[Congressional Bills 118th Congress]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office]
[H.R. 8130 Introduced in House (IH)]
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118th CONGRESS
2d Session
H. R. 8130
To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of
misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign
Western Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century,
including to study and consider an apology and proposals for the
repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said
nations, and for other purposes.
_______________________________________________________________________
IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
April 26, 2024
Mr. Espaillat (for himself and Ms. Tlaib) introduced the following
bill; which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs
_______________________________________________________________________
A BILL
To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of
misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign
Western Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century,
including to study and consider an apology and proposals for the
repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said
nations, and for other purposes.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled,
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.
This Act may be cited as the ``Commission on the United States
Occupations in the Americas Act'' or the ``La Comision de las
Ocupaciones Americanos Act''.
SEC. 2. FINDINGS.
Congress finds the following as it relates to misguided United
States military interventions in the following nations:
(1) First occupation of nicaragua.--On November 18, 1909,
President William Howard Taft sent warships off the coast of
Nicaragua to signal United States support for an uprising
against Nicaraguan President Jose Santos Zelaya, whose
Presidency was viewed as unfavorable to the interests of United
States businesses operating in Nicaragua. While United States
forces were not ordered to intervene directly, a small group of
United States Marines nevertheless made landfall on the
Nicaraguan coast and assisted in the successful rebellion
against President Zelaya, who resigned on December 14, 1909,
and later fled the country. A new pro-United States President
of Nicaragua, Juan Estrada, was later installed in August 1910,
due in large part to the pressure imposed by the continual
presence of United States warships off the Nicaraguan coast.
President Estrada's pro-United States stances proved unpopular,
and he was forced to resign in May of 1911 by the Nicaraguan
Minister of War, Luis Mena. President Estrada was replaced by
his Vice President, Adolfo Diaz. Nevertheless, Diaz's close
connections to the United States also made him unpopular, and
in mid-1912, Nicaragua's Constituent Assembly appointed Mena as
the successor to the Presidency over Diaz. When the United
States refused to recognize Mena's Presidency as legitimate,
Mena's and Diaz's forces clashed in July of 1912 in a full-
scale civil war. Diaz requested the United States support in
the war. Beginning on August 4, 1912, multiple contingents of
United States Bluejackets and Marines arrived in Nicaragua and
assisted Diaz's forces, resulting in Diaz's victory on October
6, 1912, when his forces captured the city of Leon, Nicaragua.
Although only 7 members of the United States military died in
the conflict, the war nevertheless resulted in approximately
2,000 total casualties. The United States withdrew most of its
forces toward the end of October 1912. However, a smaller
contingent of approximately 100 Marines would remain in
Nicaragua's capital city of Managua for over a decade before
eventually withdrawing in August 1925.
(2) First occupation of mexico.--On April 21, 1914, at the
order of President Woodrow Wilson, 500 Marines and 300 Navy
personnel invaded the port city of Veracruz, Mexico, to seize
control of the city. President Wilson's pretext for this
operation was to enforce a United States arms embargo against
Mexico and prevent the arrival of an arms shipment in Veracruz
that had been ordered by Mexican President Victoriano Huerta,
who was viewed as an enemy of the United States at that time.
The ensuing fighting saw United States forces destroy most of
the Mexican Naval Academy in Veracruz. The United States
military was eventually able to take full control of Veracruz
by April 24, 1914, beginning a 6-month occupation by the United
States of the city. The United States military suffered just
shy of 100 casualties while approximately 550 Mexican soldiers
and civilians died while defending the city. United States
forces eventually withdrew from Veracruz on November 23, 1914.
The United States occupation of Veracruz had broad negative
consequences for the favorability of the United States amongst
Mexican citizens and increased anti-American sentiment
throughout Mexico and Latin America for decades to come.
(3) Second occupation of mexico.--From March 16, 1916,
through February 14, 1917, an expeditionary force of more than
14,000 United States Army troops was sent into northern Mexico.
These forces were instructed to engage in the singular pursuit
of capturing Mexican revolutionary Francisco ``Pancho'' Villa.
President Woodrow Wilson ordered this expedition in response to
Villa's army's raid of Colombus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916,
which killed 17 United States citizens. Over the course of the
next 11 months, multiple battles occurred in Mexico between
Pancho Villa's forces and United States forces, leaving a total
15 United States citizens and 251 Mexicans dead. Mexican
President Venustiano Carranza viewed the United States
expedition in pursuit of Villa as a clear violation of Mexican
sovereignty. The expedition ended before Villa was ever
captured, and United States forces eventually withdrew from
Mexico on February 14, 1917, in order to consolidate forces to
fight in World War I in Europe.
(4) First occupation of the dominican republic.--On May 13,
1916, a contingent of the United States Marine Corps landed on
the shores of the Dominican Republic with the goal of
militarily occupying the island nation due to concerns about
the possible German use of the Dominican Republic as a base for
attacks on the United States during World War I. After 2 months
of fighting, the United States military took control of the
nation, established a government, and continued to occupy the
island for 8 years before withdrawing on September 18, 1924. By
the time United States forces withdrew, 144 marines had died
and 50 were injured. The 8-year occupation also resulted in 950
Dominican casualties between those who died and those who were
injured in the conflict.
(5) Second occupation of nicaragua.--On January 24, 1927,
when Nicaragua was embroiled in another civil war that
threatened United States business and diplomatic interests in
the region, 3,000 United States Marines were deployed to
Nicaragua by President Calvin Coolidge with the goal of
disarming rebel groups, supervising the highly contentious 1928
Presidential election, and developing and training the Guardia
Nacional de Nicaragua (Nicaraguan National Guard). While the
Marines were successful in disarming various rebel groups
throughout the country, Nicaraguan rebel leader Cesar Augusto
Sandino and his forces resisted due to Sandino's ideological
opposition to United States interventionism in his country.
Sandino's army and the United States Marines engaged in a 6-
year-long military conflict through 1933. A total 136 Marines
died and estimates of Nicaraguan casualties, although
imprecise, were even larger. Sandino's willingness to stand up
to United States forces attracted sympathy and galvanized anti-
American sentiment both in Nicaragua and throughout the Western
Hemisphere. Despite Sandino's resistance, the United States
successfully supervised Nicaragua's November 1928 elections,
which saw President Jose Maria Moncada ascend to power. After
the election, President Herbert Hoover, slowly withdrew troops
from Nicaragua until the last Marines left Nicaragua on January
2, 1933. Sandino's rebel forces continued to engage in periodic
guerilla warfare against United States troops until these last
Marines were evacuated. Today, Sandino is a popular folk hero
amongst the Nicaraguan political left and his name provides the
inspiration for the modern-day ``Sandinista'' political party
that rules Nicaragua.
(6) Guatemala air occupation.--On June 18, 1954, through
June 27, 1954, as part of ``Operation PBSuccess'', the United
States Central Intelligence Agency (``CIA'') planned, designed,
and led a successful coup in Guatemala, overthrowing the
predominantly capitalist government of President Jacobo Arbenz,
coinciding in time with President Arbenz's plans to
redistribute land owned by the United Fruit Company, a
prosperous United States-based fruit company which controlled
42 percent of all land in Guatemala at that time. In
justification for Operation PBSuccess, the United States
spuriously alleged that President Arbenz's government had been
infiltrated by anti-American communists. The CIA provided both
supplies and a small fleet of combat troops for the rebellion,
during which United States pilots bombed fortresses and other
areas of Guatemala City. Operation PBSuccess was successful,
and on June 27, 1954, President Arbenz fled Guatemala. The 1954
coup is widely viewed by historians as ushering in an
unprecedented era of civil war in Guatemala that lasted until
1996 and claimed the lives of over 200,000 Guatemalans, many of
which were lost in connection with various additional covert
CIA operations that operated in the nation during this time
period.
(7) Second occupation of the dominican republic.--On April
28, 1965, the second intervention and occupation of the
Dominican Republic by the United States Armed Forces, called
``Operation Power Pack'', commenced and provided United States
air and ground troops to assist future Dominican President
Donal Reid Cabral's army in the Dominican 1965 civil war.
Operation Power Pack took place between 1965 and 1966, after a
period of political instability and military coup following the
assassination of former Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas
Trujillo in 1961. In 1962, socialist politician Juan Bosch
became the elected President of the Dominican Republic before
being overthrown in a separate coup in 1963. From 1963 through
April 1965, a 3-man military junta of General Antonio Imbert
Barrera, General Luis Amiamo Tio, and General Victor Elby Vinas
Roman held power before growing dissatisfaction led to another
rebellion on April 24, 1965. Four days later, President Lyndon
Johnson sent a total of 42,000 United States troops from
multiple branches of the military to the island, supplemented
by an Inter-American Peace Force of 2,000 troops, to assist
rebels led by Donald Reid Cabral. In what is now known as the
1965 Dominican Civil War or ``La Revolucion del 65'' Cabral's
forces prevailed due to the United States military backing.
Shortly after the war ended, on July 1, 1966, democratically
questionable elections were held in the Dominican Republic
which resulted in the election of Joaquin Balaguer as
President. United States troops withdrew from the island nation
thereafter on September 21, 1966. In total, 44 United States
combatants were killed in the conflict, alongside over 2,000
Dominicans, roughly half of whom were civilians. Following the
withdrawal of United States troops, President Balaguer, a
previous member of the Trujillo-led government, ruled the
Dominican Republic for a 12-year period characterized by
turmoil, the disappearances of Balaguer's political opponents,
and the deaths of hundreds of young political and social
activists. In this manner, the United States intervention
during Operation Power Pack played a key role in depriving
Dominican citizens of a free and sovereign government for at
least 12 additional years through 1978.
(8) Grenada occupation.--From October 25, 1983, through
October 29, 1983, the United States conducted ``Operation
Urgent Fury'', a full-scale military invasion of Grenada in
which thousands of troops from the United States Army, Marines,
Navy, and Air Force were deployed to Grenada and participated
in active combat against native Grenadians and Cuban fighters.
The United States invasion was authorized by President Ronald
Reagan based on the asserted need to prevent a military coup
and communist takeover of the small island nation, in addition
to the need to protect the approximately 1,000 United States
citizens who resided on the island at that time. United States
forces achieved a swift victory in just 4 days, but the
fighting resulted in the deaths of 45 Grenadian combatants, 25
Cuban combatants, and 19 United States combatants. The last
United States troops eventually exited Grenada on June 13,
1985.
(9) Panama occupation.--On December 20, 1989, approximately
27,000 United States troops invaded Panama at the order of
President George Bush under the ignominiously named ``Operation
Just Cause''. The purpose of Operation Just Cause was to remove
General Manuel Noriega, the country's dictatorial ruler, from
power and secure his extradition to the United States, where
Noriega was wanted on charges of drug trafficking and money
laundering (he was later found guilty on these charges upon his
successful extradition). Relations between the United States
and Panama's Government soured over the course of 1988 and 1989
due to Noriega's antidemocratic behavior and monopolization of
power, Noriega's 1988 indictment in the United States on drug
smuggling charges, notably escalating tensions between
Panamanian troops and United States troops stationed in the
Panama Canal Zone, and United States concerns about maintaining
physical control of the Panama Canal Zone. Tensions boiled over
on December 15, 1989, when the Noriega-led Panamanian Assembly
declared Panama to be in a ``state of war'' with the United
States. On December 16, an off-duty United States Marine was
shot and killed by Panamanian soldiers, prompting President
George Bush to order Operation Just Cause in the aftermath of
this incident. The United States would win the ensuing ground
conflict, gain control of the Panama Canal, and force Noriega's
surrender on January 3, 1990. However, this operation came at a
great cost, as according to the Pentagon's official tally, 23
United States soldiers, 300 Panamanian soldiers, and 214
Panamanian civilians were killed during the United States
invasion. Some human rights groups also estimate the death toll
amongst Panamanian civilians to be far higher. Furthermore, the
United States repeated bombing of the impoverished Panama City
neighborhood ``El Churillo'' during Operation Just Cause
destroyed approximately 4,000 homes and displaced thousands
more civilians, resulting in Panamanians nicknaming the
neighborhood ``Little Hiroshima'' following the war.
SEC. 3. ESTABLISHMENT AND DUTIES.
(a) Establishment.--There is established a Commission to Study and
Develop Reconciliation Proposals for Misguided Interventions in the
Americas (in this Act referred to as the ``Commission'').
(b) Duties.--The Commission shall be responsible for the following
duties:
(1) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and
synthesizing the relevant body of evidentiary documentation
relating to the United States interest in intervening in--
(A) the 9 conflicts in Nicaragua, Mexico, the
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Grenada, and Panama
discussed in section 2 of this Act; and
(B) any additional United States military
involvement in nations in the Caribbean, Latin America,
or South America that the Commission, via a majority
vote at any meeting of the Commission containing a
quorum, identifies as misguided and believes merits
investigation and action by the Commission.
(2) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and
synthesizing the relevant corpus of evidentiary documentation
relating to the United States military occupations identified
in paragraph (1) of this subsection, as it pertains to--
(A) the United States involvement in these nations
internal affairs and its financial and military support
to different rebellions and regime changes in these
nations;
(B) the treatment of the native persons by both the
United States military and under the regimes ushered in
a result of United States military action, including
any repressions of basic rights and freedoms by United
States-supported governments; and
(C) the lingering negative effects of these United
States-supported regimes on each individual nation's
citizens, collective psyche, and society.
(3) Recommending appropriate ways to educate the United
States public on the Commission's findings.
(4) Recommending appropriate remedies in consideration of
the Commission's findings on the different United States
military occupations described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of
this subsection. In making such recommendations, the Commission
shall address among other issues, the following questions:
(A) How such recommendations comport with
international standards of remedy for wrongs and
injuries caused by the United States Government,
including repair and reconciliation efforts, as
understood by various relevant international protocols,
laws, and findings.
(B) How the United States Government may offer a
formal apology on behalf of the people of the United
States for the invasions and occupations studied by the
Commission for those occupations which the Commission
deems worthy of an apology.
(C) How the repercussions resulting from matters
described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection
may be reversed and provide appropriate policies,
programs, projects, and recommendations for the purpose
of reversing the effects of the invasions and
occupations.
(c) Report to Congress.--Not later than 4 years after the date of
enactment of this Act, the Commission shall submit to Congress a
written report of its findings and recommendations under this section.
(d) Membership.--
(1) In general.--
(A) Stated members.--The following shall be members
of the Commission:
(i) The Under Secretary for Western
Hemisphere Affairs of the Department of State.
(ii) The current United States Ambassadors
to each of the sovereign nations studied by the
Commission.
(B) Appointed members.--Not later than 90 days
after the date of enactment of this Act, the following
shall be members of the Commission, appointed as
follows:
(i) One member shall be appointed by the
President of the United States.
(ii) Two members shall be appointed by the
Speaker of the House of Representatives, in
consultation with the minority leader.
(iii) Two members shall be appointed by the
majority leader of the Senate, in consultation
with the minority leader.
(C) Members under international cooperation.--The
President shall seek to negotiate with the governments
of previously occupied nations to seek, to the extent
practicable, the following as members of the
Commission:
(i) The Ambassador to the United States for
each sovereign nation being studied by the
Commission pursuant to subsection (b)(1).
(ii) The Ambassador, Permanent
Representative to the Organization of American
States for each sovereign nation being studied
by the Commission pursuant to subsection
(b)(1).
(2) Qualifications.--All members of the Commission shall be
persons who are especially qualified to serve on the Commission
by virtue of their education, training, activism, or
experience, particularly in the fields of Western Hemisphere
relations or reparatory justice.
(3) Terms.--The term of office for members shall be for the
life of the Commission. A vacancy in the Commission shall not
affect the powers of the Commission and shall be filled in the
same manner in which the original appointment was made.
(4) Meetings.--The Commission shall conduct its initial
meeting not later than 365 days after the date of enactment of
this Act. The Commission shall establish rules of procedure at
such meeting. All meetings of the Commission shall be public.
The Commission should meet not less often than 4 times per
year, including virtual meetings called to order by either the
entire Commission or any member thereof.
(5) Quorum.--More than half of the total members of the
Commission shall constitute a quorum for the purposes of
holding a meeting in compliance with subsection (d)(4), but a
lesser number may hold hearings.
(6) Chair and vice chair.--The Commission shall elect a
Chair and Vice Chair from among its members. The term of office
of each shall be for the life of the Commission.
(7) Compensation.--Each member of the Commission who is not
an officer or employee of the Federal Government shall be
compensated at a rate equal to the daily equivalent of the
annual rate of basic pay prescribed for level IV of the
Executive Schedule under section 5315 of title 5, United States
Code, for each day (including travel time) during which such
member is engaged in the performance of the duties of the
Commission. All members of the Commission who are officers or
employees of the United States shall serve without compensation
in addition to that received for their services as officers or
employees of the United States.
(8) Travel expenses.--The members of the Commission shall
be allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of
subsistence, at rates authorized for employees of agencies
under subchapter I of chapter 57 of title 5, United States
Code, while away from their homes or regular places of business
in the performance of the duties of the Commission.
(e) Powers of the Commission.--
(1) Hearings and sessions.--The Commission may, for the
purpose of carrying out the provisions of this section, hold
such hearings and sit and act at such times and at such places
in the United States, and request the attendance and testimony
of such witnesses and the production of such books, records,
correspondence, memoranda, papers, and documents, as the
Commission considers appropriate. The Commission may invoke the
aid of an appropriate United States district court to require,
by subpoena or otherwise, such attendance, testimony, or
production.
(2) Powers of members.--Any member of the Commission may,
if authorized by the Commission, take any action which the
Commission is authorized to take by this subsection.
(3) Obtaining official data.--The Commission may acquire
directly from the head of any department, agency, or
instrumentality of the executive branch of the United States
Government, available information which the Commission
considers useful in the discharge of its duties. All
departments, agencies, and instrumentalities of the executive
branch of the United States Government shall cooperate with the
Commission with respect to such information and shall furnish
all information requested by the Commission to the extent
permitted by law.
(f) Termination.--The Commission shall terminate 90 days after the
date on which the Commission submits its report to Congress under
subsection (c).
(g) Authorization of Appropriations.--
(1) In general.--There is authorized to be appropriated
$20,000,000 to carry out this Act.
(2) Availability.--Amounts appropriated pursuant to the
authorization under paragraph (1) are authorized to remain
available until the termination of the Commission in accordance
with subsection (f).
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