[Analytical Perspectives]
[Federal Receipts and Collections]
[6. Tax Expenditures]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]



[[Page 95]]


 
                           6. TAX EXPENDITURES

  The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-344) requires that 
a list of ``tax expenditures'' be included in the budget. Tax 
expenditures are defined in the law as ``revenue losses attributable to 
provisions of the Federal tax laws which allow a special exclusion, 
exemption, or deduction from gross income or which provide a special 
credit, a preferential rate of tax, or a deferral of liability.'' The 
Act suggests that tax expenditures are exceptions to some norm or 
standard tax concept that is not specified in the law. Hence, different 
analyses may use different baseline tax structures; indeed, the budget 
presentation here provides tax expenditure estimates measured against 
more than one baseline.
  Due, in part, to the degree of arbitrariness in the tax expenditure 
baseline, the Administration believes the meaningfulness of tax 
expenditure estimates is uncertain and that the ``tax expenditure'' 
presentation can be improved by consideration of alternative or 
additional tax bases. A description of an ongoing Treasury study to 
reevaluate the tax expenditure concept is presented at the beginning of 
this chapter. The tax expenditure estimates and related discussion 
following the description of this study, however, are based on materials 
and formats developed and included in previous budgets. Tax expenditure 
estimates under the unified transfer (i.e., estate and gift) tax have 
been eliminated from the presentation because there is no generally 
accepted normal baseline for transfer taxes and this tax has been 
repealed under the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 
2001 (EGTRRA).
  The largest reported tax expenditures tend to be associated with the 
individual income tax. For example, sizeable deferrals, deductions and 
exclusions are provided for pension contributions and earnings, employer 
contributions for medical insurance, mortgage interest payments on 
owner-occupied homes, capital gains, and payments of State and local 
individual income and property taxes. Reported tax expenditures under 
the corporate income tax tend to be related to timing differences in the 
rate of cost recovery for various investments; as is discussed below, 
the extent to which these provisions are classified as tax expenditures 
varies according to the conceptual baseline used.
  Each tax expenditure estimate in this chapter was calculated assuming 
other parts of the tax code remained unchanged. The estimates would be 
different if all tax expenditures or major groups of tax expenditures 
were changed simultaneously because of potential interactions among 
provisions. For that reason, this chapter does not present a grand total 
for the estimated tax expenditures. Moreover, past tax changes entailing 
broad elimination of tax expenditures were generally accompanied by 
changes in tax rates or other basic provisions, so that the net effects 
on Federal revenues were considerably (if not totally) offset.
  Tax expenditures relating to the individual and corporate income taxes 
are estimated for fiscal years 2001-2007 using three methods of 
accounting: revenue effects, outlay equivalent, and present value. The 
present value approach provides estimates of the revenue effects for tax 
expenditures that involve deferrals of tax payments into the future or 
have similar long-term effects.
  The section of the chapter on performance measures and economic 
effects presents information related to assessment of the effect of tax 
expenditures on the achievement of program performance goals. This 
section is a complement to the government-wide performance plan required 
by the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993.

          FUTURE REVISIONS TO THE TAX EXPENDITURE PRESENTATION

  Policymakers and researchers have long recognized that certain income 
tax code provisions have policy purposes other than simply raising 
revenue and that it is useful to understand better the nature of these 
provisions. It is important to know the amounts of revenue associated 
with them, whether they are achieving desired results, and their 
consequences for the economy. The answers to these questions are 
important simply as a source of information, but also so that 
policymakers and the public can review these features of the income tax 
regularly to see if change is warranted. Thus it was that in 1974 the 
Congress mandated as part of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 that 
the annual Federal budget presentation include a list of ``tax 
expenditures'', where tax expenditures were defined as:
            ...those revenue losses attributable to provisions of the 
          Federal tax laws which allow a special exclusion, exemption, 
          or deduction from gross income or which provide a special 
          credit, a preferential rate of tax, or a deferral of tax 
          liability....
  Though imperfect, the tax expenditure budget has expanded our 
understanding of policy programs operating through the Federal income 
tax and, more generally, the workings of the Federal income tax.
  The complexity of our economy and society on the one hand, and the 
complexity of the income tax on the other, suggest the need for a 
variety of analyses

[[Page 96]]

to understand their interaction better. The Treasury Department has 
begun an effort to review the tax expenditure presentation, and will be 
considering possible revisions and improvements in methodology and 
approach. The need for this effort was raised in the President's Fiscal 
Year 2002 budget submission, which noted that the current tax 
expenditure analysis was developed relative to an arbitrary tax base and 
that:
            Because of the breadth of this arbitrary tax base, the 
          Administration believes that the concept of ``tax 
          expenditure'' is of questionable analytic value. \1\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  \1\ Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United States, Fiscal Year 
2002, Chapter 5.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This review is intended to improve the quality and range of 
information available regarding the Federal income tax and its effects 
on the economy. The Treasury Department's efforts in this area will 
continue over the coming year, assisted by public debate and comment.

                           The Need for Change

  The definition of the baseline against which tax expenditures are 
measured is crucial to the definition and calculation of tax 
expenditures. For purposes of calculating tax expenditures, the 1974 
Budget Act did not specify the provisions of the baseline tax law, 
which, quoting further from the Fiscal Year 2002 budget, means that: 
``Deciding whether provisions are exceptions (from the normal baseline), 
therefore, is a matter of judgement.'' As the normal baseline and 
deviations from the baseline are constructed from a set of potentially 
subjective judgements, differences of opinion can arise as to the 
correct classification of specific provisions of the tax code. While the 
normal baseline follows a theoretically appealing measure of a 
comprehensive income tax in many ways, it deviates in other important 
ways. These deviations may reflect judgements along a number of 
dimensions, including administrative concerns, political judgements, 
social policy, and historical methods of taxing income. But these 
deviations inject a degree of subjectivity that can limit the value of 
the underlying analysis.
  One problem with injecting subjective elements into the definition of 
the baseline income tax is that common notions of what constitutes a 
``normal'' income tax will change over time. For example, although the 
tax exemption for employer-provided pensions is labeled a tax 
expenditure, the growing presence of tax-deferred savings vehicles in 
the tax code suggests that these may today be part of ``normal'' income 
tax circa 2002. It is not clear, however, whether the ``normal'' income 
tax of 2002 is more appropriate than that in place in any other year if 
one is interested in better understanding deviations of the current 
income tax from a more objective standard of a comprehensive income tax.
  A highly subjective baseline also may not inform policymakers and the 
public about those aspects of social or economic policy that are 
implemented through the tax code. The Federal income tax contains many 
provisions for providing income support for lower-income citizens. 
Examples include the Earned Income Tax Credit, the Work Opportunity 
Credit, and the Child Tax Credit. Each of these provisions is 
appropriately labeled a tax expenditure in the current tax expenditure 
presentation. The personal exemption, which cannot be claimed by higher-
income taxpayers because of a phase-out of the exemption, however, is 
not presently labeled a tax expenditure although it can also be viewed 
as a component of the income support policies effected through the 
income tax. In many other ways, the ``normal tax'' baseline may fail to 
capture the extent to which the tax system serves such programmatic 
purposes.
  Finally, the public and policymakers are interested in the tax 
subsidies and excises imbedded in the tax code and their effects on 
individual behavior and on economic activity. Tax subsidies and excises 
arise when the relative prices of goods, services, or activities are 
distorted by the tax system. A highly subjective ``normal tax'' may shed 
little light on these issues.
  Because of the controversy that accompanies the existing ``normal 
tax'' concept, it may be appropriate to reconsider a comprehensive 
income tax as a baseline for the tax expenditure budget. Comprehensive 
income is a well-accepted theoretical concept, and so avoids some 
subjectivity that plagues the ``normal tax'' baseline. A comprehensive 
measure of income, however, would not eliminate all contentious issues. 
Any practical implementation of a comprehensive tax base would involve 
judgements, e.g., about which items of theoretical income or expense are 
too abstract or difficult to estimate to include in the baseline, but 
that other analysts may see as necessary.

            Focus of the Reconsideration and Revision Effort

  The effort to improve the tax expenditure presentation will focus on 
three aspects. The first relates to the definition of an income tax or 
standard against which tax expenditures are identified and measured as 
discussed above. The study will consider redefining the baseline income 
concept to be more consistent with a comprehensive income tax base, as 
well as other alternative definitions of income.
  The study will also consider issues involved in estimating 
``negative'' tax expenditures in addition to the conventional positive 
tax expenditures currently reported in the Budget. A negative tax 
expenditure arises whenever a tax provision causes a taxpayer to pay 
more tax than would be consistent with the baseline income tax. Negative 
tax expenditures have not been identified and calculated in the past, in 
part because they did not appear to relate to the original purpose of 
the tax expenditure analysis to identify implicit spending programs 
operating through the tax system. Nevertheless, negative tax 
expenditures provide an important additional perspective and may offer a 
useful source of information to analysts and policy makers.
  Academics and tax specialists have studied intensively whether the 
United States should adopt a con

[[Page 97]]

sumption tax at the Federal level, either as a source of additional 
revenue, or in place of some or all of the current sources of Federal 
revenue. Though the existing Federal individual income tax is thought of 
as a tax on income, in many respects it has evolved into a hybrid tax 
containing some elements consistent both with a comprehensive income tax 
and a consumption tax, as well as many elements consistent with neither 
an income nor a consumption tax. Therefore, the third aspect of the 
Treasury's effort will be to consider estimating tax expenditures 
relative to a hypothetical consumption tax, as well as relative to an 
income tax. This would allow a comparison of the Federal income tax vis-
a-vis the two baseline systems. It would also serve to give additional 
perspective on the tax expenditure analysis by highlighting those 
provisions in the Federal income tax that may give rise to a tax 
expenditure or negative expenditure in one system but not in the other.
  When completed, this review can significantly improve the overall 
understanding of the effects of the Federal income tax on the economy. 
For example, reconsideration of the income tax baseline is intended to 
provide a baseline definition that can better capture the numerous ways 
in which the tax system influences economic behavior relative to a 
comprehensive income tax system. Similarly, the definition and 
calculation of negative tax expenditures can provide useful new 
information about those activities subject to a tax surcharge relative 
to the baseline tax. Viewing these negative tax expenditures alongside 
the traditional tax expenditure presentation can provide important 
context for the overall tax expenditure budget. The calculation of tax 
expenditures and negative tax expenditures relative to a consumption tax 
budget can provide further context for the traditional tax expenditure 
presentation while providing important new information about the effects 
of the tax system on the economy. Finally, a consumption tax base 
analysis can help illuminate some of the central issues that would arise 
in any effort to enact a Federal consumption tax.

                   TAX EXPENDITURES IN THE INCOME TAX

                        Tax Expenditure Estimates

  All tax expenditure estimates presented here are based upon current 
tax law enacted as of December 31, 2001. Expired or repealed provisions 
are not listed if their revenue effects result only from taxpayer 
activity occurring before fiscal year 2001. Due to the time required to 
estimate the large number of tax expenditures, the estimates are based 
on Mid-Session economic assumptions; exceptions are the earned income 
tax credit and child credit provisions, which involve outlay components 
and hence are updated to reflect the economic assumptions used elsewhere 
in the budget.
  The total revenue effects for tax expenditures for fiscal years 2001-
2007 are displayed according to the budget's functional categories in 
Table 6-1. Descriptions of the specific tax expenditure provisions 
follow the tables of estimates and the discussion of general features of 
the tax expenditure concept.
  As in prior years, two baseline concepts--the normal tax baseline and 
the reference tax law baseline--are used to identify tax expenditures. 
For the most part, the two concepts coincide. However, items treated as 
tax expenditures under the normal tax baseline, but not the reference 
tax law baseline, are indicated by the designation ``normal tax method'' 
in the tables. The revenue effects for these items are zero using the 
reference tax rules. The alternative baseline concepts are discussed in 
detail following the tables.
  Table 6-2 reports the respective portions of the total revenue effects 
that arise under the individual and corporate income taxes separately. 
The location of the estimates under the individual and corporate 
headings does not imply that these categories of filers benefit from the 
special tax provisions in proportion to the respective tax expenditure 
amounts shown. Rather, these breakdowns show the specific tax accounts 
through which the various provisions are cleared. The ultimate 
beneficiaries of corporate tax expenditures could be shareholders, 
employees, customers, or other providers of capital, depending on 
economic forces.
  Table 6-3 ranks the major tax expenditures by the size of their FY 
2003 revenue effect.

                 Interpreting Tax Expenditure Estimates

  The estimates shown for individual tax expenditures in Tables 6-1, 6-
2, and 6-3 do not necessarily equal the increase in Federal revenues (or 
the change in the budget balance) that would result from repealing these 
special provisions, for the following reasons:
  Eliminating a tax expenditure may have incentive effects that alter 
economic behavior. These incentives can affect the resulting magnitudes 
of the activity or of other tax provisions or Government programs. For 
example, if deductibility of mortgage interest were limited, some 
taxpayers would hold smaller mortgages, with a concomitantly smaller 
effect on the budget than if no such limits were in force. Such indirect 
effects are not reflected in the estimates.
  Tax expenditures are interdependent even without incentive effects. 
Repeal of a tax expenditure provision can increase or decrease the tax 
revenues associated with other provisions. For example, even if behavior 
does not change, repeal of an itemized deduction could increase the 
revenue costs from other deductions because some taxpayers would be 
moved into higher tax brackets. Alternatively, repeal of an itemized 
deduction could lower the revenue cost from other deductions if 
taxpayers are led to claim the standard deduction instead of itemizing. 
Similarly, if two provisions were repealed simultaneously, the increase 
in tax liability could be greater or less than the sum of the two 
separate tax expenditures, because each is estimated assum

[[Page 98]]

ing that the other remains in force. In addition, the estimates reported 
in Table 6-1 are the totals of individual and corporate income tax 
revenue effects reported in Table 6-2 and do not reflect any possible 
interactions between the individual and corporate income tax receipts. 
For this reason, the estimates in Table 6-1 (as well as those in Table 
6-5, which are also based on summing individual and corporate estimates) 
should be regarded as approximations.
  The annual value of tax expenditures for tax deferrals is reported on 
a cash basis in all tables except Table 6-4. Cash-based estimates 
reflect the difference between taxes deferred in the current year and 
incoming revenues that are received due to deferrals of taxes from prior 
years. Although such estimates are useful as a measure of cash flows 
into the Government, they do not accurately reflect the true economic 
cost of these provisions. For example, for a provision where activity 
levels have changed, so that incoming tax receipts from past deferrals 
are greater than deferred receipts from new activity, the cash-basis tax 
expenditure estimate can be negative, despite the fact that in present-
value terms current deferrals do have a real cost to the Government. 
Alternatively, in the case of a newly enacted deferral provision, a 
cash-based estimate can overstate the real effect on receipts to the 
Government because the newly deferred taxes will ultimately be received. 
Present-value estimates, which are a useful complement to the cash-basis 
estimates for provisions involving deferrals, are discussed below.

                         Present-Value Estimates

  Discounted present-value estimates of revenue effects are presented in 
Table 6-4 for certain provisions that involve tax deferrals or other 
long-term revenue effects. These estimates complement the cash-based tax 
expenditure estimates presented in the other tables.
  The present-value estimates represent the revenue effects, net of 
future tax payments, that follow from activities undertaken during 
calendar year 2001 that cause the deferrals or other long-term revenue 
effects. For instance, a pension contribution in 2001 would cause a 
deferral of tax payments on wages in 2001 and on pension earnings on 
this contribution (e.g., interest) in later years. In some future year, 
however, the 2001 pension contribution and accrued earnings will be paid 
out and taxes will be due; these receipts are included in the present-
value estimate. In general, this conceptual approach is similar to the 
one used for reporting the budgetary effects of credit programs, where 
direct loans and guarantees in a given year affect future cash flows.

[[Page 99]]



                                                 Table 6-1.  ESTIMATES OF TOTAL INCOME TAX EXPENDITURES
                                                                (In millions of dollars)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             Total from corporations and individuals
                                                                        --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           2001      2002      2003      2004      2005      2006      2007    2003-2007
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             National Defense
       1       Exclusion of benefits and allowances to armed forces         2,160     2,190     2,210     2,240     2,260     2,290     2,310    11,310
                personnel..............................................
 
             International affairs:
       2       Exclusion of income earned abroad by U.S. citizens......     2,450     2,540     2,660     2,690     2,760     2,810     3,170    14,090
       3       Exclusion of certain allowances for Federal employees          760       800       840       880       920       960     1,020     4,620
                abroad.................................................
       4       Extraterritorial income exclusion.......................     4,490     4,820     5,150     5,510     5,890     6,290     6,730    29,570
       5       Inventory property sales source rules exception.........     1,400     1,470     1,540     1,620     1,700     1,790     1,880     8,530
       6       Deferral of income from controlled foreign corporations      6,600     7,000     7,450     7,900     8,400     8,930     9,550    42,230
                (normal tax method)....................................
       7       Deferred taxes for financial firms on certain income         1,300       550         0         0         0         0         0         0
                earned overseas........................................
 
             General science, space, and technology:
       8       Expensing of research and experimentation expenditures       2,020     1,780     2,380     2,880     3,400     3,910     4,160    16,730
                (normal tax method)....................................
       9       Credit for increasing research activities...............     5,370     6,010     4,590     4,020     2,330       990       410    12,350
 
             Energy:
      10       Expensing of exploration and development costs, fuels...        50        60        70        90        90       100       100       450
      11       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, fuels.........       250       260       270       290       300       310       320     1,490
      12       Alternative fuel production credit......................       900       850       410       130       130       130       130       930
      13       Exception from passive loss limitation for working              20        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                interests in oil and gas properties....................
      14       Capital gains treatment of royalties on coal............       100       100       110       120       120       130       140       620
      15       Exclusion of interest on energy facility bonds..........        90        90       100       120       130       140       150       640
      16       Enhanced oil recovery credit............................       310       360       440       530       640       760       910     3,280
      17       New technology credit...................................        60        80       100       100       100        90        90       480
      18       Alcohol fuel credits \1\................................        30        30        30        30        30        30        30       150
      19       Tax credit and deduction for clean-fuel burning vehicles        50        50        50        20       -10       -50       -50       -40
      20       Exclusion from income of conservation subsidies provided        70        70        70        70        70        70        60       340
                by public utilities....................................
 
             Natural resources and environment:
      21       Expensing of exploration and development costs, nonfuel         10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
                minerals...............................................
      22       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, nonfuel              250       260       270       290       300       300       310     1,470
                minerals...............................................
      23       Exclusion of interest on bonds for water, sewage, and          400       420       440       480       530       580       630     2,660
                hazardous waste facilities.............................
      24       Capital gains treatment of certain timber income........       100       100       110       120       120       130       140       620
      25       Expensing of multiperiod timber growing costs...........       360       360       370       380       390       400       410     1,950
      26       Tax incentives for preservation of historic structures..       180       200       210       220       230       240       250     1,150
 
             Agriculture:
      27       Expensing of certain capital outlays....................       170       170       170       170       170       170       170       850
      28       Expensing of certain multiperiod production costs.......       120       130       130       130       120       120       120       620
      29       Treatment of loans forgiven for solvent farmers.........        10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
      30       Capital gains treatment of certain income...............       990     1,040     1,100     1,160     1,220     1,290     1,360     6,130
      31       Income averaging for farmers............................        70        70        70        70        80        80        80       380
      32       Deferral of gain on sale of farm refiners...............        10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
 
             Commerce and housing:
               Financial institutions and insurance:
      33        Exemption of credit union income.......................     1,000     1,070     1,150     1,230     1,320     1,420     1,530     6,650
      34        Excess bad debt reserves of financial institutions.....        60        50        30        20        10         0         0        60
      35        Exclusion of interest on life insurance savings........    16,290    17,710    19,250    20,940    22,780    24,790    26,930   114,690
      36        Special alternative tax on small property and casualty         10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
                 insurance companies...................................
      37        Tax exemption of certain insurance companies owned by         220       230       250       260       280       290       300     1,380
                 tax-exempt organizations..............................
      38        Small life insurance company deduction.................       100       100       100       100       100       100       100       500
               Housing:
      39        Exclusion of interest on owner-occupied mortgage              800       830       870       960     1,050     1,140     1,240     5,260
                 subsidy bonds.........................................
      40        Exclusion of interest on rental housing bonds..........       160       170       180       200       220       240       260     1,100
      41        Deductibility of mortgage interest on owner-occupied       64,510    64,190    66,110    68,070    70,870    73,560    76,870   355,480
                 homes.................................................
      42        Deductibility of State and local property tax on owner-    22,410    22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                 occupied homes........................................
      43        Deferral of income from post 1987 installment sales....     1,040     1,050     1,080     1,100     1,120     1,140     1,160     5,600
      44        Capital gains exclusion on home sales..................    19,090    19,670    20,260    20,860    21,490    22,140    22,800   107,550
      45        Exception from passive loss rules for $25,000 of rental     4,800     4,400     4,070     3,780     3,530     3,290     3,090    17,760
                 loss..................................................
      46        Credit for low-income housing investments..............     3,220     3,330     3,460     3,630     3,810     3,980     4,130    19,010
      47        Accelerated depreciation on rental housing (normal tax      5,190     5,440     5,710     5,790     5,800     5,720     5,800    28,820
                 method)...............................................
               Commerce:
      48        Cancellation of indebtedness...........................        30        30        30        40        40        40        40       190
      49        Exceptions from imputed interest rules.................        80        80        80        80        80        80        80       400
      50        Capital gains (except agriculture, timber, iron ore,       67,800    61,810    60,200    56,990    56,180    50,670    49,880   273,920
                 and coal) (normal tax method).........................
      51        Capital gains exclusion of small corporation stock.....        70       100       130       160       210       250       300     1,050
      52        Step-up basis of capital gains at death................    26,540    27,610    28,710    29,860    31,050    32,300    33,590   155,510
      53        Carryover basis of capital gains on gifts..............       530       600       680       760       900     1,080     1,130     4,550
      54        Ordinary income treatment of loss from small business          40        40        40        50        50        50        50       240
                 corporation stock sale................................
      55        Accelerated depreciation of buildings other than rental     4,540     4,560     4,240     3,960     3,800     4,160     4,880    21,040
                 housing (normal tax method)...........................

[[Page 100]]

 
      56        Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment        37,860    37,130    36,480    36,790    37,430    38,520    40,930   190,150
                 (normal tax method)...................................
      57        Expensing of certain small investments (normal tax          1,670     1,430     1,420     1,390     1,360     1,480     1,720     7,370
                 method)...............................................
      58        Amortization of start-up costs (normal tax method).....       130       160       200       240       250       270       270     1,230
      59        Graduated corporation income tax rate (normal tax           4,940     5,590     6,210     6,580     7,120     7,450     7,880    35,240
                 method)...............................................
      60        Exclusion of interest on small issue bonds.............       310       310       330       360       390       430       470     1,980
 
             Transportation:
      61       Deferral of tax on shipping companies...................        20        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
      62       Exclusion of reimbursed employee parking expenses.......     1,980     2,090     2,190     2,300     2,420     2,550     2,670    12,130
      63       Exclusion for employer-provided transit passes..........       220       280       360       410       470       540       600     2,380
 
             Community and regional development:
      64       Investment credit for rehabilitation of structures              30        30        30        30        30        30        30       150
                (other than historic)..................................
      65       Exclusion of interest for airport, dock, and similar           630       640       680       750       820       890       980     4,120
                bonds..................................................
      66       Exemption of certain mutuals' and cooperatives' income..        60        60        60        60        70        70        70       330
      67       Empowerment zones, Enterprise communities, and Renewal         380       730     1,130     1,170     1,280     1,410     1,580     6,570
                communities............................................
      68       New markets tax credit..................................        10        90       190       290       430       610       830     2,350
      69       Expensing of environmental remediation costs............        80       100       100        20       -20       -10       -10        80
 
             Education, training, employment, and social services:
               Education:
      70        Exclusion of scholarship and fellowship income (normal      1,210     1,200     1,210     1,240     1,330     1,380     1,390     6,550
                 tax method)...........................................
      71        HOPE tax credit........................................     4,130     4,110     3,520     2,880     2,930     2,730     2,900    14,960
      72        Lifetime Learning tax credit...........................     2,370     2,290     2,360     3,140     2,980     2,740     2,960    14,180
      73        Education Individual Retirement Accounts...............        30        50        80       130       220       330       470     1,230
      74        Deductibility of student-loan interest.................       390       450       640       660       680       700       720     3,400
      75        Deduction for higher education expenses................         0       430     2,290     2,960     3,710     3,010         0    11,970
      76        State prepaid tuition plans............................       190       270       340       400       460       530       590     2,320
      77        Exclusion of interest on student-loan bonds............       230       230       240       260       290       310       350     1,450
      78        Exclusion of interest on bonds for private nonprofit          540       550       580       640       700       760       830     3,510
                 educational facilities................................
      79        Credit for holders of zone academy bonds...............        30        50        70        80        90        90        90       420
      80        Exclusion of interest on savings bonds redeemed to             10        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                 finance educational expenses..........................
      81        Parental personal exemption for students age 19 or over     1,010     1,070     1,120     1,170     1,230     1,280     1,340     6,140
      82        Deductibility of charitable contributions (education)..     3,830     3,980     4,200     4,440     4,600     4,840     5,030    23,110
      83        Exclusion of employer-provided educational assistance..       260       410       500       530       560       590       620     2,800
               Training, employment, and social services:
      84        Work opportunity tax credit............................       300       230       140        60        30        10         0       240
      85        Welfare-to-work tax credit.............................        90        70        40        20        10         0         0        70
      86        Employer provided child care exclusion.................       720       740       770       810       930     1,020     1,080     4,610
      87        Employer-provided child care credit....................         0        40        90       130       150       150       160       680
      88        Assistance for adopted foster children.................       190       220       250       260       270       280       290     1,350
      89        Adoption credit and exclusion..........................       130       140       220       450       500       540       560     2,270
      90        Exclusion of employee meals and lodging (other than           710       740       780       810       850       890       930     4,260
                 military).............................................
      91        Child credit \2\.......................................    19,840    19,760    19,680    19,550    20,550    21,530    21,240   102,550
      92        Credit for child and dependent care expenses...........     2,670     2,610     2,670     2,960     2,700     2,150     1,920    12,400
      93        Credit for disabled access expenditures................        50        50        50        50        60        60        60       280
      94        Deductibility of charitable contributions, other than      30,150    30,810    32,080    33,830    35,190    36,890    38,290   176,280
                 education and health..................................
      95        Exclusion of certain foster care payments..............       500       510       520       530       540       570       610     2,770
      96        Exclusion of parsonage allowances......................       350       370       400       420       450       470       490     2,230
 
             Health:
      97       Exclusion of employer contributions for medical             82,800    90,910    99,260   106,940   115,380   124,050   134,960   580,590
                insurance premiums and medical care....................
      98       Self-employed medical insurance premiums................     1,520     1,730     2,420     3,570     3,870     4,170     4,430    18,460
      99       Workers' compensation insurance premiums................     4,730     4,870     5,080     5,230     5,410     5,570     5,790    27,080
     100       Medical Savings Accounts................................        20        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
     101       Deductibility of medical expenses.......................     4,990     5,260     5,530     5,840     6,280     6,600     7,100    31,350
     102       Exclusion of interest on hospital construction bonds....     1,100     1,130     1,190     1,310     1,440     1,570     1,700     7,210
     103       Deductibility of charitable contributions (health)......     4,010     4,180     4,420     4,690     4,850     5,100     5,320    24,380
     104       Tax credit for orphan drug research.....................       140       150       170       190       220       240       270     1,090
     105       Special Blue Cross/Blue Shield deduction................       270       300       340       310       300       270       300     1,520
 
             Income security:
     106       Exclusion of railroad retirement system benefits........       380       390       400       400       400       400       400     2,000
     107       Exclusion of workers' compensation benefits.............     5,560     5,810     6,070     6,320     6,600     6,900     7,200    33,090
     108       Exclusion of public assistance benefits (normal tax            370       380       400       410       430       450       470     2,160
                method)................................................
     109       Exclusion of special benefits for disabled coal miners..        70        70        60        60        60        50        50       280
     110       Exclusion of military disability pensions...............       110       120       120       120       130       130       140       640
               Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings:
     111        Employer plans.........................................    42,070    48,070    53,080    54,500    55,630    58,980    63,320   285,510
     112        401(k) plans...........................................    44,080    52,960    59,510    62,770    65,290    69,230    73,320   330,120

[[Page 101]]

 
     113        Individual Retirement Accounts.........................    18,680    18,090    18,660    19,050    18,930    19,230    18,330    94,200
     114        Low and moderate income savers credit..................         0       550     1,960     1,940     1,900     1,800     1,280     8,880
     115        Keogh plans............................................     6,160     6,520     6,770     7,040     7,250     7,490     7,730    36,280
               Exclusion of other employee benefits:
     116        Premiums on group term life insurance..................     1,750     1,780     1,800     1,830     1,860     1,890     1,920     9,300
     117        Premiums on accident and disability insurance..........       210       220       230       240       250       260       270     1,250
     118        Small business retirement plan credit..................         0        20        50        90       120       130       150       540
     119        Income of trusts to finance supplementary unemployment         20        20        30        30        30        30        30       150
                 benefits..............................................
     120        Special ESOP rules.....................................     1,290     1,340     1,420     1,490     1,570     1,640     1,730     7,850
     121        Additional deduction for the blind.....................        40        40        40        40        40        40        40       200
     122        Additional deduction for the elderly...................     1,970     1,890     1,950     2,060     2,100     2,150     2,050    10,310
     123        Tax credit for the elderly and disabled................        30        30        30        30        30        30        30       150
     124        Deductibility of casualty losses.......................       210       250       310       360       410       450       490     2,020
     125        Earned income tax credit \3\...........................     4,940     4,370     4,800     4,930     5,100     5,180     5,390    25,400
 
             Social Security:
               Exclusion of social security benefits:
     126        Social Security benefits for retired workers...........    17,830    18,000    18,180    18,560    18,850    19,720    20,890    96,200
     127        Social Security benefits for disabled..................     2,690     2,930     3,240     3,630     4,020     4,470     5,020    20,380
     128        Social Security benefits for dependents and survivors..     3,720     3,870     4,060     4,320     4,560     4,820     5,170    22,930
 
             Veterans benefits and services:
     129       Exclusion of veterans death benefits and disability          3,150     3,190     3,300     3,490     3,680     3,870     4,080    18,420
                compensation...........................................
     130       Exclusion of veterans pensions..........................        70        80        80        80        90        90       100       440
     131       Exclusion of GI bill benefits...........................        90        90        90       100       100       110       110       510
     132       Exclusion of interest on veterans housing bonds.........        40        40        40        40        50        50        60       240
 
             General purpose fiscal assistance:
     133       Exclusion of interest on public purpose State and local     23,100    23,680    24,270    24,880    25,500    26,140    26,800   127,590
                bonds..................................................
     134       Deductibility of nonbusiness state and local taxes other    45,520    46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                than on owner-occupied homes...........................
     135       Tax credit for corporations receiving income from doing      2,190     2,240     2,240     2,240     2,200     1,300         0     7,980
                business in U.S. possessions...........................
 
             Interest:
     136       Deferral of interest on U.S. savings bonds..............       290       300       310       330       330       350       360     1,680
 
             Addendum: Aid to State and local governments:
               Deductibility of:
                Property taxes on owner-occupied homes.................    22,410    22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                Nonbusiness State and local taxes other than on owner-     45,520    46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                 occupied homes........................................
               Exclusion of interest on State and local bonds for:
                Public purposes........................................    23,100    23,680    24,270    24,880    25,500    26,140    26,800   127,590
                Energy facilities......................................        90        90       100       120       130       140       150       640
                Water, sewage, and hazardous waste disposal facilities.       400       420       440       480       530       580       630     2,660
                Small-issues...........................................       310       310       330       360       390       430       470     1,980
                Owner-occupied mortgage subsidies......................       800       830       870       960     1,050     1,140     1,240     5,260
                Rental housing.........................................       160       170       180       200       220       240       260     1,100
                Airports, docks, and similar facilities................       630       640       680       750       820       890       980     4,120
                Student loans..........................................       230       230       240       260       290       310       350     1,450
                Private nonprofit educational facilities...............       540       550       580       640       700       760       830     3,510
                Hospital construction..................................     1,100     1,130     1,190     1,310     1,440     1,570     1,700     7,210
                Veterans' housing......................................        40        40        40        40        50        50        60       240
               Credit for holders of zone academy bonds................        30        50        70        80        90        90        90       420
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The determination of whether a provision is a tax expenditure is made on the basis of a broad concept of ``income'' that is larger in scope than is
  ``income'' as defined under general U.S. income tax principles. For tax reasons, the tax expenditure estimates include, for example, estimates related
  to the exclusion of extraterritorial income, as well as other exclusions, notwithstanding that such exclusions define income under the general rule of
  U.S. income taxation.
\2\ In addition, the partial exemption from the excise tax for alcohol fuels results in a reduction in excise tax receipts (in millions of dollars) as
  follows: 2001 $990; 2002 $1,020; 2003 $1,050; 2004 $1,080; 2005 $1,080; 2006 $1,100; and 2007 $1,120.
\3\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the child tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of dollars) is as
  follows: 2001 $980; 2002 $7,390; 2003 $7,390; 2004 $7,210; 2005 $6,950; 2006 $9,380; and 2007 $9,200.
\4\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the earned income tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of
  dollars) is as follows: 2001 $26,120; 2002 $28,280; 2003 $30,630; 2004 $31,080; 2005 $31,720; 2006 $33,130; and 2007 $34,090.
Note: Provisions with estimates denoted normal tax method have no revenue loss under the reference tax law method. All estimates have been rounded to
  the nearest $10 million. Provisions with estimates that rounded to zero in each year are not included in the table.


[[Page 102]]


                                                                              Table 6-2.  CORPORATE AND INDIVIDUAL INCOME TAX ESTIMATES OF TAX EXPENDITURES
                                                                                                        (In millions of dollars)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                 Corporations                                                                Individuals
                                                                                  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                                    2003-                                                                         2003-
                                                                                     2001     2002     2003     2004     2005     2006     2007     2007      2001     2002     2003      2004      2005      2006      2007      2007
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
             National Defense
       1       Exclusion of benefits and allowances to armed forces personnel....  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    2,160    2,190     2,210     2,240     2,260     2,290     2,310    11,310
 
             International affairs:
       2       Exclusion of income earned abroad by U.S. citizens................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    2,450    2,540     2,660     2,690     2,760     2,810     3,170    14,090
       3       Exclusion of certain allowances for Federal employees abroad......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      760      800       840       880       920       960     1,020     4,620
       4       Extraterritorial income exclusion.................................    4,490    4,820    5,150    5,510    5,890    6,290    6,730    29,570  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
       5       Inventory property sales source rules exception...................    1,400    1,470    1,540    1,620    1,700    1,790    1,880     8,530  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
       6       Deferral of income from controlled foreign corporations (normal       6,600    7,000    7,450    7,900    8,400    8,930    9,550    42,230  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
                tax method)......................................................
       7       Deferred taxes for financial firms on certain income earned           1,300      550  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......         0  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
                overseas.........................................................
 
             General science, space, and technology:
       8       Expensing of research and experimentation expenditures (normal tax    1,980    1,750    2,330    2,820    3,330    3,830    4,080    16,390       40       30        50        60        70        80        80       340
                method)..........................................................
       9       Credit for increasing research activities.........................    5,310    5,950    4,540    3,980    2,310      990      410    12,240       60       60        50        40        20  ........  ........       110
 
             Energy:
      10       Expensing of exploration and development costs, fuels.............       40       50       60       70       70       80       80       360       10       10        10        20        20        20        20        90
      11       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, fuels...................      220      230      240      250      260      270      280     1,300       30       30        30        40        40        40        40       190
      12       Alternative fuel production credit................................      860      810      390      120      120      120      120       870       40       40        20        10        10        10        10        60
      13       Exception from passive loss limitation for working interests in     .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       20       20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                oil and gas properties...........................................
      14       Capital gains treatment of royalties on coal......................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      100      100       110       120       120       130       140       620
      15       Exclusion of interest on energy facility bonds....................       20       20       20       30       30       30       30       140       70       70        80        90       100       110       120       500
      16       Enhanced oil recovery credit......................................      280      330      400      480      580      690      830     2,980       30       30        40        50        60        70        80       300
      17       New technology credit.............................................       60       80      100      100      100       90       90       480  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      18       Alcohol fuel credits \1\..........................................       20       20       20       20       20       20       20       100       10       10        10        10        10        10        10        50
      19       Tax credit and deduction for clean-fuel burning vehicles..........       30       30       20        0      -20      -40      -40       -80       20       20        30        20        10       -10       -10        40
      20       Exclusion from income of conservation subsidies provided by public  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       70       70        70        70        70        70        60       340
                utilities........................................................
 
             Natural resources and environment:
      21       Expensing of exploration and development costs, nonfuel minerals..       10       10       10       10       10       10       10        50  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      22       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, nonfuel minerals........      240      250      260      270      280      280      290     1,380       10       10        10        20        20        20        20        90
      23       Exclusion of interest on bonds for water, sewage, and hazardous         100      110      110      110      110      120      120       570      300      310       330       370       420       460       510     2,090
                waste facilities.................................................
      24       Capital gains treatment of certain timber income..................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      100      100       110       120       120       130       140       620
      25       Expensing of multiperiod timber growing costs.....................      240      240      250      260      260      270      280     1,320      120      120       120       120       130       130       130       630
      26       Tax incentives for preservation of historic structures............      170      180      190      200      210      220      230     1,050       10       20        20        20        20        20        20       100
 
             Agriculture:
      27       Expensing of certain capital outlays..............................       20       20       20       20       20       20       20       100      150      150       150       150       150       150       150       750
      28       Expensing of certain multiperiod production costs.................       10       20       20       20       20       20       20       100      110      110       110       110       100       100       100       520
      29       Treatment of loans forgiven for solvent farmers...................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       10       10        10        10        10        10        10        50
      30       Capital gains treatment of certain income.........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      990    1,040     1,100     1,160     1,220     1,290     1,360     6,130
      31       Income averaging for farmers......................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       70       70        70        70        80        80        80       380
      32       Deferral of gain on sale of farm refiners.........................       10       10       10       10       10       10       10        50  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
 

[[Page 103]]

 
             Commerce and housing:
               Financial institutions and insurance:
      33        Exemption of credit union income.................................    1,000    1,070    1,150    1,230    1,320    1,420    1,530     6,650  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      34        Excess bad debt reserves of financial institutions...............       60       50       30       20       10        0        0        60  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      35        Exclusion of interest on life insurance savings..................    1,650    1,770    1,890    2,020    2,160    2,280    2,490    10,840   14,640   15,940    17,360    18,920    20,620    22,510    24,440   103,850
      36        Special alternative tax on small property and casualty insurance        10       10       10       10       10       10       10        50  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
                 companies.......................................................
      37        Tax exemption of certain insurance companies owned by tax-exempt       220      230      250      260      280      290      300     1,380  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
                 organizations...................................................
      38        Small life insurance company deduction...........................      100      100      100      100      100      100      100       500  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
               Housing:
      39        Exclusion of interest on owner-occupied mortgage subsidy bonds...      200      210      210      220      230      230      240     1,130      600      620       660       740       820       910     1,000     4,130
      40        Exclusion of interest on rental housing bonds....................       40       40       40       50       50       50       50       240      120      130       140       150       170       190       210       860
      41        Deductibility of mortgage interest on owner-occupied homes.......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   64,510   64,190    66,110    68,070    70,870    73,560    76,870   355,480
      42        Deductibility of State and local property tax on owner-occupied    .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   22,410   22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                 homes...........................................................
      43        Deferral of income from post 1987 installment sales..............      270      270      280      290      290      300      300     1,460      770      780       800       810       830       840       860     4,140
      44        Capital gains exclusion on home sales............................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   19,090   19,670    20,260    20,860    21,490    22,140    22,800   107,550
      45        Exception from passive loss rules for $25,000 of rental loss.....  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    4,800    4,400     4,070     3,780     3,530     3,290     3,090    17,760
      46        Credit for low-income housing investments........................    2,420    2,500    2,600    2,730    2,860    2,990    3,100    14,280      800      830       860       900       950       990     1,030     4,730
      47        Accelerated depreciation on rental housing (normal tax method)...      390      410      440      450      460      470      480     2,300    4,800    5,030     5,270     5,340     5,340     5,250     5,320    26,520
               Commerce:
      48        Cancellation of indebtedness.....................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       30       30        30        40        40        40        40       190
      49        Exceptions from imputed interest rules...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       80       80        80        80        80        80        80       400
      50        Capital gains (except agriculture, timber, iron ore, and coal)     .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   67,800   61,810    60,200    56,990    56,180    50,670    49,880   273,920
                 (normal tax method).............................................
      51        Capital gains exclusion of small corporation stock...............  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       70      100       130       160       210       250       300     1,050
      52        Step-up basis of capital gains at death..........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   26,540   27,610    28,710    29,860    31,050    32,300    33,590   155,510
      53        Carryover basis of capital gains on gifts........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      530      600       680       760       900     1,080     1,130     4,550
      54        Ordinary income treatment of loss from small business corporation  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       40       40        40        50        50        50        50       240
                 stock sale......................................................
      55        Accelerated depreciation of buildings other than rental housing      2,690    2,620    2,450    2,180    1,990    2,050    2,310    10,980    1,850    1,940     1,790     1,780     1,810     2,110     2,570    10,060
                 (normal tax method).............................................
      56        Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment (normal tax     30,750   30,220   29,750   30,200   30,860   31,970   34,070   156,850    7,110    6,910     6,730     6,590     6,570     6,550     6,860    33,300
                 method).........................................................
      57        Expensing of certain small investments (normal tax method).......      530      470      460      460      450      490      570     2,430    1,140      960       960       930       910       990     1,150     4,940
      58        Amortization of start-up costs (normal tax method)...............       90      110      140      160      170      180      180       830       40       50        60        80        80        90        90       400
      59        Graduated corporation income tax rate (normal tax method)........    4,940    5,590    6,210    6,580    7,120    7,450    7,880    35,240  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      60        Exclusion of interest on small issue bonds.......................       80       80       80       80       80       90       90       420      230      230       250       280       310       340       380     1,560
 
             Transportation:
      61       Deferral of tax on shipping companies.............................       20       20       20       20       20       20       20       100  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........

[[Page 104]]

 
      62       Exclusion of reimbursed employee parking expenses.................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,980    2,090     2,190     2,300     2,420     2,550     2,670    12,130
      63       Exclusion for employer-provided transit passes....................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      220      280       360       410       470       540       600     2,380
 
             Community and regional development:
      64       Investment credit for rehabilitation of structures (other than           20       20       20       20       20       20       20       100       10       10        10        10        10        10        10        50
                historic)........................................................
      65       Exclusion of interest for airport, dock, and similar bonds........      160      160      170      170      180      180      190       890      470      480       510       580       640       710       790     3,230
      66       Exemption of certain mutuals' and cooperatives' income............       60       60       60       60       70       70       70       330  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      67       Empowerment zones, Enterprise communities, and Renewal communities      100      220      300      300      320      350      390     1,660      280      510       830       870       960     1,060     1,190     4,910
      68       New markets tax credit............................................        0       20       50       70      110      150      210       590       10       70       140       220       320       460       620     1,760
      69       Expensing of environmental remediation costs......................       70       80       80       20      -20      -10      -10        60       10       20        20  ........  ........  ........  ........        20
 
             Education, training, employment, and social services:
               Education:
      70        Exclusion of scholarship and fellowship income (normal tax         .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,210    1,200     1,210     1,240     1,330     1,380     1,390     6,550
                 method).........................................................
      71        HOPE tax credit..................................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    4,130    4,110     3,520     2,880     2,930     2,730     2,900    14,960
      72        Lifetime Learning tax credit.....................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    2,370    2,290     2,360     3,140     2,980     2,740     2,960    14,180
      73        Education Individual Retirement Accounts.........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       30       50        80       130       220       330       470     1,230
      74        Deductibility of student-loan interest...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      390      450       640       660       680       700       720     3,400
      75        Deduction for higher education expenses..........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........        0      430     2,290     2,960     3,710     3,010         0    11,970
      76        State prepaid tuition plans......................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      190      270       340       400       460       530       590     2,320
      77        Exclusion of interest on student-loan bonds......................       60       60       60       60       60       60       70       310      170      170       180       200       230       250       280     1,140
      78        Exclusion of interest on bonds for private nonprofit educational       140      140      140      150      150      150      160       750      400      410       440       490       550       610       670     2,760
                 facilities......................................................
      79        Credit for holders of zone academy bonds.........................       30       50       70       80       90       90       90       420  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      80        Exclusion of interest on savings bonds redeemed to finance         .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       10       20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                 educational expenses............................................
      81        Parental personal exemption for students age 19 or over..........  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,010    1,070     1,120     1,170     1,230     1,280     1,340     6,140
      82        Deductibility of charitable contributions (education)............      590      680      770      830      840      900      950     4,290    3,240    3,300     3,430     3,610     3,760     3,940     4,080    18,820
      83        Exclusion of employer-provided educational assistance............  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      260      410       500       530       560       590       620     2,800
               Training, employment, and social services:
      84        Work opportunity tax credit......................................      260      190      120       50       20       10        0       200       40       40        20        10        10         0         0        40
      85        Welfare-to-work tax credit.......................................       80       60       30       20       10        0        0        60       10       10        10         0         0         0         0        10
      86        Employer provided child care exclusion...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      720      740       770       810       930     1,020     1,080     4,610
      87        Employer-provided child care credit..............................        0       40       90      130      150      150      160       680  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
      88        Assistance for adopted foster children...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      190      220       250       260       270       280       290     1,350
      89        Adoption credit and exclusion....................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      130      140       220       450       500       540       560     2,270
      90        Exclusion of employee meals and lodging (other than military)....  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      710      740       780       810       850       890       930     4,260
      91        Child credit \2\.................................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   19,840   19,760    19,680    19,550    20,550    21,530    21,240   102,550
      92        Credit for child and dependent care expenses.....................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    2,670    2,610     2,670     2,960     2,700     2,150     1,920    12,400
      93        Credit for disabled access expenditures..........................       10       10       10       10       20       20       20        80       40       40        40        40        40        40        40       200
      94        Deductibility of charitable contributions, other than education        730      850      950    1,040    1,040    1,110    1,180     5,320   29,420   29,960    31,130    32,790    34,150    35,780    37,110   170,960
                 and health......................................................
      95        Exclusion of certain foster care payments........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      500      510       520       530       540       570       610     2,770

[[Page 105]]

 
      96        Exclusion of parsonage allowances................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      350      370       400       420       450       470       490     2,230
 
             Health:
      97       Exclusion of employer contributions for medical insurance premiums  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   82,800   90,910    99,260   106,940   115,380   124,050   134,960   580,590
                and medical care.................................................
      98       Self-employed medical insurance premiums..........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,520    1,730     2,420     3,570     3,870     4,170     4,430    18,460
      99       Workers' compensation insurance premiums..........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    4,730    4,870     5,080     5,230     5,410     5,570     5,790    27,080
     100       Medical Savings Accounts..........................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       20       20        20        20        20        20        20       100
     101       Deductibility of medical expenses.................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    4,990    5,260     5,530     5,840     6,280     6,600     7,100    31,350
     102       Exclusion of interest on hospital construction bonds..............      280      290      290      300      310      320      320     1,540      820      840       900     1,010     1,130     1,250     1,380     5,670
     103       Deductibility of charitable contributions (health)................      710      820      920    1,010    1,010    1,080    1,150     5,170    3,300    3,360     3,500     3,680     3,840     4,020     4,170    19,210
     104       Tax credit for orphan drug research...............................      140      150      170      190      220      240      270     1,090  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
     105       Special Blue Cross/Blue Shield deduction..........................      270      300      340      310      300      270      300     1,520  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
 
             Income security:
     106       Exclusion of railroad retirement system benefits..................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      380      390       400       400       400       400       400     2,000
     107       Exclusion of workers' compensation benefits.......................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    5,560    5,810     6,070     6,320     6,600     6,900     7,200    33,090
     108       Exclusion of public assistance benefits (normal tax method).......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      370      380       400       410       430       450       470     2,160
     109       Exclusion of special benefits for disabled coal miners............  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       70       70        60        60        60        50        50       280
     110       Exclusion of military disability pensions.........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      110      120       120       120       130       130       140       640
               Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings:
     111        Employer plans...................................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   42,070   48,070    53,080    54,500    55,630    58,980    63,320   285,510
     112        401(k) plans.....................................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   44,080   52,960    59,510    62,770    65,290    69,230    73,320   330,120
     113        Individual Retirement Accounts...................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   18,680   18,090    18,660    19,050    18,930    19,230    18,330    94,200
     114        Low and moderate income savers credit............................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........        0      550     1,960     1,940     1,900     1,800     1,280     8,880
     115        Keogh plans......................................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    6,160    6,520     6,770     7,040     7,250     7,490     7,730    36,280
               Exclusion of other employee benefits:
     116        Premiums on group term life insurance............................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,750    1,780     1,800     1,830     1,860     1,890     1,920     9,300
     117        Premiums on accident and disability insurance....................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      210      220       230       240       250       260       270     1,250
     118       Small business retirement plan credit.............................        0       10       30       50       70       80       90       320        0       10        20        40        50        50        60       220
     119       Income of trusts to finance supplementary unemployment benefits...       20       20       30       30       30       30       30       150  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
     120       Special ESOP rules................................................      980    1,020    1,080    1,140    1,200    1,260    1,330     6,010      310      320       340       350       370       380       400     1,840
     121       Additional deduction for the blind................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       40       40        40        40        40        40        40       200
     122       Additional deduction for the elderly..............................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    1,970    1,890     1,950     2,060     2,100     2,150     2,050    10,310
     123       Tax credit for the elderly and disabled...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       30       30        30        30        30        30        30       150
     124       Deductibility of casualty losses..................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      210      250       310       360       410       450       490     2,020
     125       Earned income tax credit \3\......................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    4,940    4,370     4,800     4,930     5,100     5,180     5,390    25,400
 
             Social Security:
               Exclusion of social security benefits:
     126        Social Security benefits for retired workers.....................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   17,830   18,000    18,180    18,560    18,850    19,720    20,890    96,200
     127        Social Security benefits for disabled............................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    2,690    2,930     3,240     3,630     4,020     4,470     5,020    20,380
     128        Social Security benefits for dependents and survivors............  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    3,720    3,870     4,060     4,320     4,560     4,820     5,170    22,930
 
             Veterans benefits and services:
     129       Exclusion of veterans death benefits and disability compensation..  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........    3,150    3,190     3,300     3,490     3,680     3,870     4,080    18,420
     130       Exclusion of veterans pensions....................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       70       80        80        80        90        90       100       440
     131       Exclusion of GI bill benefits.....................................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........       90       90        90       100       100       110       110       510
     132       Exclusion of interest on veterans housing bonds...................       10       10       10       10       10       10       10        50       30       30        30        30        40        40        50       190
 

[[Page 106]]

 
             General purpose fiscal assistance:
     133       Exclusion of interest on public purpose State and local bonds.....    5,860    6,010    6,160    6,310    6,470    6,630    6,800    32,370   17,240   17,670    18,110    18,570    19,030    19,510    20,000    95,220
     134       Deductibility of nonbusiness state and local taxes other than on    .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   45,520   46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                owner-occupied homes.............................................
     135       Tax credit for corporations receiving income from doing business      2,190    2,240    2,240    2,240    2,200    1,300        0     7,980  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
                in U.S. possessions..............................................
 
             Interest:
     136       Deferral of interest on U.S. savings bonds........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........      290      300       310       330       330       350       360     1,680
 
             Addendum: Aid to State and local governments:
               Deductibility of:
                Property taxes on owner-occupied homes...........................  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   22,410   22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                Nonbusiness State and local taxes other than on owner-occupied     .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  .......  ........   45,520   46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                 homes...........................................................
               Exclusion of interest on State and local bonds for:
                Public purposes..................................................    5,860    6,010    6,160    6,310    6,470    6,630    6,800    32,370   17,240   17,670    18,110    18,570    19,030    19,510    20,000    95,220
                Energy facilities................................................       20       20       20       30       30       30       30       140       70       70        80        90       100       110       120       500
                Water, sewage, and hazardous waste disposal facilities...........      100      110      110      110      110      120      120       570      300      310       330       370       420       460       510     2,090
                Small-issues.....................................................       80       80       80       80       80       90       90       420      230      230       250       280       310       340       380     1,560
                Owner-occupied mortgage subsidies................................      200      210      210      220      230      230      240     1,130      600      620       660       740       820       910     1,000     4,130
                Rental housing...................................................       40       40       40       50       50       50       50       240      120      130       140       150       170       190       210       860
                Airports, docks, and similar facilities..........................      160      160      170      170      180      180      190       890      470      480       510       580       640       710       790     3,230
                Student loans....................................................       60       60       60       60       60       60       70       310      170      170       180       200       230       250       280     1,140
                Private nonprofit educational facilities.........................      140      140      140      150      150      150      160       750      400      410       440       490       550       610       670     2,760
                Hospital construction............................................      280      290      290      300      310      320      320     1,540      820      840       900     1,010     1,130     1,250     1,380     5,670
                Veterans' housing................................................       10       10       10       10       10       10       10        50       30       30        30        30        40        40        50       190
               Credit for holders of zone academy bonds..........................       30       50       70       80       90       90       90       420  .......  .......  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The determination of whether a provision is a tax expenditure is made on the basis of a broad concept of ``income'' that is larger in scope than is ``income'' as defined under general U.S. income tax principles. For tax reasons,
  the tax expenditure estimates include, for example, estimates related to the exclusion of extraterritorial income, as well as other exclusions, notwithstanding that such exclusions define income under the general rule of U.S.
  income taxation.
\2\ In addition, the partial exemption from the excise tax for alcohol fuels results in a reduction in excise tax receipts (in millions of dollars) as follows: 2001 $990; 2002 $1,020; 2003 $1,050; 2004 $1,080; 2005 $1,080; 2006
  $1,100; and 2007 $1,120.
\3\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the child tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of dollars) is as follows: 2001 $980; 2002 $7,390; 2003 $7,390; 2004 $7,210; 2005 $6,950; 2006
  $9,380; and 2007 $9,200.
\4\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the earned income tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of dollars) is as follows: 2001 $26,120; 2002 $28,280; 2003 $30,630; 2004 $31,080; 2005
  $31,720; 2006 $33,130; and 2007 $34,090.
 
Note: Provisions with estimates denoted normal tax method have no revenue loss under the reference tax law method. All estimates have been rounded to the nearest $10 million. Provisions with estimates that rounded to zero in each
  year are not included in the table.


[[Page 107]]


                Table 6-3.  INCOME TAX EXPENDITURES RANKED BY TOTAL 2003 PROJECTED REVENUE EFFECT
                                            (In millions of dollars)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    Provision                                         2003          2003-2007
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exclusion of employer contributions for medical insurance premiums and medical      99,260          580,590
 care.........................................................................
Deductibility of mortgage interest on owner-occupied homes....................      66,110          355,480
Capital gains (except agriculture, timber, iron ore, and coal) (normal tax          60,200          273,920
 method)......................................................................
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: 401(k) plans.............      59,510          330,120
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Employer plans...........      53,080          285,510
Deductibility of nonbusiness state and local taxes other than on owner-             48,150          204,860
 occupied homes...............................................................
Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment (normal tax method).......      36,480          190,150
Deductibility of charitable contributions, other than education and health....      32,080          176,280
Step-up basis of capital gains at death.......................................      28,710          155,510
Exclusion of interest on public purpose State and local bonds.................      24,270          127,590
Deductibility of State and local property tax on owner-occupied homes.........      23,580           97,830
Capital gains exclusion on home sales.........................................      20,260          107,550
Child credit..................................................................      19,680          102,550
Exclusion of interest on life insurance savings...............................      19,250          114,690
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Individual Retirement          18,660           94,200
 Accounts.....................................................................
Exclusion of Social Security benefits for retired workers.....................      18,180           96,200
Deferral of income from controlled foreign corporations (normal tax method)...       7,450           42,230
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Keogh plans..............       6,770           36,280
Graduated corporation income tax rate (normal tax method).....................       6,210           35,240
Exclusion of workers' compensation benefits...................................       6,070           33,090
Accelerated depreciation on rental housing (normal tax method)................       5,710           28,820
Deductibility of medical expenses.............................................       5,530           31,350
Extraterritorial income exclusion.............................................       5,150           29,570
Workers' compensation insurance premiums......................................       5,080           27,080
Earned income tax credit......................................................       4,800           25,400
Credit for increasing research activities.....................................       4,590           12,350
Deductibility of charitable contributions (health)............................       4,420           24,380
Accelerated depreciation of buildings other than rental housing (normal tax          4,240           21,040
 method)......................................................................
Deductibility of charitable contributions (education).........................       4,200           23,110
Exception from passive loss rules for $25,000 of rental loss..................       4,070           17,760
Exclusion of Social Security benefits for dependents and survivors............       4,060           22,930
HOPE tax credit...............................................................       3,520           14,960
Credit for low-income housing investments.....................................       3,460           19,010
Exclusion of veterans death benefits and disability compensation..............       3,300           18,420
Exclusion of Social Security benefits for disabled............................       3,240           20,380
Credit for child and dependent care expenses..................................       2,670           12,400
Exclusion of income earned abroad by U.S. citizens............................       2,660           14,090
Self-employed medical insurance premiums......................................       2,420           18,460
Expensing of research and experimentation expenditures (normal tax method)....       2,380           16,730
Lifetime Learning tax credit..................................................       2,360           14,180
Deduction for higher education expenses.......................................       2,290           11,970
Tax credit for corporations receiving income from doing business in U.S.             2,240            7,980
 possessions..................................................................
Exclusion of benefits and allowances to armed forces personnel................       2,210           11,310
Exclusion of reimbursed employee parking expenses.............................       2,190           12,130
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Low and moderate income         1,960            8,880
 savers credit................................................................
Additional deduction for the elderly..........................................       1,950           10,310
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Premiums on group term          1,800            9,300
 life insurance...............................................................
Inventory property sales source rules exception...............................       1,540            8,530
Special ESOP rules............................................................       1,420            7,850
Expensing of certain small investments (normal tax method)....................       1,420            7,370
Exclusion of scholarship and fellowship income (normal tax method)............       1,210            6,550
Exclusion of interest on hospital construction bonds..........................       1,190            7,210
Exemption of credit union income..............................................       1,150            6,650
Empowerment zones, Enterprise communities, and Renewal communities............       1,130            6,570
Parental personal exemption for students age 19 or over.......................       1,120            6,140
Capital gains treatment of certain income.....................................       1,100            6,130
Deferral of income from post 1987 installment sales...........................       1,080            5,600
Exclusion of interest on owner-occupied mortgage subsidy bonds................         870            5,260
Exclusion of certain allowances for Federal employees abroad..................         840            4,620
Exclusion of employee meals and lodging (other than military).................         780            4,260
Employer provided child care exclusion........................................         770            4,610
Carryover basis of capital gains on gifts.....................................         680            4,550
Exclusion of interest for airport, dock, and similar bonds....................         680            4,120
Deductibility of student-loan interest........................................         640            3,400
Exclusion of interest on bonds for private nonprofit educational facilities...         580            3,510
Exclusion of certain foster care payments.....................................         520            2,770
Exclusion of employer-provided educational assistance.........................         500            2,800
Enhanced oil recovery credit..................................................         440            3,280
Exclusion of interest on bonds for water, sewage, and hazardous waste                  440            2,660
 facilities...................................................................

[[Page 108]]

 
Alternative fuel production credit............................................         410              930
Exclusion of parsonage allowances.............................................         400            2,230
Exclusion of public assistance benefits (normal tax method)...................         400            2,160
Exclusion of railroad retirement system benefits..............................         400            2,000
Expensing of multiperiod timber growing costs.................................         370            1,950
Exclusion for employer-provided transit passes................................         360            2,380
State prepaid tuition plans...................................................         340            2,320
Special Blue Cross/Blue Shield deduction......................................         340            1,520
Exclusion of interest on small issue bonds....................................         330            1,980
Deductibility of casualty losses..............................................         310            2,020
Deferral of interest on U.S. savings bonds....................................         310            1,680
Excess of percentage over cost depletion, fuels...............................         270            1,490
Excess of percentage over cost depletion, nonfuel minerals....................         270            1,470
Tax exemption of certain insurance companies owned by tax-exempt organizations         250            1,380
Assistance for adopted foster children........................................         250            1,350
Exclusion of interest on student-loan bonds...................................         240            1,450
Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings: Premiums on accident and          230            1,250
 disability insurance.........................................................
Adoption credit and exclusion.................................................         220            2,270
Tax incentives for preservation of historic structures........................         210            1,150
Amortization of start-up costs (normal tax method)............................         200            1,230
New markets tax credit........................................................         190            2,350
Exclusion of interest on rental housing bonds.................................         180            1,100
Tax credit for orphan drug research...........................................         170            1,090
Expensing of certain capital outlays..........................................         170              850
Work opportunity tax credit...................................................         140              240
Capital gains exclusion of small corporation stock............................         130            1,050
Expensing of certain multiperiod production costs.............................         130              620
Exclusion of military disability pensions.....................................         120              640
Capital gains treatment of royalties on coal..................................         110              620
Capital gains treatment of certain timber income..............................         110              620
Exclusion of interest on energy facility bonds................................         100              640
Small life insurance company deduction........................................         100              500
New technology credit.........................................................         100              480
Expensing of environmental remediation costs..................................         100               80
Employer-provided child care credit...........................................          90              590
Exclusion of GI bill benefits.................................................          90              510
Education Individual Retirement Accounts......................................          80            1,230
Exclusion of veterans pensions................................................          80              440
Exceptions from imputed interest rules........................................          80              400
Expensing of exploration and development costs, fuels.........................          70              450
Credit for holders of zone academy bonds......................................          70              420
Income averaging for farmers..................................................          70              380
Exclusion from income of conservation subsidies provided by public utilities..          70              340
Exemption of certain mutuals' and cooperatives' income........................          60              330
Exclusion of special benefits for disabled coal miners........................          60              280
Small business retirement plan credit.........................................          50              540
Credit for disabled access expenditures.......................................          50              280
Tax credit and deduction for clean-fuel burning vehicles......................          50              -40
Ordinary income treatment of loss from small business corporation stock sale..          40              240
Exclusion of interest on veterans housing bonds...............................          40              240
Additional deduction for the blind............................................          40              200
Welfare-to-work tax credit....................................................          40               70
Cancellation of indebtedness..................................................          30              190
Alcohol fuel credits..........................................................          30              150
Investment credit for rehabilitation of structures (other than historic)......          30              150
Income of trusts to finance supplementary unemployment benefits...............          30              150
Tax credit for the elderly and disabled.......................................          30              150
Excess bad debt reserves of financial institutions............................          30               60
Exception from passive loss limitation for working interests in oil and gas             20              100
 properties...................................................................
Deferral of tax on shipping companies.........................................          20              100
Exclusion of interest on savings bonds redeemed to finance educational                  20              100
 expenses.....................................................................
Medical Savings Accounts......................................................          20              100
Expensing of exploration and development costs, nonfuel minerals..............          10               50
Treatment of loans forgiven for solvent farmers...............................          10               50
Deferral of gain on sale of farm refiners.....................................          10               50
Special alternative tax on small property and casualty insurance companies....          10               50
Deferred taxes for financial firms on certain income earned overseas..........           0                0
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


[[Page 109]]


            Table 6-4.  PRESENT VALUE OF SELECTED TAX EXPENDITURES FOR ACTIVITY IN CALENDAR YEAR 2001
                                            (In millions of dollars)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                       Present
                                                   Provision                                          Value of
                                                                                                    Revenue Loss
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
       1     Deferral of income from controlled foreign corporations (normal tax method)..........     6,760
       2     Deferred taxes for financial firms on income earned overseas.........................     1,170
       3     Expensing of research and experimentation expenditures (normal tax method)...........     1,700
       4     Expensing of exploration and development costs - fuels...............................       130
       5     Expensing of exploration and development costs - nonfuels............................         0
       6     Expensing of multiperiod timber growing costs........................................       220
       7     Expensing of certain multiperiod production costs - agriculture......................       230
       8     Expensing of certain capital outlays - agriculture...................................       260
       9     Deferral of income on life insurance and annuity contracts...........................    22,920
      10     Accelerated depreciation of rental housing (normal tax method).......................     4,750
      11     Accelerated depreciation of buildings other than rental housing (normal tax method)..       540
      12     Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment (normal tax method)..............    31,210
      13     Expensing of certain small investments (normal tax method)...........................       990
      14     Amortization of start-up costs (normal tax method)...................................        20
      15     Deferral of tax on shipping companies................................................        20
      16     Credit for holders of zone academy bonds.............................................       120
      17     Credit for low-income housing investments............................................     2,850
      18     Deferral for state prepaid tuition plans.............................................       190
      19     Exclusion of pension contributions - employer plans..................................    97,290
      20     Exclusion of 401(k) contributions....................................................    69,980
      21     Exclusion of IRA contributions and earnings..........................................     6,090
      22     Exclusion of contributions and earnings for Keogh plans..............................     9,780
      23     Exclusion of interest on public-purpose bonds........................................    20,730
      24     Exclusion of interest on non-public purpose bonds....................................     5,560
      25     Deferral of interest on U.S. savings bonds...........................................       330
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                           Outlay Equivalents

  The concept of ``outlay equivalents'' is another theoretical measure 
of the budget effect of tax expenditures. It is the amount of budget 
outlays that would be required to provide the taxpayer the same after-
tax income as would be received through the tax provision. The outlay-
equivalent measure allows the cost of a tax expenditure to be compared 
with a direct Federal outlay on a more even footing. Outlay equivalents 
are reported in Table 6-5.

                                     Table 6-5.  OUTLAY EQUIVALENT ESTIMATES FOR TAX EXPENDITURES IN THE INCOME TAX
                                                                (In millions of dollars)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                        Outlay Equivalents
                                                                        --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           2001      2002      2003      2004      2005      2006      2007    2003-2007
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             National Defense
       1       Exclusion of benefits and allowances to armed forces         2,510     2,540     2,570     2,600     2,620     2,650     2,680    13,120
                personnel..............................................
 
             International affairs:
       2       Exclusion of income earned abroad by U.S. citizens......     3,270     3,380     3,540     3,570     3,670     3,720     4,210    18,710
       3       Exclusion of certain allowances for Federal employees        1,020     1,060     1,130     1,170     1,230     1,270     1,350     6,150
                abroad.................................................
       4       Extraterritorial income exclusion.......................     6,910     7,410     7,930     8,470     9,060     9,680    10,350    45,490
       5       Inventory property sales source rules exception.........     2,150     2,260     2,370     2,490     2,620     2,750     2,890    13,120
       6       Deferral of income from controlled foreign corporations      6,600     7,000     7,450     7,900     8,400     8,930     9,550    42,230
                (normal tax method)....................................
       7       Deferred taxes for financial firms on certain income         1,300       550  ........  ........  ........  ........  ........         0
                earned overseas........................................
             General science, space, and technology:
       8       Expensing of research and experimentation expenditures       2,020     1,780     2,380     2,880     3,400     3,910     4,160    16,730
                (normal tax method)....................................
       9       Credit for increasing research activities...............     8,270     9,240     7,060     6,190     3,580     1,530       640    18,990
             Energy:
      10       Expensing of exploration and development costs, fuels...        80        80       100       120       120       130       130       600
      11       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, fuels.........       290       300       310       320       340       340       360     1,670
      12       Alternative fuel production credit......................     1,210     1,130       540       170       170       170       170     1,220
      13       Exception from passive loss limitation for working              20        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                interests in oil and gas properties....................
      14       Capital gains treatment of royalties on coal............       130       140       150       150       160       170       180       810
      15       Exclusion of interest on energy facility bonds..........       130       130       150       170       180       200       210     1,170
      16       Enhanced oil recovery credit............................       370       440       530       640       770       920     1,110     3,970
      17       New technology credit...................................        90       130       150       150       150       150       150       750
      18       Alcohol fuel credits \1\................................        30        30        30        30        30        30        30       150
      19       Tax credit and deduction for clean-fuel burning vehicles        70        70        70        30       -20       -60       -60       -40
      20       Exclusion from income of conservation subsidies provided        90        90        90        90        90        90        90       450
                by public utilities....................................

[[Page 110]]

 
             Natural resources and environment:
      21       Expensing of exploration and development costs, nonfuel         10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
                minerals...............................................
      22       Excess of percentage over cost depletion, nonfuel              340       360       370       380       380       400       410     1,940
                minerals...............................................
      23       Exclusion of interest on bonds for water, sewage, and          570       600       630       690       760       840       910     3,830
                hazardous waste facilities.............................
      24       Capital gains treatment of certain timber income........       130       140       150       150       160       170       180       810
      25       Expensing of multiperiod timber growing costs...........       460       470       480       500       510       520       540     2,550
      26       Tax incentives for preservation of historic structures..       190       200       210       220       230       240       250     1,150
             Agriculture:
      27       Expensing of certain capital outlays....................       210       210       210       210       210       210       210     1,050
      28       Expensing of certain multiperiod production costs.......       150       160       160       150       150       140       140       740
      29       Treatment of loans forgiven for solvent farmers.........        10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
      30       Capital gains treatment of certain income...............     1,320     1,380     1,460     1,550     1,630     1,720     1,810     8,170
      31       Income averaging for farmers............................        80        90        90        90        90       100       100       470
      32       Deferral of gain on sale of farm refiners...............        10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
             Commerce and housing:
               Financial institutions and insurance:
      33        Exemption of credit union income.......................     1,330     1,430     1,530     1,640     1,770     1,890     2,030     8,860
      34        Excess bad debt reserves of financial institutions.....        80        70        40        30        10         0         0        80
      35        Exclusion of interest on life insurance savings........    16,290    17,710    19,250    20,940    22,780    24,790    26,930   114,690
      36        Special alternative tax on small property and casualty         10        10        10        10        10        10        10        50
                 insurance companies...................................
      37        Tax exemption of certain insurance companies owned by         300       310       340       350       380       390       410     1,870
                 tax-exempt organizations..............................
      38        Small life insurance company deduction.................       130       130       130       130       130       130       130       650
               Housing:
      39        Exclusion of interest on owner-occupied mortgage            1,150     1,190     1,250     1,380     1,510     1,640     1,780     7,560
                 subsidy bonds.........................................
      40        Exclusion of interest on rental housing bonds..........       230       250       260       290       320       350       370     1,590
      41        Deductibility of mortgage interest on owner-occupied       64,510    64,190    66,110    68,070    70,870    73,560    76,870   355,480
                 homes.................................................
      42        Deductibility of State and local property tax on owner-    22,410    22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                 occupied homes........................................
      43        Deferral of income from post 1987 installment sales....     1,020     1,040     1,060     1,080     1,100     1,120     1,140     5,500
      44        Capital gains exclusion on home sales..................    23,870    24,580    25,320    26,080    26,860    27,670    28,500   134,430
      45        Exception from passive loss rules for $25,000 of rental     4,800     4,400     4,070     3,780     3,530     3,290     3,090    17,760
                 loss..................................................
      46        Credit for low-income housing investments..............     4,360     4,510     4,700     4,930     5,170     5,400     5,610    25,810
      47        Accelerated depreciation on rental housing (normal tax      5,190     5,440     5,710     5,790     5,800     5,720     5,800    28,820
                 method)...............................................
               Commerce:
      48        Cancellation of indebtedness...........................        30        30        30        40        40        40        40       190
      49        Exceptions from imputed interest rules.................        80        80        80        80        80        80        80       400
      50        Capital gains (except agriculture, timber, iron ore,       90,400    82,420    80,260    75,980    74,910    67,560    66,510   365,220
                 and coal) (normal tax method).........................
      51        Capital gains exclusion of small corporation stock.....        90       130       170       220       270       340       400     1,400
      52        Step-up basis of capital gains at death................    35,390    36,810    38,280    39,810    41,400    43,060    44,780   207,330
      53        Carryover basis of capital gains on gifts..............       530       600       680       760       900     1,080     1,130     4,550
      54        Ordinary income treatment of loss from small business          50        50        50        60        60        60        60       290
                 corporation stock sale................................
      55        Accelerated depreciation of buildings other than rental     4,540     4,560     4,240     3,960     3,800     4,160     4,880    21,040
                 housing (normal tax method)...........................
      56        Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment        37,860    37,130    36,480    36,790    37,430    38,520    40,930   190,150
                 (normal tax method)...................................
      57        Expensing of certain small investments (normal tax          1,670     1,430     1,420     1,390     1,360     1,480     1,720     7,370
                 method)...............................................
      58        Amortization of start-up costs (normal tax method).....       130       160       200       240       250       270       270     1,230
      59        Graduated corporation income tax rate (normal tax           7,590     8,590     9,560    10,130    10,950    11,460    12,130    54,230
                 method)...............................................
      60        Exclusion of interest on small issue bonds.............       440       440       470       520       560       610       670     2,830
             Transportation:
      61       Deferral of tax on shipping companies...................        20        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
      62       Exclusion of reimbursed employee parking expenses.......     2,560     2,690     2,830     2,970     3,130     3,280     3,450    15,660
      63       Exclusion for employer-provided transit passes..........       310       390       500       570       660       750       840     3,320
             Community and regional development:
      64       Investment credit for rehabilitation of structures              20        30        30        30        30        30        30       150
                (other than historic)..................................
      65       Exclusion of interest for airport, dock, and similar           900       920       980     1,080     1,180     1,280     1,400     5,920
                bonds..................................................
      66       Exemption of certain mutuals' and cooperatives' income..        60        60        60        60        70        70        70       330
      67       Empowerment zones and enterprise communities............       380       730     1,120     1,170     1,280     1,410     1,580     6,560
      68       New markets tax credit..................................        20        90       190       300       420       610       830     2,350
      69       Expensing of environmental remediation costs............       110       120       130        40       -20       -20       -20       110
             Education, training, employment, and social services:
               Education:
      70        Exclusion of scholarship and fellowship income (normal      1,330     1,320     1,330     1,360     1,460     1,520     1,530     7,200
                 tax method)...........................................
      71        HOPE tax credit........................................     5,300     5,270     4,510     3,690     3,760     3,500     3,720    19,180
      72        Lifetime Learning tax credit...........................     3,030     2,940     3,030     4,020     3,830     3,520     3,800    18,200
      73        Education Individual Retirement Accounts...............        40        60        90       150       260       390       550     1,440
      74        Deductibility of student-loan interest.................       460       540       760       790       810       840       850     4,050
      75        Deduction for higher education expenses................         0       560     2,940     3,790     4,760     3,860         0    15,350
      76        State prepaid tuition plans............................       250       340       430       510       590       680       760     2,970
      77        Exclusion of interest on student-loan bonds............       330       330       340       370       410       440       510     2,070
      78        Exclusion of interest on bonds for private nonprofit          770       780       830       920     1,010     1,090     1,190     5,040
                 educational facilities................................

[[Page 111]]

 
      79        Credit for holders of zone academy bonds...............        40        70       100       120       120       120       120       580
      80        Exclusion of interest on savings bonds redeemed to             10        20        20        20        20        20        20       100
                 finance educational expenses..........................
      81        Parental personal exemption for students age 19 or over     1,120     1,180     1,250     1,300     1,360     1,420     1,480     6,810
      82        Deductibility of charitable contributions (education)..     5,420     5,610     5,910     6,260     6,460     6,800     7,070    32,500
      83        Exclusion of employer-provided educational assistance..       320       510       620       660       690       730       770     3,470
               Training, employment, and social services:
      84        Work opportunity tax credit............................       300       230       140        60        30        10         0       240
      85        Welfare-to-work tax credit.............................        90        70        40        20        10         0         0        70
      86        Exclusion of employer provided child care..............       950       990     1,020     1,080     1,240     1,360     1,450     6,150
      87        Employer-provided child care...........................         0        60       120       170       190       210       220       790
      88        Assistance for adopted foster children.................       220       250       280       290       300       310       320     1,500
      89        Adoption credit and exclusion..........................       160       180       280       570       640       690       710     2,890
      90        Exclusion of employee meals and lodging (other than           870       910       950       990     1,030     1,080     1,130     5,180
                 military).............................................
      91        Child credit \2\.......................................    26,460    26,350    26,240    26,070    27,400    28,700    28,320   136,730
      92        Credit for child and dependent care expenses...........     3,560     3,480     3,560     3,950     3,600     2,860     2,550    16,520
      93        Credit for disabled access expenditures................        60        70        70        70        80        80        80       380
      94        Deductibility of charitable contributions, other than      42,130    42,750    44,450    46,820    48,580    50,980    52,760   243,590
                 education and health..................................
      95        Exclusion of certain foster care payments..............       580       590       600       610       630       660       700     3,200
      96        Exclusion of parsonage allowances......................       400       420       460       480       510       540       560     2,550
             Health:
      97       Exclusion of employer contributions for medical            106,750   117,750   128,760   138,400   149,240   160,370   173,450   750,220
                insurance premiums and medical care....................
      98       Self-employed medical insurance premiums................     1,900     2,140     3,000     4,420     4,790     5,160     5,470    22,840
      99       Workers' compensation insurance premiums................     5,900     6,070     6,330     6,510     6,730     6,920     7,190    33,680
     100       Medical Savings Accounts................................        20        20        30        30        30        30        20       140
     101       Deductibility of medical expenses.......................     4,990     5,260     5,530     5,840     6,280     6,600     7,100    31,350
     102       Exclusion of interest on hospital construction bonds....     1,580     1,620     1,700     1,880     2,070     2,250     2,440    10,340
     103       Deductibility of charitable contributions (health)......     5,710     5,920     6,250     6,630     6,830     7,210     7,490    34,410
     104       Tax credit for orphan drug research.....................       200       230       260       290       320       360       400     1,630
     105       Special Blue Cross/Blue Shield deduction................       340       380       430       390       380       340       380     1,920
             Income security:
     106       Exclusion of railroad retirement system benefits........       380       390       400       400       400       400       400     2,000
     107       Exclusion of workers' compensation benefits.............     5,560     5,810     6,070     6,320     6,600     6,900     7,200    33,090
     108       Exclusion of public assistance benefits (normal tax            370       380       400       410       430       450       470     2,160
                method)................................................
     109       Exclusion of special benefits for disabled coal miners..        70        70        60        60        60        50        50       280
     110       Exclusion of military disability pensions...............       110       120       120       120       130       130       140       640
               Net exclusion of pension contributions and earnings:
     111        Employer plans.........................................    52,590    59,350    65,130    66,460    67,840    71,930    77,220   348,580
     112        401(k) plans...........................................    55,100    65,380    73,020    76,550    79,620    84,430    89,410   403,030
     113        Individual Retirement Accounts.........................    23,980    24,250    25,280    25,590    25,630    25,890    25,450   127,840
     114        Low and moderate income savers credit..................         0       660     2,330     2,290     2,240     2,120     1,500    10,480
     115        Keogh plans............................................     7,880     8,330     8,620     8,930     9,150     9,410     9,680    45,790
               Exclusion of other employee benefits:
     116        Premiums on group term life insurance..................     2,330     2,370     2,400     2,440     2,480     2,520     2,560    12,400
     117        Premiums on accident and disability insurance..........       280       290       310       320       330       350       360     1,670
     118        Small business retirement plan credit..................         0        30        70       120       160       180       200       730
     119        Income of trusts to finance supplementary unemployment         20        20        30        30        30        30        30       150
                 benefits..............................................
     120        Special ESOP rules.....................................     1,710     1,780     1,880     1,980     2,080     2,180     2,300    10,420
     121        Additional deduction for the blind.....................        50        50        50        50        50        50        50       250
     122        Additional deduction for the elderly...................     2,390     2,280     2,360     2,490     2,550     2,600     2,480    12,480
     123        Tax credit for the elderly and disabled................        40        40        40        40        40        40        40       200
     124        Deductibility of casualty losses.......................       230       280       340       390       450       500       490     2,170
     125        Earned income tax credit \3\...........................     5,480     4,850     5,330     5,480     5,670     5,750     5,990    28,220
             Social Security:
               Exclusion of social security benefits:
     126        Social Security benefits for retired workers...........    17,830    18,000    18,180    18,560    18,850    19,720    20,890    96,200
     127        Social Security benefits for disabled..................     2,690     2,930     3,240     3,630     4,020     4,470     5,020    20,380
     128        Social Security benefits for dependents and survivors..     3,720     3,870     4,060     4,320     4,560     4,820     5,170    22,930
             Veterans benefits and services:
     129       Exclusion of veterans death benefits and disability          3,150     3,190     3,300     3,490     3,680     3,870     4,080    18,420
                compensation...........................................
     130       Exclusion of veterans pensions..........................        70        80        80        80        90        90       100       440
     131       Exclusion of GI bill benefits...........................        90        90        90       100       100       110       110       510
     132       Exclusion of interest on veterans housing bonds.........        50        50        50        50        70        70        80       320
             General purpose fiscal assistance:
     133       Exclusion of interest on public purpose State and local     33,100    33,930    34,780    35,660    36,540    37,460    38,410   182,850
                bonds..................................................
     134       Deductibility of nonbusiness state and local taxes other    45,520    46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                than on owner-occupied homes...........................
     135       Tax credit for corporations receiving income from doing      3,130     3,190     3,190     3,190     3,140     1,860         0    11,380
                business in U.S. possessions...........................
             Interest:
     136       Deferral of interest on U.S. savings bonds..............       290       300       310       330       330       350       360     1,680

[[Page 112]]

 
             Addendum: Aid to State and local governments:
               Deductibility of:
                Property taxes on owner-occupied homes.................    22,410    22,680    23,580    23,210    20,330    16,300    14,410    97,830
                Nonbusiness State and local taxes other than on owner-     45,520    46,160    48,150    47,730    43,270    34,820    30,890   204,860
                 occupied homes........................................
               Exclusion of interest on State and local bonds for:
                Public purposes........................................    33,100    33,930    34,780    35,660    36,540    37,460    38,410   182,850
                Energy facilities......................................       130       130       150       170       180       200       210     1,170
                Water, sewage, and hazardous waste disposal facilities.       570       600       630       690       760       840       910     3,830
                Small-issues...........................................       440       440       470       520       560       610       670     2,830
                Owner-occupied mortgage subsidies......................     1,150     1,190     1,250     1,380     1,510     1,640     1,780     7,560
                Rental housing.........................................       230       250       260       290       320       350       370     1,590
                Airports, docks, and similar facilities................       900       920       980     1,080     1,180     1,280     1,400     5,920
                Student loans..........................................       330       330       340       370       410       440       510     2,070
                Private nonprofit educational facilities...............       770       780       830       920     1,010     1,090     1,190     5,040
                Hospital construction..................................     1,580     1,620     1,700     1,880     2,070     2,250     2,440    10,340
                Veterans' housing......................................        50        50        50        50        70        70        80       320
               Credit for holders of zone academy bonds................        40        70       100       120       120       120       120       580
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ In addition, the partial exemption from the excise tax for alcohol fuels results in a reduction in excise tax receipts (in millions of dollars) as
  follows: 2001 $990; 2002 $1,020; 2003 $1,050; 2004 $1,080; 2005 $1,080; 2006 $1,100; and 2007 $1,120.
\2\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the child tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of dollars) is as
  follows: 2001 $980; 2002 $7,390; 2003 $7,390; 2004 $7,210; 2005 $6,950; 2006 $9,380; and 2007 $9,200.
\3\ The figures in the table indicate the effect of the earned income tax credit on receipts. The effect of the credit on outlays (in millions of
  dollars) is as follows: 2001 $26,120; 2002 $28,280; 2003 $30,630; 2004 $31,080; 2005 $31,720; 2006 $33,130 and 2007 $34,090.
 
Note: Provisions with estimates denoted normal tax method have no revenue loss under the reference tax law method. All estimates have been rounded to
  the nearest $10 million. Provisions with estimates that rounded to zero in each year are not included in the table.

                        Tax Expenditure Baselines

  A tax expenditure is an exception to baseline provisions of the tax 
structure. The 1974 Congressional Budget Act, which mandated the tax 
expenditure budget, did not specify the baseline provisions of the tax 
law. As noted previously, deciding whether provisions are exceptions, 
therefore, is a matter of judgement. As in prior years, this year's tax 
expenditure estimates are presented using two baselines: the normal tax 
baseline, which is used by the Joint Committee on Taxation, and the 
reference tax law baseline, which has been reported by the 
Administration since 1983.
  The normal tax baseline is patterned on a comprehensive income tax, 
which defines income as the sum of consumption and the change in net 
wealth in a given period of time. The normal tax baseline allows 
personal exemptions, a standard deduction, and deductions of the 
expenses incurred in earning income. It is not limited to a particular 
structure of tax rates, or by a specific definition of the taxpaying 
unit.
  The reference tax law baseline is also patterned on a comprehensive 
income tax, but it is closer to existing law. Tax expenditures under the 
reference law baseline are generally tax expenditures under the normal 
tax baseline, but the reverse is not always true.
  Both the normal and reference tax baselines allow several major 
departures from a pure comprehensive income tax. For example:
    Income is taxable only when it is realized in exchange. 
          Thus, neither the deferral of tax on unrealized capital gains 
          nor the tax exclusion of imputed income (such as the rental 
          value of owner-occupied housing or farmers' consumption of 
          their own produce) is regarded as a tax expenditure. Both 
          accrued and imputed income would be taxed under a 
          comprehensive income tax.
    There is a separate corporation income tax. Under a 
          comprehensive income tax, corporate income would be taxed only 
          once--at the shareholder level, whether or not distributed in 
          the form of dividends.
    Values of assets and debt are not adjusted for inflation. A 
          comprehensive income tax would adjust the cost basis of 
          capital assets and debt for changes in the price level during 
          the time the assets or debt are held. Thus, under a 
          comprehensive income tax baseline, the failure to take account 
          of inflation in measuring depreciation, capital gains, and 
          interest income would be regarded as a negative tax 
          expenditure (i.e., a tax penalty), and failure to take account 
          of inflation in measuring interest costs would be regarded as 
          a positive tax expenditure (i.e., a tax subsidy).
  Although the reference law and normal tax baselines are generally 
similar, areas of difference include:
            Tax rates. The separate schedules applying to the various 
          taxpaying units are included in the reference law baseline. 
          Thus, corporate tax rates below the maximum statutory rate do 
          not give rise to a tax expenditure. The normal tax baseline is 
          similar, except that it specifies the current maximum rate as 
          the baseline for the corporate income tax. The lower tax rates 
          applied to the first $10 million of corporate income are thus 
          regarded as a tax expenditure. Similarly, under the reference 
          law baseline, preferential tax rates for capital gains 
          generally do not yield a tax expenditure;

[[Page 113]]

          only capital gains treatment of otherwise ``ordinary income,'' 
          such as that from coal and iron ore royalties and the sale of 
          timber and certain agricultural products, is considered a tax 
          expenditure. The alternative minimum tax is treated as part of 
          the baseline rate structure under both the reference and 
          normal tax methods.
            Income subject to the tax. Income subject to tax is defined 
          as gross income less the costs of earning that income. The 
          Federal income tax defines gross income to include: (1) 
          consideration received in the exchange of goods and services, 
          including labor services or property; and (2) the taxpayer's 
          share of gross or net income earned and/or reported by another 
          entity (such as a partnership). Under the reference tax rules, 
          therefore, gross income does not include gifts--defined as 
          receipts of money or property that are not consideration in an 
          exchange--or most transfer payments, which can be thought of 
          as gifts from the Government. \2\ The normal tax baseline also 
          excludes gifts between individuals from gross income. Under 
          the normal tax baseline, however, all cash transfer payments 
          from the Government to private individuals are counted in 
          gross income, and exemptions of such transfers from tax are 
          identified as tax expenditures. The costs of earning income 
          are generally deductible in determining taxable income under 
          both the reference and normal tax baselines. \3\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  \2\ Gross income does, however, include transfer paymnents associated 
with past employment, such as Social Security benefits.
  \3\ In the case of individuals who hold ``passive'' equity interests 
in businesses, however, the pro-rata shares of sales and expense 
deductions reportable in a year are limited. A passive business activity 
is defined to be one in which the holder of the interest, usually a 
partnership interst, does not actively perform managerial or other 
participatory functions. The taxpayer may generally report no larger 
deductions for a year than will reduce taxable income from such 
activities to zero. Deductions in excess of the limitation may be taken 
in subsequent years, or when the interest is liquidated. In addition, 
costs of earning income may be limited under the alternative minimum 
tax.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
            Capital recovery. Under the reference tax law baseline no 
          tax expenditures arise from accelerated depreciation. Under 
          the normal tax baseline, the depreciation allowance for 
          machinery and equipment is determined using straight-line 
          depreciation over tax lives equal to mid-values of the asset 
          depreciation range (a depreciation system in effect from 1971 
          through 1980). The normal tax baseline for real property is 
          computed using 40-year straight-line depreciation.
            Treatment of foreign income. Both the normal and reference 
          tax baselines allow a tax credit for foreign income taxes paid 
          (up to the amount of U.S. income taxes that would otherwise be 
          due), which prevents double taxation of income earned abroad. 
          Under the normal tax method, however, controlled foreign 
          corporations (CFCs) are not regarded as entities separate from 
          their controlling U.S. shareholders. Thus, the deferral of tax 
          on income received by CFCs is regarded as a tax expenditure 
          under this method. In contrast, except for tax haven 
          activities, the reference law baseline follows current law in 
          treating CFCs as separate taxable entities whose income is not 
          subject to U.S. tax until distributed to U.S. taxpayers. Under 
          this baseline, deferral of tax on CFC income is not a tax 
          expenditure because U.S. taxpayers generally are not taxed on 
          accrued, but unrealized, income.
  In addition to these areas of difference, the Joint Committee on 
Taxation considers a somewhat broader set of tax expenditures under its 
normal tax baseline than is considered here.

    Performance Measures and the Economic Effects of Tax Expenditures

  The Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA) directs 
Federal agencies to develop annual and strategic plans for their 
programs and activities. These plans set out performance objectives to 
be achieved over a specific time period. Most of these objectives will 
be achieved through direct expenditure programs. Tax expenditures, 
however, may also contribute to achieving these goals. The report of the 
Senate Governmental Affairs Committee on GPRA \4\ calls on the Executive 
branch to undertake a series of analyses to assess the effect of 
specific tax expenditures on the achievement of agencies' performance 
objectives.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  \4\ Committee on Government Affairs, United States Senate, 
``Government Performance and Results Act of 1993'' (Report 103-58, 
1993).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  The Executive Branch is continuing to focus on the availability of 
data needed to assess the effects of the tax expenditures designed to 
increase savings. Treasury's Office of Tax Analysis and Statistics of 
Income Division (IRS) have developed a new sample of individual income 
tax filers as one part of this effort. This new ``panel'' sample will 
follow the same taxpayers over a period of at least ten years. The first 
year of this panel sample was drawn from tax returns filed in 2000 for 
tax year 1999. The sample will capture the changing demographic and 
economic circumstances of individuals and the effects of changes in tax 
law over an extended period of time. Data from the sample will therefore 
permit more extensive, and better, analyses of many tax provisions than 
can be performed using only annual (``cross-section'') data. In 
particular, data from this panel sample will enhance our ability to 
analyze the effect of tax expenditures designed to increase savings. 
Other efforts by OMB, Treasury, and other agencies to improve data 
available for the analysis of savings tax expenditures will continue 
over the next several years.

  Comparison of tax expenditure, spending, and regulatory policies. Tax 
expenditures by definition work through the tax system and, 
particularly, the income tax. Thus, they may be relatively advantageous 
policy approaches when the benefit or incentive is related to income and 
is intended to be widely available. Because there is an existing public 
administrative and private compliance structure for the tax system, the

[[Page 114]]

incremental administrative and compliance costs for a tax expenditure 
may be low in many cases. In addition, some tax expenditures actually 
simplify the tax system, (for example, the exclusion for up to $500,000 
of capital gains on home sales). Tax expenditures also implicitly 
subsidize certain activities. Spending, regulatory or tax-disincentive 
policies can also modify behavior, but may have different economic 
effects. Finally, a variety of tax expenditure tools can be used--e.g., 
deductions; credits; exemptions; deferrals; floors; ceilings; phase-ins; 
phase-outs; dependent on income, expenses, or demographic 
characteristics (age, number of family members, etc.). This wide range 
means that tax expenditures can be flexible and can have very different 
economic effects.
  Tax expenditures also have limitations. In many cases they add to the 
complexity of the tax system, which raises both administrative and 
compliance costs. For example, targeting personal exemptions and credits 
can complicate filing and decisionmaking. The income tax system may have 
little or no contact with persons who have no or very low incomes, and 
does not require information on certain characteristics of individuals 
used in some spending programs, such as wealth. These features may 
reduce the effectiveness of tax expenditures for addressing certain 
income-transfer objectives. Tax expenditures also generally do not 
enable the same degree of agency discretion as an outlay program. For 
example, grant or direct Federal service delivery programs can 
prioritize activities to be addressed with specific resources in a way 
that is difficult to emulate with tax expenditures. Finally, tax 
expenditures may not receive the same level of scrutiny afforded to 
other programs.
  Outlay programs have advantages where direct government service 
provision is particularly warranted--such as equipping and providing the 
armed forces or administering the system of justice. Outlay programs may 
also be specifically designed to meet the needs of low-income families 
who would not otherwise be subject to income taxes or need to file a tax 
return. Outlay programs may also receive more year-to-year oversight and 
fine tuning, through the legislative and executive budget process. In 
addition, many different types of spending programs--including direct 
government provision; credit programs; and payments to State and local 
governments, the private sector, or individuals in the form of grants or 
contracts--provide flexibility for policy design. On the other hand, 
certain outlay programs--such as direct government service provision--
may rely less directly on economic incentives and private-market 
provision than tax incentives, which may reduce the relative efficiency 
of spending programs for some goals. Spending programs also require 
resources to be raised via taxes, user charges, or government borrowing, 
which can impose further costs by diverting resources from their most 
efficient uses. Finally, spending programs, particularly on the 
discretionary side, may respond less readily to changing activity levels 
and economic conditions than tax expenditures.
  Regulations have more direct and immediate effects than outlay and 
tax-expenditure programs because regulations apply directly and 
immediately to the regulated party (i.e., the intended actor)--generally 
in the private sector. Regulations can also be fine-tuned more quickly 
than tax expenditures, because they can generally be changed by the 
executive branch without legislation. Like tax expenditures, regulations 
often rely largely upon voluntary compliance, rather than detailed 
inspections and policing. As such, the public administrative costs tend 
to be modest, relative to the private resource costs associated with 
modifying activities. Historically, regulations have tended to rely on 
proscriptive measures, as opposed to economic incentives. This reliance 
can diminish their economic efficiency, although this feature can also 
promote full compliance where (as in certain safety-related cases) 
policymakers believe that trade-offs with economic considerations are 
not of paramount importance. Also, regulations generally do not directly 
affect Federal outlays or receipts. Thus, like tax expenditures, they 
may escape the type of scrutiny that outlay programs receive. However, 
most regulations are subjected to a formal benefit-cost analysis that 
goes well beyond the analysis required for outlays and tax-expenditures. 
To some extent, the GPRA requirement for performance evaluation will 
address this lack of formal analysis.
  Some policy objectives are achieved using multiple approaches. For 
example, minimum wage legislation, the earned income tax credit, and the 
food stamp program are regulatory, tax expenditure, and direct outlay 
programs, respectively, all having the objective of improving the 
economic welfare of low-wage workers.
  Tax expenditures, like spending and regulatory programs, have a 
variety of objectives and effects. These include: encouraging certain 
types of activities (e.g., saving for retirement or investing in certain 
sectors); increasing certain types of after-tax income (e.g., favorable 
tax treatment of Social Security income); reducing private compliance 
costs and government administrative costs (e.g., the exclusion for up to 
$500,000 of capital gains on home sales); and promoting tax neutrality 
(e.g., accelerated depreciation in the presence of inflation). Some of 
these objectives are well suited to quantitative measurement, while 
others are less well suited. Also, many tax expenditures, including 
those cited above, may have more than one objective. For example, 
accelerated depreciation may encourage investment. In addition, the 
economic effects of particular provisions can extend beyond their 
intended objectives (e.g., a provision intended to promote an activity 
or raise certain incomes may have positive or negative effects on tax 
neutrality).
  Performance measurement is generally concerned with inputs, outputs, 
and outcomes. In the case of tax expenditures, the principal input is 
usually the revenue effect. Outputs are quantitative or qualitative 
measures of goods and services, or changes in income and investment, 
directly produced by these inputs. Outcomes, in

[[Page 115]]

turn, represent the changes in the economy, society, or environment that 
are the ultimate goals of programs.
  Thus, for a provision that reduces taxes on certain investment 
activity, an increase in the amount of investment would likely be a key 
output. The resulting production from that investment, and, in turn, the 
associated improvements in national income, welfare, or security, could 
be the outcomes of interest. For other provisions, such as those 
designed to address a potential inequity or unintended consequence in 
the tax code, an important performance measure might be how they change 
effective tax rates (the discounted present-value of taxes owed on new 
investments or incremental earnings) or excess burden (an economic 
measure of the distortions caused by taxes). Effects on the incomes of 
members of particular groups may be an important measure for certain 
provisions.

  An overview of evaluation issues by budget function. The discussion 
below considers the types of measures that might be useful for some 
major programmatic groups of tax expenditures. The discussion is 
intended to be illustrative and not all encompassing. However, it is 
premised on the assumption that the data needed to perform the analysis 
are available or can be developed. In practice, data availability is 
likely to be a major challenge, and data constraints may limit the 
assessment of the effectiveness of many provisions. In addition, such 
assessments can raise significant challenges in economic modeling.
  National defense.--Some tax expenditures are intended to assist 
governmental activities. For example, tax preferences for military 
benefits reflect, among other things, the view that benefits such as 
housing, subsistence, and moving expenses are intrinsic aspects of 
military service, and are provided, in part, for the benefit of the 
employer, the U.S. Government. Tax benefits for combat service are 
intended to reduce tax burdens on military personnel undertaking 
hazardous service for the Nation. A portion of the tax expenditure 
associated with foreign earnings is targeted to benefit U.S. Government 
civilian personnel working abroad by offsetting the living costs that 
can be higher than those in the United States. These tax expenditures 
should be considered together with direct agency budget costs in making 
programmatic decisions.
  International affairs.--Tax expenditures are also aimed at goals such 
as tax neutrality. These include the exclusion for income earned abroad 
by nongovernmental employees and exclusions for income of U.S.-
controlled foreign corporations. Measuring the effectiveness of these 
provisions raises challenging issues.
  General science, space and technology; energy; natural resources and 
the environment; agriculture; and commerce and housing.--A series of tax 
expenditures reduces the cost of investment, both in specific 
activities--such as research and experimentation, extractive industries, 
and certain financial activities--and more generally, through 
accelerated depreciation for plant and equipment. These provisions can 
be evaluated along a number of dimensions. For example, it could be 
useful to consider the strength of the incentives by measuring their 
effects on the cost of capital (the interest rate which investments must 
yield to cover their costs) and effective tax rates. The impact of these 
provisions on the amounts of corresponding forms of investment (e.g., 
research spending, exploration activity, equipment) might also be 
estimated. In some cases, such as research, there is evidence that the 
investment can provide significant positive externalities--that is, 
economic benefits that are not reflected in the market transactions 
between private parties. It could be useful to quantify these 
externalities and compare them with the size of tax expenditures. 
Measures could also indicate the effects on production from these 
investments--such as numbers or values of patents, energy production and 
reserves, and industrial production. Issues to be considered include the 
extent to which the preferences increase production (as opposed to 
benefitting existing output) and their cost-effectiveness relative to 
other policies. Analysis could also consider objectives that are more 
difficult to measure but still are ultimate goals, such as promoting the 
Nation's technological base, energy security, environmental quality, or 
economic growth. Such an assessment is likely to involve tax analysis as 
well as consideration of non-tax matters such as market structure, 
scientific, and other information (such as the effects of increased 
domestic fuel production on imports from various regions, or the effects 
of various energy sources on the environment).
  Housing investment also benefits from tax expenditures. The mortgage 
interest deduction on personal residences is a tax expenditure because 
the value of owner-occupied housing services is not included in a 
taxpayer's taxable income. Taxpayers also may exclude up to $500,000 of 
the capital gains from the sale of personal residences. Measures of the 
effectiveness of these provisions could include their effects on 
increasing the extent of home ownership and the quality of housing. In 
addition, the mortgage interest deduction offsets the taxable nature of 
investment income received by homeowners, so the relationship between 
the deduction and such earnings is also relevant to evaluation of this 
provision. Similarly, analysis of the extent of accumulated inflationary 
gains is likely to be relevant to evaluation of the capital gains for 
home sales. Deductibility of State and local property taxes assists with 
making housing more affordable as well as easing the cost of providing 
community services through these taxes. Provisions intended to promote 
investment in rental housing could be evaluated for their effects on 
making such housing more available and affordable. These provisions 
should then be compared with alternative programs that address housing 
supply and demand.

  Transportation.--Employer-provided parking is a fringe benefit that, 
for the most part, is excluded from taxation. The tax expenditure 
estimates reflect the cost

[[Page 116]]

of parking that is leased by employers for employees; an estimate is not 
currently available for the value of parking owned by employers and 
provided to their employees. The exclusion for employer-provided transit 
passes is intended to promote use of this mode of transportation, which 
has environmental and congestion benefits. The tax treatments of these 
different benefits could be compared with alternative transportation 
policies.
  Community and regional development.--A series of tax expenditures is 
intended to promote community and regional development by reducing the 
costs of financing specialized infrastructure, such as airports, docks, 
and stadiums. Empowerment zone and enterprise community provisions are 
designed to promote activity in disadvantaged areas. These provisions 
can be compared with grants and other policies designed to spur economic 
development.
  Education, training, employment, and social services.--Major 
provisions in this function are intended to promote post-secondary 
education, to offset costs of raising children, and to promote a variety 
of charitable activities. The education incentives can be compared with 
loans, grants, and other programs designed to promote higher education 
and training. The child credits are intended to adjust the tax system 
for the costs of raising children; as such, they could be compared to 
other Federal tax and spending policies, including related features of 
the tax system, such as personal exemptions (which are not defined as a 
tax expenditure). Evaluation of charitable activities requires 
consideration of the beneficiaries of these activities, who are 
generally not the parties receiving the tax reduction.
  Health.--Individuals also benefit from favorable treatment of 
employer-provided health insurance. Measures of these benefits could 
include increased coverage and pooling of risks. The effects of 
insurance coverage on final outcome measures of actual health (e.g., 
infant mortality, days of work lost due to illness, or life expectancy) 
or intermediate outcomes (e.g., use of preventive health care or health 
care costs) could also be investigated.
  Income security, Social Security, and veterans benefits and 
services.--Major tax expenditures in the income security function 
benefit retirement savings, through employer-provided pensions, 
individual retirement accounts, and Keogh plans. These provisions might 
be evaluated in terms of their effects on boosting retirement incomes, 
private savings, and national savings (which would include the effect on 
private savings as well as public savings or deficits). Interactions 
with other programs, including Social Security, also may merit analysis. 
As in the case of employer-provided health insurance, analysis of 
employer-provided pension programs requires imputing the value of 
benefits funded at the firm level to individuals.
  Other provisions principally affect the incomes of members of certain 
groups, rather than affecting incentives. For example, tax-favored 
treatment of Social Security benefits, certain veterans benefits, and 
deductions for the blind and elderly provide increased incomes to 
eligible parties. The earned-income tax credit, in contrast, should be 
evaluated for its effects on labor force participation as well as the 
income it provides lower-income workers.

  General purpose fiscal assistance and interest.--The tax-exemption for 
public purpose State and local bonds reduces the costs of borrowing for 
a variety of purposes (borrowing for non-public purposes is reflected 
under other budget functions). The deductibility of certain State and 
local taxes reflected under this function primarily relates to personal 
income taxes (property tax deductibility is reflected under the commerce 
and housing function). Tax preferences for Puerto Rico and other U.S. 
possessions are also included here. These provisions can be compared 
with other tax and spending policies as means of benefitting fiscal and 
economic conditions in the States, localities, and possessions. Finally, 
the tax deferral for interest on U.S. savings bonds benefits savers who 
invest in these instruments. The extent of these benefits and any 
effects on Federal borrowing costs could be evaluated.
  The above illustrative discussion, although broad, is nevertheless 
incomplete, omitting important details both for the provisions mentioned 
and the many that are not explicitly cited. Developing a framework that 
is sufficiently comprehensive, accurate, and flexible to reflect the 
objectives and effects of the wide range of tax expenditures will be a 
significant challenge. OMB, Treasury, and other agencies will work 
together, as appropriate, to address this challenge. As indicated above, 
over the next few years the Executive Branch's focus will be on the 
availability of the data needed to assess the effects of the tax 
expenditures designed to increase savings.

                  Descriptions of Income Tax Provisions

  Descriptions of the individual and corporate income tax expenditures 
reported upon in this chapter follow. These descriptions relate to 
current law as of December 31, 2001, and do not reflect proposals made 
elsewhere in the Budget.

                            National Defense

  1. Benefits and allowances to armed forces personnel.--The housing and 
meals provided military personnel, either in cash or in kind, as well as 
certain amounts of pay related to combat service, are excluded from 
income subject to tax.

                          International Affairs

  2. Income earned abroad.--U.S. citizens who lived abroad, worked in 
the private sector, and satisfied a foreign residency requirement in 
2001 may exclude up to $78,000 in foreign earned income from U.S. taxes.

[[Page 117]]

The exclusion increases to $80,000 in 2002 (and thereafter). In 
addition, if these taxpayers receive a specific allowance for foreign 
housing from their employers, they may also exclude the value of that 
allowance. If they do not receive a specific allowance for housing 
expenses, they may deduct against their U.S. taxes that portion of such 
expenses that exceeds one-sixth the salary of a civil servant at grade 
GS-14, step 1 ($67,765 in 2001).
  3. Exclusion of certain allowances for Federal employees abroad.--U.S. 
Federal civilian employees and Peace Corps members who work outside the 
continental United States are allowed to exclude from U.S. taxable 
income certain special allowances they receive to compensate them for 
the relatively high costs associated with living overseas. The 
allowances supplement wage income and cover expenses like rent, 
education, and the cost of travel to and from the United States.
  4. Extraterritorial income exclusion \5\.--For purposes of calculating 
U.S. tax liability, a taxpayer may exclude from gross income the 
qualifying foreign trade income attributable to foreign trading gross 
receipts. The exclusion generally applies to income from the sale or 
lease of qualifying foreign trade property and certain types of services 
income. The FSC Repeal and Extraterritorial Income Exclusion Act of 2000 
created the extraterritorial income exclusion to replace the foreign 
sales corporation provisions, which the Act repealed. The exclusion is 
generally available for transactions entered into after September 30, 
2000.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  \5\ The determination of whether a provision is a tax expenditure is 
made on the basis of a broad concept of ``income'' that is larger in 
scope than is ``income'' as defined under general U.S. income tax 
principles. For that reason, the tax expenditure extimates include, for 
example, estimtes related to the exclusion of extraterritorial income, 
as well as other exclusions, notwithstanding that such exclusions define 
income under the general rule of U.S. income taxation.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  5. Sales source rule exceptions.--The worldwide income of U.S. persons 
is taxable by the United States and a credit for foreign taxes paid is 
allowed. The amount of foreign taxes that can be credited is limited to 
the pre-credit U.S. tax on the foreign source income. The sales source 
rules for inventory property allow U.S. exporters to use more foreign 
tax credits by allowing the exporters to attribute a larger portion of 
their earnings abroad than would be the case if the allocation of 
earnings was based on actual economic activity.
  6. Income of U.S.-controlled foreign corporations.--The income of 
foreign corporations controlled by U.S. shareholders is not subject to 
U.S. taxation. The income becomes taxable only when the controlling U.S. 
shareholders receive dividends or other distributions from their foreign 
stockholding. Under the normal tax method, the currently attributable 
foreign source pre-tax income from such a controlling interest is 
considered to be subject to U.S. taxation, whether or not distributed. 
Thus, the normal tax method considers the amount of controlled foreign 
corporation income not distributed to a U.S. shareholder as tax-deferred 
income.
  7. Exceptions under subpart F for active financing income.--Financial 
firms can defer taxes on income earned overseas in an active business. 
Taxes on income earned through December 31, 2001 can be deferred.

                 General Science, Space, and Technology

  8. Expensing R&E expenditures.--Research and experimentation (R&E) 
projects can be viewed as investments because, if successful, their 
benefits accrue for several years. It is often difficult, however, to 
identify whether a specific R&E project is successful and, if 
successful, what its expected life will be. Under the normal tax method, 
the expensing of R&E expenditures is viewed as a tax expenditure. The 
baseline assumed for the normal tax method is that all R&E expenditures 
are successful and have an expected life of five years.
  9. R&E credit.--The research and experimentation (R&E) credit is 20 
percent of qualified research expenditures in excess of a base amount. 
The base amount is generally determined by multiplying a ``fixed-base 
percentage'' by the average amount of the company's gross receipts for 
the prior four years. The taxpayer's fixed base percentage generally is 
the ratio of its research expenses to gross receipts for 1984 through 
1988. Taxpayers may also elect an alternative credit regime. Under the 
alternative credit regime the taxpayer is assigned a three-tiered fixed-
base percentage that is lower than the fixed-base percentage that would 
otherwise apply, and the credit rate is reduced (the rates range from 
2.65 percent to 3.75 percent). A 20-percent credit with a separate 
threshold is provided for a taxpayer's payments to universities for 
basic research. The credit applies to research conducted before July 1, 
2004 and extends to research conducted in Puerto Rico and the U.S. 
possessions.

                                 Energy

  10. Exploration and development costs.--For successful investments in 
domestic oil and gas wells, intangible drilling costs (e.g., wages, the 
costs of using machinery for grading and drilling, the cost of 
unsalvageable materials used in constructing wells) may be expensed 
rather than amortized over the productive life of the property. 
Integrated oil companies may deduct only 70 percent of such costs and 
must amortize the remaining 30 percent over five years. The same rule 
applies to the exploration and development costs of surface stripping 
and the construction of shafts and tunnels for other fuel minerals.
  11. Percentage depletion.--Independent fuel mineral producers and 
royalty owners are generally allowed to take percentage depletion 
deductions rather than cost depletion on limited quantities of output. 
Under cost depletion, outlays are deducted over the productive life of 
the property based on the fraction of the resource extracted. Under 
percentage depletion, taxpayers deduct a percentage of gross income from 
mineral production at rates of 22 percent for uranium; 15 percent for 
oil, gas and oil shale; and 10 percent for coal. The deduction is 
limited to 50 percent of net income from the property, except for oil 
and gas where the deduction can be 100 percent of net property income. 
Production

[[Page 118]]

from geothermal deposits is eligible for percentage depletion at 65 
percent of net income, but with no limit on output and no limitation 
with respect to qualified producers. Unlike depreciation or cost 
depletion, percentage depletion deductions can exceed the cost of the 
investment.
  12. Alternative fuel production credit.--A nontaxable credit of $3 per 
oil-equivalent barrel of production (in 1979 dollars) is provided for 
several forms of alternative fuels. The credit is generally available if 
the price of oil stays below $29.50 (in 1979 dollars). The credit 
generally expires on December 31, 2002.
  13. Oil and gas exception to passive loss limitation.--Owners of 
working interests in oil and gas properties are exempt from the 
``passive income'' limitations. As a result, the working interest-
holder, who manages on behalf of himself and all other owners the 
development of wells and incurs all the costs of their operation, may 
aggregate negative taxable income from such interests with his income 
from all other sources.
  14. Capital gains treatment of royalties on coal.--Sales of certain 
coal under royalty contracts can be treated as capital gains rather than 
ordinary income.
  15. Energy facility bonds.--Interest earned on State and local bonds 
used to finance construction of certain energy facilities is tax-exempt. 
These bonds are generally subject to the State private-activity bond 
annual volume cap.
  16. Enhanced oil recovery credit.--A credit is provided equal to 15 
percent of the taxpayer's costs for tertiary oil recovery on U.S. 
projects. Qualifying costs include tertiary injectant expenses, 
intangible drilling and development costs on a qualified enhanced oil 
recovery project, and amounts incurred for tangible depreciable 
property.
  17. New technology credits.--A credit of 10 percent is available for 
investment in solar and geothermal energy facilities. In addition, a 
credit of 1.5 cents is provided per kilowatt hour of electricity 
produced from renewable resources such as wind, biomass, and poultry 
waste facilities. The renewable resources credit applies only to 
electricity produced by a facility placed in service on or before 
December 31, 2001.
  18. Alcohol fuel credits.--An income tax credit is provided for 
ethanol that is derived from renewable sources and used as fuel. The 
credit equals 53 cents per gallon in 2001 and 2002; 52 cents per gallon 
in 2003 and 2004; and 51 cents per gallon in 2005, 2006, and 2007. To 
the extent that ethanol is mixed with taxable motor fuel to create 
gasohol, taxpayers may claim an exemption of the Federal excise tax 
rather than the income tax credit. In addition, small ethanol producers 
are eligible for a separate 10 cents per gallon credit.
  19. Credit and deduction for clean-fuel vehicles and property.--A tax 
credit of 10 percent (not to exceed $4,000) is provided for purchasers 
of electric vehicles. Purchasers of other clean-fuel burning vehicles 
and owners of clean-fuel refueling property may deduct part of their 
expenditures. The credit and deduction are phased out from 2002 through 
2005.
  20. Exclusion of utility conservation subsidies.--Non-business 
customers can exclude from gross income subsidies received from public 
utilities for expenditures on energy conservation measures.

                    Natural Resources and Environment

  21. Exploration and development costs.--Certain capital outlays 
associated with exploration and development of nonfuel minerals may be 
expensed rather than depreciated over the life of the asset.
  22. Percentage depletion.--Most nonfuel mineral extractors may use 
percentage depletion rather than cost depletion, with percentage 
depletion rates ranging from 22 percent for sulfur to 5 percent for sand 
and gravel.
  23. Sewage, water, solid and hazardous waste facility bonds.--Interest 
earned on State and local bonds used to finance the construction of 
sewage, water, or hazardous waste facilities is tax-exempt. These bonds 
are generally subject to the State private-activity bond annual volume 
cap.
  24. Capital gains treatment of certain timber.--Certain timber sold 
under a royalty contract can be treated as a capital gain rather than 
ordinary income.
  25. Expensing multiperiod timber growing costs.--Most of the 
production costs of growing timber may be expensed rather than 
capitalized and deducted when the timber is sold. In most other 
industries, these costs are capitalized under the uniform capitalization 
rules.
  26. Historic preservation.--Expenditures to preserve and restore 
historic structures qualify for a 20-percent investment credit, but the 
depreciable basis must be reduced by the full amount of the credit 
taken.

                               Agriculture

  27. Expensing certain capital outlays.--Farmers, except for certain 
agricultural corporations and partnerships, are allowed to expense 
certain expenditures for feed and fertilizer, as well as for soil and 
water conservation measures. Expensing is allowed, even though these 
expenditures are for inventories held beyond the end of the year, or for 
capital improvements that would otherwise be capitalized.
  28. Expensing multiperiod livestock and crop production costs.--The 
production of livestock and crops with a production period of less than 
two years is exempt from the uniform cost capitalization rules. Farmers 
establishing orchards, constructing farm facilities for their own use, 
or producing any goods for sale with a production period of two years or 
more may elect not to capitalize costs. If they do, they must apply 
straight-line depreciation to all depreciable property they use in 
farming.
  29. Loans forgiven solvent farmers.--Farmers are forgiven the tax 
liability on certain forgiven debt. Normally, a debtor must include the 
amount of loan forgiveness as income or reduce his recoverable basis in

[[Page 119]]

the property to which the loan relates. If the debtor elects to reduce 
basis and the amount of forgiveness exceeds his basis in the property, 
the excess forgiveness is taxable. For insolvent (bankrupt) debtors, 
however, the amount of loan forgiveness reduces carryover losses, then 
unused credits, and then basis; any remainder of the forgiven debt is 
excluded from tax. Farmers with forgiven debt are considered insolvent 
for tax purposes, and thus qualify for income tax forgiveness.
  30. Capital gains treatment of certain income.--Certain agricultural 
income, such as unharvested crops, can be treated as capital gains 
rather than ordinary income.
  31. Income averaging for farmers.--Taxpayers can lower their tax 
liability by averaging, over the prior three-year period, their taxable 
income from farming.
  32. Deferral of gain on sales of farm refiners.--A taxpayer who sells 
stock in a farm refiner to a farmers' cooperative can defer recognition 
of gain if the taxpayer reinvests the proceeds in qualified replacement 
property.

                          Commerce and Housing

  This category includes a number of tax expenditure provisions that 
also affect economic activity in other functional categories. For 
example, provisions related to investment, such as accelerated 
depreciation, could be classified under the energy, natural resources 
and environment, agriculture, or transportation categories.
  33. Credit union income.--The earnings of credit unions not 
distributed to members as interest or dividends are exempt from income 
tax.
  34. Bad debt reserves.--Small (less than $500 million in assets) 
commercial banks, mutual savings banks, and savings and loan 
associations may deduct additions to bad debt reserves in excess of 
actually experienced losses.
  35. Deferral of income on life insurance and annuity contracts.--
Favorable tax treatment is provided for investment income within 
qualified life insurance and annuity contracts. Investment income earned 
on qualified life insurance contracts held until death is permanently 
exempt from income tax. Investment income distributed prior to the death 
of the insured is tax-deferred, if not tax-exempt. Investment income 
earned on annuities is treated less favorably than income earned on life 
insurance contracts, but it benefits from tax deferral without annual 
contribution or income limits generally applicable to other tax-favored 
retirement income plans.
  36. Small property and casualty insurance companies.--Insurance 
companies that have annual net premium incomes of less than $350,000 are 
exempt from tax; those with $350,000 to $2.1 million of net premium 
incomes may elect to pay tax only on the income earned by their 
investment portfolio.
  37. Insurance companies owned by exempt organizations.--Generally, the 
income generated by life and property and casualty insurance companies 
is subject to tax, albeit by special rules. Insurance operations 
conducted by such exempt organizations as fraternal societies and 
voluntary employee benefit associations, however, are exempt from tax.
  38. Small life insurance company deduction.--Small life insurance 
companies (gross assets of less than $500 million) can deduct 60 percent 
of the first $3 million of otherwise taxable income. The deduction 
phases out for otherwise taxable income between $3 million and $15 
million.
  39. Mortgage housing bonds.--Interest earned on State and local bonds 
used to finance homes purchased by first-time, low-to-moderate-income 
buyers is tax-exempt. The amount of State and local tax-exempt bonds 
that can be issued to finance these and other private activity is 
limited. The combined volume cap for private activity bonds, including 
mortgage housing bonds, rental housing bonds, student loan bonds, and 
industrial development bonds is $62.50 per capita ($187.5 million 
minimum) per State in 2001, and $75 per capita ($225 million minimum) in 
2002. The Community Renewal Tax Relief Act of 2000 accelerated the 
scheduled increase in the state volume cap and indexed the cap for 
inflation, beginning in 2003. States may issue mortgage credit 
certificates (MCCs) in lieu of mortgage revenue bonds. MCCs entitle home 
buyers to income tax credits for a specified percentage of interest on 
qualified mortgages. The total amount of MCCs issued by a State cannot 
exceed 25 percent of its annual ceiling for mortgage-revenue bonds.
  40. Rental housing bonds.--Interest earned on State and local 
government bonds used to finance multifamily rental housing projects is 
tax-exempt. At least 20 percent (15 percent in targeted areas) of the 
units must be reserved for families whose income does not exceed 50 
percent of the area's median income; or 40 percent for families with 
incomes of no more than 60 percent of the area median income. Other tax-
exempt bonds for multifamily rental projects are generally issued with 
the requirement that all tenants must be low or moderate income 
families. Rental housing bonds are subject to the volume cap discussed 
in the mortgage housing bond section above.
  41. Interest on owner-occupied homes.--Owner-occupants of homes may 
deduct mortgage interest on their primary and secondary residences as 
itemized nonbusiness deductions. The mortgage interest deduction is 
limited to interest on debt no greater than the owner's basis in the 
residence and, for debt incurred after October 13, 1987, it is limited 
to no more than $1 million. Interest on up to $100,000 of other debt 
secured by a lien on a principal or second residence is also deductible, 
irrespective of the purpose of borrowing, provided the debt does not 
exceed the fair market value of the residence. Mortgage interest 
deductions on personal residences are tax expenditures because the value 
of owner-occupied housing services is not included in a taxpayer's 
taxable income.
  42. Taxes on owner-occupied homes.--Owner-occupants of homes may 
deduct property taxes on their primary and secondary residences even 
though they are

[[Page 120]]

not required to report the value of owner-occupied housing services as 
gross income.
  43. Installment sales.--Dealers in real and personal property (i.e., 
sellers who regularly hold property for sale or resale) cannot defer 
taxable income from installment sales until the receipt of the loan 
repayment. Nondealers (i.e., sellers of real property used in their 
business) are required to pay interest on deferred taxes attributable to 
their total installment obligations in excess of $5 million. Only 
properties with sales prices exceeding $150,000 are includable in the 
total. The payment of a market rate of interest eliminates the benefit 
of the tax deferral. The tax exemption for nondealers with total 
installment obligations of less than $5 million is, therefore, a tax 
expenditure.
  44. Capital gains exclusion on home sales.--A homeowner can exclude 
from tax up to $500,000 ($250,000 for singles) of the capital gains from 
the sale of a principal residence. The exclusion may not be used more 
than once every two years.
  45. Passive loss real estate exemption.--In general, passive losses 
may not offset income from other sources. Losses up to $25,000 
attributable to certain rental real estate activity, however, are exempt 
from this rule.
  46. Low-income housing credit.--Taxpayers who invest in certain low-
income housing are eligible for a tax credit. The credit rate is set so 
that the present value of the credit is equal to 70 percent for new 
construction and 30 percent for (1) housing receiving other Federal 
benefits (such as tax-exempt bond financing), or (2) substantially 
rehabilitated existing housing. The credit is allowed in equal amounts 
over 10 years. State agencies determine who receives the credit; States 
are limited in the amount of credit they may authorize annually. The 
Community Renewal Tax Relief Act of 2000 increased the per-resident 
limit to $1.50 in 2001 and to $1.75 in 2002 and indexed the limit for 
inflation, beginning in 2003. The Act also created a $2 million minimum 
annual cap for small States beginning in 2002; the cap is indexed for 
inflation, beginning in 2003.
  47. Accelerated depreciation of rental property.--The tax depreciation 
allowance provisions are part of the reference law rules, and thus do 
not give rise to tax expenditures under the reference method. Under the 
normal tax method, however, a 40-year tax life for depreciable real 
property is the norm. Thus, a statutory depreciation period for rental 
property of 27.5 years is a tax expenditure. In addition, tax 
expenditures arise from pre-1987 tax allowances for rental property.
  48. Cancellation of indebtedness.--Individuals are not required to 
report the cancellation of certain indebtedness as current income. If 
the canceled debt is not reported as current income, however, the basis 
of the underlying property must be reduced by the amount canceled.
  49. Imputed interest rules.--Holders (issuers) of debt instruments are 
generally required to report interest earned (paid) in the period it 
accrues, not when paid. In addition, the amount of interest accrued is 
determined by the actual price paid, not by the stated principal and 
interest stipulated in the instrument. In general, any debt associated 
with the sale of property worth less than $250,000 is excepted from the 
general interest accounting rules. This general $250,000 exception is 
not a tax expenditure under reference law but is under normal law. 
Exceptions above $250,000 are a tax expenditure under reference law; 
these exceptions include the following: (1) sales of personal residences 
worth more than $250,000, and (2) sales of farms and small businesses 
worth between $250,000 and $1 million.
  50. Capital gains (other than agriculture, timber, iron ore, and 
coal).--Capital gains on assets held for more than 1 year are taxed at a 
lower rate than ordinary income. The lower rate on capital gains is 
considered a tax expenditure under the normal tax method but not under 
the reference law method.
  For most assets held for more than 1 year, the top capital gains tax 
rate is 20 percent. For assets acquired after December 31, 2000, the top 
capital gains tax rate for assets held for more than 5 years is 18 
percent. On January 1, 2001, taxpayers may mark-to-market existing 
assets to start the 5-year holding period. Losses from the mark-to-
market are not recognized.
  For assets held for more than 1 year by taxpayers in the 15-percent 
ordinary tax bracket, the top capital gains tax rate is 10 percent. 
After December 31, 2000, the top capital gains tax rate for assets held 
by these taxpayers for more than 5 years is 8 percent.
  51. Capital gains exclusion for small business stock.--An exclusion of 
50 percent is provided for capital gains from qualified small business 
stock held by individuals for more than 5 years. A qualified small 
business is a corporation whose gross assets do not exceed $50 million 
as of the date of issuance of the stock.
  52. Step-up in basis of capital gains at death.--Capital gains on 
assets held at the owner's death are not subject to capital gains taxes. 
The cost basis of the appreciated assets is adjusted upward to the 
market value at the owner's date of death. After repeal of the estate 
tax under EGTRRA for 2010, the basis for property acquired from a 
decedent will be the lesser of fair market value or the decedent's 
basis. Certain types of additions to basis will be allowed so that 
assets in most estates that are not currently subject to estate tax will 
not be subject to capital gains tax in the hands of the heirs.
  53. Carryover basis of capital gains on gifts.--When a gift is made, 
the donor's basis in the transferred property (the cost that was 
incurred when the transferred property was first acquired) carries-over 
to the donee. The carryover of the donor's basis allows a continued 
deferral of unrealized capital gains. Even though the estate tax is 
repealed for 2010 under EGTRRA, the gift tax is retained with a lifetime 
exemption of $1 million.

[[Page 121]]

  54. Ordinary income treatment of losses from sale of small business 
corporate stock shares.--Up to $100,000 in losses from the sale of small 
business corporate stock (capitalization less than $1 million) may be 
treated as ordinary losses. Such losses would, thus, not be subject to 
the $3,000 annual capital loss write-off limit.
  55. Accelerated depreciation of non-rental-housing buildings.--The tax 
depreciation allowance provisions are part of the reference law rules, 
and thus do not give rise to tax expenditures under reference law. Under 
normal law, however, a 40-year life for non-rental-housing buildings is 
the norm. Thus, the 39-year depreciation period for property placed in 
service after February 25, 1993, the 31.5-year depreciation period for 
property placed in service from 1987 to February 25, 1993, and the pre-
1987 depreciation periods create a tax expenditure.
  56. Accelerated depreciation of machinery and equipment.--The tax 
depreciation allowance provisions are part of the reference law rules, 
and thus do not give rise to tax expenditures under reference law. Under 
the normal tax baseline, this tax depreciation allowance is measured 
relative to straight-line depreciation using Asset Depreciation Range 
(ADR) lives. Statutory depreciation of machinery and equipment is 
accelerated relative to this baseline, thereby creating a tax 
expenditure under the normal tax rules.
  57. Expensing of certain small investments.--In 2001, qualifying 
investments in tangible property up to $24,000 can be expensed rather 
than depreciated over time. The expensing limit increases to $25,000 in 
2003. To the extent that qualifying investment during the year exceeds 
$200,000, the amount eligible for expensing is decreased. In 2001, the 
amount expensed is completely phased out when qualifying investments 
exceed $224,000.
  58. Business start-up costs.--When taxpayers enter into a new 
business, certain start-up expenses, such as the cost of legal services, 
are normally incurred. Taxpayers may elect to amortize these outlays 
over 60 months even though they are similar to other payments made for 
nondepreciable intangible assets that are not recoverable until the 
business is sold. The normal tax method treats this amortization as a 
tax expenditure; the reference tax method does not.
  59. Graduated corporation income tax rate schedule.--The corporate 
income tax schedule is graduated, with rates of 15 percent on the first 
$50,000 of taxable income, 25 percent on the next $25,000, and 34 
percent on the next $9.925 million. Compared with a flat 34-percent 
rate, the lower rates provide an $11,750 reduction in tax liability for 
corporations with taxable income of $75,000. This benefit is recaptured 
for corporations with taxable incomes exceeding $100,000 by a 5-percent 
additional tax on corporate incomes in excess of $100,000 but less than 
$335,000.
  The corporate tax rate is 35 percent on income over $10 million. 
Compared with a flat 35-percent tax rate, the 34-percent rate provides a 
$100,000 reduction in tax liability for corporations with taxable 
incomes of $10 million. This benefit is recaptured for corporations with 
taxable incomes exceeding $15 million by a 3-percent additional tax on 
income over $15 million but less than $18.33 million. Because the 
corporate rate schedule is part of reference tax law, it is not 
considered a tax expenditure under the reference method. A flat 
corporation income tax rate is taken as the baseline under the normal 
tax method; therefore the lower rates is considered a tax expenditure 
under this concept.
  60. Small issue industrial development bonds.--Interest earned on 
small issue industrial development bonds (IDBs) issued by State and 
local governments to finance manufacturing facilities is tax-exempt. 
Depreciable property financed with small issue IDBs must be depreciated, 
however, using the straight-line method. The annual volume of small 
issue IDBs is subject to the unified volume cap discussed in the 
mortgage housing bond section above.

                             Transportation

  61. Deferral of tax on U.S. shipping companies.--Certain companies 
that operate U.S. flag vessels can defer income taxes on that portion of 
their income used for shipping purposes, primarily construction, 
modernization and major repairs to ships, and repayment of loans to 
finance these investments. Once indefinite, the deferral has been 
limited to 25 years since January 1, 1987.
  62. Exclusion of employee parking expenses.--Employee parking expenses 
that are paid for by the employer or that are received in lieu of wages 
are excludable from the income of the employee. In 2001, the maximum 
amount of the parking exclusion is $180 (indexed) per month. The tax 
expenditure estimate does not include parking at facilities owned by the 
employer.
  63. Exclusion of employee transit pass expenses.--Transit passes, 
tokens, fare cards, and vanpool expenses paid for by an employer or 
provided in lieu of wages to defray an employee's commuting costs are 
excludable from the employee's income. In 2001, the maximum amount of 
the exclusion is $65 (indexed) per month. In 2002, the maximum amount of 
the exclusion increases to $100 (indexed) per month.

                   Community and Regional Development

  64. Rehabilitation of structures.--A 10-percent investment tax credit 
is available for the rehabilitation of buildings that are used for 
business or productive activities and that were erected before 1936 for 
other than residential purposes. The taxpayer's recoverable basis must 
be reduced by the amount of the credit.
  65. Airport, dock, and similar facility bonds.--Interest earned on 
State and local bonds issued to finance high-speed rail facilities and 
government-owned airports, docks, wharves, and sport and convention 
facilities is tax-exempt. These bonds are not subject to a volume cap.

[[Page 122]]

  66. Exemption of income of mutuals and cooperatives.--The incomes of 
mutual and cooperative telephone and electric companies are exempt from 
tax if at least 85 percent of their revenues are derived from patron 
service charges.
  67. Empowerment zones, enterprise communities, and renewal 
communities.--Qualifying businesses in designated economically depressed 
areas can receive tax benefits such as an employer wage credit, 
increased expensing of investment in equipment, special tax-exempt 
financing, accelerated depreciation, and certain capital gains 
incentives. In addition, certain first-time buyers of a principal 
residence in the District of Columbia can receive a tax credit on homes 
purchased on or before December 31, 2003, and investors in certain D.C. 
property can receive a capital gains break. The Community Renewal Tax 
Relief Act of 2000 created the renewal communities tax benefits, which 
begin on January 1, 2002 and expire on December 31, 2009. The Act also 
created additional empowerment zones, increased the tax benefits for 
empowerment zones, and extended the expiration date of (1) empowerment 
zones from December 31, 2004 to December 31, 2009, and (2) the D.C. 
home-buyer credit from December 31, 2001 to December 31, 2003.
  68. New markets tax credit.--Taxpayers who invest in a community 
development entity (CDE) after December 31, 2000 are eligible for a tax 
credit. The total equity investment available for the credit across all 
CDEs is $1.0 billion in 2001, $1.5 billion in 2002 and 2003, $2.0 
billion in 2004 and 2005, and $3.5 billion in 2006 and 2007. The amount 
of the credit equals (1) 5 percent in the year of purchase and the 
following 2 years, and (2) 6 percent in the following 4 years. A CDE is 
any domestic firm whose primary mission is to serve or provide 
investment capital for low-income communities/individuals; a CDE must be 
accountable to residents of low-income communities. The Community 
Renewal Tax Relief Act of 2000 created the new markets tax credit.
  69. Expensing of environmental remediation costs.--Taxpayers who clean 
up certain hazardous substances at a qualified site may expense the 
clean-up costs, rather than capitalize the costs, even though the 
expenses will generally increase the value of the property significantly 
or appreciably prolong the life of the property. The expensing only 
applies to clean-up costs incurred on or before December 31, 2003. The 
Community Renewal Tax Relief Act of 2000 extended the expiration date 
from December 31, 2001 to December 31, 2003. The Act also expanded the 
number of qualified sites.

          Education, Training, Employment, and Social Services

  70. Scholarship and fellowship income.--Scholarships and fellowships 
are excluded from taxable income to the extent they pay for tuition and 
course-related expenses of the grantee. Similarly, tuition reductions 
for employees of educational institutions and their families are not 
included in taxable income. From an economic point of view, scholarships 
and fellowships are either gifts not conditioned on the performance of 
services, or they are rebates of educational costs. Thus, under the 
reference law method, this exclusion is not a tax expenditure because 
this method does not include either gifts or price reductions in a 
taxpayer's gross income. The exclusion, however, is considered a tax 
expenditure under the normal tax method, which includes gift-like 
transfers of government funds in gross income (many scholarships are 
derived directly or indirectly from government funding).
  71. HOPE tax credit.--The non-refundable HOPE tax credit allows a 
credit for 100 percent of an eligible student's first $1,000 of tuition 
and fees and 50 percent of the next $1,000 of tuition and fees. The 
credit only covers tuition and fees paid during the first two years of a 
student's post-secondary education. The credit is phased out ratably for 
taxpayers with modified AGI between $80,000 and $100,000 ($40,000 and 
$50,000 for singles) (indexed beginning in 2002).
  72. Lifetime learning tax credit.--The non-refundable Lifetime 
Learning tax credit allows a credit for 20 percent of an eligible 
student's tuition and fees. For tuition and fees paid before January 1, 
2003, the maximum credit per return is $1,000. For tuition and fees paid 
after December 31, 2002, the maximum credit per return is $2,000. The 
credit is phased out ratably for taxpayers with modified AGI between 
$80,000 and $100,000 ($40,000 and $50,000 for singles) (indexed 
beginning in 2002). The credit applies to both undergraduate and 
graduate students.
  73. Deduction for higher education expenses.--EGTRRA provides a new 
above-the-line deduction for qualified higher education expenses. The 
maximum annual deduction is $3,000 beginning in 2002 for taxpayers with 
adjusted gross income up to $130,000 on a joint return ($65,000 for 
singles). The maximum deduction increases to $4,000 in 2004. Taxpayers 
with adjusted gross income up to $160,000 on a joint return ($80,000 for 
singles) may deduct up to $2,000 beginning in 2004. No deduction is 
allowed for expenses paid after December 31, 2005.
  74. Education Individual Retirement Accounts.--Contributions to an 
education IRA are not tax-deductible. Investment income earned by 
education IRAs is not taxed when earned, and investment income from an 
education IRA is tax-exempt when withdrawn to pay for a student's 
tuition and fees. The maximum contribution to an education IRA in 2001 
is $500 per beneficiary. In 2001, the maximum contribution is phased 
down ratably for taxpayers with modified AGI between $150,000 and 
$160,000 ($95,000 and $110,000 for singles). EGTRRA increases the 
maximum contribution to $2,000 and the phase-out range for joint filers 
to $190,000 through $220,000 of modified AGI, double the range of 
singles. EGTRRA also allows elementary and secondary school expenses to 
be paid tax-free from such accounts.

[[Page 123]]

  75. Student-loan interest.--Taxpayers may claim an above-the-line 
deduction of up to $2,500 on interest paid on an education loan. 
Interest may only be deducted for the first five years in which interest 
payments are required. In 2001, the maximum deduction is phased down 
ratably for taxpayers with modified AGI between $60,000 and $75,000 
($40,000 and $55,000 for singles). EGTRRA increased the income 
thresholds for the phase down to $100,000 and $130,000 ($50,000 and 
$65,000 for singles) (indexed) and repealed the five year rule for 
interest payments made after December 21, 2001.
  76. State prepaid tuition plans.--Some States have adopted prepaid 
tuition plans and prepaid room and board plans, which allow persons to 
pay in advance for college expenses for designated beneficiaries. In 
2001 taxes on the earnings from these plans are paid by the 
beneficiaries and are deferred until tuition is actually paid. Beginning 
in 2002, investment income is not taxed when earned, and is tax-exempt 
when withdrawn to pay for qualified expenses. These changes were the 
result of EGTRRA.
  77. Student-loan bonds.--Interest earned on State and local bonds 
issued to finance student loans is tax-exempt. The volume of all such 
private activity bonds that each State may issue annually is limited.
  78. Bonds for private nonprofit educational institutions.--Interest 
earned on State and local government bonds issued to finance the 
construction of facilities used by private nonprofit educational 
institutions is not taxed.
  79. Credit for holders of zone academy bonds.--Financial institutions 
that own zone academy bonds receive a non-refundable tax credit (at a 
rate set by the Treasury Department) rather than interest. The credit is 
included in gross income. Proceeds from zone academy bonds may only be 
used to renovate, but not construct, qualifying schools and for certain 
other school purposes. The total amount of zone academy bonds that may 
be issued is limited to $1.6 billion--$400 million in each year from 
1998 to 2001.
  80. U.S. savings bonds for education.--Interest earned on U.S. savings 
bonds issued after December 31, 1989 is tax-exempt if the bonds are 
transferred to an educational institution to pay for educational 
expenses. The tax exemption is phased out for taxpayers with AGI between 
$83,650 and $113,650 ($55,750 and $70,750 for singles) in 2001.
  81. Dependent students age 19 or older.--Taxpayers may claim personal 
exemptions for dependent children age 19 or over who (1) receive 
parental support payments of $1,000 or more per year, (2) are full-time 
students, and (3) do not claim a personal exemption on their own tax 
returns.
  82. Charitable contributions to educational institutions.--Taxpayers 
may deduct contributions to nonprofit educational institutions. 
Taxpayers who donate capital assets to educational institutions can 
deduct the assets' current value without being taxed on any appreciation 
in value. An individual's total charitable contribution generally may 
not exceed 50 percent of adjusted gross income; a corporation's total 
charitable contributions generally may not exceed 10 percent of pre-tax 
income.
  83. Employer-provided educational assistance.--Employer-provided 
educational assistance is excluded from an employee's gross income even 
though the employer's costs for this assistance are a deductible 
business expense. EGTRRA permanently extended this exclusion and 
extended the exclusion to also include graduate education (beginning in 
2002).
  84. Work opportunity tax credit.--Employers can claim a tax credit for 
qualified wages paid to individuals who begin work on or before December 
31, 2001 and who are certified as members of various targeted groups. 
The amount of the credit that can be claimed is 25 percent for 
employment of less than 400 hours and 40 percent for employment of 400 
hours or more. The maximum credit per employee is $2,400 and can only be 
claimed on the first year of wages an individual earns from an employer. 
Employers must reduce their deduction for wages paid by the amount of 
the credit claimed.
  85. Welfare-to-work tax credit.--An employer is eligible for a tax 
credit on the first $20,000 of eligible wages paid to qualified long-
term family assistance recipients during the first two years of 
employment. The credit is 35 percent of the first $10,000 of wages in 
the first year of employment and 50 percent of the first $10,000 of 
wages in the second year of employment. The maximum credit is $8,500 per 
employee. The credit applies to wages paid to employees who are hired on 
or before December 31, 2001.
  86. Employer-provided child care exclusion.--Employer-provided child 
care is excluded from an employee's gross income even though the 
employer's costs for the child care are a deductible business expense.
  87. Employer-provided child care credit.--Employers can deduct 
expenses for supporting child care or child care resource and referral 
services. EGTRRA provides a tax credit to employers for qualified 
expenses beginning in 2002. The credit is equal to 25 percent of 
qualified expenses for employee child care and 10 percent of qualified 
expenses for child care resource and referral services. Employer 
deductions for such expenses are reduced by the amount of the credit. 
The maximum total credit is limited to $150,000 per taxable year.
  88. Assistance for adopted foster children.--Taxpayers who adopt 
eligible children from the public foster care system can receive monthly 
payments for the children's significant and varied needs and a 
reimbursement of up to $2,000 for nonrecurring adoption expenses. These 
payments are excluded from gross income.
  89. Adoption credit and exclusion.--Taxpayers can receive a 
nonrefundable tax credit for qualified adoption expenses. The maximum 
credit is $5,000 per child ($6,000 for special needs adoptions) for 
2001. The credit is phased-out ratably for taxpayers with modified AGI

[[Page 124]]

between $75,000 and $115,000 in 2001. EGTRRA increased the maximum 
credit for non-special needs children to $10,000, set a flat credit 
amount of $10,000 for special needs children, and increased the start 
point of the phase-out to $150,000 beginning in 2002. The credit amounts 
and the phase-out thresholds are indexed for inflation beginning in 
2003. Unused credits may be carried forward and used during the five 
subsequent years. Taxpayers may also exclude qualified adoption expenses 
from income, subject to the same maximum amounts and phase-out as the 
credit. The same expenses cannot qualify for tax benefits under both 
programs; however, a taxpayer may use the benefits of the exclusion and 
the tax credit for different expenses. Stepchild adoptions are not 
eligible for either benefit. Both the credit and the exclusion were made 
permanent by EGTRRA.
  90. Employer-provided meals and lodging.--Employer-provided meals and 
lodging are excluded from an employee's gross income even though the 
employer's costs for these items are a deductible business expense.
  91. Child credit.--Taxpayers with children under age 17 can qualify 
for a $600 refundable per child credit. The maximum credit is increased 
to $700 in 2005, $800 in 2009, and $1,000 in 2010. The credit is phased 
out for taxpayers at the rate of $50 per $1,000 of modified AGI above 
$110,000 ($75,000 for singles).
  92. Child and dependent care expenses.--Married couples with child and 
dependent care expenses may claim a tax credit when one spouse works 
full time and the other works at least part time or goes to school. The 
credit may also be claimed by single parents and by divorced or 
separated parents who have custody of children. Expenditures up to a 
maximum $2,400 for one dependent and $4,800 for two or more dependents 
are eligible for the credit. EGTRRA increased the maximum expenditure 
limit to $3,000 for one dependent and $6,000 for two or more dependents 
beginning in 2003. The credit is equal to 30 percent of qualified 
expenditures (35 percent beginning in 2003) for taxpayers with incomes 
of $10,000 or less ($15,000 or less beginning in 2003). The credit is 
reduced to a minimum of 20 percent by one percentage point for each 
$2,000 of income in excess of $10,000 ($15,000 beginning in 2003).
  93. Disabled access expenditure credit.--Small businesses (less than 
$1 million in gross receipts or fewer than 31 full-time employees) can 
claim a 50-percent credit for expenditures in excess of $250 to remove 
access barriers for disabled persons. The credit is limited to $5,000.
  94. Charitable contributions, other than education and health.--
Taxpayers may deduct contributions to charitable, religious, and certain 
other nonprofit organizations. Taxpayers who donate capital assets to 
charitable organizations can deduct the assets' current value without 
being taxed on any appreciation in value. An individual's total 
charitable contribution generally may not exceed 50 percent of adjusted 
gross income; a corporation's total charitable contributions generally 
may not exceed 10 percent of pre-tax income.
  95. Foster care payments.--Foster parents provide a home and care for 
children who are wards of the State, under contract with the State. 
Compensation received for this service is excluded from the gross 
incomes of foster parents; the expenses they incur are nondeductible.
  96. Parsonage allowances.--The value of a minister's housing allowance 
and the rental value of parsonages are not included in a minister's 
taxable income.

                                 Health

  97. Employer-paid medical insurance and expenses.--Employer-paid 
health insurance premiums and other medical expenses (including long-
term care) are deducted as a business expense by employers, but they are 
not included in employee gross income. The self-employed also may deduct 
part of their family health insurance premiums.
  98. Self-employed medical insurance premiums.--Self-employed taxpayers 
may deduct a percentage of their family health insurance premiums. 
Taxpayers without self-employment income are not eligible for the 
special percentage deduction. The deductible percentage is 60 percent in 
2001, 70 percent in 2002, and 100 percent in 2003 and thereafter.
  99. Workers compensation insurance premiums.--Workers compensation 
insurance premiums are paid by employers and deducted as a business 
expense, but the premiums are not included in employee gross income.
  100. Medical savings accounts.--Some employees may deduct annual 
contributions to a medical savings account (MSA); employer contributions 
to MSAs (except those made through cafeteria plans) for qualified 
employees are also excluded from income. An employee may contribute to 
an MSA in a given year only if the employer does not contribute to the 
MSA in that year. MSAs are only available to self-employed individuals 
or employees covered under an employer-sponsored high deductible health 
plan of a small employer. The maximum annual MSA contribution is 75 
percent of the deductible under the high deductible plan for family 
coverage (65 percent for individual coverage). Earnings from MSAs are 
excluded from taxable income. Distributions from an MSA for medical 
expenses are not taxable. The number of taxpayers who may benefit 
annually from MSAs is generally limited to 750,000. No new MSAs may be 
established after December 31, 2002. The Community Renewal Tax Relief 
Act of 2000 extended the expiration date from December 31, 2000 to 
December 31, 2002.
  101. Medical care expenses.--Personal expenditures for medical care 
(including the costs of prescription drugs) exceeding 7.5 percent of the 
taxpayer's adjusted gross income are deductible.
  102. Hospital construction bonds.--Interest earned on State and local 
government debt issued to finance

[[Page 125]]

hospital construction is excluded from income subject to tax.
  103. Charitable contributions to health institutions.--Individuals and 
corporations may deduct contributions to nonprofit health institutions. 
Tax expenditures resulting from the deductibility of contributions to 
other charitable institutions are listed under the education, training, 
employment, and social services function.
  104. Orphan drugs.--Drug firms can claim a tax credit of 50 percent of 
the costs for clinical testing required by the Food and Drug 
Administration for drugs that treat rare physical conditions or rare 
diseases.
  105. Blue Cross and Blue Shield.--Blue Cross and Blue Shield health 
insurance providers in existence on August 16, 1986 and certain other 
nonprofit health insurers are provided exceptions from otherwise 
applicable insurance company income tax accounting rules that 
substantially reduce (or even eliminate) their tax liabilities.

                             Income Security

  106. Railroad retirement benefits.--Railroad retirement benefits are 
not generally subject to the income tax unless the recipient's gross 
income reaches a certain threshold. The threshold is discussed more 
fully under the Social Security function.
  107. Workers' compensation benefits.--Workers compensation provides 
payments to disabled workers. These benefits, although income to the 
recipients, are not subject to the income tax.
  108. Public assistance benefits.--Public assistance benefits are 
excluded from tax. The normal tax method considers cash transfers from 
the government as taxable and, thus, treats the exclusion for public 
assistance benefits as a tax expenditure.
  109. Special benefits for disabled coal miners.--Disability payments 
to former coal miners out of the Black Lung Trust Fund, although income 
to the recipient, are not subject to the income tax.
  110. Military disability pensions.--Most of the military pension 
income received by current disabled retired veterans is excluded from 
their income subject to tax.
  111. Employer-provided pension contributions and earnings.--Certain 
employer contributions to pension plans are excluded from an employee's 
gross income even though the employer can deduct the contributions. In 
addition, the tax on the investment income earned by the pension plans 
is deferred until the money is withdrawn.
  112. 401(k) plans.--Individual taxpayers can make tax-preferred 
contributions to certain types of employer-provided 401(k) plans (and 
401(k)-type plans like 403(b) plans and the Federal government's Thrift 
Savings Plan). In 2001, an employee could exclude up to $10,500 
(indexed) of wages from AGI under a qualified arrangement with an 
employer's 401(k) plan. EGTRRA increases the exclusion amount to $11,000 
in 2002, $12,000 in 2003, $13,000 in 2004, $14,000 in 2005 and $15,000 
in 2006 (indexed thereafter). The tax on the investment income earned by 
401(k)-type plans is deferred until withdrawn.
  EGTRRA also allows employees to make after-tax contributions to 401(k) 
and 401(k)-type plans beginning in 2002. These contributions are not 
excluded from AGI, but the investment income of such after-tax 
contributions is not taxed when earned or withdrawn.
  113. Individual Retirement Accounts.--Individual taxpayers can take 
advantage of several different Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): 
deductible IRAs, non-deductible IRAs, and Roth IRAs. In 2001, employees 
can make annual contributions to an IRA up to $2,000 (or 100 percent of 
compensation, if less). The annual contributions limit applies to the 
total of a taxpayer's deductible, non-deductible, and Roth IRAs 
contributions. EGTRRA increases the IRA contribution limit to $3,000 in 
2002, $4,000 in 2005, and $5,000 in 2008 (indexed thereafter) and allows 
taxpayers over age 50 to make additional ``catch-up'' contributions of 
$1,000 (by 2006).
  Taxpayers whose AGI is below $53,000 ($33,000 for non-joint filers) in 
2001 can claim a deduction for IRA contributions. In 2001, the IRA 
deduction is phased out for taxpayers with AGI between $53,000 and 
$63,000 ($33,000 and $43,000 for non-joint). The phase-out range 
increases annually until it reaches $80,000 to $100,000 in 2007 ($50,000 
to $60,000 in 2005 for non-joint filers). Taxpayers whose AGI is above 
the phase-out range can also claim a deduction for their IRA 
contributions depending on whether they (or their spouse) are an active 
participant in an employer-provided retirement plan. The tax on the 
investment income earned by 401(k) plans, non-deductible IRAs, and 
deductible IRAs is deferred until the money is withdrawn.
  Taxpayers with incomes below $150,000 ($90,000 for nonjoint filers) 
can make contributions to Roth IRAs. The maximum contribution to a Roth 
IRA is phased out for taxpayers with AGI between $150,000 and $160,000 
($95,000 and $110,000 for singles). Investment income of a Roth IRA is 
not taxed when earned nor when withdrawn. Withdrawals from a Roth IRA 
are penalty free if: (1) the Roth IRA was opened at least 5 years before 
the withdrawal, and (2) the taxpayer either (a) is at least 59-1/2, (b) 
dies, (c) is disabled, or (d) purchases a first-time house.
  Taxpayers can contribute to a non-deductible IRA regardless of their 
income and whether they are an active participant in an employer-
provided retirement plan. The tax on investment income earned by non-
deductible IRAs is deferred until the money is withdrawn.
  114. Low and moderate income savers' credit.--EGTRRA provides an 
additional incentive for lower-income taxpayers to save through a 
nonrefundable credit of up to 50 percent on IRA contributions. This 
credit is in addition to any deduction or exclusion. The credit is 
completely phased out by $50,000 for joint filers and $25,000 for single 
filers. This temporary credit is in effect from 2002 through 2006.

[[Page 126]]

  115. Keogh plans.--Self-employed individuals can make deductible 
contributions to their own retirement (Keogh) plans equal to 25 percent 
of their income, up to a maximum of $35,000 in 2001. Total plan 
contributions are limited to 15 percent of a firm's total wages. EGTRRA 
increases the percent of pay limit to 100 percent of the income of the 
self-employed by 2005 and increases the dollar limit on contributions to 
$40,000 beginning in 2002. EGTRRA also increased the plan limit to 25 
percent of a firm's total wages and excluded employee contributions from 
this limit beginning in 2002. The tax on the investment income earned by 
Keogh plans is deferred until withdrawn.
  116. Employer-provided life insurance benefits.--Employer-provided 
life insurance benefits are excluded from an employee's gross income 
even though the employer's costs for the insurance are a deductible 
business expense.
  117. Small business retirement plan credit.--EGTRRA provides 
businesses with 100 or fewer employees a credit for 50 percent of the 
qualified startup costs associated with a new qualified retirement plan. 
The credit is limited to $500 annually and may only be claimed for 
expenses incurred during the first three years from the start of the 
qualified plan. Qualified startup expenses include expenses related to 
the establishment and administration of the plan, and the retirement-
related education of employees. The credit applies to costs incurred 
beginning in 2002.
  118. Employer-provided accident and disability benefits.--Employer-
provided accident and disability benefits are excluded from an 
employee's gross income even though the employer's costs for the 
benefits are a deductible business expense.
  119. Employer-provided supplementary unemployment benefits.--Employers 
may establish trusts to pay supplemental unemployment benefits to 
employees separated from employment. Interest payments to such trusts 
are exempt from taxation.
  120. Employer Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP) provisions.--ESOPs are a 
special type of tax-exempt employee benefit plan. Employer-paid 
contributions (the value of stock issued to the ESOP) are deductible by 
the employer as part of employee compensation costs. They are not 
included in the employees' gross income for tax purposes, however, until 
they are paid out as benefits. The following special income tax 
provisions for ESOPs are intended to increase ownership of corporations 
by their employees: (1) annual employer contributions are subject to 
less restrictive limitations; (2) ESOPs may borrow to purchase employer 
stock, guaranteed by their agreement with the employer that the debt 
will be serviced by his payment (deductible by him) of a portion of 
wages (excludable by the employees) to service the loan; (3) employees 
who sell appreciated company stock to the ESOP may defer any taxes due 
until they withdraw benefits; and (4) dividends paid to ESOP-held stock 
are deductible by the employer.
  121. Additional deduction for the blind.--Taxpayers who are blind may 
take an additional $1,100 standard deduction if single, or $900 if 
married.
  122. Additional deduction for the elderly.--Taxpayers who are 65 years 
or older may take an additional $1,100 standard deduction if single, or 
$900 if married.
  123. Tax credit for the elderly and disabled.--Individuals who are 65 
years of age or older, or who are permanently disabled, can take a tax 
credit equal to 15 percent of the sum of their earned and retirement 
income. Income is limited to no more than $5,000 for single individuals 
or married couples filing a joint return where only one spouse is 65 
years of age or older, and up to $7,500 for joint returns where both 
spouses are 65 years of age or older. These limits are reduced by one-
half of the taxpayer's adjusted gross income over $7,500 for single 
individuals and $10,000 for married couples filing a joint return.
  124. Casualty losses.--Neither the purchase of property nor insurance 
premiums to protect its value are deductible as costs of earning income; 
therefore, reimbursement for insured loss of such property is not 
reportable as a part of gross income. Taxpayers, however, may deduct 
uninsured casualty and theft losses of more than $100 each, but only to 
the extent that total losses during the year exceed 10 percent of AGI.
  125. Earned income tax credit (EITC).--The EITC may be claimed by low 
income workers. For a family with one qualifying child, the credit is 34 
percent of the first $7,140 of earned income in 2001. The credit is 40 
percent of the first $10,020 of income for a family with two or more 
qualifying children. The credit is phased out beginning when the 
taxpayer's income exceeds $13,090 at the rate of 15.98 percent (21.06 
percent if two or more qualifying children are present). It is 
completely phased out when the taxpayer's modified adjusted gross income 
reaches $28,281 ($32,121 if two or more qualifying children are 
present).
  The credit may also be claimed by workers who do not have children 
living with them. Qualifying workers must be at least age 25 and may not 
be claimed as a dependent on another taxpayer's return. The credit is 
not available to workers age 65 or older. In 2001, the credit is 7.65 
percent of the first $4,760 of earned income. When the taxpayer's income 
exceeds $5,950, the credit is phased out at the rate of 7.65 percent. It 
is completely phased out at $10,710 of modified adjusted gross income.
  For workers with or without children, the income levels at which the 
credit begins to phase-out and the maximum amounts of income on which 
the credit can be taken are adjusted for inflation. For married 
taxpayers filing a joint return, EGTRRA increases the base amount for 
the phase-out by $1,000 in 2002 through 2004, $2,000 in 2005 through 
2007, and $3,000 in 2008 (indexed thereafter). Earned income tax credits 
in excess of tax liabilities owed through the individual income tax 
system are refundable to individuals. This portion of the credit is 
shown as an outlay, while the

[[Page 127]]

amount that offsets tax liabilities is shown as a tax expenditure.

                             Social Security

  126. Social Security benefits for retired workers.--Social Security 
benefits that exceed the beneficiary's contributions out of taxed income 
are deferred employee compensation and the deferral of tax on that 
compensation is a tax expenditure. These additional retirement benefits 
are paid for partly by employers' contributions that were not included 
in employees' taxable compensation. Portions (reaching as much as 85 
percent) of recipients' Social Security and Tier 1 Railroad Retirement 
benefits are included in the income tax base, however, if the 
recipient's provisional income exceeds certain base amounts. Provisional 
income is equal to adjusted gross income plus foreign or U.S. possession 
income and tax-exempt interest, and one half of Social Security and tier 
1 railroad retirement benefits. The tax expenditure is limited to the 
portion of the benefits received by taxpayers who are below the base 
amounts at which 85 percent of the benefits are taxable.
  127. Social Security benefits for the disabled.--Benefit payments from 
the Social Security Trust Fund, for disability and for dependents and 
survivors, are excluded from a beneficiary's gross incomes.
  128. Social Security benefits for dependents and survivors.--Benefit 
payments from the Social Security Trust Fund for dependents and 
survivors are excluded from a beneficiary's gross income.

                     Veterans Benefits and Services

  129. Veterans death benefits and disability compensation.--All 
compensation due to death or disability paid by the Veterans 
Administration is excluded from taxable income.
  130. Veterans pension payments.--Pension payments made by the Veterans 
Administration are excluded from gross income.
  131. G.I. Bill benefits.--G.I. Bill benefits paid by the Veterans 
Administration are excluded from gross income.
  132. Tax-exempt mortgage bonds for veterans.--Interest earned on 
general obligation bonds issued by State and local governments to 
finance housing for veterans is excluded from taxable income. The 
issuance of such bonds is limited, however, to five pre-existing State 
programs and to amounts based upon previous volume levels for the period 
January 1, 1979 to June 22, 1984. Furthermore, future issues are limited 
to veterans who served on active duty before 1977.

                           General Government

  133. Public purpose State and local bonds.--Interest earned on State 
and local government bonds issued to finance public-purpose construction 
(e.g., schools, roads, sewers), equipment acquisition, and other public 
purposes is tax-exempt. Interest on bonds issued by Indian tribal 
governments for essential governmental purposes is also tax-exempt.
  134. Deductibility of certain nonbusiness State and local taxes.--
Taxpayers may deduct State and local income taxes and property taxes 
even though these taxes primarily pay for services that, if purchased 
directly by taxpayers, would not be deductible.
  135. Business income earned in U.S. possessions.--U.S. corporations 
operating in a U.S. possession (e.g., Puerto Rico) can claim a credit 
against some or all of their U.S. tax liability on possession business 
income. The credit expires December 31, 2005.

                                Interest

  136. U.S. savings bonds.--Taxpayers may defer paying tax on interest 
earned on U.S. savings bonds until the bonds are redeemed.