed in chapter 8, ``Underwriting Federal Credit and
Insurance,'' Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United States
Government, Fiscal Year 1997, pp. 142-44. Refinements and
simplifications enacted by the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 or provided
by later OMB guidance are explained in chapter 9, ``Underwriting Federal
Credit and Insurance,'' Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United
States Government, Fiscal Year 1999, p. 170.
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Credit programs are discussed in chapter 9 of this volume, ``Credit
and Insurance.''
Premiums and discounts on debt buybacks.--The Treasury Department
bought back outstanding bonds as part of its debt management from March
2000 to April 2002. The premiums paid on debt buybacks were recorded
outside the budget totals as a ``financing other
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than the change in debt held by the public.'' This budgetary treatment
is explained in a section of chapter 24, ``Budget System and Concepts
and Glossary,'' in the Analytical Perspectives volume of the 2001
budget, pages 457-58. The buyback premiums in 2002 are shown in chapter
13 of this volume, ``Federal Borrowing and Debt.''
Deposit funds.--Deposit funds are non-budgetary accounts that record
amounts held by the Government temporarily until ownership is determined
(such as earnest money paid by bidders for mineral leases) or held by
the Government as an agent for others (such as state income taxes
withheld from Federal employees' salaries and not yet paid to the
states). The largest deposit fund is the Thrift Savings Fund, which
holds stocks and bonds for Federal employees who participate in the
Thrift Savings Plan, a defined contribution retirement plan. Because
these assets are the property of the employees and are held by the
Government in a fiduciary capacity, the transactions of the fund are not
transactions of the Government itself and therefore are non-budgetary in
concept. The administrative costs and the transactions of budgetary
accounts with the fund are included in the budget. For similar reasons,
the budget excludes funds that are owned by Indian tribes and held and
managed by the Government in a fiduciary capacity on the tribes' behalf.
Deposit funds are further discussed in a section of chapter 24 of this
volume, ``Budget System and Concepts and Glossary.''
Taxation and tax expenditures.--Taxation provides the Government with
income, which is included in the budget as ``receipts,'' and which
withdraws purchasing power from the private sector to finance Government
expenditures. In addition to this primary economic effect, taxation has
important effects on the incentives that affect the allocation of
resources among private uses and the distribution of income among
individuals. These effects depend on the composition of the Federal tax
system and the rates and other structural characteristics of each
Federal tax. The latter effects of taxation on resource allocation and
income distribution are in many ways analogous to the effects of
outlays, but these effects are not recorded as budget outlays nor are
they measured by budget receipts.
Some of the effects of taxes on resource allocation and income
distribution, but not all, arise from special exclusions, exemptions,
deductions, and similar provisions that are identified by comparing the
tax law with a baseline. Revenue losses caused by these special
provisions are defined as ``tax expenditures'' and are discussed in
chapter 6 of this volume, ``Tax Expenditures.'' The chapter includes
tables with estimates for all known tax expenditures associated with the
individual and corporation income taxes. The chapter also compares tax
expenditures with spending programs and regulation as alternative
methods for achieving policy objectives, and it provides an illustrative
overview of performance measures that might be used to evaluate tax
expenditures.
The baseline concepts used to identify and measure tax expenditures in
chapter 6 have important ambiguities. Although partly patterned on a
comprehensive income tax, they are subjective, as noted last year, and
are thus open to question in a number of respects. The Treasury
Department has therefore begun a review of the tax expenditure
presentation. The appendix to chapter 6 provides an initial review,
focusing on three issues: (1) using a comprehensive income tax as a
baseline, (2) including negative tax expenditures in the presentation
(i.e., provisions that cause people to pay more tax than they would
under a baseline--such as the failure to adjust interest, capital gains,
and depreciation for inflation in comparison to a comprehensive income
tax), and (3) using a comprehensive consumption tax as a baseline.
Government-sponsored enterprises.--The Federal Government has
established a number of Government-sponsored enterprises, such as Fannie
Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Farm Credit Banks, to provide financial
intermediation for specified public purposes. They are excluded from the
budget because they are privately owned and controlled. However,
primarily because they were established by the Federal Government for
public-policy purposes, estimates of their activities are reported in a
separate chapter of the budget Appendix, their activities are analyzed
in chapter 9 of this volume, ``Credit and Insurance,'' and their lending
and borrowing are summarized in tables 9-11 and 9-12 of that chapter.
Regulation.--Some types of regulation have economic effects that are
similar to budget outlays or tax expenditures by requiring the private
sector to make expenditures for specified purposes, such as safety and
pollution control. The regulatory planning process is described annually
in The Regulatory Plan and the Unified Agenda of Federal Regulatory and
Deregulatory Actions. \3\
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\3\ The most recent publication was issued by the Regulatory
Information Service Center in December 2002 and printed in the Federal
Register of December 9, 2002 (vol. 67, no. 236).
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The Office of Management and Budget began to publish a report on the
costs and benefits of Federal regulation in 1997. The latest report,
Stimulating Smarter Regulation, was released in December 2002 and
includes a report on unfunded mandates. \4\ The report estimates the
total costs and benefits of Federal regulations reviewed by OMB from
April 1995 through September 2001 and the impact of Federal regulation
on state, local, and tribal governments and on wages, economic growth,
and small business. It also discusses regulatory policy under the
present Administration, regulatory governance abroad, and
recommendations for reform. The report on regulation is required by
statute to be updated annually.
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\4\ Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, Office of Management
and Budget, Stimulating Smarter Regulation: 2002 Report to Congress on
the Costs and Benefits of Regulations and Unfunded Mandates on State,
Local, and Tribal Entities (2002).